Linguifex - User contributions [en]

Talk:Gwaxol

2024-09-24T09:08:30Z

Flamatt1: Created page with "[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortition Fortition] itself is a process, so it does not make sense to speak of "changing fortition". Fortition is the process of increasing constriction or "stricture", i.e. the size of the space available for the airstream to pass through. --~~~~"

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortition Fortition] itself is a process, so it does not make sense to speak of "changing fortition". Fortition is the process of increasing constriction or "stricture", i.e. the size of the space available for the airstream to pass through.

--[[User:Flamatt1|Flamatt1]] ([[User talk:Flamatt1|talk]]) 09:08, 24 September 2024 (UTC)

Kimow

2024-09-16T17:17:00Z

Flamatt1:

{{Infobox language
| name = Kimow
| nativename = kimow
| altname = Kimau<ref name="kimau">Original exonym of the language before widespread English-based romanisation, now only used in German in the form of ''kimauisch''.</ref>
| pronunciation = ˈkʰím.ǒʊ] [ˈkʰǐɯ.ɑ̄w
| creator = User:Jukethatbox
| created = 2024
| speakers = 7.7 million(total)
| speakers2 = [[Kimow|Kimo]]: 3.96 million [[Kimow|Wakki]]: 3.74 million
| date = 2024
| familycolor = language isolate
| dia1 = Kimo dialects
** Igkin dialects
*** Kemḥu Kka
** Mukku (†)<ref>Mostly extinct, some elderly speakers still exist.</ref>
| dia2 = Wakki dialects
| script1 = Latn
| notice = ipa
}}
'''Kimow'''(/kiːmoʊ/, ''[[Contionary:kimow|kimow]]''; Kimow: [[Help:IPA|[ˈkʰím.ǒʊ]]] or [[Help:IPA|[ˈkʰǐɯ.ɑ̄w]]]), also(but less commonly) called '''Kimau''',<ref name="kimau"></ref> is a language isolate that is notorious for the fact that the majority of its words are [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysemy polysemous], meaning they have various meanings. For example, the name of the language, Kimow, can mean "Kimow"(adj.), "the Kimow language", "the Kimow people", "an ethnic Kimow", "a Kimow speaker(so not necessarily an ethnic Kimow)", "a member of the Kimow diaspora", "Kimow food" or "a Kimow city". There are also only two main dialects, the '''Kimo''' and the '''Wakki''', and their homonymic meanings differ greatly at times, making mutual understanding difficult. Tone and phonology vary slightly as well, though not as greatly and are thus more mutually intelligible.
==Phonology==
===Orthography===
Kimow uses its own version of the [[w:Latin script|Latin alphabet]] for writing.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"
|+ Vowels + pulmonic consonants
|-
! Letter (Maj-min)
| A a || B b || C c || D d || E e || F f || G g || H h || Ḥ ḥ || I i || J j || K k || Ḵ ḵ || L l || M m || N n || O o || Ö ö || P p || S s || T t || U u || W w || V v || Y y || Z z
|-
! IPA
| a || bʱ || c || dʱ || e ɘ || f || gʱ ʔ<ref>When placed before /k/.</ref> || h || ɦ || i || ɟ g̟|| kʰ || q || l || m ɯ<ref name="meu"></ref>|| n ŋ<ref>Before a velar plosive only.</ref> || o ɑ || ø ɵ/œ|| pʰ || s || tʰ || colspan=2 | u/ʊ w<ref name="ʊ"></ref> || v || j || z
|}

===Consonants===
Aside from Wakki dialects using [w] as a replacement for [u] and [ʊ], consonants do not vary at all between Kimow speakers.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"
! colspan=2 | !! Bilabial !! Labiodental !! Alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar/ Labial-velar !! Uvular !! Glottal
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plosive
! pulmonic
| || || || c ɟ || || q || ʔ
|-
! aspirated
| pʰ bʱ || || tʰ dʱ || || kʰ gʱ || ||
|-
! ejective
| pʼ bʼ || || tʼ|| || kʼ gʼ || qʼ||
|-
! colspan=2 | Nasal
| m<ref>Pronounced as [ɯ] in Wakki dialects.</ref>|| || n || ɲ || ŋ || ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | Fricative
! pulmonic
| || f v || s z || ç || || || h ɦ
|-
! ejective
| || fʼ vʼ|| sʼ zʼ || || || ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | Approximant
! normal
| || || || j || w<ref name=ʊ></ref> || ||
|-
! lateral
| || || l || || ɫ || ||
|}
====Dentalisation====
When an alveolar plosive([t] or [d]) is behind a voiced fricative([z] or [v]), the plosive is dentalised, turning into [t̪] or [d̪]. This rule is present in all dialects apart from the moribund Mukku dialect.

===Vowels===
Red sounds are exclusive to Kimo dialects, while blue sounds are exclusive to Wakki dialects. Green sounds are exclusive to Igkin dialects, which although are a subset of Kimo dialects, do have some different sounds. Black sounds are in all sets of dialects.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"
! !! Front !! Central !! Near-close !! Back
|-
! Close
| i || || || ɯ<ref name="meu">Allophone of [m]</ref> u<ref name="ʊ">In Wakki dialects, the [u]/[ʊ] is substituted by [w] in most cases.</ref>
|-
! Near-close
| || || ʊ<ref name="ʊ"></ref> ||
|-
! Close-mid
| e ø || ɘ<ref name="closemidcentral"></ref> ɵ<ref name="closemidcentral">Both are variants of [e] and [ø] in Kimo and Wakki dialects.</ref> || rowspan=2 | || o
|-
! Open
| a œ<ref>Alternative allophone of /ø/, though [ø] is still more widely used.</ref> || || ɑ<ref>Wakki variant of Kimo [o].</ref>
|}

===Prosody===
====Stress====
Across all dialects, stress has only one pattern: prototonic in most cases, oxytonic when there is a case marker.
====Tone====
Use of tone in Kimow is not indicated in the orthography and varies by Kimo and Wakki dialects, though within their own subsets they tend to conform to one standard tone system.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"
! colspan=2 | Tone
|-
! Kimo !! Wakki
|-
| high [[Help:IPA|[˦ ] ]]|| rising [[Help:IPA|[˩˥]]]
|-
| rising [[Help:IPA|[˩˥]]] || mid [[Help:IPA|[˧]]]
|-
| rowspan=2 | falling [[Help:IPA|[˥˩]]] || low rising [[Help:IPA|[˩˨]]]
|-
| rising-falling [[Help:IPA|[˧˦˧]]]
|-
| extra low [[Help:IPA|[˩]]] || rowspan=2 | low [[Help:IPA|[˨]]]
|-
| low [[Help:IPA|[˨]]]
|}

===Phonotactics===
===Morphophonology===

==Morphology==
===Homonyms===
Kimow is notorious for the fact that many of its words are homonyms with various meanings that can differ greatly from each other. Additionally, these different meanings can sometimes be simply up to dialectic difference, such as in the word ''vesi''(''visi'' in Wakki dialects). To analyse the many meanings of a typical Kimow word, one can use the Itou table, as so:
{{itou-standard|vesi|kimo=věsȉ|igkin=vɘ̌sȉ|wakki=vēsì|meaning1=bicycle vehicle two-wheeled vehicle two wheels (''coll.'') Dutch/Netherlands Amsterdam bridge for bicycles bicycle path|meaning2=boat ship cargo ship ship cargo navy sailor (''rare'') United Kingdom (''rare'') United States}}
===Pronouns===
====Personal====
Personal pronouns are only used in Kimo dialects. In Wakki dialects, the subject is inferred through verb conjugation alone.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
! colspan=2 | !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! rowspan=3 | Person
! First
| ''ku'' [[Help:IPA|[kʰú]]] || ''sagku'' [[Help:IPA|[sáʔ.kʰȕ]]]
|-
! Second
| ''seḵ'' [[Help:IPA|[sèq] [sɘ̀q]]] || ''iḵḵim'' [[Help:IPA|[íqʼǐm]]]
|-
! Third
| ''vu'' [[Help:IPA|[vù]]]|| ''sutvu'' [[Help:IPA|[sút̪.vú]]]
|}
====Demonstrative====
Demonstrative pronouns are placed after the noun they are describing.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"
! !! Near !! Far
|-
! Singular
| ''ki'' [[Help:IPA|[kʰí] [kʰǐ]]] || ''keḥki'' [[Help:IPA|[kʰé.ɦkì] [kʰě.ɦkì]]]
|-
! Plural
| ''ka'' [[Help:IPA|[kʰà] [kʰǎ]]] || ''keḥka'' [[Help:IPA|[kʰé.ɦkà] [kʰě.ɦkà]]]
|}

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
The Kimo dialect mainly uses SOV, though in the Wakki dialect, the subject is inferred through verb conjugation, meaning the verb order is more like VO.
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
==Example texts==
==Other resources==
===Notes===



[[Category:Kimow]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Gwaxol

2024-09-16T16:54:10Z

Flamatt1:

{{Infobox language
|image = Gwaxol.png
|imagesize = 185px
|imagecaption = ''xazat³ gwaxolsa⁵'' in the Hanoehn script
|name = Gwaxol
|nativename = gwaxol⁵
|pronunciation = gʷɑ˩xo˥ɮ̊
|pronunciation_key = IPA for Gwaxol
|state = N/A
|setting = [https://pollasena.fandom.com/wiki/Pollasena_Wiki Pollasena]
|created = 2022
|fam1 = [[Wasc languages | Wasc]], [[Nentammmi languages | Nentammmi]]
|familycolor = Creole
|creator = Dillon Hartwig
|era = -800 to 200 MT
|script = Hanoehn
|nation = N/A
|map = GwaxolMap.png
|mapsize = 280px
|mapcaption = Range Map of Gwaxol (brown), alongside Khelaj (white), 'Oa (pink), Ku Te Kui (green), and Thuosha' (purple), c. -600 MT
|notice = IPA
}}

'''Gwaxol''' /ˈgwɑhoʊl/ (Gwaxol:  gwaxol⁵ [[IPA for Gwaxol|[gʷɑ˩xo˥ɮ̊]]]) is a mixed [[Wasc languages|Wasc]]-[[Nentammmi]] language spoken in the southeastern Thotthashnem Desert.

==Etymology==
''Gwaxol⁵'', the language's autonym, is inherited from the [[Wascotl]] autonym ''*wasc-otl''.

==Orthography==
Gwaxol is written with the Hanoehn script. Its romanization is as follows.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Gwaxol script and romanization
|-
! (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img)
|-
! A a || Ä ä || D d || E e || Ë ë || G g || Gw gw || Ğ ğ
|-
| /ɑ/ || /ɛ/ || /d/ || /e/ || /ə/ || /g/ || /gʷ/ || /ɣ/
|-
! (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img)
|-
! H h || I i || Ï ï || K k || Kw kw || L l || Ł ł || M m
|-
| /h/ || /i/ || /ɨ/ || /k/ || /kʷ/ || /ɮ/ || /ɬ/ || /m/
|-
! (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img)
|-
! N n || Ng ng || Nw nw || Nz nz || O o || Ö ö || R r || S s
|-
| /n/ || /ŋ/ || /ŋʷ/ || /z̃/ || /o/ || /ɵ/ || /r/ || /s/
|-
! (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img)
|-
! T t || Th th || U u || Ü ü || W w || X x || Xw xw || Y y
|-
| /s/ || /θ/ || /u/ || /ʉ/ || /ɣʷ/ || /x/ || /xʷ/ || /ʝ/
|-
! (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img) || (img)
|-
! Z z || ¹ || ² || ³ || ⁴ || ⁵ || ⁶
|-
| /z/ || /˥-˥/ || /˩-˩/ || /˥-˧/ || /˧-˩/ || /˩-˥/ || /˥-˩-˧/
|}
*Hyphens disambiguate /Cʷ, θ, ŋ, z̃/ ⟨Cw, th, ng, nz⟩ from /Cw, th, ng, nz/ ⟨C'w, t'h, n'g, n'z⟩
*Tone numbers are written word-finally

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonants
|-
!
! [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]] !! [[w:Dental consonant|Dental]] !! colspan="2" | [[w:Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] !! [[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]] !! colspan="2" | [[w:Velar consonant|Velar]] !! colspan="2" | [[w:Labialization|Labialized velar]] !! [[w:Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal stop]]
| [[w:Voiced bilabial nasal|m]] || colspan="3" | [[w:Voiced alveolar nasal|n]] || || colspan="2" | [[w:Voiced velar nasal|ŋ]] || colspan="2" | [[w:Labialization|ŋʷ]]
|-
! [[w:Nasalization|Nasal fricative]]
| colspan="2" | || colspan="2" | [[w:Nasalization|z̃]]
|-
! [[w:stop consonant|Stop]]
| colspan="2" | || [[w:Voiceless alveolar stop|t]] || [[w:Voiced alveolar stop|d]] || || [[w:Voiceless velar stop|k]] || [[w:Voiceed velar stop|g]] || [[w:Labialization|kʷ]] || [[w:Labialization|gʷ]]
|-
! [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| || [[w:Voiceless dental fricative|θ]] || [[w:Voiceless alveolar sibilant|s]] || [[w:Voiced alveolar fricative|z]] || [[w:Voiced palatal fricative|ʝ]] || [[w:Voiceless velar fricative|x]] || [[w:Voiced velar fricative|ɣ]] || [[w:Labialization|xʷ]] || [[w:Labialization|ɣʷ]] || [[w:Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]
|-
! [[w:Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
| || || [[w:Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative|ɬ]] || [[w:Voiced lateral fricative|ɮ]]
|-
! [[w:Trill consonant|Trill]]
| colspan="2" | || colspan="2" | [[w:Voiced alveolar trill|r]]
|}

*/ŋ, z̃, θ/ only occur in loanwords.
*All consonants can be geminated intervocalically
*All consonants assimilate in voicing to following consonants and all voiced consonants devoice word-finally, but this voicing change does not change the level of constriction; for example /ɮ/ devoices to [ɮ̊] rather than [ɬ], and /ɬ/ voices to [ɬ̬] rather than [ɮ].

===Vowels===
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Vowels
|-
! !! [[w:Front vowel|Front]] !! colspan="2" | [[w:Central vowel|Central]] !! [[w:Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[w:Close vowel|High]]
| [[w:Close front unrounded vowel|i]] || [[w:Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]] || [[w:Close central rounded vowel|ʉ]] || [[w:Close back rounded vowel|u]]
|-
! [[w:Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| [[w:Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]] || || [[w:Close-mid central rounded vowel|ɵ]] || [[w:Close-mid back rounded vowel|o]]
|-
! [[w:Mid vowel|Mid]]
| || colspan="2" | [[w:Mid central vowel|ə]]
|-
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| [[w:Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]]
|-
! [[w:Open vowel|Low]]
| colspan="3" | || [[w:Open back unrounded vowel|ɑ]]
|}

*/ɛ/ only occurs in loanwords.

===Tones===
Gwaxol has six [[w:Tone_(linguistics)#Word_tones_and_syllable_tones|word tones]].

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Tones
|-
! High !! Low !! High falling !! Low falling !! Rising !! Dipping
|-
| ˥-˥ || ˩-˩ || ˥-˧ || ˧-˩ || ˩-˥ || ˥-˩-˧
|}

*/˩-˩, ˧-˩/ only occur in loanwords.

Tones are realized with pitch shifting throughout the word from the first tone to the second; in words with dipping tone, pitch is lowest at the end of the penultimate syllable and rises in the final syllable.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Examples
|-
! !! High !! Low !! High falling !! Low falling !! Rising !! Dipping
|-
! Monosyllable
| hën¹ "it is it" /ən˥˥/ [hə˥n̥] || gey² "it counts it" /geʝ˩˩/ [ge˩ʝ̊] || zis³ "it gives it" /zis˥˧/ [zi˥˧s] || dëy⁴ "it laughs at it" /dəʝ˧˩/ [də˧˩ʝ̊] || hëgw⁵ "it finds it" /əgʷ˩˥/ [hə˩˥g̊ʷ] || thöt⁶ "it savors it" /θɵt˥˩˧/ [θɵ˥˩˧t]
|-
! Disyllable
| sekën¹ "I am it" /sekən˥˥/ [se˥kə˥n̥] || sekgey² "I count it" /sekgeʝ˩˩/ [se˩k̬ge˩ʝ̊] || sekzis³ "I give it" /sekzis˥˧/ [se˥k̬zi˧s] || sekdëy⁴ "I laugh at it" /sekdəʝ˧˩/ [se˧k̬də˩ʝ̊] || sekëgw⁵ "I find it" /sekəgʷ˩˥/ [se˩kə˥g̊ʷ] || sekthöt⁶ "I savor it" /sekθɵt˥˩˧/ [se˥˩kθɵ˧t]
|-
! Trisyllable
| sekëni¹ "I was it" /sekəni˥˥/ [se˥kə˥ni˥] || sekgeyi² "I counted it" /sekgeʝi˩˩/ [se˩k̬ge˩ʝi˩] || sekzisi³ "I gave it" /sekzisi˥˧/ [se˥k̬zi˦si˧] || sekdëyi⁴ "I laughed at it" /sekdəʝi˧˩/ [se˧k̬də˨ʝi˩] || sekëgwi⁵ "I found it" /sekəgʷi˩˥/ [se˩kə˧gʷi˥] || sekthöti⁶ "I savored it" /sekθɵti˥˩˧/ [se˥kθɵ˩ti˧]
|-
! Quadrisyllable
| sekënilen¹ "I was not it" /sekəniɮen˥˥/ [se˥kə˥ni˥ɮe˥n̥] || sekgeyilen² "I did not count it" /sekgeʝiɮen˩˩/ [se˩k̬ge˩ʝi˩ɮe˩n̥] || sekzisilen³ "I did not give it" /sekzisiɮen˥˧/ [se˥k̬zi˦si˦ɮe˧n̥] || sekdëyilen⁴ "I did not laugh at it" /sekdəʝiɮen˧˩/ [se˧k̬də˨ʝi˨ɮe˩n̥] || sekëgwilen⁵ "I did not find it" /sekəgʷiɮen˩˥/ [se˩kə˨gʷi˦ɮe˥n̥] || sekthötilen⁶ "I did not savor it" /sekθɵtiɮen˥˩˧/ [se˥kθɵ˧ti˩ɮe˧n̥]
|}

*For some speakers non-monosyllable /˥-˥/ and /˩-˩/ are realized as weakly rising [V˦...V˥] and [V˩...V˨].

Atonal words bear the last tone in the preceding word, but word-initially either bear the first tone in the following word or have variable pitch.

===Prosody===
====Stress====
Stress is root-initial and is realized with increased volume and/or vowel length, the latter especially in contrastive stress.

====Intonation====
Emphasized words have more volume across the word and length in the word's stressed vowel. Emphasized atonal words in isolation have sharply falling pitch.

In semantically imperative and hortative sentences pitch starts higher than in declarative sentences.

In nonpolar questions and expressions of surprise or doubt pitch is lower before the most emphasized word and sharply rises after the word.

====Phonotactics====
Syllables are underlyingly (C)V(C). Obstruents except /z̃, θ, ʝ/ cannot occur before consonants of different voicing except on morpheme boundaries.

Epenthetic [h] is added before vowels word-initially and between vowels on morpheme boundaries.

==Morphology==
===Alignment===
Gwaxol has tripartite morphosyntactic alignment, but in informal speech may be ergative-absolutive.

===Pronouns===
Pronouns are marked for case, class, and number.

In familial and very informal speech, these possessive pronouns are also used as ergative and intransitive pronouns.

{| style="background: none"
|-
| valign="top" |

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Personal pronouns
|-
! !! {{gcl|ERG}} !! {{gcl|ACC}} !! {{gcl|INTR}} !! {{gcl|GEN}} !! {{gcl|DAT}}
|-
! {{gcl|1SG}}
| lïm² || lïn⁵ || lön⁴ || ye¹ || yil²
|-
! {{gcl|1PL}}
| yäl⁴ || lossa⁶ || tön⁴ || nwu⁴ || yil⁵
|-
! {{gcl|2SG}}
| ha³ || hu⁴ || ngäm³ || mäy³ || yil¹
|-
! {{gcl|2PL}}
| nëm¹ || kwon⁴ || keng¹ || mey¹ || yil³
|-
! {{gcl|3SG}}.{{gcl|HUM}}
| xo¹ || xö¹ || ngul¹ || rowspan="2" | ngö¹ || rowspan="2" | hox²
|-
! {{gcl|3PL}}.{{gcl|HUM}}
| thëm¹ || thï⁵ || yi¹
|-
! {{gcl|3}}.{{gcl|ANIM1|animate 1}}
| ngex¹ || rer¹ || mäk⁶ || kwon¹ || küy¹
|-
! {{gcl|3}}.{{gcl|ANIM2|animate 2}}
| ngel¹ || rel¹ || mäl⁶ || kwol¹ || kül¹
|-
! {{gcl|3}}.{{gcl|INAN1|inanimate 1}}
| hus¹ || colspan="2" | tïnz⁴ || rowspan="2" | xanz⁵ || rowspan="2" | nzë²
|-
! {{gcl|3}}.{{gcl|INAN2|inanimate 2}}
| hut¹ || colspan="2" | hanz¹
|-
! {{gcl|NEG}}
| colspan="2" | yinan⁴ || yinön⁴ || yinan⁴ || yizzun⁶
|}
| valign="top" |
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Possessive pronouns
|-
! !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}}
|-
! {{gcl|1}}
| se¹ || nes⁵
|-
! {{gcl|2}}
| kwës¹ || gwës³
|-
! {{gcl|3}}.{{gcl|HUM}}
| colspan="2" | kwas¹
|-
! {{gcl|3}}.{{gcl|ANIM1|animate 1}}
| colspan="2" | nal³
|-
! {{gcl|3}}.{{gcl|ANIM2|animate 2}}
| colspan="2" | gi³
|-
! {{gcl|3}}.{{gcl|INAN}}
| colspan="2" | ho¹
|}
| valign="top" |
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Other pronouns
|-
! !! {{gcl|INDEF}} !! {{gcl|REL}}/{{gcl|Q}} !! {{gcl|REFL}} !! {{gcl|RECP}} !! {{gcl|IMPRS}}
|-
! {{gcl|HUM}}
| zakw-³ || yïgw-⁵ || sekw³ || rowspan="3" | xas⁴ || rowspan="3" | thëy²
|-
! {{gcl|ANIM}}
| zil-³ || ngügw-¹ || rowspan="2" | mïllï⁶
|-
! {{gcl|INAN}}
| zat-³ || hugw-²
|}
|}

When converbial suffixes are unused, subject referent switching is marked with the pronoun ''kang²''. ''Kang²'' is unused in non-subject referent switching.

Only personal and possessive pronouns cause agreement in verbs; if a non-personal/possessive is a core argument, the other argument causes intransitive agreement, and if there is no personal or possessive pronoun to cause agreement the verb is marked as impersonal.

Negative pronouns must be applied to negative verbs.

===Nouns===
Nouns are marked for class, case, number, and definiteness. Proper nouns are not marked for class.

{| style="background: none"
|-
| valign="top" |

{| style="background: none"
|-
| valign="top" |

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Noun class endings
|-
! !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}}
|-
! {{gcl|HUM}}
| -kwë || -e
|-
! {{gcl|ANIM1|animate 1}}
| -la || -il
|-
! {{gcl|ANIM2|animate 2}}
| colspan="2" | -ol
|-
! {{gcl|INAN1|inanimate 1}}
| colspan="2" | -xat
|-
! {{gcl|INAN2|inanimate 2}}
| colspan="2" | -at
|}
| valign="top" |
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Case/definiteness markers
|-
! !! {{gcl|INDEF}} !! {{gcl|DEF}}
|-
! {{gcl|ERG}}
| -ng(ë) || nas
|-
! {{gcl|ACC}}
| rowspan="2" | -Ø || yü
|-
! {{gcl|INTR}}
| lö
|-
! {{gcl|GEN}}
| -sa || höx
|-
! {{gcl|DAT}}
| -xu || sënz
|}
|}

*Ergative ''-ngë'' is ''-ng'' after vowels
*Definite case particles can either precede or follow their nouns, but more often precede.
**With a demonstrative, case particles must follow, and the demonstrative is placed between the noun and article
*{{gcl|INAN2|inanimate 2}} marking is omitted in derived verbs.

====Possession====
Possessed nouns are marked with a preceding possessive pronoun agreeing in class. Possessor-possessum pairs are each marked with the same case.

===Verbs===
Verbs agree with both agent and patient in class, and mark tense, aspect, and mood.

{| style="background: none"
|-
| valign="top" |

{| style="background: none"
|-
| valign="top" |
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Class agreement prefixes
|-
! !! {{gcl|INTR}} !! >{{gcl|1}} !! >{{gcl|2}} !! >{{gcl|HUM}} !! >{{gcl|ANIM1|animate 1}} !! >{{gcl|ANIM2|animate 2}} !! >{{gcl|INAN1|inanimate 1}} !! >{{gcl|INAN2|inanimate 2}}
|-
! {{gcl|1}}
| seng- || se- || colspan="2" | sekw- || sel- || sag- || so- || sek-
|-
! {{gcl|2}}
| rowspan="2" | kwëng- || kwër- || kwës- || kwëkw- || kwël- || kwën- || rowspan="2" | kwo- || kwës-
|-
! {{gcl|HUM}}
| kwar- || kwakw- || kwas- || kwan- || kwag- || kwas-
|-
! {{gcl|ANIM1|animate 1}}
| nang- || nas- || nakw- || colspan="2" | nal- || nan- || no- || nal-
|-
! {{gcl|ANIM2|animate 2}}
| ging- || ze- || gwë- || gikw- || gin- || gi- || rowspan="2" | ho- || gi-
|-
! {{gcl|INAN1|inanimate 1}}
| rowspan="2" | hong- || hos- || colspan="2" | hokw- || gwil- || gwag- || ho-
|-
! {{gcl|INAN2|inanimate 2}}
| xos- || colspan="2" | xokw- || wil- || wag- || xo- || Ø-
|}
| valign="top" |
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ TAM suffixes
|-
! colspan="2" | !! {{gcl|PST}} !! {{gcl|PRES}} !! {{gcl|FUT}}
|-
! rowspan="4" | {{gcl|PFV}}
! {{gcl|REAL}}
| -i || -Ø || -si
|-
! {{gcl|IRR}}
| -küm || -köm || -küz
|-
! {{gcl|IMP}}
| colspan="3" | -zi, -Ø
|-
! {{gcl|PROH}}
| colspan="3" | -xong
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{gcl|IPFV}}
! {{gcl|REAL}}
| -mi || -mï || -mis
|-
! {{gcl|IRR}}
| -kömi || -kömï || -kömis
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{gcl|FREQ}}/ {{gcl|ITER}}
! {{gcl|REAL}}
| colspan="3" | -xa
|-
! {{gcl|IRR}}
| colspan="3" | -köğ
|}
|}

In infinitive and impersonal verbs a prefix ''si-'' is used in place of agreement marking.

Interrogative verbs use preceding particles marked for tense, and tense is optionally double-marked in a second set of non-interrogative particles. These particles cannot be applied to imperative or prohibitive verbs.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Tense particles
|-
! !! {{gcl|PST}} !! {{gcl|PRES}} !! {{gcl|FUT}}
|-
!
| dïh || lëh || sëh
|-
! {{gcl|Q}}
| dïs || lënz || sës
|}

The tense of these particles can be mismatched with suffix tense for tenses with nonpresent reference points, with the tense of the particle determining the reference point.

Mismatching with present reference point is generally used to indicate that the event is relevant to a current result or circumstance.

====Converbs and referent tracking====

A set of converbial suffixes marked for subject reference can be applied to verbs in place of agreement and TAM suffixes.

{| style="background: none"
|-
| valign="top" |

{| style="background: none"
|-
| valign="top" |
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Converb suffixes
|-
! foreground additive !! background additive !! conditional !! counterfactual !! alternative !! abessive
|-
| -ngä- || -ne- || -ra- || -xi- || -lë- || -ngö-
|-
! mediary !! comparative !! simultaneous !! causal !! purposive !! adverbial
|-
| -nwa- || -ki- || -ha- || -tï- || -xa- || -ro-
|}
| valign="top" |
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Referent suffix
|-
! coreferent
| -Ø
|-
! switch-referent
| -ng
|}
|}

See also [[Gwaxol#Pronouns|Pronouns]] and the converbial uses of [[Gwaxol#-käng_and_-ke|-käng and -ke]].

====Voice====
Verbs are not marked for voice. For most verbs an ergative indefinite pronoun can be applied to further emphasize the patient.

In some informal varieties ''rew³'' "to take" can be used periphrastically to mark either middle voice or passive voice.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree with nouns in class

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Adjective class prefixes
|-
! {{gcl|HUM}} !! {{gcl|ANIM1|animate 1}} !! {{gcl|ANIM2|animate 2}} !! {{gcl|INAN1|inanimate 1}} !! {{gcl|INAN2|inanimate 2}}
|-
|kwa- || hin- || han- || ho- || Ø-
|}

Comparative and superlative adjectives are marked with ''nex'' following the adjective.

====Postnouns====
Some adjectives act as noun suffixes (slotted before class marking) and do not allow direct agreement or negation; these adjectives mark comparison with ''nex'' following their noun.

===Adverbs===
Adverbs are morphologically verbs and are treated and marked as such.

===Postpositions===
Most adpositional meanings are conveyed with the locative or lative cases (see [[Gwaxol#-käng_and_-ke|-käng and -ke]]), with two exceptions: ''nem'' "from" and ''ze'' "past, beyond". When these two postpositions are used, their head noun takes intransitive marking.

===Numerals and classifiers===
Gwaxol uses base-60 and subbase-6 numerals, with non-compound words for one through twelve and multiples of six up to sixty. Numerals one through twelve agree in gender with their noun unless they modify another numeral, where the inanimate form is used.

{| style="background: none"
|-
| valign="top" |

{| style="background: none"
|-
| valign="top" |
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Numerals 1-12
|-
! !! {{gcl|HUM}} !! {{gcl|ANIM}} !! {{gcl|INAN}}
|-
! 1
| zal¹ || mo² || nëng¹
|-
! 2
| hës¹ || xwa³ || më⁵
|-
! 3
| ta¹ || colspan="2" | ngäx¹
|-
! 4
| ham¹ || colspan="2" | ko³
|-
! 5
| kwi¹ || colspan="2" | xü²
|-
! 6
| go¹ || colspan="2" | lïm⁵
|-
! 7
| zal³ || colspan="2" | nëng³
|-
! 8
| ğës³ || colspan="2" | më⁶
|-
! 9
| ta³ || colspan="2" | ngäx³
|-
! 10
| ğëm¹ || colspan="2" | ko⁶
|-
! 11
| kwi³ || colspan="2" | xü⁴
|-
! 12
| li¹ || colspan="2" | nux¹
|}
| valign="top" |
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Numerals 13+
|-
! !! {{gcl|HUM}} !! {{gcl|ANIM}} !! {{gcl|INAN}}
|-
! 13
| li¹ zal¹ || nux¹ mo² || nux¹ nëng¹
|-
! 18
| colspan="3" | ka¹
|-
! 19
| ka¹ zal¹, li¹ zal³ || ka¹ mo², li¹ nëng³ || ka¹ nëng¹, li¹ nëng³
|-
! 24
| colspan="3" | nïs¹
|-
! 30
| colspan="3" | gwal⁵
|-
! 36
| colspan="3" | löy¹
|-
! 42
| colspan="3" | kwu²
|-
! 48
| colspan="3" | tha²
|-
! 54
| colspan="3" | nös¹
|-
! 60
| colspan="3" | küx⁵
|-
! 3,600
| colspan="3" | thï¹
|-
! 216,000
| colspan="3" | küx⁵ thï¹
|}
|}

Inanimate nouns require classifiers when numerated unless another unit word is applied (for example ''më⁵ yïy xwenxat¹'' "two waters," but ''më⁵ łëkla³ xwenxat¹'' "two bowls of water" rather than ''*më⁵ yïy łëkla³ xwenxat¹''); when a unit word other than a classifier is used, numerals do not agree with the unit word (so ''më⁵ łëkla³ xwenxat¹'' rather than ''*xwa³ łëkla³ xwenxat¹'').

Classifiers can also be applied without a numerator to nonhuman nouns as plural markers.

===Negation===
''-len'' and ''kwör'' are used to negate verbs and nouns respectively. Non-comparative adjectives use ''kwör'' and comparative adjectives use ''-len''.

Double negative ''-len kwör'' and ''kwörkwör'' are emphatic.

===Derivational morphology===
====Part of speech modifiers====
''-hot'' and ''-hu'' derive nouns of quality from adjectives and verbs respectively; ''-gwe'' and ''-yi'' derives human agent nouns from adjectives and verbs respectively, and ''-tikw'' derives action nouns from both adjectives and verbs.

Stative verbs can be zero-derived from nouns and adjectives, except when the verb would only have null marking (inanimate-2-agent inanimate-2-patient present indicative perfective, or inanimate-2-agent inanimate-2-patient imperative) where ''-mö'' disambiguates. In some varieties verbs cannot be zero-derived from adjectives, where ''-mö'' must always be applied.

''-ox'' and ''-ne'' derive adjectives of consistency and similarity respectively. ''hos'' and ''nwö-'' derive participles and adjectives of tendency respectively from verbs.

====Causative verbs====
The suffixes ''-löy'' and ''-möy'' derives causative verbs from verbs and adjectives respectively.

====-käng and -ke====
The main use of ''-käng'' and ''-ke'' is as (pro)noun locative and lative suffixes, with the (pro)noun's original case agreeing with the head the new locative/lative word modifies. Possessive/informal pronouns use ''-ha'' in place of ''-ke'', and definite nouns use ''häng'' and ''he'' in place of ''-käng'' and ''-ke''.

These two suffixes can also be applied to verbs for "after" and "before" converbial meanings respectively (without requiring a lack of TAM suffix, unlike other converbial suffixes), and to numerals for ordinal and fractional meanings respectively.

====Reduplication====
Full stem reduplication is used to derive diminutive adjectives (for example ''töngtöng²'' "somewhat narrow" from ''töng²'' "narrow"), new iterative or reflexive meanings from some verbs (for example ''harar³'' "it returns to it" from ''har³'' "it goes to it" (stem ''-ar³-''), collectivize nouns (for example ''kotkotol³'' "fishes (collective)" from ''kotol³'' "fish"), and generalize pronouns (for example ''xöxö¹'' "one of them" from ''xö¹'' "him/her/them"). In compound terms only the first stem is generally reduplicated.

Full reduplication (including any affixes) with dipping tone can be used to convey uncertainty, especially in response to questions.

Initial CV reduplication and stem-initial gemination is used to derive augmentative words (for example ''xexxerkwë⁴'' "great hunter" from ''xerkwë⁴'' "hunter").

Non-productive reduplication also occurs in some words (for example ''tadakw⁵'' "it bleeds it out, it empties it of blood" from ''takw⁵'' "to bleed").

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
Word order is flexible but predominantly VSO. Words are most often fronted for emphasis; relative/interrogative pronouns and heads of dependent clauses are generally backed.

See also [[Gwaxol#Dependent_clauses|Dependent clauses]].

===Noun and verb phrases===
Gwaxol is mostly head-initial; adjectives and possessors follow their head noun (though adjective position is more flexible), numerators precede their noun, and adverbs follow what they modify.

===Dependent clauses===
Dependent clauses directly follow the head they modify, and are marked with the particle ''ngë'' both before and after the clause; the head's other dependents then follow the clause.

Converb clauses follow their verb, between their head verb and that verb's arguments if its arguments follow; often the head verb's arguments are fronted to precede the verb to separate them from converb arguments.

==Example texts==
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 1===
'''Kwëngngur¹ rangä⁵ roxatro¹ käxtikwsa¹ käm rewaxxatsa³ xam⁴ mägwe¹. Xozis³ zatngë³ hëskwaxat¹ käm kwuxwxat⁵ hox² kwasmigwngä¹ xasxu⁴ zi thöngxatro³ güxetikwsa³.

{{interlinear
|Kwëng-ngur¹ ra⁵-ngä rox¹-at-ro käx¹-tikw-sa käm rewax³-xat-sa xam⁴ mägwe¹.
|HUM.INTR-free same-CVB birth-{{gcl|INAN2|inanimate 2}}-CVB honorable-NZ-GEN.INDEF and right-{{gcl|INAN1|inanimate 1}}.PL-GEN.INDEF all mortal
||display-messages=no|italics2=no|italics3=no}}
 
{{interlinear
|Xo-zis³ zat³-ngë ëskwa¹-xat käm kwuxw⁵-xat hox² kwas-migw¹-ngä xas⁴-xu zi thöng³-xat-ro güx³-e-tikw-sa.
|{{gcl|INAN2|inanimate 2}}>{{gcl|INAN1|inanimate 1}}-give INAN.INDEF-ERG reason-{{gcl|INAN1|inanimate 1}} and conscience-{{gcl|INAN1|inanimate 1}} HUM.DAT HUM>HUM-do-CVB RECP-DAT.INDEF HORT method-{{gcl|INAN1|inanimate 1}}-CVB brother-HUM.PL-NZ-GEN.INDEF
||display-messages=no|italics1=yes|italics2=no|italics3=no}}

===Linguifex-hosted translations===
*[[:Category:Translated works in Gwaxol|Translated works in Gwaxol]]
*[[Gwaxol/Test Case Sentences]]

===Conlang Atlas of Language Structures-hosted translations===
*[https://cals.info/translation/language/gwaxol/ CALS translations]

==Other resources==
[https://cals.info/language/gwaxol/ CALS]

[https://pollasena.fandom.com/wiki/Gwaxol Pollasena Wiki]

[[Category:Gwaxol language]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Wasc languages]]
[[Category:Nentammmi languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Talk:Avendonian

2024-09-16T16:36:18Z

Flamatt1:

"When followed or preceded by a vowel **but not word-initially**, /i/ shortens and forms a diphthong with the adjacent vowel. Examples: sigie [ˈsid͡ʒi̯e], perstelitio [persteˈlit͡si̯o]"

is at odds with

"i in intervocalic position or word-initially represents the semivowel /j/. Examples: iaro /ˈjaro/, bluiare /bluˈjare/."

Phonetically, there is no difference between [j] and [i̯]. Whether it is analyzed as an instance of a phoneme /i/ or a distinct phoneme /j/ depends entirely on the phonological analysis.

This description seems to imply that there **is** a phonetic difference, upon which the phonological classification (i.e. /i/ vs /j/) seems to be made.

--[[User:Flamatt1|Flamatt1]] ([[User talk:Flamatt1|talk]]) 16:36, 16 September 2024 (UTC)

Talk:Avendonian

2024-09-16T16:35:52Z

Flamatt1: Created page with ""When followed or preceded by a vowel **but not word-initially**, /i/ shortens and forms a diphthong with the adjacent vowel. Examples: sigie [ˈsid͡ʒi̯e], perstelitio [persteˈlit͡si̯o]" is at odds with "i in intervocalic position or word-initially represents the semivowel /j/. Examples: iaro /ˈjaro/, bluiare /bluˈjare/." Phonetically, there is no difference between [j] and [i̯]. Whether it is analyzed as an instance of a phoneme /i/ or a distinct phoneme /j/..."

Avendonian

2024-09-16T16:16:57Z

Flamatt1: Cleared up some confusion about phonemic status. Mainly, [t͡s] is not a phoneme, but an allophone of /t/. Also, the palatalization before front vowels is not an allophonic process, at least for /k/ (how else could you have /ke/ in loanwords?). The flap is an allophone of /r/. Since stress is not phonemic (and since there are nonsyllabic vowels and t͡s in the examples), I also replaced the phonemic dashes in that section.

{{Featured}}

{{Infobox language
|image = Flag of Avendonia full.png
|imagesize = 185px
|imagecaption = Flag of Avendonia
|name = Avendonian
|nativename = avendoniano
|pronunciation = avendoˈni̯ano
|pronunciation_key = IPA for Avendonian
|state = Avendonia
|setting = Alt-history [[w:Europe|Europe]], Northern [[w:Italian Peninsula|Italian Peninsula]]
|created = 2009
|familycolor = Indo-European
|fam2 = [[w:Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3 = [[w:West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|fam4 = ''{{Abbtip|partially|part.}}'' [[w:Elbe Germanic|Elbe Germanic]]
|ancestor = Pre-Avendonian
|creator = S.C.
|dia1 = North Adriatic (''nordadriatico'')
|dia2 = Alpine (''alpino'')
|dia3 = High Burgundian (''ocburgundico'')
|dia4 = Low Burgundian (''lagburgundico'')
|dia5 = Genoese (''genoico'')
|stand1 = Central Avendonian dialect
|script1 = Latn
|nation = Avendonia
|agency = Grunditio Cuningica per la Spraca Avendoniana
|map = Locator Map Avendonia.png
|mapsize = 280px
|mapcaption = Rough borders of Avendonia
|notice = IPA
}}

'''Avendonian''' ([[w:endonym|autoglossonym]]: ''avendoniano''; Avendonian: [[IPA for Avendonian|[avendoˈni̯ano]]]) is a [[w:West Germanic language|West Germanic language]], with strong influence of [[w:Vulgar Latin|Vulgar Latin]]. It is the result of a prolonged contact among members of both regions after West Germanic merchants began traveling to and from the [[w:Western Roman Empire|Western Roman Empire]]. These connections—and the conquest by the Germanic tribes of the northern skirts of the Roman Empire—slowly formed a [[w:creole language|creole]] for mutual communication. Eventually, permanent settlements were established in what would become modern-day Avendonia, where Avendonian is primarily spoken, with official status.

While its vocabulary derives for the most part from [[w:Proto-Germanic|Proto-Germanic]], Latin influence is most notable in its phonology and its grammar.

==Etymology==
The language name derives directly from the country it is spoken in, Avendonia. It makes reference to the Roman description of the Avendonian peoples, which were settled west of Rome; in the direction of the setting sun. Ultimately from {{mn|gem-pro|*ēbanþs|t=evening}}, it came to mean “sunset people” or “people of the setting sun”.

==Orthography==
The Avendonian alphabet consists of 18 letters, five of which are vowels and 13 consonants. There are no diacritics, and contractions make use of the apostrophe to mark vowel omission.
<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 50em; text-align: center; border-collapse:collapse;"
! colspan="18" | Letters of the Avendonian alphabet
|-
| Aa || Bb || Cc || Dd || Ee || Ff || Gg || Ii || Ll || Mm || Nn || Oo || Pp || Rr || Ss || Tt || Uu || Vv
|}
</center>
Non-native letters such as Jj, Kk, Qq, Zz, etc. may occur in some foreign words or proper nouns, chiefly in toponyms and given names. Yy is part of the alphabet of the Burgundian dialects of Avendonian, like in '''{{term|dydere}}'''.

The letters correspond almost one-to-one to their pronunciation. The Avendonian orthography is considered [[w:shallow orthography|shallow]] or [[w:phonetic orthography|phonetic]], as opposed to deep orthographies like [[w:French orthography|French's]]. The orthography features that do not follow the correspondence are:
* The letters '''c''' and '''g''' make the sound /{{IPA|t͡ʃ}}/ and /{{IPA|d͡ʒ}}/, respectively, if followed by '''e''' or '''i'''. Examples: '''{{term|cicare}}''' /{{IPA|t͡͡ʃiˈkare}}/, '''{{term|geldo}}''' /{{IPA|ˈd͡ʒeldo}}/.
* '''t''' in the combination '''ti''' makes the sound [{{IPA|t͡s}}]. Example: '''{{term|tite}}''' [{{IPA|ˈt͡site}}].
* The combination '''gn''' makes the sound /{{IPA|ɲ}}/, as in Italian or Spanish ''ñ''. Example: '''{{term|gnagare}}''' /{{IPA|ɲaˈgare}}/.
* '''i''' in intervocalic position or word-initially represents the semivowel /{{IPA|j}}/. Examples: '''{{term|iaro}}''' /{{IPA|ˈjaro}}/, '''{{term|bluiare}}''' /{{IPA|bluˈjare}}/.
* The [[w:digraph (Orthography)|digraph]] '''sc''' before [[w:front vowel|front vowels]] (that is, '''i''' and '''e''') makes the sound /{{IPA|ʃ}}/. Example: '''{{term|sciio}}''' /{{IPA|ˈʃijo}}/.
* The digraph '''ch''' makes the sound /{{IPA|k}}/, and it is only found in [[w:loanword|loanword]]s.

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant phonemes
|-
!
! colspan="2" | [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" | [[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/ [[w:Alveolar consonant|alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[w:Postalveolar consonant|Post- alveolar]]/ [[w:Palatal consonant|palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced alveolar nasal|n]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced palatal nasal|ɲ]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | ([[w:Voiced velar nasal|ŋ]])
|-
! [[w:stop consonant|Stop]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless bilabial stop|p]] || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced bilabial stop|b]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless alveolar stop|t]] || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced alveolar stop|d]]
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" |  [[w:Voiceless velar stop|k]] || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced velar stop|ɡ]]
|-
! [[w:Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless palato-alveolar affricate|t͡ʃ]] || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced palato-alveolar affricate|d͡ʒ]]
| colspan="2" |
|-
! [[w:fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless labiodental fricative|f]] || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced labiodental fricative|v]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless alveolar sibilant|s]] || style="border-left: 0;" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless palato-alveolar fricative|ʃ]] || style="border-left: 0;" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
! [[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced palatal approximant|j]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" |
|-
! [[w:Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced alveolar lateral approximant|l]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
! [[w:Trill consonant|Trill]]
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced alveolar trill|r]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|}

Notes:
* As stated in [[#Orthography|§Orthography]], earlier /{{IPA|k, g, sk}}/ have palatalized to /{{IPA|t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ, ʃ}}/ before front vowels /{{IPA|i, e}}/.
* When followed or preceded by a vowel but not word-initially, /{{IPA|i}}/ shortens and forms a diphthong with the adjacent vowel. Examples: '''{{term|sigie}}''' [{{IPA|ˈsid͡ʒi̯e}}], '''{{term|perstelitio}}''' [{{IPA|persteˈlit͡si̯o}}].
* [{{IPA|ɾ}}] is a permissible allophone of /{{IPA|r}}/ in fast speech.
* [{{IPA|ŋ}}] is an allophone of /{{IPA|n}}/ before velar stops /{{IPA|k, g}}/, both intra- and intersyllabically, although the former can only happen in the [[#Burgundian dialects|Low Burgundian dialect]]. Examples: '''{{term|drincare}}''' [{{IPA|driŋˈkare}}], '''{{term|anguste}}''' [{{IPA|aŋˈguste}}], Low Burgundian '''{{term|clang}}''' [{{IPA|klaŋg}}] (standard '''{{term|clango}}''').

===Vowels===
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Vowel phonemes
|-
! !! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]] !! [[w:Central vowel|Central]] !! [[w:Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[w:Close vowel|Close]]
| style="border-right:0;"| [[w:Close front unrounded vowel|i]] || style="border-left:0;"| ([[w:Close front rounded vowel|y]]) || || [[w:Close back rounded vowel|u]]
|-
! [[w:Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| colspan="2"| [[w:Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]] || || [[w:Close-mid back rounded vowel|o]]
|-
|-
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]
| colspan="2" | [[w:Open front unrounded vowel|a]] || ||
|}

Notes:
* /{{IPA|y}}/ is native to the Burgundian dialects. See [[#Burgundian dialects|§Dialects]] below.
* /{{IPA|e, o}}/ may be realized as [{{IPA|e̞, o̞}}].

===Prosody===
Avendonian is strictly paroxytonic, meaning words always receive stress on their second-to-last syllable.
: '''{{term|spraca}}''' ({{sc|spra}}‑ca) [{{IPA|ˈspra.ka}}], '''{{term|ordo}}''' ({{sc|or}}‑do) [{{IPA|ˈor.do}}], '''{{term|bucaria}}''' (bu‑{{sc|ca}}‑ria) [{{IPA|buˈka.ri̯a}}], etc.
Monosyllabic words like '''{{term|blio}}''' have the stress in their only syllable, but it is weaker than those in polysyllabic words unless emphasized. Enclitic and other unstressed personal pronouns do not affect stress patterns:
: '''{{term|elpare}}-{{term|te}}''', [{{IPA|elˈpa.re‿te}}] and not [{{IPA|el.paˈre‿te}}]
Longer words (four or more syllables) may receive secondary stress in the fourth-to-last syllable (i.e. two syllables before the main or primary stress):
: '''{{term|sobgrundsporvego}}''' [{{IPA|sobˌgrund.sporˈve.go}}], '''{{term|surstopitio}}''' [{{IPA|ˌsur.stoˈpi.t͡si̯o}}]

==Grammar==
Avendonian grammar is relatively straightforward and akin to the grammar of other Romance languages, due to the influence of Latin.
# Two sets of articles, indefinite and definite, preceding the noun.
# Gender and number inflection in nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. Articles and adjectives must agree inflection-wise with the noun or pronoun they modify.
# Twofold gender system, masculine and feminine. Loss of Latin neuter gender.
# Fusional verb inflection for person, number, mood, and tense.
However, noun and adjective declension endings, along with the ablaut in strong verbs are elements derived from Germanic.

===Articles===
Both definite and indefinite articles have four distinct forms, for number and gender:
{| class="multicol" role="presentation" style="border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; border: 0; background:transparent; width:auto; text-align: center; float: left;"
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Indefinite articles
|-
! !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| {{term|uno}} || {{term|una}}
|-
! plural
| {{term|uni}} || {{term|une}}
|-
|}
 
| style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Definite articles
|-
! !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| {{term|el}} || {{term|la}}
|-
! plural
| {{term|li}} || {{term|le}}
|-
|}
|}
 
Avendonian articles function similarly as English ''a'' and ''the'', but gender and number of the following noun determine the form that must be used. For example:
: '''{{term|buce}}''' ''{{Abbtip|masculine gender|m}} {{Abbtip|singular number|sg}}'' → '''el buce''' (“the book”), '''uno buce''' (“a book”).
: '''{{term|frage}}''' ''{{Abbtip|feminine gender|f}} {{Abbtip|plural number|pl}}'' → '''le frage''' (“the questions”), '''une frage''' (“some questions”).
: etc.
The definite article '''el''' forms a contraction with prepositions '''{{term|a}}''' and '''{{term|de}}''', using an apostrophe: '''a'l''', '''d'el'''. These are the only standard contractions; other contractions like '''{{term|ca ga't|Ca ga't?}}''' from '''{{term|ga}}''' + '''{{term|et}}''' (“How goes it?”, greeting) are permissible but discouraged in formal writing.

===Demonstratives===
In Avendonian there are two sets of demonstratives, which can be used either as determiners or pronouns: [[w:Demonstrative#Distal and proximal demonstratives|proximal and distal]]. As adjectives, the stem may be suffixed with '''-ie''' to form adverbs, '''{{term|ecie}}''' ‘here’ and '''{{term|elie}}''' ‘there’.
{| class="multicol" role="presentation" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; background: transparent; width:auto; text-align: center;"
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Proximal demonstratives
|-
! !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| {{term|eco}} || {{term|eca}}
|-
! plural
| {{term|eci}} || {{term|ece}}
|-
|}
 
| style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Distal demonstratives
|-
! !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| {{term|elo}} || {{term|ela}}
|-
! plural
| {{term|eli}} || {{term|ele}}
|-
|}
|}

===Nouns===
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; text-align: center;"
|+ Avendonian noun declensions
|-
! !! [[:Category:Avendonian a-stem nouns|A-stem]] !! [[:Category:Avendonian o-stem nouns|O-stem]] !! [[:Category:Avendonian e-stem nouns|E-stem]] !! [[:Category:Avendonian u-stem nouns|U-stem]]
|-
! singular
| -a || -o || rowspan="2" | -e || -o
|-
! plural
| -e || -i || -u
|}
Nouns in Avendonian fall in one of the following almost fully regular declensions:
* '''A-stem''': mostly feminine nouns. From [[w:Latin declension#First declension (a stems)|Latin first declension]] and [[w:Proto-Germanic grammar#ō-stems|Germanic ō-]] and [[w:Proto-Germanic grammar#ōn-stems|ōn-stems]]. E.g. '''{{term|erda}}'''.
* '''O-stem''': chiefly masculine nouns. From [[w:Latin declension#Second declension (o stems)|Latin second declension]] and [[w:Proto-Germanic grammar#a-stems|Germanic a-stems]]. E.g. '''{{term|vundro}}'''.
* '''E-stem''': both genders. From the [[w:Latin declension#Third declension|third]] and [[w:Latin declension#Fifth declension (e stems)|fifth declensions of Latin]] and various Germanic stems (like [[w:Proto-Germanic grammar#an-stems|an-stems]]). E.g. '''{{term|snege}}'''.
* '''U-stem''': both genders but mainly masculine. From Latin [[w:Latin declension#Fourth declension (u stems)|fourth declension]] and [[w:Proto-Germanic grammar#u-stems|u-stem]] from Germanic. E.g. '''{{term|vintro}}'''.
Notable exceptions are the productive suffix '''{{term|-tio}}''', which forms feminine o-stem nouns from verbs, and the '''{{term|-ista}}''' suffix forms [[w:epicenity#Specialized uses|epicene]] a-stem nouns. Other words have no distinctive feature in the modern language, i.e. differences are etymological.

===Personal pronouns===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; float: right;"
|+ Avendonian personal pronouns
|-
! colspan=3 rowspan=2 | !! colspan=2 | personal pronouns !! rowspan=2 | possessive pronoun
|-
! [[wikt:Appendix:Glossary#subject|subjective]] !! [[wikt:Appendix:Glossary#object|objective]]
|-
! rowspan=2 | [[wikt:Appendix:Glossary#first person|first person]] !! colspan=2 | singular
| {{term|eo}} || {{term|me}} || {{term|mede}}
|- valign="top"
! colspan=2 valign="middle" | plural
| {{term|vi}} || {{term|nos}} || {{term|nosde}}
|-
! rowspan=3 | [[wikt:Appendix:Glossary#second person|second person]] !! rowspan=2 | singular !! default
| {{term|tu}} || {{term|te}} || {{term|tede}}
|-
! formal
| colspan=2 | {{term|Si}} || {{term|Side}}
|-
! colspan=2 | plural
| {{term|i}} || {{term|vos}} || {{term|vosde}}
|-
! rowspan=4 | [[wikt:Appendix:Glossary#third person|third person]] !! rowspan=3 | singular !! masculine
| {{term|e}} || rowspan=4 | {{term|si}} || rowspan=4 | {{term|side}}
|-
! feminine
| {{term|si}}
|-
! neuter
| {{term|et}}
|-
! colspan=2 | plural
| {{term|si}}
|}
Personal pronouns in Avendonian have the following forms:
* Avendonian is not a pro-drop language, like other Romance languages. In other words, the subject, which may or may not be a personal pronoun must appear in every sentence, except in relative clauses where the subject of both statements is the same.
:: '''Eo spreco avendoniano.''' “I speak Avendonian.”
:: '''El hundo ce (et) va mudio asatui.''' “The dog which was tired sat down.”
* Objective pronouns act as the direct object of a sentence. If the verb is an infinitive or an imperative, the pronoun is attached to it with a hyphen; otherwise, it precedes the verb.
:: '''E me gavo uno scenco en el burddago mede.''' “He gave me a present for my birthday.”
:: '''Bido, sende-me uno posrito cando si encumen.''' “Please, send me a message when they arrive.”
* Possessive pronouns can function as determiners and pronouns, i.e. ''my'' and ''mine''. Possessives must be written in the form of [article] + [noun] + [possessive]. The article still agrees in gender and number with the noun.
{{col-begin|75%}}
{{col-n|2}}
::: '''El vagno mede.''' ‘My car’
{{col-n|2}}
'''Le sceiate side.''' ‘His/Her/Their stories’
{{col-end}}
:: '''Pergatasti tu el buce tede? Eo cuno liare el mede.''' “Did you forget your book? I can lend you mine.”
* Avendonian has, as in the Romance languages, [[w:T–V distinction|T–V distinction]]. This distinction is lost in the plural. Formal second-person pronouns are always capitalized, in all forms, no matter the environment.
:: '''Bido ero, ce bi el name Side?''' “Excuse me, sir, what is your name?” (formal)
:: '''Si Si bi perlisato, vi cunamos ledere-Si.''' “If you are lost, we can guide you.” (formal)

===Adjectives===
As said above, adjectives agree in gender and number with the noun, and are placed after them. They exist in three [[w:Comparison (grammar)|degrees]]: positive, comparative, and superlative. All three degrees have an adverbial form, using the suffix '''-ie'''. In other words, every adjective can be morphed into an adverb.
====Positive degree====
The positive degree is the default form of Avendonian adjectives, which simply describes the noun. It is also the only degree subject to declensional variation. The declension patterns are exactly as those of nouns, although '''{{term|porpora}}''' is considered irregular, not a-stem.
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-n}}
: '''Uno vagno roto.''' ‘A red car’
{{Col-n}}
: '''La dotre sciia mede.''' ‘My shy daughter’
{{Col-n}}
: '''Li landi fere.''' ‘The distant/far countries’
{{Col-end}}
The same forms can also be used predicatively. Thus: '''La dotre mede bi sciia.''' “My daughter is shy.”, '''Li landi bin fere.''' “The countries are far (away).”, etc.
Passive participles can function as regular adjectives, and active participles (or gerunds) result in undeclinable adjectives. An example of an adjective of each declension is given:
{| class="multicol" role="presentation" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; background: transparent; width:auto; text-align: center;"
| rowspan="5" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |
{| class="wikitable"
|+ O-stem
! colspan="3" style="background: #c8c8c8;" | ''{{term|alto}}'' (“old”)
|-
! {{Abbtip|positive|posv|sc}} !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| alto || alta
|-
! plural
| alti || alte
|-
|}
 
| style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[:Category:Avendonian e-stem adjectives|E-stem]]
! colspan="3" style="background: #c8c8c8;" | ''{{term|comene}}'' (“common”)
|-
! {{Abbtip|positive|posv|sc}} !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | comene
|-
! plural
|-
|}
 
| style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[:Category:Avendonian u-stem adjectives|U-stem]]
! colspan="3" style="background: #c8c8c8;" | ''{{term|engo}}'' (“narrow”)
|-
! {{Abbtip|positive|posv|sc}} !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| colspan="2" | engo
|-
! plural
| colspan="2" | engu
|-
|}
 
| style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[:Category:Avendonian irregular adjectives|Irregular]]
! colspan="3" style="background: #c8c8c8;" | ''{{term|porpora}}'' (“purple”)
|-
! {{Abbtip|positive|posv|sc}} !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| colspan="2" | porpora
|-
! plural
| colspan="2" | porpore
|-
|}
|}

====Comparative degree====
{| class="multicol" role="presentation" style="border: 0; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; background: transparent; width:auto; text-align: center; float: right;"
| rowspan="5" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Regular
! colspan="3" style="background: #c8c8c8;" | ''{{term|alto}}'' (“old”)
|-
! {{Abbtip|comparative|cmpr|sc}} !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| altior || altiora
|-
! plural
| altiori || altiore
|-
|}
 
| style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Irregular
! colspan="3" style="background: #c8c8c8;" | ''{{term|guto}}'' (“good”)
|-
! {{Abbtip|comparative|cmpr|sc}} !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| betior || betiora
|-
! plural
| betiori || betiore
|-
|}
|}
Avendonian comparative adjectives can establish three sorts of comparison: equative (''X is as Y as Z''), superior (''X is more Y than Z''), and inferior (''X is less Y than Z''). Fusional endings are only used in equative comparatives. Consider the following example:
* ''Iane is shorter than Vilelmo.'' '''Iane bi curtior ce Vilelmo.'''
* ''Iane is as short as Vilelmo.'' '''Iane bi ta curto ca Vilelmo.'''
* ''Iane is “less short” than Vilelmo.'' '''Iane bi minire curto ca Vilelmo'''.
Notice the use of different prepositions in each comparison. Both ''X'' and ''Z'' can be personal pronouns, only in the subject form.
* ''You are shorter than me.'' '''Tu bis curtior ce eo.'''

{| class="multicol" role="presentation" style="border: 0; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; background: transparent; width:auto; text-align: center; float: right;"
| rowspan="5" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Regular
! colspan="3" style="background: #c8c8c8;" | ''{{term|alto}}'' (“old”)
|-
! {{Abbtip|superlative|supl|sc}} !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| altesmo || altesma
|-
! plural
| altesmi || altesme
|-
|}
 
| style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Irregular
! colspan="3" style="background: #c8c8c8;" | ''{{term|guto}}'' (“good”)
|-
! {{Abbtip|superlative|supl|sc}} !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| betesmo || betesma
|-
! plural
| betesmi || betesme
|-
|}
|}
====Superlative degree====
Superlatives are always preceded by a definite article, and both must agree with the noun they are modifying. Thus:
* '''Iane bi el curtesmo.''' “Iane is the shortest.”
* '''Iane e Vilelmo bin li curtesmi.''' “Iane and Vilelmo are the shortest.”

====Indeclinable adjectives====
Some adjectives have a single form for all degrees, but the same effect is achieved by placing before them the adverbs '''{{term|mere}}''' and '''{{term|mesto}}'''. Some of these adjectives are indeclinable for etymological reasons (e.g. '''{{term|na}}''') or because of their nature as active participles (e.g. '''{{term|denemanti}}'''). '''Mesto''' however does inflect for gender and number, like a regular adjective.
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-n}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ ''{{term|na}}'' (“near, close”)
|-
! positive !! comparative !! superlative
|-
| na || mere na || mesto na
|-
|}
{{Col-n}}
{| class="multicol" role="presentation" style="border: 0; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; background: transparent; width:auto; text-align: left;"
|-
| 
|-
| style="vertical-align: middle;" |
* ''That joke is the most welcome.'' '''Elo stricolo bi el mesto vilicume.'''
|-
| 
|-
|}
{{Col-n}}
{| class="multicol" role="presentation" style="border: 0; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; background: transparent; width:auto; text-align: left; vertical-align: middle;"
|-
| 
|-
| style="vertical-align: middle;" |
* ''Those jokes are the most welcome.'' '''Eli stricoli bin li mesti vilicume.'''
|-
| 
|-
|}
{{Col-end}}
===Verbs===
Verbs are the part of speech that exhibits the most morphology in Avendonian. There are ten main tenses, three moods, six persons, and two numbers—passive participles inflect for gender too. Verbs in Avendonian are, in general, very regular except for a small set of verbs, which includes the [[w:Copula (linguistics)|copula]] '''{{term|sire}}'''.

Avendonian classifies both weak and strong verbs in two conjugations, '''-are''' (first conjugation) and '''-ere''' (second conjugation). The former are the most prone to have [[w:ablaut|ablaut]], which changes the vowel of the stem in the perfect tenses.

====Weak verbs====
{| class="multicol" role="presentation" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; background: transparent; width:auto; text-align: center;"
| rowspan="5" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; width:80%;"
|-
|+ class="nowrap" | weak 1st conjugation example paradigm — ''{{term|ladare}}'' (“to load”)
|-
! colspan="3" | active participle
| colspan="5" style="text-align:center;" | ladanti
|-
! colspan="3" | passive participle
| colspan="5" style="text-align:center;" |
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"
|-
! !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| ladato || ladata
|-
! plural
| ladati || ladate
|-
|}
|-
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:linear-gradient(to top right,#EAECF0 49.5%,#aaa 49.5%,#aaa 50.5%,#EAECF0 50.5%);line-height:1;" | <div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right;">person   </div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left;">   tense</div>
! style="width:12.5%" | first singular ''eo''
! style="width:12.5%" | second singular ''tu''
! style="width:12.5%" | third singular ''e'', ''si'', ''et''
! style="width:12.5%" | first plural ''vi''
! style="width:12.5%" | second plural ''i''
! style="width:12.5%" | third plural ''si''
|-
! rowspan="5" | indicative
! present
| lado
| ladas
| lada
| ladamos
| ladates
| ladan
|-
! perfect
| lade
| ladasti
| lado
| ladamos
| ladastes
| ladaron
|-
! imperfect
| ladaba
| ladabas
| ladaba
| ladabamos
| ladabates
| ladaban
|-
! future
| ladarabo
| ladarabes
| ladarabe
| ladarabemos
| ladarabetes
| ladaraben
|-
! conditional
| ladaraba
| ladarabas
| ladaraba
| ladarabamos
| ladarabates
| ladaraban
|-
! rowspan="2" | subjunctive
! present
| lade
| lades
| lade
| lademos
| ladetes
| laden
|-
! perfect
| ladase
| ladases
| ladase
| ladasemos
| ladasetes
| ladasen
|-
! colspan="2" | imperative
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| lada
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| ladan
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
|}
 
| style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; width:80%;"
|-
|+ class="nowrap" | weak 2nd conjugation example paradigm — ''{{term|ladere}}'' (“to invite”)
|-
! colspan="3" | active participle
| colspan="5" style="text-align:center;" | ladenti
|-
! colspan="3" | passive participle
| colspan="5" style="text-align:center;" |
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"
|-
! !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| ladeto || ladeta
|-
! plural
| ladeti || ladete
|-
|}
|-
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:linear-gradient(to top right,#EAECF0 49.5%,#aaa 49.5%,#aaa 50.5%,#EAECF0 50.5%);line-height:1;" | <div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right;">person   </div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left;">   tense</div>
! style="width:12.5%" | first singular ''eo''
! style="width:12.5%" | second singular ''tu''
! style="width:12.5%" | third singular ''e'', ''si'', ''et''
! style="width:12.5%" | first plural ''vi''
! style="width:12.5%" | second plural ''i''
! style="width:12.5%" | third plural ''si''
|-
! rowspan="5" | indicative
! present
| lado
| lades
| lade
| lademos
| ladetes
| laden
|-
! perfect
| ladui
| laduis
| ladui
| laduimos
| laduites
| laduin
|-
! imperfect
| ladia
| ladias
| ladia
| ladiamos
| ladiates
| ladian
|-
! future
| laderabo
| laderabes
| laderabe
| laderabemos
| laderabetes
| laderaben
|-
! conditional
| laderaba
| laderabas
| laderaba
| laderabamos
| laderabates
| laderaban
|-
! rowspan="2" | subjunctive
! present
| lada
| ladas
| lada
| ladamos
| ladates
| ladan
|-
! perfect
| laduise
| laduises
| laduise
| laduisemos
| laduisetes
| laduisen
|-
! colspan="2" | imperative
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| lade
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| laden
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
|}
|}
Notice:
* The only difference between active and passive participles, present indicative, future, and conditional of each conjugation is the [[w:Thematic vowel#Latin|thematic vowel]]. E.g. 2{{Abbtip|singular number|sg|sc}} {{Abbtip|present tense|prs|sc}} {{Abbtip|indicative mood|ind|sc}} '''ladas''' vs. '''lades'''.
* Perfect subjunctive forms are perfect indicative forms with a '''-se''' suffix.
* If the thematic vowel is '''-a-''', then the vowel in the present subjunctive endings is '''-e-''', and vice versa.
* The personal endings in their most basic form are '''-Ø''', '''-s''', '''-Ø''', '''-mos''', '''-tes''', '''-n'''.
* Imperative forms are exactly as singular and plural third-person present indicative forms. Formal imperatives are formed similarly with present subjunctive forms.

====Strong verbs====
Strong verbs are conjugated as weak verbs, but the main stem vowel undergoes a phonological process known as ablaut. This is present in the indicative and subjunctive perfect tense. In the following example, the tenses that remain unchanged are omitted.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"
|-
|+ colspan="100%"|[[:Category:Avendonian first-conjugation strong verbs|strong 1st conjugation]] example paradigm — ''{{term|scedare}}'' (“to separate”)
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:linear-gradient(to top right,#EAECF0 49.5%,#aaa 49.5%,#aaa 50.5%,#EAECF0 50.5%);line-height:1;" | <div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right;">person   </div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left;">   tense</div>
! style="width:12.5%" | first singular ''eo''
! style="width:12.5%" | second singular ''tu''
! style="width:12.5%" | third singular ''e'', ''si'', ''et''
! style="width:12.5%" | first plural ''vi''
! style="width:12.5%" | second plural ''i''
! style="width:12.5%" | third plural ''si''
|-
! rowspan="2" | indicative
! present
| sc'''e'''do
| sc'''e'''das
| sc'''e'''da
| sc'''e'''damos
| sc'''e'''dates
| sc'''e'''dan
|-
! perfect
| sc'''i'''de
| sc'''i'''dasti
| sc'''i'''do
| sc'''i'''damos
| sc'''i'''dastes
| sc'''i'''daron
|-
! subjunctive
! perfect
| sc'''i'''dase
| sc'''i'''dases
| sc'''i'''dase
| sc'''i'''dasemos
| sc'''i'''dasetes
| sc'''i'''dasen
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"
|-
|+ colspan="100%"|[[:Category:Avendonian second-conjugation strong verbs|strong 2nd conjugation]] example paradigm — ''{{term|evere}}'' (“to lift”)
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:linear-gradient(to top right,#EAECF0 49.5%,#aaa 49.5%,#aaa 50.5%,#EAECF0 50.5%);line-height:1;" | <div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right;">person   </div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left;">   tense</div>
! style="width:12.5%" | first singular ''eo''
! style="width:12.5%" | second singular ''tu''
! style="width:12.5%" | third singular ''e'', ''si'', ''et''
! style="width:12.5%" | first plural ''vi''
! style="width:12.5%" | second plural ''i''
! style="width:12.5%" | third plural ''si''
|-
! rowspan="2" | indicative
! present
| '''e'''vo
| '''e'''ves
| '''e'''ve
| '''e'''vemos
| '''e'''vetes
| '''e'''ven
|-
! perfect
| '''u'''vui
| '''u'''vuis
| '''u'''vui
| '''u'''vuimos
| '''u'''vuites
| '''u'''vuin
|-
! subjunctive
! perfect
| '''u'''vuise
| '''u'''vuises
| '''u'''vuise
| '''u'''vuisemos
| '''u'''vuisetes
| '''u'''vuisen
|-
|}
Second-conjugation strong verbs are much less common than first-conjugation. They are derived from [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Germanic verbs#j-presents|Proto-Germanic j-present strong verbs]], which were already scarce.

====Irregular verbs====
Besides the copula, there are only two irregular verbs: '''{{term|duere}}''' and '''{{term|friiere}}'''—and [[w:Derivative (linguistics)|derivatives]] thereof.
In the perfect tenses, '''duere''' uses '''-v-''' instead of the expected '''-u-''': '''eo davi''', not ''*eo daui'', '''tu davis''', not ''*tu dauis'', etc.; '''eo davise''', '''tu davises''', etc.

'''friiere''', on the other hand, has an irregularity in the imperfect indicative tense. The expected ''*eo friiia'', ''*tu friiias'', etc. is rendered as '''eo frigia''', '''tu frigias''', etc.
=====''sire'', to be=====
Like many other languages, including Romance and Germanic, the verb ''to be'' is very irregular. The copula is [[w:suppletion|suppletive]], meaning the stem changes between tenses. A full conjugation paradigm is given.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"
|-style="background: #c8c8c8; font-weight:bold"
| colspan="2" | tense || colspan="6" | forms || etymology
|-
! colspan="2" | infinitive
| colspan="6" | {{term|sire}}
| <ref name="h1es">Ultimately from {{mn|ine-pro|*h₁es-}}. Cognate with {{mn|de|sein}} and {{mn|nl|zijn}}.</ref>
|-
! colspan="2" | active participle
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" | vesanti
| <ref name="wesanan">From {{mn|gem-pro|*wesaną}}.</ref>
|-
! colspan="2" | passive participle
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" |
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"
|-
! !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| sito || sita
|-
! plural
| siti || site
|-
|}
| <ref name="h1es" />
|-
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:linear-gradient(to top right,#EAECF0 49.5%,#aaa 49.5%,#aaa 50.5%,#EAECF0 50.5%);line-height:1;" | <div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right;">person   </div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left;">   tense</div>
! style="width:12.5%" | first singular ''eo''
! style="width:12.5%" | second singular ''tu''
! style="width:12.5%" | third singular ''e'', ''si'', ''et''
! style="width:12.5%" | first plural ''vi''
! style="width:12.5%" | second plural ''i''
! style="width:12.5%" | third plural ''si''
!  
|-
! rowspan="5" | indicative
! present
| bi
| bis
| bin
| bimos
| bites
| bin
| <ref name="beunan">From {{mn|gem-pro|*beuną}}.</ref>
|-
! perfect
| va
| vas
| va
| vamos
| vates
| van
| <ref name="wesanan" />
|-
! imperfect
| era
| eras
| era
| eramos
| erates
| eran
| <ref name="sum">From {{mn|la|sum}}.</ref>
|-
! future
| sirabo
| sirabes
| sirabe
| sirabemos
| sirabetes
| siraben
| rowspan="3" | <ref name="h1es" />
|-
! conditional
| siraba
| sirabas
| siraba
| sirabamos
| sirabates
| siraban
|-
! rowspan="2" | subjunctive
! present
| si
| sis
| si
| simos
| sites
| sin
|-
! perfect
| vari
| varis
| vari
| varimos
| varites
| varin
| <ref name="wesanan" />
|-
! colspan="2" | imperative
|  
| si
| colspan="2" |  
| sin
|  
| <ref name="h1es" />
|-
| colspan="9" style="border:none; background: white;text-align:justify;font-size:3px" |  
|-
| colspan="9" style="border:none; background: white;text-align:justify" | <references />
|}

====Periphrastic forms====
The future and conditional forms shown in all tables above are more common in formal settings. Usually, in everyday Avendonian, constructions with the verb '''{{term|verdare}}''' (“to become”) and an infinitive following it are used instead. If '''verdare''' is inflected as present, the periphrasis conveys a future meaning. If the verb is in the perfect tense, it functions as a conditional. Compare:
: '''Eo si duerabo morgano.'''
: '''Eo verdo duere-si morgano.''' “I will do it tomorrow.”
: '''Vi Si geldarabamos sed ne abemos nilo.'''
: '''Vi vardamos geldare-te sed ne abemos nilo.''' “We would pay you but we have nothing.”
Note that '''verdare''' is a [[#Strong verbs|strong verb]], so it undergoes ablaut in the past as usual.

==Dialects==
:{{Ambox
| name = Planned revamp
| small = left
| subst = <includeonly>{{subst:substcheck}}</includeonly>
| issue = The creator of the language has expressed their intent of overhauling the dialect system. Thus, the information hereon provided is the latest available. This section will be updated with the newest information once it is released.
| talk = Dialects
| style = width: auto; margin-right: 0px;
| textstyle = width: auto;
| date = September 2020
}}
There are six major dialects of Avendonian. Central Avendonian (or '''midio''') is considered the standard language, and it is the language most of the author's work is based upon. The main features of the other five dialects will be discussed in the following sections.
===Alpine dialect===
The [[:Category:Alpine dialect|Alpine dialect]] ('''avendoniano alpino''' in Avendonian) is characterized by the partial application of the [[w:High German consonant shift|High German consonant shift]]. This results in words like '''{{term|trincare}}''' (central '''{{term|drincare}}'''), '''{{term|esare}}''' (central '''{{term|etare}}'''), etc.
The perfect tense is periphrastic in Alpine Avendonian. In place of the inflectional endings, a verbal construction is used. Its structure is [present indicative or subjunctive of '''{{term|abere}}''', inflected for person and number] + [masculine singular passive participle of the main verb]. E.g. '''eo levui''' vs. '''eo abo leveto'''.

===Burgundian dialects===
Both Burgundian dialects feature historical diphthongs no longer extant in other dialects, where they merged with another vowel. [[w:Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] ''*ō'', ''*eu'' which gave '''u''', '''i''' elsewhere, became '''uo''', '''ie''' in the Burgundian dialects – for instance, '''{{term|buoce}}''' and '''{{term|friesare}}''' vs. central '''{{term|buce}}''' and '''{{term|frisare}}'''. They also share the presence of '''y''' /{{IPA|y}}/, descended from earlier ''*iu''; '''{{term|dydere}}''' (central '''{{term|didere}}''').

The [[:Category:High Burgundian dialect|High Burgundian dialect]] ('''avendoniano ocburgundico''') features the {{Abbtip|High German consonant shift|HGCS}}. [[:Category:Low Burgundian dialect|Low Burgundian]] ('''avendoniano lagburgundico''') does not. Instead, masculine o-stem nouns and regular adjectives drop their final '''-o''', except in those words whose Proto-Germanic ancestor stem ended in /{{IPA|w}}/.
Those words are:
{{Col-begin}}
{{col-n|6}}
* '''{{term|blavo}}'''
{{col-n|6}}
* '''{{term|blio}}'''
{{col-n|6}}
* '''{{term|calo}}'''
{{col-n|6}}
* '''{{term|dovo}}'''
{{col-n|6}}
* '''{{term|frovo}}'''
{{col-n|6}}
* '''{{term|gelo}}'''
{{Col-end}}
{{Col-begin}}
{{col-n|6}}
* '''{{term|gnio}}'''
{{col-n|6}}
* '''{{term|gravo}}'''
{{col-n|6}}
* '''{{term|meo}}'''
{{col-n|6}}
* '''{{term|scado}}'''
{{col-n|6}}
* '''{{term|snevo}}'''
{{col-n|6}}
* '''{{term|tovo}}'''
{{Col-end}}
===Genoese dialect===
The Avendonian variation spoken in Genoa (former Larastade), the capital city of Avendonia, and its surroundings is considered[''[[User:Sware|by who?]]''] a [[w:sociolect|sociolect]] rather than a fully-fledged dialect. Due to the historical importance of Genoa as a trading center, the local vernacular is more internationalized. As a result, the language is not as conservative, i.e. has a greater tolerance for loanwords, largely from Romance languages. Examples of this are Genoese '''{{term|machina}}''' which displaced native '''{{term|vilo}}''', '''{{term|depresione}}''' vs. '''{{term|svarmuto}}''', etc.

===North Adriatic dialect===
Maybe because of [[w:Slavic languages#Linguistic history|Slavic influence]], the [[:Category:North Adriatic dialect|North Adriatic dialect]] of Avendonian ('''nordadriatico''') features a series of [[w:palatalization|palatalization]]s exclusive to this dialect. This is seen in words like '''{{term|nace}}''' ('''{{term|nate}}''') or '''{{term|scione}}''' ('''{{term|scone}}''').

In addition, there is evidence of the existence of a [[w:pitch accent|pitch-accent]] system in North Adriatic Avendonian. Stressed syllables whose vowel evolved from a long vowel carries a rising [[w:tone (linguistics)|tone]] and causes the following vowel to be pronounced with a mid tone. Moreover, if the stressed vowel comes from a short vowel, but it is not followed by a historical [[w:consonant cluster|consonant cluster]] or [[w:geminate|geminate]], it carries a low falling tone. Vowels in any other environment are rendered toneless.

{{Col-begin}}
{{col-n|2}}
: '''{{term|alico}}''' (“alike, similar”), from {{Abbtip|Proto-Germanic|PGmc.}} {{mn|gem-pro|*galīkaz|*gal'''ī'''kaz|name=0}} → {{IPA|[a.ˈli˩˥.ko˧]}}
{{col-n|2}}
: '''{{term|stulo}}''' (“chair”), from {{Abbtip|Proto-Germanic|PGmc.}} {{mn|gem-pro|*stōlaz|*st'''ō'''laz|name=0}} → {{IPA|[ˈstu˩˥.lo˧]}}
{{Col-end}}
{{Col-begin}}
{{col-n|2}}
: '''{{term|uvilo#Adjective|uvilo}}''' (“evil”, adj.), from {{Abbtip|Proto-Germanic|PGmc.}} {{mn|gem-pro|*ubilaz|name=0}} → {{IPA|[u.ˈvi˨˩.lo]}}
{{col-n|2}}
: '''{{term|fadre}}''' (“father”), from {{Abbtip|Proto-Germanic|PGmc.}} {{mn|gem-pro|*fadēr|name=0}} → {{IPA|[ˈfa˨˩.dre]}}
{{Col-end}}
This feature is also somewhat present in northeastern and non-standard Central Avendonian.

==Sample texts==
===The North Wind and the Sun===

{{interlinear
|top='''El nordvinto e la suna stridaban ci era el starcior, cando uno resetore encamo uleto en uno mantelo varmo.'''
|El nordvinto e l-a suna strid-ab-an ci era el starc-ior, cando un-o resetore
|DEF.ART;MSG {North Wind} and DEF.ART-FSG sun fight-IMPERF-3PL who COP;IMPERF.3SG DEF.ART;MSG strong-COMP[MSG] when INDF.ART-MSG traveler
|The {North Wind} and the Sun {were disputing} which was the stronger, when a traveler
||display-messages=no|italics2=no|italics3=no|ablist=COMP:comparative:comparison_(grammar)}}
 
{{interlinear
|encam-o ul-et-o en un-o mantelo varm-o
|PRF\come-PST.INDIC.3SG cover-PP-MSG in INDF.ART-MSG mantle warm-MSG
|{came along} wrapped in a cloak warm
||display-messages=no|italics1=yes|italics2=no|italics3=no}}
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak.''

===Lord's Prayer===
{{Col-begin|40%}}
{{col-n|2}}
<poem>
Fadre nosde ci bis en el Celo,
elageto si el name tede;
el cuningricio tede cume,
Si dueto el vile tede
en la Erda ca bi en el Celo.
Geva-nos, en eco dago, el broto dagico nosde,
e pergeva-nos le sundie nosde,
ca vi pergevamos si ce sunden contra nos;
e ne lede-nos en la persucitio,
sed defriie nos d'el uvilo.
Amen.
</poem>
{{col-n|2}}
<poem style="font-style: italic">
Our Father, who art in heaven,
hallowed be thy name;
thy kingdom come,
thy will be done
on earth as it is in heaven.
Give us this day our daily bread,
and forgive us our sins,
as we forgive those who sin against us;
and lead us not into temptation,
but deliver us from evil.
Amen.
</poem>
{{Col-end}}

==External links==
* [[:Category:Avendonian words|Avendonian language in Contionary]]
* [https://discord.gg/YENDNvu ‘Conlang Exchange’ Discord Server, where Avendonian, among other conlangs, is taught]
* [https://app.memrise.com/course/6003427/avendonian-spraca-avendoniana/ Avendonian Memrise course]
* [https://pastebin.com/vdq4pvXV Official Avendonian dictionary, the ''Vortbuce Avendoniano'']
* [https://t.me/vorti_avendoniani ‘Avendonian Word of the Day’ Telegram channel]
* [https://t.me/setlanguage/avdnan Telegram translation pack for Avendonian] {{User:Sware/Template:tg|21111|26363|21:01, 24 September 2023 (UTC)}}

[[Category:Avendonian language]][[Category:Germanic languages]][[Category:West Germanic languages]][[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:A posteriori]][[Category:Fusional languages]]