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Saxuma

2025-02-04T02:15:21Z

Anisette Biscotti: Link to dictionary

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g~ɣ || ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [ç].
* Final /r/ is often realized as [ʃ], and in these cases lowers preceding /i/ and /u/ to [ɛ] and [o]

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g~ɣ || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Trill
| || r̥
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[t͡s]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[t͡ɕ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[d͡z]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct and dative-allative cases require any declension — the others use the base form, and potentially a particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-allative''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is usually marked with a prefix, determined regularly by the noun's initial phoneme, as below. Adjectives do not decline for the dative-allative. Like with ''u'', the preposition ''ba'' can also be used to mark the dative-allative when it would be applied to complementary phrases.
: Before initial i- or u-, prefix ''baz-''.
:: ''ībi'' → ''bazîbi''
:: ''umex'' → ''bazúmex''
: Before other vowels and initial w- or y-, prefix ''bad-''.
:: ''aska'' → ''badáska''
:: ''emín'' → ''bademín''
:: ''oqan'' → ''badóqan''
:: ''wak'' → ''badwák''
:: ''yūsi'' → ''badyûsi''
: Before nasal consonants, prefix ''bo-''.
:: ''may'' → ''bomáy''
:: ''nir'' → ''bonír''
: Before initial plosives, prefix ''baq-''. Some speakers also devoice voiced plosives when doing this.
:: ''tek'' → ''baqték''
:: ''gijo'' → ''baqgíjo'' or ''baqkíjo''
: Before initial h- and f-, delete the initial consonant and prefix ''bat-''.
:: ''hyō'' → ''batyô''
:: ''hap'' → ''batáp''
:: ''fenyo'' → ''batényo''
: Before initial v-, delete the v- and prefix ''bab-''.
:: ''viko'' → ''babíko''
: Before initial s- and x-, prefix ''bat-'', and before initial z- or j-, prefix ''bad-''.
:: ''zen'' → ''badzén''
:: ''xek'' → ''batxék''
: Before initial l- and r-, prefix ''ba-.''
:: ''rik'' → ''barík''
:: ''lobo'' → ''balóbo''

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēk || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Allative
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes all other verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial consonant.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

===Time===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]
* [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/11JLg5e7buMcLStyzS1hMONiVVdzuHEtbVSuS8SmvndU/edit?usp=sharing Saxuma Dictionary]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-12-05T14:36:48Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Consonants */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g~ɣ || ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [ç].
* Final /r/ is often realized as [ʃ], and in these cases lowers preceding /i/ and /u/ to [ɛ] and [o]

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g~ɣ || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Trill
| || r̥
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[t͡s]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[t͡ɕ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[d͡z]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct and dative-allative cases require any declension — the others use the base form, and potentially a particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-allative''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is usually marked with a prefix, determined regularly by the noun's initial phoneme, as below. Adjectives do not decline for the dative-allative. Like with ''u'', the preposition ''ba'' can also be used to mark the dative-allative when it would be applied to complementary phrases.
: Before initial i- or u-, prefix ''baz-''.
:: ''ībi'' → ''bazîbi''
:: ''umex'' → ''bazúmex''
: Before other vowels and initial w- or y-, prefix ''bad-''.
:: ''aska'' → ''badáska''
:: ''emín'' → ''bademín''
:: ''oqan'' → ''badóqan''
:: ''wak'' → ''badwák''
:: ''yūsi'' → ''badyûsi''
: Before nasal consonants, prefix ''bo-''.
:: ''may'' → ''bomáy''
:: ''nir'' → ''bonír''
: Before initial plosives, prefix ''baq-''. Some speakers also devoice voiced plosives when doing this.
:: ''tek'' → ''baqték''
:: ''gijo'' → ''baqgíjo'' or ''baqkíjo''
: Before initial h- and f-, delete the initial consonant and prefix ''bat-''.
:: ''hyō'' → ''batyô''
:: ''hap'' → ''batáp''
:: ''fenyo'' → ''batényo''
: Before initial v-, delete the v- and prefix ''bab-''.
:: ''viko'' → ''babíko''
: Before initial s- and x-, prefix ''bat-'', and before initial z- or j-, prefix ''bad-''.
:: ''zen'' → ''badzén''
:: ''xek'' → ''batxék''
: Before initial l- and r-, prefix ''ba-.''
:: ''rik'' → ''barík''
:: ''lobo'' → ''balóbo''

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēk || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Allative
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes all other verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial consonant.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

===Time===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-12-03T19:37:48Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Phonotactics */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [ç].
* Final /r/ is often realized as [ʃ], and in these cases lowers preceding /i/ and /u/ to [ɛ] and [o]

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Trill
| || r̥
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[t͡s]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[t͡ɕ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[d͡z]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct and dative-allative cases require any declension — the others use the base form, and potentially a particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-allative''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is usually marked with a prefix, determined regularly by the noun's initial phoneme, as below. Adjectives do not decline for the dative-allative. Like with ''u'', the preposition ''ba'' can also be used to mark the dative-allative when it would be applied to complementary phrases.
: Before initial i- or u-, prefix ''baz-''.
:: ''ībi'' → ''bazîbi''
:: ''umex'' → ''bazúmex''
: Before other vowels and initial w- or y-, prefix ''bad-''.
:: ''aska'' → ''badáska''
:: ''emín'' → ''bademín''
:: ''oqan'' → ''badóqan''
:: ''wak'' → ''badwák''
:: ''yūsi'' → ''badyûsi''
: Before nasal consonants, prefix ''bo-''.
:: ''may'' → ''bomáy''
:: ''nir'' → ''bonír''
: Before initial plosives, prefix ''baq-''. Some speakers also devoice voiced plosives when doing this.
:: ''tek'' → ''baqték''
:: ''gijo'' → ''baqgíjo'' or ''baqkíjo''
: Before initial h- and f-, delete the initial consonant and prefix ''bat-''.
:: ''hyō'' → ''batyô''
:: ''hap'' → ''batáp''
:: ''fenyo'' → ''batényo''
: Before initial v-, delete the v- and prefix ''bab-''.
:: ''viko'' → ''babíko''
: Before initial s- and x-, prefix ''bat-'', and before initial z- or j-, prefix ''bad-''.
:: ''zen'' → ''badzén''
:: ''xek'' → ''batxék''
: Before initial l- and r-, prefix ''ba-.''
:: ''rik'' → ''barík''
:: ''lobo'' → ''balóbo''

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēk || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Allative
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes all other verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial consonant.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

===Time===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-12-03T19:36:07Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Phonotactics */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [ç].
* Final /r/ is often realized as [ʃ], and in these cases lowers preceding /i/ and /u/ to [ɛ] and [o]

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Trill
| || r̥
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[t͡s]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[t͡ɕ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[d͡z]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct and dative-allative cases require any declension — the others use the base form, and potentially a particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-allative''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is usually marked with a prefix, determined regularly by the noun's initial phoneme, as below. Adjectives do not decline for the dative-allative. Like with ''u'', the preposition ''ba'' can also be used to mark the dative-allative when it would be applied to complementary phrases.
: Before initial i- or u-, prefix ''baz-''.
:: ''ībi'' → ''bazîbi''
:: ''umex'' → ''bazúmex''
: Before other vowels and initial w- or y-, prefix ''bad-''.
:: ''aska'' → ''badáska''
:: ''emín'' → ''bademín''
:: ''oqan'' → ''badóqan''
:: ''wak'' → ''badwák''
:: ''yūsi'' → ''badyûsi''
: Before nasal consonants, prefix ''bo-''.
:: ''may'' → ''bomáy''
:: ''nir'' → ''bonír''
: Before initial plosives, prefix ''baq-''. Some speakers also devoice voiced plosives when doing this.
:: ''tek'' → ''baqték''
:: ''gijo'' → ''baqgíjo'' or ''baqkíjo''
: Before initial h- and f-, delete the initial consonant and prefix ''bat-''.
:: ''hyō'' → ''batyô''
:: ''hap'' → ''batáp''
:: ''fenyo'' → ''batényo''
: Before initial v-, delete the v- and prefix ''bab-''.
:: ''viko'' → ''babíko''
: Before initial s- and x-, prefix ''bat-'', and before initial z- or j-, prefix ''bad-''.
:: ''zen'' → ''badzén''
:: ''xek'' → ''batxék''
: Before initial l- and r-, prefix ''ba-.''
:: ''rik'' → ''barík''
:: ''lobo'' → ''balóbo''

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēk || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Allative
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes all other verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial consonant.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

===Time===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-12-03T19:35:37Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Phonotactics */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [ç].
* Final /r/ is often realized as [ʃ], and in these cases lowers preceding /i/ and /u/ to [ɛ] and [o]

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Trill
| || r̥
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{yes|[t͡s]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[t͡ɕ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[d͡z]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct and dative-allative cases require any declension — the others use the base form, and potentially a particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-allative''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is usually marked with a prefix, determined regularly by the noun's initial phoneme, as below. Adjectives do not decline for the dative-allative. Like with ''u'', the preposition ''ba'' can also be used to mark the dative-allative when it would be applied to complementary phrases.
: Before initial i- or u-, prefix ''baz-''.
:: ''ībi'' → ''bazîbi''
:: ''umex'' → ''bazúmex''
: Before other vowels and initial w- or y-, prefix ''bad-''.
:: ''aska'' → ''badáska''
:: ''emín'' → ''bademín''
:: ''oqan'' → ''badóqan''
:: ''wak'' → ''badwák''
:: ''yūsi'' → ''badyûsi''
: Before nasal consonants, prefix ''bo-''.
:: ''may'' → ''bomáy''
:: ''nir'' → ''bonír''
: Before initial plosives, prefix ''baq-''. Some speakers also devoice voiced plosives when doing this.
:: ''tek'' → ''baqték''
:: ''gijo'' → ''baqgíjo'' or ''baqkíjo''
: Before initial h- and f-, delete the initial consonant and prefix ''bat-''.
:: ''hyō'' → ''batyô''
:: ''hap'' → ''batáp''
:: ''fenyo'' → ''batényo''
: Before initial v-, delete the v- and prefix ''bab-''.
:: ''viko'' → ''babíko''
: Before initial s- and x-, prefix ''bat-'', and before initial z- or j-, prefix ''bad-''.
:: ''zen'' → ''badzén''
:: ''xek'' → ''batxék''
: Before initial l- and r-, prefix ''ba-.''
:: ''rik'' → ''barík''
:: ''lobo'' → ''balóbo''

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēk || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Allative
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes all other verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial consonant.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

===Time===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-12-03T18:57:37Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Conjugation */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [ç].
* Final /r/ is often realized as [ʃ], and in these cases lowers preceding /i/ and /u/ to [ɛ] and [o]

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Trill
| || r̥
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct and dative-allative cases require any declension — the others use the base form, and potentially a particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-allative''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is usually marked with a prefix, determined regularly by the noun's initial phoneme, as below. Adjectives do not decline for the dative-allative. Like with ''u'', the preposition ''ba'' can also be used to mark the dative-allative when it would be applied to complementary phrases.
: Before initial i- or u-, prefix ''baz-''.
:: ''ībi'' → ''bazîbi''
:: ''umex'' → ''bazúmex''
: Before other vowels and initial w- or y-, prefix ''bad-''.
:: ''aska'' → ''badáska''
:: ''emín'' → ''bademín''
:: ''oqan'' → ''badóqan''
:: ''wak'' → ''badwák''
:: ''yūsi'' → ''badyûsi''
: Before nasal consonants, prefix ''bo-''.
:: ''may'' → ''bomáy''
:: ''nir'' → ''bonír''
: Before initial plosives, prefix ''baq-''. Some speakers also devoice voiced plosives when doing this.
:: ''tek'' → ''baqték''
:: ''gijo'' → ''baqgíjo'' or ''baqkíjo''
: Before initial h- and f-, delete the initial consonant and prefix ''bat-''.
:: ''hyō'' → ''batyô''
:: ''hap'' → ''batáp''
:: ''fenyo'' → ''batényo''
: Before initial v-, delete the v- and prefix ''bab-''.
:: ''viko'' → ''babíko''
: Before initial s- and x-, prefix ''bat-'', and before initial z- or j-, prefix ''bad-''.
:: ''zen'' → ''badzén''
:: ''xek'' → ''batxék''
: Before initial l- and r-, prefix ''ba-.''
:: ''rik'' → ''barík''
:: ''lobo'' → ''balóbo''

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēk || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Allative
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes all other verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial consonant.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

===Time===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma/Verb Conjugation

2024-12-03T18:56:37Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* The Attributive, -LA */

This page details the various suffixing conjugations of [[Saxuma]] verbs. For information on other elements of Saxuma morphology, see [[Saxuma#Morphology]].

==Introduction==

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

In addition to the unmarked stem forms of verbs, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms.

==The Negative, -NA==

'''-NA''', the '''negative''' ending, negates the verb it attaches to.
: Sigu palas.
: ''The rabbit runs.''

: Sig'''na''' palas.
: ''The rabbit does '''not''' run.''

===How to conjugate -NA===
Strong regular verbs append -ná to the end of the word. Weak regular verbs delete the final vowel and append -ná.
: lesó → lesoná
: enjí → enjiná
: sigú → signá

-SA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel and append ná. Note that if the consonant before the final vowel is -x, then ná will be pronounced as [ɲa].
: myusá → myusná [mjusˈna]
: exí → exná [ɛɕˈɲa]

-FA and -LA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append -ná.
: safá → sawná
: ralí → rawná

-JA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply y-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append -ná.
: mujú → moyná

-N, -S, -H, -W, and -Y conjugation verbs simply append -ná.
: ekán → ekanná
: rum → rumná
: sarás → sarasná
: oxâ → oxāná
: aw → awná
: way → wayná
: elér → elerná

-T conjugation verbs remove the final consonant, or change final long ē to short e. Then, they apply w-ablaut, and finally append ná.
: enák → enawná
: hē → hyoná

See the summary in the table below:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Negative -NA conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan =2 | Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás|| sarasná
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná
|}

==The Causative, -BI==

'''-BI''', the '''causative''' ending, indicates that the subject of the verb causes the object to perform the verb.
: In sig'''bi''' palas.
: ''He '''makes''' the rabbit run.''

===How to conjugate -BI===
-BI adds the suffix -bí to verbs identically to -NA across all verb classes, with one exception: -T verbs delete the final consonant (or reduce long ē to short e), and then append -cú
: enák → enacú
: hē → hecú

See the table below for a summary.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Causative -BI conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Causative -BI
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesobí
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigbí
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moybí
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enacú
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxābí
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waybí
|}

==The Inchoative, -WAY==

'''-WAY''', the '''inchoative''' ending, indicates that an action is beginning to occur, or is just about to begin.
: Sig'''way''' palas.
: ''The rabbit '''is starting to''' run.'' or ''The rabbit '''is about to''' run.''

===How to Conjugate -WAY===

For verbs ending in a voiceless consonant or a weak vowel preceded by a voiceless consonant, the inchoative ending is -fáy. The ending is also -fáy for all -T and -H class verbs. Otherwise, it is -way. Besides this, -WAY conjugates identically to -NA, with one exception: -W and -LA verbs delete the final -lV or -w and append -wáy.
: law → lawáy
: ralí → rawáy

See the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Inchoative -WAY conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan =2 | Class !! Example Stem !! Inchoative -WAY
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesowáy
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigwáy
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || mujwáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanwáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waywáy
|}

==The Prospective, -KUN==

'''-KUN''', the '''prospective ending''', indicates that the verb is nearing completion or about to begin in earnest, with a strong implication that the speaker or a referent in the narrative is anticipating the fruition of the action.
: Garu le ba be ohin.
: ''She arrives at his house.'''

: Ga'''qun''' le ba be ohin.
: ''She is/was about to arrive at his house.''

===How to conjugate -KUN===

Regular strong verbs, -N verbs, -W verbs, and -Y verbs simply append -kún.
: enjí → enjikún
: ten → tenkún
: aw → awkún
: way → waykún

Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -kún.
* Note that plosives become [ʔ] before another plosive, and that high vowels are lowered before [ʔ]. This can cause lowering of the vowel in the stem.
: damá → damkún
: riká → rikkún [rɛˈqun]

-SA verbs delete the final -CV and append -qún.
: kosá → koqún
: exí → eqún
: kurú → kuqún

-LA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -kún.
: ralí → rawkún

-JA verbs delete the final -CV, apply y-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -kún.
: mujú → moykún

-FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -qún.
: safá → sawqún

-S and t-, k-, or p-final -T verbs delete the final -C, and append -qún.
: herúx → heruqún
: sarás → saraqún
: gir → giqún
: enák → enaqún

-H verbs and -ē final -T verbs shorten the final vowel and append qún.
: oxâ → oxaqún
: pē → peqún
: xō → xoqún

See the summary table below:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Prospective -KUN conjugations by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Prospective -KUN
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesokún
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigkún
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || eqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moykún
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawkun
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekankún
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || saraqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enaqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxaqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawkún
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waykún
|}

==The Perfective, -W==

'''-W''', the '''perfective''' ending, indicates that the action in the verb is completed.
: Sila kajip.
: ''The guest leaves.''
: Sila'''w''' kajip.
: ''The guest '''has left'''.''

===How to conjugate -W===

All regular, -SA, -FA, -JA, and -LA verbs apply w-ablaut to the final vowel.
: lesó → lesô
: sigú → sigû
: exí → exyú
: safá → safáw
: kurú → kurû
: ralí → ralyú
: mujú → mujû

-N verbs append -la. This does not draw stress from where it would be in the stem.
: ekán → ekánla
: rum → rúmla

-S verbs delete the final consonant, apply w-ablaut to the remaining final vowel, and append -sa. This does not draw stress.
: elér → elyósa
: yos → yôsa
: bulíx → bulyúsa

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē and append -táw.
: enák → enatáw
: hē → hetáw

-H verbs shorten the final vowel, apply w-ablaut, and then append -sa. This does not draw stress.
: oxâ → oxáwsa
: orî → oryúsa
: xō → xôsa

-W verbs delete the final -aw and append -ála.
: aw → ála
: ryuláw → ryulála

-Y verbs append -ú.
: way → wayú

See the summary table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Perfective -W conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Perfective -W
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesô
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigû
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exyú
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || safáw
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || mujû
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || ralyú
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekánla
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || saráwsa
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enatáw
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxáwsa
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lála
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way ||wayú
|}

==The Habitual, -AX==

'''-AX''', the '''habitual''' ending, indicates that the agent of the verb performs it frequently, or that the verb expresses some general truth about the agent's behavior.
: Me lesó lyu don.
: ''I read many books.''
: Me leso'''wáx''' lyu don.
: ''I '''have been reading''' many books.''

: Mujú aska.
: ''The fish swims.''
: Muj'''wáx''' aska.
: ''Fish swim '''[in general]'''.''

===How to conjugate -AX===

Conjugation of -AX generally follows the following pattern:
* Verbs with final -a append -x.
* Verbs with final -i or -e append -yáx.
* Verbs with final -u or -o append -wáx.
* Verbs with final consonants append -áx.

This simple pattern applies to all verbs ending in -a, regular strong verbs, and -N, -S, and -Y verbs.
: enjí → enjiyáx
: lesó → lesowáx
: lewá → lewáx
: ekán → ekanáx
: way → wayáx
: gir → giráx
: saras → sarasáx

Regular weak verbs and -SA, -FA, -JA, and -LA verbs that end in -i or -u follow this pattern, with the one exception of eliding the final vowel.
: ralí → ralyáx
: kurú → kurwáx
: wakí → wakyáx
: mujú → mujwáx

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten -ē and append -táx.
: enák → enatáx
: hē → hetáx

-H verbs shorten the final vowel and append -háx.
: oxâ → oxaháx
: mosē → moseháx

-W verbs delete the final -aw, and append -aláx.
: maw → maláx

See the summary table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Habitual -AX conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Habitual -AX
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesowáx
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigwáx
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exyáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || safáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || mujwáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || ralyáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák|| enatáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxaháx
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || laláx
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayáx
|}

==The Attributive, -LA==

'''-LA''', the '''attributive''' ending, is the only verbal ending that does not indicate a change in semantic meaning. Rather, it changes the syntactic function of the verb into an adjective, indicating that the modified noun performs the action in the verb. This can function similarly to English gerunds or complementary phrases.
: Mujná aska.
: ''The fish does not swim.''
: Aska mujna'''lá''' sa taláw.
: ''The fish '''that''' is not swimming is dead.''

More advanced usage of -LA is explained at [[Saxuma#The attributive]].

===How to conjugate -LA===

Regular strong, -N, and -Y verbs append -lá. Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -lá.
: leso → lesolá
: sigú → siglá
: ekán → ekanlá
: way → waylá

-LA verbs replace the final vowel with -á.
: ralí → ralá
: silá → silá
: gelú → gelá

-W verbs replace the final -aw with -alá.
: ryuláw → ryulalá
: maw → malá

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē, and then append -xá.
: enák → enaxá
: hē → hexá

-JA verbs delete the final -CV, change apply y-ablaut, and append -lá.
: mujú → moylá

-SA and -FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.
: exí → yosá
: safá → sawsá
: kurú → kūsá

-S verbs delete the final -C, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.
: gir → gyusá
: sarás → sarawsá

-H verbs shorten the final long vowel, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.
: oxâ → oxawsá
: orî → oryusá

See the summary table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Attributive -LA conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí ||yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -ZA
| mujú || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waylá
|}

===Summary===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

==Combining Conjugations==

[[Category:Saxuma]]

Saxuma/Verb Conjugation

2024-12-03T18:53:43Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* How to conjugate -AX */

This page details the various suffixing conjugations of [[Saxuma]] verbs. For information on other elements of Saxuma morphology, see [[Saxuma#Morphology]].

==Introduction==

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

In addition to the unmarked stem forms of verbs, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms.

==The Negative, -NA==

'''-NA''', the '''negative''' ending, negates the verb it attaches to.
: Sigu palas.
: ''The rabbit runs.''

: Sig'''na''' palas.
: ''The rabbit does '''not''' run.''

===How to conjugate -NA===
Strong regular verbs append -ná to the end of the word. Weak regular verbs delete the final vowel and append -ná.
: lesó → lesoná
: enjí → enjiná
: sigú → signá

-SA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel and append ná. Note that if the consonant before the final vowel is -x, then ná will be pronounced as [ɲa].
: myusá → myusná [mjusˈna]
: exí → exná [ɛɕˈɲa]

-FA and -LA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append -ná.
: safá → sawná
: ralí → rawná

-JA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply y-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append -ná.
: mujú → moyná

-N, -S, -H, -W, and -Y conjugation verbs simply append -ná.
: ekán → ekanná
: rum → rumná
: sarás → sarasná
: oxâ → oxāná
: aw → awná
: way → wayná
: elér → elerná

-T conjugation verbs remove the final consonant, or change final long ē to short e. Then, they apply w-ablaut, and finally append ná.
: enák → enawná
: hē → hyoná

See the summary in the table below:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Negative -NA conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan =2 | Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás|| sarasná
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná
|}

==The Causative, -BI==

'''-BI''', the '''causative''' ending, indicates that the subject of the verb causes the object to perform the verb.
: In sig'''bi''' palas.
: ''He '''makes''' the rabbit run.''

===How to conjugate -BI===
-BI adds the suffix -bí to verbs identically to -NA across all verb classes, with one exception: -T verbs delete the final consonant (or reduce long ē to short e), and then append -cú
: enák → enacú
: hē → hecú

See the table below for a summary.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Causative -BI conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Causative -BI
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesobí
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigbí
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moybí
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enacú
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxābí
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waybí
|}

==The Inchoative, -WAY==

'''-WAY''', the '''inchoative''' ending, indicates that an action is beginning to occur, or is just about to begin.
: Sig'''way''' palas.
: ''The rabbit '''is starting to''' run.'' or ''The rabbit '''is about to''' run.''

===How to Conjugate -WAY===

For verbs ending in a voiceless consonant or a weak vowel preceded by a voiceless consonant, the inchoative ending is -fáy. The ending is also -fáy for all -T and -H class verbs. Otherwise, it is -way. Besides this, -WAY conjugates identically to -NA, with one exception: -W and -LA verbs delete the final -lV or -w and append -wáy.
: law → lawáy
: ralí → rawáy

See the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Inchoative -WAY conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan =2 | Class !! Example Stem !! Inchoative -WAY
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesowáy
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigwáy
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || mujwáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanwáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waywáy
|}

==The Prospective, -KUN==

'''-KUN''', the '''prospective ending''', indicates that the verb is nearing completion or about to begin in earnest, with a strong implication that the speaker or a referent in the narrative is anticipating the fruition of the action.
: Garu le ba be ohin.
: ''She arrives at his house.'''

: Ga'''qun''' le ba be ohin.
: ''She is/was about to arrive at his house.''

===How to conjugate -KUN===

Regular strong verbs, -N verbs, -W verbs, and -Y verbs simply append -kún.
: enjí → enjikún
: ten → tenkún
: aw → awkún
: way → waykún

Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -kún.
* Note that plosives become [ʔ] before another plosive, and that high vowels are lowered before [ʔ]. This can cause lowering of the vowel in the stem.
: damá → damkún
: riká → rikkún [rɛˈqun]

-SA verbs delete the final -CV and append -qún.
: kosá → koqún
: exí → eqún
: kurú → kuqún

-LA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -kún.
: ralí → rawkún

-JA verbs delete the final -CV, apply y-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -kún.
: mujú → moykún

-FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -qún.
: safá → sawqún

-S and t-, k-, or p-final -T verbs delete the final -C, and append -qún.
: herúx → heruqún
: sarás → saraqún
: gir → giqún
: enák → enaqún

-H verbs and -ē final -T verbs shorten the final vowel and append qún.
: oxâ → oxaqún
: pē → peqún
: xō → xoqún

See the summary table below:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Prospective -KUN conjugations by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Prospective -KUN
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesokún
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigkún
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || eqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moykún
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawkun
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekankún
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || saraqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enaqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxaqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawkún
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waykún
|}

==The Perfective, -W==

'''-W''', the '''perfective''' ending, indicates that the action in the verb is completed.
: Sila kajip.
: ''The guest leaves.''
: Sila'''w''' kajip.
: ''The guest '''has left'''.''

===How to conjugate -W===

All regular, -SA, -FA, -JA, and -LA verbs apply w-ablaut to the final vowel.
: lesó → lesô
: sigú → sigû
: exí → exyú
: safá → safáw
: kurú → kurû
: ralí → ralyú
: mujú → mujû

-N verbs append -la. This does not draw stress from where it would be in the stem.
: ekán → ekánla
: rum → rúmla

-S verbs delete the final consonant, apply w-ablaut to the remaining final vowel, and append -sa. This does not draw stress.
: elér → elyósa
: yos → yôsa
: bulíx → bulyúsa

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē and append -táw.
: enák → enatáw
: hē → hetáw

-H verbs shorten the final vowel, apply w-ablaut, and then append -sa. This does not draw stress.
: oxâ → oxáwsa
: orî → oryúsa
: xō → xôsa

-W verbs delete the final -aw and append -ála.
: aw → ála
: ryuláw → ryulála

-Y verbs append -ú.
: way → wayú

See the summary table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Perfective -W conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Perfective -W
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesô
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigû
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exyú
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || safáw
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || mujû
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || ralyú
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekánla
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || saráwsa
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enatáw
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxáwsa
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lála
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way ||wayú
|}

==The Habitual, -AX==

'''-AX''', the '''habitual''' ending, indicates that the agent of the verb performs it frequently, or that the verb expresses some general truth about the agent's behavior.
: Me lesó lyu don.
: ''I read many books.''
: Me leso'''wáx''' lyu don.
: ''I '''have been reading''' many books.''

: Mujú aska.
: ''The fish swims.''
: Muj'''wáx''' aska.
: ''Fish swim '''[in general]'''.''

===How to conjugate -AX===

Conjugation of -AX generally follows the following pattern:
* Verbs with final -a append -x.
* Verbs with final -i or -e append -yáx.
* Verbs with final -u or -o append -wáx.
* Verbs with final consonants append -áx.

This simple pattern applies to all verbs ending in -a, regular strong verbs, and -N, -S, and -Y verbs.
: enjí → enjiyáx
: lesó → lesowáx
: lewá → lewáx
: ekán → ekanáx
: way → wayáx
: gir → giráx
: saras → sarasáx

Regular weak verbs and -SA, -FA, -JA, and -LA verbs that end in -i or -u follow this pattern, with the one exception of eliding the final vowel.
: ralí → ralyáx
: kurú → kurwáx
: wakí → wakyáx
: mujú → mujwáx

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten -ē and append -táx.
: enák → enatáx
: hē → hetáx

-H verbs shorten the final vowel and append -háx.
: oxâ → oxaháx
: mosē → moseháx

-W verbs delete the final -aw, and append -aláx.
: maw → maláx

See the summary table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Habitual -AX conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Habitual -AX
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesowáx
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigwáx
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exyáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || safáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || mujwáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || ralyáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák|| enatáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxaháx
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || laláx
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayáx
|}

==The Attributive, -LA==

'''-LA''', the '''attributive''' ending, is the only verbal ending that does not indicate a change in semantic meaning. Rather, it changes the syntactic function of the verb into an adjective, indicating that the modified noun performs the action in the verb. This can function similarly to English gerunds or complementary phrases.
: Mujná aska.
: ''The fish does not swim.''
: Aska mujna'''lá''' sa taláw.
: "The fish '''that''' is not swimming is dead.''

More advanced usage of -LA is explained at [[Saxuma#The attributive]].

===How to conjugate -LA===

Regular strong, -N, and -Y verbs append -lá. Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -lá.
: leso → lesolá
: sigú → siglá
: ekán → ekanlá
: way → waylá

-LA verbs replace the final vowel with -á.
: ralí → ralá
: silá → silá
: gelú → gelá

-W verbs replace the final -aw with -alá.
: ryuláw → ryulalá
: maw → malá

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē, and then append -xá.
: enák → enaxá
: hē → hexá

-JA verbs delete the final -CV, change apply y-ablaut, and append -lá.
: mujú → moylá

-SA and -FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.
: exí → yosá
: safá → sawsá
: kurú → kūsá

-H verbs shorten the final long vowel, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.
: oxâ → oxawsá
: orî → oryusá

See the summary table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Attributive -LA conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí ||yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -ZA
| mujú || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waylá
|}

===Summary===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

==Combining Conjugations==

[[Category:Saxuma]]

Saxuma/Verb Conjugation

2024-12-03T18:53:18Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* How to conjugate -W */

This page details the various suffixing conjugations of [[Saxuma]] verbs. For information on other elements of Saxuma morphology, see [[Saxuma#Morphology]].

==Introduction==

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

In addition to the unmarked stem forms of verbs, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms.

==The Negative, -NA==

'''-NA''', the '''negative''' ending, negates the verb it attaches to.
: Sigu palas.
: ''The rabbit runs.''

: Sig'''na''' palas.
: ''The rabbit does '''not''' run.''

===How to conjugate -NA===
Strong regular verbs append -ná to the end of the word. Weak regular verbs delete the final vowel and append -ná.
: lesó → lesoná
: enjí → enjiná
: sigú → signá

-SA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel and append ná. Note that if the consonant before the final vowel is -x, then ná will be pronounced as [ɲa].
: myusá → myusná [mjusˈna]
: exí → exná [ɛɕˈɲa]

-FA and -LA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append -ná.
: safá → sawná
: ralí → rawná

-JA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply y-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append -ná.
: mujú → moyná

-N, -S, -H, -W, and -Y conjugation verbs simply append -ná.
: ekán → ekanná
: rum → rumná
: sarás → sarasná
: oxâ → oxāná
: aw → awná
: way → wayná
: elér → elerná

-T conjugation verbs remove the final consonant, or change final long ē to short e. Then, they apply w-ablaut, and finally append ná.
: enák → enawná
: hē → hyoná

See the summary in the table below:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Negative -NA conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan =2 | Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás|| sarasná
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná
|}

==The Causative, -BI==

'''-BI''', the '''causative''' ending, indicates that the subject of the verb causes the object to perform the verb.
: In sig'''bi''' palas.
: ''He '''makes''' the rabbit run.''

===How to conjugate -BI===
-BI adds the suffix -bí to verbs identically to -NA across all verb classes, with one exception: -T verbs delete the final consonant (or reduce long ē to short e), and then append -cú
: enák → enacú
: hē → hecú

See the table below for a summary.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Causative -BI conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Causative -BI
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesobí
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigbí
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moybí
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enacú
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxābí
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waybí
|}

==The Inchoative, -WAY==

'''-WAY''', the '''inchoative''' ending, indicates that an action is beginning to occur, or is just about to begin.
: Sig'''way''' palas.
: ''The rabbit '''is starting to''' run.'' or ''The rabbit '''is about to''' run.''

===How to Conjugate -WAY===

For verbs ending in a voiceless consonant or a weak vowel preceded by a voiceless consonant, the inchoative ending is -fáy. The ending is also -fáy for all -T and -H class verbs. Otherwise, it is -way. Besides this, -WAY conjugates identically to -NA, with one exception: -W and -LA verbs delete the final -lV or -w and append -wáy.
: law → lawáy
: ralí → rawáy

See the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Inchoative -WAY conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan =2 | Class !! Example Stem !! Inchoative -WAY
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesowáy
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigwáy
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || mujwáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanwáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waywáy
|}

==The Prospective, -KUN==

'''-KUN''', the '''prospective ending''', indicates that the verb is nearing completion or about to begin in earnest, with a strong implication that the speaker or a referent in the narrative is anticipating the fruition of the action.
: Garu le ba be ohin.
: ''She arrives at his house.'''

: Ga'''qun''' le ba be ohin.
: ''She is/was about to arrive at his house.''

===How to conjugate -KUN===

Regular strong verbs, -N verbs, -W verbs, and -Y verbs simply append -kún.
: enjí → enjikún
: ten → tenkún
: aw → awkún
: way → waykún

Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -kún.
* Note that plosives become [ʔ] before another plosive, and that high vowels are lowered before [ʔ]. This can cause lowering of the vowel in the stem.
: damá → damkún
: riká → rikkún [rɛˈqun]

-SA verbs delete the final -CV and append -qún.
: kosá → koqún
: exí → eqún
: kurú → kuqún

-LA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -kún.
: ralí → rawkún

-JA verbs delete the final -CV, apply y-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -kún.
: mujú → moykún

-FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -qún.
: safá → sawqún

-S and t-, k-, or p-final -T verbs delete the final -C, and append -qún.
: herúx → heruqún
: sarás → saraqún
: gir → giqún
: enák → enaqún

-H verbs and -ē final -T verbs shorten the final vowel and append qún.
: oxâ → oxaqún
: pē → peqún
: xō → xoqún

See the summary table below:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Prospective -KUN conjugations by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Prospective -KUN
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesokún
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigkún
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || eqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moykún
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawkun
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekankún
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || saraqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enaqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxaqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawkún
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waykún
|}

==The Perfective, -W==

'''-W''', the '''perfective''' ending, indicates that the action in the verb is completed.
: Sila kajip.
: ''The guest leaves.''
: Sila'''w''' kajip.
: ''The guest '''has left'''.''

===How to conjugate -W===

All regular, -SA, -FA, -JA, and -LA verbs apply w-ablaut to the final vowel.
: lesó → lesô
: sigú → sigû
: exí → exyú
: safá → safáw
: kurú → kurû
: ralí → ralyú
: mujú → mujû

-N verbs append -la. This does not draw stress from where it would be in the stem.
: ekán → ekánla
: rum → rúmla

-S verbs delete the final consonant, apply w-ablaut to the remaining final vowel, and append -sa. This does not draw stress.
: elér → elyósa
: yos → yôsa
: bulíx → bulyúsa

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē and append -táw.
: enák → enatáw
: hē → hetáw

-H verbs shorten the final vowel, apply w-ablaut, and then append -sa. This does not draw stress.
: oxâ → oxáwsa
: orî → oryúsa
: xō → xôsa

-W verbs delete the final -aw and append -ála.
: aw → ála
: ryuláw → ryulála

-Y verbs append -ú.
: way → wayú

See the summary table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Perfective -W conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Perfective -W
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesô
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigû
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exyú
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || safáw
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || mujû
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || ralyú
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekánla
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || saráwsa
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enatáw
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxáwsa
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lála
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way ||wayú
|}

==The Habitual, -AX==

'''-AX''', the '''habitual''' ending, indicates that the agent of the verb performs it frequently, or that the verb expresses some general truth about the agent's behavior.
: Me lesó lyu don.
: ''I read many books.''
: Me leso'''wáx''' lyu don.
: ''I '''have been reading''' many books.''

: Mujú aska.
: ''The fish swims.''
: Muj'''wáx''' aska.
: ''Fish swim '''[in general]'''.''

===How to conjugate -AX===

Conjugation of -AX generally follows the following pattern:
* Verbs with final -a append -x.
* Verbs with final -i or -e append -yáx.
* Verbs with final -u or -o append -wáx.
* Verbs with final consonants append -áx.

This simple pattern applies to all verbs ending in -a, regular strong verbs, and -N, -S, -R, and -Y verbs.
: enjí → enjiyáx
: lesó → lesowáx
: lewá → lewáx
: ekán → ekanáx
: way → wayáx
: gir → giráx
: saras → sarasáx

Regular weak verbs and -SA, -FA, -JA, and -LA verbs that end in -i or -u follow this pattern, with the one exception of eliding the final vowel.
: ralí → ralyáx
: kurú → kurwáx
: wakí → wakyáx
: mujú → mujwáx

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten -ē and append -táx.
: enák → enatáx
: hē → hetáx

-H verbs shorten the final vowel and append -háx.
: oxâ → oxaháx
: mosē → moseháx

-W verbs delete the final -aw, and append -aláx.
: maw → maláx

See the summary table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Habitual -AX conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Habitual -AX
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesowáx
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigwáx
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exyáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || safáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || mujwáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || ralyáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák|| enatáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxaháx
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || laláx
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayáx
|}

==The Attributive, -LA==

'''-LA''', the '''attributive''' ending, is the only verbal ending that does not indicate a change in semantic meaning. Rather, it changes the syntactic function of the verb into an adjective, indicating that the modified noun performs the action in the verb. This can function similarly to English gerunds or complementary phrases.
: Mujná aska.
: ''The fish does not swim.''
: Aska mujna'''lá''' sa taláw.
: "The fish '''that''' is not swimming is dead.''

More advanced usage of -LA is explained at [[Saxuma#The attributive]].

===How to conjugate -LA===

Regular strong, -N, and -Y verbs append -lá. Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -lá.
: leso → lesolá
: sigú → siglá
: ekán → ekanlá
: way → waylá

-LA verbs replace the final vowel with -á.
: ralí → ralá
: silá → silá
: gelú → gelá

-W verbs replace the final -aw with -alá.
: ryuláw → ryulalá
: maw → malá

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē, and then append -xá.
: enák → enaxá
: hē → hexá

-JA verbs delete the final -CV, change apply y-ablaut, and append -lá.
: mujú → moylá

-SA and -FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.
: exí → yosá
: safá → sawsá
: kurú → kūsá

-H verbs shorten the final long vowel, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.
: oxâ → oxawsá
: orî → oryusá

See the summary table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Attributive -LA conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí ||yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -ZA
| mujú || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waylá
|}

===Summary===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

==Combining Conjugations==

[[Category:Saxuma]]

Saxuma/Verb Conjugation

2024-12-03T18:52:44Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* How to conjugate -KUN */

This page details the various suffixing conjugations of [[Saxuma]] verbs. For information on other elements of Saxuma morphology, see [[Saxuma#Morphology]].

==Introduction==

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

In addition to the unmarked stem forms of verbs, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms.

==The Negative, -NA==

'''-NA''', the '''negative''' ending, negates the verb it attaches to.
: Sigu palas.
: ''The rabbit runs.''

: Sig'''na''' palas.
: ''The rabbit does '''not''' run.''

===How to conjugate -NA===
Strong regular verbs append -ná to the end of the word. Weak regular verbs delete the final vowel and append -ná.
: lesó → lesoná
: enjí → enjiná
: sigú → signá

-SA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel and append ná. Note that if the consonant before the final vowel is -x, then ná will be pronounced as [ɲa].
: myusá → myusná [mjusˈna]
: exí → exná [ɛɕˈɲa]

-FA and -LA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append -ná.
: safá → sawná
: ralí → rawná

-JA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply y-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append -ná.
: mujú → moyná

-N, -S, -H, -W, and -Y conjugation verbs simply append -ná.
: ekán → ekanná
: rum → rumná
: sarás → sarasná
: oxâ → oxāná
: aw → awná
: way → wayná
: elér → elerná

-T conjugation verbs remove the final consonant, or change final long ē to short e. Then, they apply w-ablaut, and finally append ná.
: enák → enawná
: hē → hyoná

See the summary in the table below:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Negative -NA conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan =2 | Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás|| sarasná
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná
|}

==The Causative, -BI==

'''-BI''', the '''causative''' ending, indicates that the subject of the verb causes the object to perform the verb.
: In sig'''bi''' palas.
: ''He '''makes''' the rabbit run.''

===How to conjugate -BI===
-BI adds the suffix -bí to verbs identically to -NA across all verb classes, with one exception: -T verbs delete the final consonant (or reduce long ē to short e), and then append -cú
: enák → enacú
: hē → hecú

See the table below for a summary.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Causative -BI conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Causative -BI
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesobí
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigbí
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moybí
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enacú
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxābí
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waybí
|}

==The Inchoative, -WAY==

'''-WAY''', the '''inchoative''' ending, indicates that an action is beginning to occur, or is just about to begin.
: Sig'''way''' palas.
: ''The rabbit '''is starting to''' run.'' or ''The rabbit '''is about to''' run.''

===How to Conjugate -WAY===

For verbs ending in a voiceless consonant or a weak vowel preceded by a voiceless consonant, the inchoative ending is -fáy. The ending is also -fáy for all -T and -H class verbs. Otherwise, it is -way. Besides this, -WAY conjugates identically to -NA, with one exception: -W and -LA verbs delete the final -lV or -w and append -wáy.
: law → lawáy
: ralí → rawáy

See the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Inchoative -WAY conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan =2 | Class !! Example Stem !! Inchoative -WAY
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesowáy
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigwáy
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || mujwáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanwáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waywáy
|}

==The Prospective, -KUN==

'''-KUN''', the '''prospective ending''', indicates that the verb is nearing completion or about to begin in earnest, with a strong implication that the speaker or a referent in the narrative is anticipating the fruition of the action.
: Garu le ba be ohin.
: ''She arrives at his house.'''

: Ga'''qun''' le ba be ohin.
: ''She is/was about to arrive at his house.''

===How to conjugate -KUN===

Regular strong verbs, -N verbs, -W verbs, and -Y verbs simply append -kún.
: enjí → enjikún
: ten → tenkún
: aw → awkún
: way → waykún

Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -kún.
* Note that plosives become [ʔ] before another plosive, and that high vowels are lowered before [ʔ]. This can cause lowering of the vowel in the stem.
: damá → damkún
: riká → rikkún [rɛˈqun]

-SA verbs delete the final -CV and append -qún.
: kosá → koqún
: exí → eqún
: kurú → kuqún

-LA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -kún.
: ralí → rawkún

-JA verbs delete the final -CV, apply y-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -kún.
: mujú → moykún

-FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -qún.
: safá → sawqún

-S and t-, k-, or p-final -T verbs delete the final -C, and append -qún.
: herúx → heruqún
: sarás → saraqún
: gir → giqún
: enák → enaqún

-H verbs and -ē final -T verbs shorten the final vowel and append qún.
: oxâ → oxaqún
: pē → peqún
: xō → xoqún

See the summary table below:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Prospective -KUN conjugations by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Prospective -KUN
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesokún
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigkún
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || eqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moykún
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawkun
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekankún
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || saraqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enaqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxaqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawkún
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waykún
|}

==The Perfective, -W==

'''-W''', the '''perfective''' ending, indicates that the action in the verb is completed.
: Sila kajip.
: ''The guest leaves.''
: Sila'''w''' kajip.
: ''The guest '''has left'''.''

===How to conjugate -W===

All regular, -SA, -FA, -JA, and -LA verbs apply w-ablaut to the final vowel.
: lesó → lesô
: sigú → sigû
: exí → exyú
: safá → safáw
: kurú → kurû
: ralí → ralyú
: mujú → mujû

-N verbs append -la. This does not draw stress from where it would be in the stem.
: ekán → ekánla
: rum → rúmla

-S and -R verbs delete the final consonant, apply w-ablaut to the remaining final vowel, and append -sa. This does not draw stress.
: elér → elyósa
: yos → yôsa
: bulíx → bulyúsa

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē and append -táw.
: enák → enatáw
: hē → hetáw

-H verbs shorten the final vowel, apply w-ablaut, and then append -sa. This does not draw stress.
: oxâ → oxáwsa
: orî → oryúsa
: xō → xôsa

-W verbs delete the final -aw and append -ála.
: aw → ála
: ryuláw → ryulála

-Y verbs append -ú.
: way → wayú

See the summary table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Perfective -W conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Perfective -W
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesô
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigû
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exyú
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || safáw
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || mujû
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || ralyú
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekánla
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || saráwsa
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enatáw
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxáwsa
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lála
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way ||wayú
|}

==The Habitual, -AX==

'''-AX''', the '''habitual''' ending, indicates that the agent of the verb performs it frequently, or that the verb expresses some general truth about the agent's behavior.
: Me lesó lyu don.
: ''I read many books.''
: Me leso'''wáx''' lyu don.
: ''I '''have been reading''' many books.''

: Mujú aska.
: ''The fish swims.''
: Muj'''wáx''' aska.
: ''Fish swim '''[in general]'''.''

===How to conjugate -AX===

Conjugation of -AX generally follows the following pattern:
* Verbs with final -a append -x.
* Verbs with final -i or -e append -yáx.
* Verbs with final -u or -o append -wáx.
* Verbs with final consonants append -áx.

This simple pattern applies to all verbs ending in -a, regular strong verbs, and -N, -S, -R, and -Y verbs.
: enjí → enjiyáx
: lesó → lesowáx
: lewá → lewáx
: ekán → ekanáx
: way → wayáx
: gir → giráx
: saras → sarasáx

Regular weak verbs and -SA, -FA, -JA, and -LA verbs that end in -i or -u follow this pattern, with the one exception of eliding the final vowel.
: ralí → ralyáx
: kurú → kurwáx
: wakí → wakyáx
: mujú → mujwáx

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten -ē and append -táx.
: enák → enatáx
: hē → hetáx

-H verbs shorten the final vowel and append -háx.
: oxâ → oxaháx
: mosē → moseháx

-W verbs delete the final -aw, and append -aláx.
: maw → maláx

See the summary table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Habitual -AX conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Habitual -AX
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesowáx
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigwáx
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exyáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || safáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || mujwáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || ralyáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák|| enatáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxaháx
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || laláx
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayáx
|}

==The Attributive, -LA==

'''-LA''', the '''attributive''' ending, is the only verbal ending that does not indicate a change in semantic meaning. Rather, it changes the syntactic function of the verb into an adjective, indicating that the modified noun performs the action in the verb. This can function similarly to English gerunds or complementary phrases.
: Mujná aska.
: ''The fish does not swim.''
: Aska mujna'''lá''' sa taláw.
: "The fish '''that''' is not swimming is dead.''

More advanced usage of -LA is explained at [[Saxuma#The attributive]].

===How to conjugate -LA===

Regular strong, -N, and -Y verbs append -lá. Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -lá.
: leso → lesolá
: sigú → siglá
: ekán → ekanlá
: way → waylá

-LA verbs replace the final vowel with -á.
: ralí → ralá
: silá → silá
: gelú → gelá

-W verbs replace the final -aw with -alá.
: ryuláw → ryulalá
: maw → malá

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē, and then append -xá.
: enák → enaxá
: hē → hexá

-JA verbs delete the final -CV, change apply y-ablaut, and append -lá.
: mujú → moylá

-SA and -FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.
: exí → yosá
: safá → sawsá
: kurú → kūsá

-H verbs shorten the final long vowel, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.
: oxâ → oxawsá
: orî → oryusá

See the summary table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Attributive -LA conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí ||yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -ZA
| mujú || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waylá
|}

===Summary===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

==Combining Conjugations==

[[Category:Saxuma]]

Saxuma/Verb Conjugation

2024-12-03T18:51:33Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* The Prospective, -KUN */

This page details the various suffixing conjugations of [[Saxuma]] verbs. For information on other elements of Saxuma morphology, see [[Saxuma#Morphology]].

==Introduction==

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

In addition to the unmarked stem forms of verbs, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms.

==The Negative, -NA==

'''-NA''', the '''negative''' ending, negates the verb it attaches to.
: Sigu palas.
: ''The rabbit runs.''

: Sig'''na''' palas.
: ''The rabbit does '''not''' run.''

===How to conjugate -NA===
Strong regular verbs append -ná to the end of the word. Weak regular verbs delete the final vowel and append -ná.
: lesó → lesoná
: enjí → enjiná
: sigú → signá

-SA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel and append ná. Note that if the consonant before the final vowel is -x, then ná will be pronounced as [ɲa].
: myusá → myusná [mjusˈna]
: exí → exná [ɛɕˈɲa]

-FA and -LA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append -ná.
: safá → sawná
: ralí → rawná

-JA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply y-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append -ná.
: mujú → moyná

-N, -S, -H, -W, and -Y conjugation verbs simply append -ná.
: ekán → ekanná
: rum → rumná
: sarás → sarasná
: oxâ → oxāná
: aw → awná
: way → wayná
: elér → elerná

-T conjugation verbs remove the final consonant, or change final long ē to short e. Then, they apply w-ablaut, and finally append ná.
: enák → enawná
: hē → hyoná

See the summary in the table below:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Negative -NA conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan =2 | Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás|| sarasná
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná
|}

==The Causative, -BI==

'''-BI''', the '''causative''' ending, indicates that the subject of the verb causes the object to perform the verb.
: In sig'''bi''' palas.
: ''He '''makes''' the rabbit run.''

===How to conjugate -BI===
-BI adds the suffix -bí to verbs identically to -NA across all verb classes, with one exception: -T verbs delete the final consonant (or reduce long ē to short e), and then append -cú
: enák → enacú
: hē → hecú

See the table below for a summary.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Causative -BI conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Causative -BI
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesobí
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigbí
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moybí
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enacú
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxābí
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawbí
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waybí
|}

==The Inchoative, -WAY==

'''-WAY''', the '''inchoative''' ending, indicates that an action is beginning to occur, or is just about to begin.
: Sig'''way''' palas.
: ''The rabbit '''is starting to''' run.'' or ''The rabbit '''is about to''' run.''

===How to Conjugate -WAY===

For verbs ending in a voiceless consonant or a weak vowel preceded by a voiceless consonant, the inchoative ending is -fáy. The ending is also -fáy for all -T and -H class verbs. Otherwise, it is -way. Besides this, -WAY conjugates identically to -NA, with one exception: -W and -LA verbs delete the final -lV or -w and append -wáy.
: law → lawáy
: ralí → rawáy

See the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Inchoative -WAY conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan =2 | Class !! Example Stem !! Inchoative -WAY
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesowáy
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigwáy
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || mujwáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanwáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāfáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawáy
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waywáy
|}

==The Prospective, -KUN==

'''-KUN''', the '''prospective ending''', indicates that the verb is nearing completion or about to begin in earnest, with a strong implication that the speaker or a referent in the narrative is anticipating the fruition of the action.
: Garu le ba be ohin.
: ''She arrives at his house.'''

: Ga'''qun''' le ba be ohin.
: ''She is/was about to arrive at his house.''

===How to conjugate -KUN===

Regular strong verbs, -N verbs, -W verbs, and -Y verbs simply append -kún.
: enjí → enjikún
: ten → tenkún
: aw → awkún
: way → waykún

Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -kún.
* Note that plosives become [ʔ] before another plosive, and that high vowels are lowered before [ʔ]. This can cause lowering of the vowel in the stem.
: damá → damkún
: riká → rikkún [rɛˈqun]

-SA verbs delete the final -CV and append -qún.
: kosá → koqún
: exí → eqún
: kurú → kuqún

-LA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -kún.
: ralí → rawkún

-JA verbs delete the final -CV, apply y-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -kún.
: mujú → moykún

-FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -qún.
: safá → sawqún

-S, -R, and t-, k-, or p-final -T verbs delete the final -C, and append -qún.
: herúx → heruqún
: sarás → saraqún
: gir → giqún
: enák → enaqún

-H verbs and -ē final -T verbs shorten the final vowel and append qún.
: oxâ → oxaqún
: pē → peqún
: xō → xoqún

See the summary table below:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Prospective -KUN conjugations by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Prospective -KUN
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesokún
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigkún
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || eqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moykún
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawkun
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekankún
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || saraqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enaqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxaqún
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawkún
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waykún
|}

==The Perfective, -W==

'''-W''', the '''perfective''' ending, indicates that the action in the verb is completed.
: Sila kajip.
: ''The guest leaves.''
: Sila'''w''' kajip.
: ''The guest '''has left'''.''

===How to conjugate -W===

All regular, -SA, -FA, -JA, and -LA verbs apply w-ablaut to the final vowel.
: lesó → lesô
: sigú → sigû
: exí → exyú
: safá → safáw
: kurú → kurû
: ralí → ralyú
: mujú → mujû

-N verbs append -la. This does not draw stress from where it would be in the stem.
: ekán → ekánla
: rum → rúmla

-S and -R verbs delete the final consonant, apply w-ablaut to the remaining final vowel, and append -sa. This does not draw stress.
: elér → elyósa
: yos → yôsa
: bulíx → bulyúsa

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē and append -táw.
: enák → enatáw
: hē → hetáw

-H verbs shorten the final vowel, apply w-ablaut, and then append -sa. This does not draw stress.
: oxâ → oxáwsa
: orî → oryúsa
: xō → xôsa

-W verbs delete the final -aw and append -ála.
: aw → ála
: ryuláw → ryulála

-Y verbs append -ú.
: way → wayú

See the summary table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Perfective -W conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Perfective -W
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesô
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigû
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exyú
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || safáw
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || mujû
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || ralyú
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekánla
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || saráwsa
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enatáw
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxáwsa
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lála
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way ||wayú
|}

==The Habitual, -AX==

'''-AX''', the '''habitual''' ending, indicates that the agent of the verb performs it frequently, or that the verb expresses some general truth about the agent's behavior.
: Me lesó lyu don.
: ''I read many books.''
: Me leso'''wáx''' lyu don.
: ''I '''have been reading''' many books.''

: Mujú aska.
: ''The fish swims.''
: Muj'''wáx''' aska.
: ''Fish swim '''[in general]'''.''

===How to conjugate -AX===

Conjugation of -AX generally follows the following pattern:
* Verbs with final -a append -x.
* Verbs with final -i or -e append -yáx.
* Verbs with final -u or -o append -wáx.
* Verbs with final consonants append -áx.

This simple pattern applies to all verbs ending in -a, regular strong verbs, and -N, -S, -R, and -Y verbs.
: enjí → enjiyáx
: lesó → lesowáx
: lewá → lewáx
: ekán → ekanáx
: way → wayáx
: gir → giráx
: saras → sarasáx

Regular weak verbs and -SA, -FA, -JA, and -LA verbs that end in -i or -u follow this pattern, with the one exception of eliding the final vowel.
: ralí → ralyáx
: kurú → kurwáx
: wakí → wakyáx
: mujú → mujwáx

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten -ē and append -táx.
: enák → enatáx
: hē → hetáx

-H verbs shorten the final vowel and append -háx.
: oxâ → oxaháx
: mosē → moseháx

-W verbs delete the final -aw, and append -aláx.
: maw → maláx

See the summary table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Habitual -AX conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Habitual -AX
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesowáx
|-
! Weak
| sigú || sigwáx
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exyáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || safáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || mujwáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || ralyáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák|| enatáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxaháx
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || laláx
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayáx
|}

==The Attributive, -LA==

'''-LA''', the '''attributive''' ending, is the only verbal ending that does not indicate a change in semantic meaning. Rather, it changes the syntactic function of the verb into an adjective, indicating that the modified noun performs the action in the verb. This can function similarly to English gerunds or complementary phrases.
: Mujná aska.
: ''The fish does not swim.''
: Aska mujna'''lá''' sa taláw.
: "The fish '''that''' is not swimming is dead.''

More advanced usage of -LA is explained at [[Saxuma#The attributive]].

===How to conjugate -LA===

Regular strong, -N, and -Y verbs append -lá. Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -lá.
: leso → lesolá
: sigú → siglá
: ekán → ekanlá
: way → waylá

-LA verbs replace the final vowel with -á.
: ralí → ralá
: silá → silá
: gelú → gelá

-W verbs replace the final -aw with -alá.
: ryuláw → ryulalá
: maw → malá

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē, and then append -xá.
: enák → enaxá
: hē → hexá

-JA verbs delete the final -CV, change apply y-ablaut, and append -lá.
: mujú → moylá

-SA and -FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.
: exí → yosá
: safá → sawsá
: kurú → kūsá

-H verbs shorten the final long vowel, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.
: oxâ → oxawsá
: orî → oryusá

See the summary table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Attributive -LA conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí ||yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -ZA
| mujú || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || waylá
|}

===Summary===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

==Combining Conjugations==

[[Category:Saxuma]]

Saxuma

2024-12-03T18:45:34Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Case */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [ç].
* Final /r/ is often realized as [ʃ], and in these cases lowers preceding /i/ and /u/ to [ɛ] and [o]

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Trill
| || r̥
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct and dative-allative cases require any declension — the others use the base form, and potentially a particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-allative''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is usually marked with a prefix, determined regularly by the noun's initial phoneme, as below. Adjectives do not decline for the dative-allative. Like with ''u'', the preposition ''ba'' can also be used to mark the dative-allative when it would be applied to complementary phrases.
: Before initial i- or u-, prefix ''baz-''.
:: ''ībi'' → ''bazîbi''
:: ''umex'' → ''bazúmex''
: Before other vowels and initial w- or y-, prefix ''bad-''.
:: ''aska'' → ''badáska''
:: ''emín'' → ''bademín''
:: ''oqan'' → ''badóqan''
:: ''wak'' → ''badwák''
:: ''yūsi'' → ''badyûsi''
: Before nasal consonants, prefix ''bo-''.
:: ''may'' → ''bomáy''
:: ''nir'' → ''bonír''
: Before initial plosives, prefix ''baq-''. Some speakers also devoice voiced plosives when doing this.
:: ''tek'' → ''baqték''
:: ''gijo'' → ''baqgíjo'' or ''baqkíjo''
: Before initial h- and f-, delete the initial consonant and prefix ''bat-''.
:: ''hyō'' → ''batyô''
:: ''hap'' → ''batáp''
:: ''fenyo'' → ''batényo''
: Before initial v-, delete the v- and prefix ''bab-''.
:: ''viko'' → ''babíko''
: Before initial s- and x-, prefix ''bat-'', and before initial z- or j-, prefix ''bad-''.
:: ''zen'' → ''badzén''
:: ''xek'' → ''batxék''
: Before initial l- and r-, prefix ''ba-.''
:: ''rik'' → ''barík''
:: ''lobo'' → ''balóbo''

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēk || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Allative
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial consonant.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

===Time===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-12-03T18:44:03Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Case */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [ç].
* Final /r/ is often realized as [ʃ], and in these cases lowers preceding /i/ and /u/ to [ɛ] and [o]

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Trill
| || r̥
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct and dative-allative cases require any declension — the others use the base form, and potentially a particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-allative''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with a prefix, determined regularly by the noun's initial phoneme, as below. Adjectives do not decline for the dative-allative.
: Before initial i- or u-, prefix ''baz-''.
:: ''ībi'' → ''bazîbi''
:: ''umex'' → ''bazúmex''
: Before other vowels and initial w- or y-, prefix ''bad-''.
:: ''aska'' → ''badáska''
:: ''emín'' → ''bademín''
:: ''oqan'' → ''badóqan''
:: ''wak'' → ''badwák''
:: ''yūsi'' → ''badyûsi''
: Before nasal consonants, prefix ''bo-''.
:: ''may'' → ''bomáy''
:: ''nir'' → ''bonír''
: Before initial plosives, prefix ''baq-''. Some speakers also devoice voiced plosives when doing this.
:: ''tek'' → ''baqték''
:: ''gijo'' → ''baqgíjo'' or ''baqkíjo''
: Before initial h- and f-, delete the initial consonant and prefix ''bat-''.
:: ''hyō'' → ''batyô''
:: ''hap'' → ''batáp''
:: ''fenyo'' → ''batényo''
: Before initial v-, delete the v- and prefix ''bab-''.
:: ''viko'' → ''babíko''
: Before initial s- and x-, prefix ''bat-'', and before initial z- or j-, prefix ''bad-''.
:: ''zen'' → ''badzén''
:: ''xek'' → ''batxék''
: Before initial l- and r-, prefix ''ba-.''
: ''rik'' → ''barík''
: ''lobo'' → ''balóbo''

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēk || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Allative
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial consonant.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

===Time===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-12-03T18:08:34Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Evidentiality */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [ç].
* Final /r/ is often realized as [ʃ], and in these cases lowers preceding /i/ and /u/ to [ɛ] and [o]

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Trill
| || r̥
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-allative''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēk || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Allative
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial consonant.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

===Time===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-11-08T14:20:13Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Consonants */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [ç].
* Final /r/ is often realized as [ʃ], and in these cases lowers preceding /i/ and /u/ to [ɛ] and [o]

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Trill
| || r̥
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-allative''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēk || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Allative
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

===Time===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-11-02T03:51:27Z

Anisette Biscotti: "Superessive" corrected to allative

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Trill
| || r̥
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-allative''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēk || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Allative
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

===Time===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-11-01T19:00:07Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Pronouns */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Trill
| || r̥
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēk || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

===Time===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-21T13:03:39Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Consonants */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Trill
| || r̥
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

===Time===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-21T13:02:46Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Consonants */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Trill
| || r̥
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

===Time===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-21T12:59:36Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Semantics */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

===Time===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-21T12:55:05Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Phonotactics */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-18T16:00:00Z

Anisette Biscotti:

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-18T13:59:02Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Case */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-18T12:54:08Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Imperative and Hortative */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-18T12:50:41Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Consonants */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-18T12:48:28Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Number */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (c) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s⁓ʦ, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z⁓ʣ || ʑ⁓ʥ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-18T12:47:10Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Gender morphology */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (c) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s⁓ʦ, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z⁓ʣ || ʑ⁓ʥ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-18T12:46:51Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Gender */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (c) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s⁓ʦ, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z⁓ʣ || ʑ⁓ʥ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-18T12:46:11Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Gender morphology */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (c) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s⁓ʦ, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z⁓ʣ || ʑ⁓ʥ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Gender===

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-18T12:44:55Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Gender morphology */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (c) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s⁓ʦ, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z⁓ʣ || ʑ⁓ʥ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Gender===

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

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Anisette Biscotti:

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Anisette Biscotti:

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Saxuma

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Anisette Biscotti: /* Gender */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (c) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s⁓ʦ, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z⁓ʣ || ʑ⁓ʥ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being '''''zi-'''''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Gender===

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
|}

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-18T12:42:49Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Gender */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (c) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s⁓ʦ, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z⁓ʣ || ʑ⁓ʥ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being '''''zi-'''''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Gender===

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
|-
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
|-
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
|-
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
|-
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional

|}

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-18T12:28:09Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Gender morphology */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (c) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s⁓ʦ, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z⁓ʣ || ʑ⁓ʥ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being '''''zi-'''''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Gender===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-18T12:24:44Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Pronouns */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (c) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s⁓ʦ, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z⁓ʣ || ʑ⁓ʥ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(g/k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel, and replacing final -n- and -m- with -g-.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being '''''zi-'''''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Gender===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-18T12:23:18Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Gender morphology */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (c) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s⁓ʦ, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z⁓ʣ || ʑ⁓ʥ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|ingin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginga}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohingín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(g/k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel, and replacing final -n- and -m- with -g-.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being '''''zi-'''''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Gender===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-18T12:21:38Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Pronouns */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (c) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s⁓ʦ, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z⁓ʣ || ʑ⁓ʥ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|ingin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginga}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohingín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|moon}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|sun}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being '''''zi-'''''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Gender===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma/Texts

2024-10-18T12:19:08Z

Anisette Biscotti:

Below are sample texts for the [[Saxuma]] language.

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
! colspan=12| Glossing key
|-
! colspan=12| Pronouns
|-
| style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|1}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| first person || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|2}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| second person || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|3}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| third person || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|s}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| singular || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|p}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| plural
|-
! colspan=12| Case
|-
| style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|abs}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| absolutive || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|cons}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| construct || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|dat}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| dative || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|gen}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| genitive || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|sup}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| superessive
|-
! colspan=12| Other Nominal Morphology
|-
| style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|dual}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| dual || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|lun}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| lunar || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|ref}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| reflexive || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|sol}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| solar
|-
! colspan=12| Aspect
|-
| style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|hab}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| habitual || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|inch}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| inchoative || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|perf}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| perfective || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|prog}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| progressive || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|pros}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| prospective || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|stat}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| stative
|-
! colspan=12| Evidentiality
|-
| style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|def}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| definitive || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|hs}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| hearsay || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|inf}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| inferential || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|int}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| intuitive
|-
! colspan=12| Other Verbal Morphology
|-
| style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|attr}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| attributive || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|caus}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| causative || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|hort}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| hortative || style="border-right: 0; text-align: right;"| '''{{sc|neg}}''' || style="border-left: 0"| negative
|}

==Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights==

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==Now summer is gone.../Вот и лето прошло...==

Below is a translation of the Russian poem "Now summer is gone.../Вот и лето прошло..." by [[wikipedia:Arseny Tarkovsky|Arseny Tarkovsky]].

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"
|-
! Russian !! Saxuma !! Gloss !! English Back-Translation
|-
| Вот и лето прошло, Словно и не бывало. На пригреве тепло. Только этого мало.
| Niqi kenē silaw i, Enlyax ryuna dē wa. Toxfay nes am lis, Bas mesna sē wa.
| now summer leave.{{sc|perf}} and {{sc|int}}-can exist.{{sc|neg}} {{sc|3s}} {{sc|emph}} warm.{{sc|inch}} this day well but is-enough.{{sc|neg}} yet {{sc|emph}}
| Now summer has gone and I feel it might not have been. This day is starting to warm nicely, But it isn't enough.
|-
| Все, что сбыться могло, Мне, как лист пятипалый, Прямо в руки легло, Только этого мало.
| Zen lawsá zûsa Ba pome ome pē wa Or hap to ī zā, Bas mesna sē wa.
| all can.{{sc|attr}} happen.{{sc|perf}}, upon hand {{sc|1s.gen}} press {{sc|emph}} close-to leaf with finger five but is-enough.{{sc|neg}} yet {{sc|emph}}
| All that can has happened, Pressing upon my hand Like a leaf with five fingers, But it isn't enough.
|-
| Понапрасну ни зло, Ни добро не пропало, Все горело светло, Только этого мало.
| Yone ka susyo, Sin kayx o ēma. Hasyo ni pirin zen, Bas mesna sē wa.
| nothing {{sc|abs}} lose.{{sc|perf}} if evil or good burn.{{sc|perf}} in light all but is-enough.{{sc|neg}} yet {{sc|emph}}
| Nothing was lost, Whether good or evil. All burned brightly, But it isn't enough.
|-
|Жизнь брала под крыло, Берегла и спасала, Мне и вправду везло. Только этого мало.
| Seve ya bome kovax, I mek mobyu fey'wa. Garax hona mek zu ya, Bas mesna sē wa.
| life {{sc|voc}} {{sc|1s.dat}} care.{{sc|hab}} and {{sc|1s.abs}} {{sc|stat.caus-perf}} lucky-{{sc|emph}} protect.{{sc|hab}} lovely {{sc|1s.abs}} {{sc|2s}} {{sc|voc}} but is-enough.{{sc|neg}} yet {{sc|emph}}
| O life you have cared for me, And made me lucky. You have protected me well, But it isn't enough.
|-
|Листьев не обожгло, Веток не обломало... День промыт, как стекло, Только этого мало.
| Hap ne maw hase i, Koy ne maw ni kē wa Pori vin zalo umex, Bas mesna sē wa.
| leaf none {{sc|stat}} burn and branch none {{sc|stat}} in shambles {{sc|emph}} clear like glass sky but is-enough.{{sc|neg}} yet {{sc|emph}}
| No leaves are burning, No branches are broken, The sky is clear as glass, But it isn't enough.
|-
|}

[[Category:Saxuma]]

Saxuma

2024-10-18T01:48:45Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Pronouns */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (c) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s⁓ʦ, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z⁓ʣ || ʑ⁓ʥ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|moon}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|sun}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|ingin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginga}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohingín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
: ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|moon}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|sun}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being '''''zi-'''''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Gender===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-18T01:40:13Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Consonants */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n || ɲ || colspan=2| (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k || (c) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s⁓ʦ, r̥ || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z⁓ʣ || ʑ⁓ʥ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || || j ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|moon}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|sun}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|ingin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginga}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohingín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|moon}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|sun}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being '''''zi-'''''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Gender===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-15T00:32:32Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Number */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant Inventory
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}
* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|moon}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|sun}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|ingin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginga}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohingín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|moon}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|sun}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being '''''zi-'''''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Gender===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-15T00:32:10Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Nominal Morphology */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant Inventory
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}
* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sií' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|moon}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|sun}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|ingin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginga}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohingín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|moon}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|sun}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being '''''zi-'''''.

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Gender===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-15T00:02:34Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Pronouns */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant Inventory
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}
* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|moon}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|sun}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|ingin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginga}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohingín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|moon}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|sun}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being '''''zi-'''''.

====The dual ''-mix''====

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Gender===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-14T23:42:33Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Case */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant Inventory
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}
* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

===Pronouns===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|moon}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|sun}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|ingin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginga}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohingín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|moon}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|sun}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being '''''zi-'''''.

====The dual ''-mix''====

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Gender===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-14T14:47:08Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Semantics */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant Inventory
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}
* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

For pronominal declensions, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=4| 3rd Person
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| neuter singular !! rowspan=2| {{sx-m|moon singular}} !! rowspan=2| {{sx-s|sun singular}} !! rowspan=2| plural
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-s|in}} || ca
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || daqá
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || urá
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || caw
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || bacá
|}

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|moon}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|sun}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being '''''zi-'''''.

====The dual ''-mix''====

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

===Gender===

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-14T14:45:04Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Nominal Morphology */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant Inventory
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}
* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

For pronominal declensions, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=4| 3rd Person
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| neuter singular !! rowspan=2| {{sx-m|moon singular}} !! rowspan=2| {{sx-s|sun singular}} !! rowspan=2| plural
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-s|in}} || ca
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || daqá
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || urá
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || caw
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || bacá
|}

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|moon}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|sun}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being '''''zi-'''''.

====The dual ''-mix''====

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-14T14:43:34Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Case */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant Inventory
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}
* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'' ("towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|moon}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|sun}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being '''''zi-'''''.

====The dual ''-mix''====

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma Pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=4| 3rd Person
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| neuter singular !! rowspan=2| {{sx-m|moon singular}} !! rowspan=2| {{sx-s|sun singular}} !! rowspan=2| plural
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-s|in}} || ca
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || daqá
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || urá
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || caw
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || bacá
|}

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-14T14:11:25Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Phonotactics */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant Inventory
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}
* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

=====Direct=====
=====Absolutive=====
=====Construct=====
=====Genitive=====
=====Dative-Superessive=====

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|moon}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|sun}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being '''''zi-'''''.

====The dual ''-mix''====

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma Pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=4| 3rd Person
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| neuter singular !! rowspan=2| {{sx-m|moon singular}} !! rowspan=2| {{sx-s|sun singular}} !! rowspan=2| plural
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-s|in}} || ca
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || daqá
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || urá
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || caw
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || bacá
|}

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Saxuma

2024-10-14T14:09:53Z

Anisette Biscotti: /* Evidentiality */

{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant Inventory
|-
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
! Nasals
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ || colspan=2| ||
|-
! Plosives
| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
|-
! Fricatives
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}
* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ Vowel Inventory
|-
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! High
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
! Mid
| ɛ~e eː || o oː
|-
! Low
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

===Phonotactics===

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 | || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
! p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[bl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[gl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}

===Pitch Accent===

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===Ablauts===

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

===Script===

==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===

====Case====

=====Direct=====
=====Absolutive=====
=====Construct=====
=====Genitive=====
=====Dative-Superessive=====

====Gender morphology====
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

The {{sx-m|moon}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|sun}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being '''''zi-'''''.

====The dual ''-mix''====

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Saxuma Pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=4| 3rd Person
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| neuter singular !! rowspan=2| {{sx-m|moon singular}} !! rowspan=2| {{sx-s|sun singular}} !! rowspan=2| plural
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-s|in}} || ca
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || daqá
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || urá
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || caw
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || bacá
|}

===Verb Morphology===

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
! Weak
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -JA
| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
! colspan=2 | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}

====Evidentiality====

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú

====Imperative and Hortative====

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya!''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō

==Syntax==

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

===The topic marker ''sa''===

===Complementary Phrases===

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

====''U'' as a complementizer====

====The complementizer ''vin''====

====The attributive====

==Semantics==

==Sample Texts==
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===

{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
|-
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
|-
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}

==See Also==
* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

[[Category:Saxuma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]