Linguifex - User contributions [en]

Metin

2021-04-11T14:12:58Z

Greatbuddha: /* Explanation of noun cases */

Metin

2021-04-11T14:12:40Z

Greatbuddha: /* Overview */

Metin

2021-04-11T14:06:29Z

Greatbuddha: /* Verbs */

2014-01-02T18:18:26Z

Greatbuddha:

Lesson:Metin/3: Inalienable Genitive and Locative

2013-12-13T16:41:22Z

Greatbuddha: Created page with "==Inalienable genitive== Metin disinguishes between two types of genitive. The alienable fïduáyo "my pen" (You can give a pen to someone, or lose it.) And the inalienable..."

==Inalienable genitive==
Metin disinguishes between two types of genitive.

The alienable

fïduáyo "my pen" (You can give a pen to someone, or lose it.)

And the inalienable

i'qfuuyoh "my arm" (You can't give away that. At least, not normally.)

The endings for the inalienable are
-oh "my"
-hu/uhu"your"
-eh "his, hers, its"

Compare these for the alienable endings you've already learned
-o "my"
-u/f "your"
-en "his/hers/its"

The inalienable endings are usually used for

-Family members:

simeh suałtxen "txen's father"

-Body parts

i'qpluyoh "my ear"

-Components

yayemeh funjiki: "the bottom of the cup"

-Locations

yadëyeh sy'umiił "inside the house".

Lesson:Metin/2: Genitive and locative

2013-12-13T16:39:02Z

2013-11-20T22:44:07Z

Greatbuddha: Created page with " Yashúundezu cághugiihligaa bíilloñji bu cetloon, tózhíik bryáxyu yayahyu vi yadok tsúuhmyu vi, nóyapxádehyu zënépehi múya haghatsuxyu bu jáanmaji bu cetloon ..."

Yashúundezu cághugiihligaa bíilloñji bu cetloon, tózhíik bryáxyu yayahyu vi yadok tsúuhmyu vi, nóyapxádehyu zënépehi múya haghatsuxyu bu jáanmaji bu cetloon thésozu. Tlyu shúnozu jrezihyu, ma cáguzu bghuploon, e shúno meelihryu e cágutóogezu bwáalihnloon. Kujihloon Myujitoowemo fucmoñjiin, dáahnloon zhúbihloon yacágufuci ryábzomaji, zánti wiilihnyu bu cedali.

==Gloss==
Yáshúundezu: Great people, leaders, heroes (nominative plural)
cághugiihligaa: Democracy (accusative singular)
bíiloñji: Follow, do, behave (1st person inclusive subject- 3rd person singular object)
bu: quotative particle
cetloon: say, speak of (3rd person plural)
tózhíik: time (locative)
bráxyu: to be poor, harsh (3rd person singular)
yayahyu: to pass (of time) (3rd person singular)
vi: while
yadok: nation (nominative singular)
tsúuhmyu: sicken, weaken (3rd person singular)
nóyapxádehyu: to rise (of the sun) (third person singular)
zënépehi: the moment before
múya: the night (nominative singular)
haghatsuxyu: to be harsh, intense (third person singular
jáanmaji: remember (first person inclusive)
Thésozu: Théso, the great and noble first empress (used as a metaphor for noble people in general) (nominative)
Tlyu: because
shúno: the world (nominative)
jrezihyu: to persist, be eternal (third person singular)
ma: but
cáguzu: people (nominative)
bghuploon: rot, fade away, die (third person plural)
e: and
meelihryu: improve, perk up, become better (third person singular-future)
cágutoowezu: more people (nominative plural)
bwáalihnloon: to be born (third person plural)
kujihloon: to be wicked, vile (third person plural)
myujitoowemo: desires (accusative plural)
fucmoñjiin: to supress, put down, ignore (1st person inclusive subject-third person plural object)
dáahnloon: to be strong (third person plural)
zhúbihloon: to be noble (third person plural)
yacágufuci: one great people (dative)
ryábzomaji: to become unified (first person inclusive)
zánti: at that moment
wiilihnyu: to be peaceful (third person future)
cedali: to say (fourth person)

*notes: first person inclusive has an imperative sense, especially when used speaking to a crowd.
fourth person is used to refer to the subject of a previous sentence.
verbs are used in place of adjectives.

Talk:Proto-Tigol

2013-11-16T17:19:40Z

Greatbuddha:

Out of curiosity, how does the average themsaran child remember all the posessive suffixes? Some of them like the fourth person male/v/female seem like they'd probably collapse into one category. probably would I've noticed that in languages that have them they tend to be highly regular (exculding inuktitut), like, for example, Navajo. The posessive prefixes in navajo are the same at the core as the subject prefixes in the verbs, yet allthough the verb prefixes require a whole textbook to describe their behavior noun prefixes can be gone over in a mere two paragraphs. I'd assume that all nouns have to have their posessor indicated or something.
[[User:Greatbuddha|Greatbuddha]] ([[User talk:Greatbuddha|talk]]) 03:05, 16 November 2013 (CET)
:"I'd assume that all nouns have to have their posessor indicated or something.": What do you mean/how would that come about? [[User:Ílchőfti Lēmáthīd|Ílchőfti Lēmáthīd]] ([[User talk:Ílchőfti Lēmáthīd|talk]]) 05:44, 16 November 2013 (CET)
:"in languages that have them they tend to be highly regular" - On the other hand languages w/ (possessor+possessive class) are a thing, so there is no reason why you couldn't have (possessor+number). [[User:Ílchőfti Lēmáthīd|Ílchőfti Lēmáthīd]] ([[User talk:Ílchőfti Lēmáthīd|talk]]) 06:51, 16 November 2013 (CET)

Byhighly regular I mean that the suffixes do not change their forms much when they are added to a noun.
[[User:Greatbuddha|Greatbuddha]] ([[User talk:Greatbuddha|talk]]) 18:19, 16 November 2013 (CET)

Talk:Proto-Tigol

2013-11-16T02:05:03Z

Greatbuddha: Created page with "Out of curiosity, how does the average themsaran child remember all the posessive suffixes? Some of them like the fourth person male/v/female seem like they'd probably collaps..."

User talk:Greatbuddha

2013-11-15T04:00:36Z

Greatbuddha: /* Bizarre idioms */ new section

{| id="bannerintro" style="width:100%; background-size: 20%; background-repeat:no-repeat; background-position:0% 50%;" class="toccolours; width: 66%" align="center"
| style="text-align:center;" |<big><big><big>'''Welcome to the LinguifexWiki!'''</big></big></big>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" |<big>A beginning language creator might want to take a look at our [[Help:Introduction|guide]].</big> If you have any questions you are welcome to leave a message at one of the [[Linguifex:Administrators|administrators]] talk pages! Just don't forget to sign your message with four tildes (<nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>)!
|-
| style="text-align:center;" |<big><big>From all of us on the wiki: '''The best of luck with your language!'''</big></big>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User:Chrysophylax|Chrysophylax]]''' ([[User:talk:Chrysophylax|talk]]) [[File:Zelos.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User Talk:EmperorZelos|Emperor Zelos]]''' ([[User talk:EmperorZelos|talk]]) [[File:PMOB.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:PMOB|Pá mamūnám]] [[User:PMOB|ontā́ bán]]''' ([[User talk:Pá mamūnám ontā́ bán|talk]]) [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User Talk:Waahlis|Waahlis]]''' ([[User talk:Waahlis|talk]]) 
|}

==Personal==

Holym oly did I get suprised by the sudden addition :D Glad to see you! [[File:Zelos.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User Talk:EmperorZelos|Emperor Zelos]]''' 07:10, 9 December 2012 (CET)

I remember you! Welcome to Linguifex, Greatbuddha! :D [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|Waahlis]]''' 12:17, 9 December 2012 (CET)

Fauxlosophe said e would try to get established here as well, so he said I could copy his fén articles onto the wiki [[User:Greatbuddha|Greatbuddha]] ([[User talk:Greatbuddha|talk]]) 15:15, 9 December 2012 (CET)

Absolutely. I gathered that was the case when you imported his languages! :p [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|Waahlis]]''' 18:20, 9 December 2012 (CET)

== Featured language of May 2013: Voting ==

<wikiforumthread id=27/>

[[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|Waahlis]]''' 20:10, 22 May 2013 (CEST)

== Comment on comments ==

Hi Greatbuddha, I love that you read and bother to feedback many articles and files, but I'm sorry to say that the author of them is currently inactive, so you probably won't get a response any time soon! Just wanted to make sure you didn't feel ignored! :)

Sincerely, [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|Waahlis]]''' 20:05, 13 July 2013 (CEST)

== Behru cesik ==

If Fauxlosophe'll nominate me I'll offer Behru cesik for the next featured language voting. I've made a translation of the banner

pécesig zu shúñëkliinujep yacióolañujiil
This language was once featured

lyálkuclikli, fúroclikli, dzëlécecclikli bañusiilcoloonkaye, yacióolañuloonkakimpi cágugzhiiniholíl.
Thanks to its level of quality, plausibility, and usage capabilites, it has been voted as featured.

:I'd be happy to give you a go, though I'm not sure there is voting on right now. I do think your page here needs a bit of cleaning up; a few things didn't transfer over well from :\Wikia [A glaring red "Template:Hpc" appears on a few tables]. If you can clear up Aesthetics, I'll nominate your language.

:Past that though, I would recommend adding a few Leipzig glosses [which I was told to add to mine before I got my nomination and are pretty useful] and expand Vocab. Perhaps even add a few simple lessons; I tend to look at languages with the aim to learn a little of how it would be spoken but I still get very little of that with Behru Cesik and I have trouble constructing phrases with it. I'm happy enough to nominate you once the article is cleaned up [and a vote starts] but I think you'll need to make some of these changes for a chance at winning [and so it might be wise to let votipng be delayed until you have made some of these changes].
-[[User:Fauxlosophe|Fauxlosophe]] ([[User talk:Fauxlosophe|talk]]) 14:11, 4 August 2013 (CEST)

Nominations have started. As stated in the other, I'd be happy to give you a nomination once the page is cleaned up. I'd be more than happy to help with tidying up the page as well, if you need any assistance with it. Also, if you'd like to, I highly recommend asking Waalis for advice; he really helped me clean up Fén Ghír's page.

Cheers&Good Luck,
-[[User:Fauxlosophe|Fauxlosophe]] ([[User talk:Fauxlosophe|talk]]) 14:11, 4 August 2013 (CEST)

Thanks for telling me about the leipzig glosses, I've sen them so many times but had no idea how to use them. I'm not sure id it would be a good idea to nominate behru cesik now, i'm considering completely redoing it again after reading through some more inuktitut grammars.

-GB

Understandable, I've been there once or twice though I think Fén is stable now so I'm putting my desire to tweak things into new languages. I want to clean up Cwengâr for nominations as well and then I intend to work on a distant more Romantic/Latinate cousin and the more Fusional/Synthetic one that I requested your collaboration on earlier.

[http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/resources/glossing-rules.php The glossing rules are listed out here, if you are interested.] I had some trouble with it at first, but it's not too bad if you're willing to read it out. You might skim over the Fén Ghír page and [http://linguifex.com/index.php?title=Umbrean/Examples Zelo's Umbrean Examples] for simplified transcriptions, I use it pretty sparingly so that might be helpful to show the fuctions of it while Zelos has a much less isolating language which is helpful to show individual functions but I feel like he over uses it.

If you have any questions or want me to look over/help with the page, I'd be happy to give word.

Cheers,
-[[User:Fauxlosophe|Fauxlosophe]] ([[User talk:Fauxlosophe|talk]]) 14:11, 4 August 2013 (CEST)

== Nominationes! ==

<wikiforumthread id=37 />

== Bizarre idioms ==

In considering the origins of the Behru and related peoples, I've had some fun thinking about how their language will change. The progenitors of the Behru, the Ae, are refugees from an almost succesful genocide that almost completely destroyed a complex civilization over 60,000 years old, killing trillions. Since the remaining survivors speak a language made for a high-tech utopia and have been reduced to the stone age, their language is gonna have a lot of weird idioms. Perhaps their verb for "to ride an elevator, train" will become "to ride a floating object, raft", and eventually "to sail", once advanced watercraft have been reinvented. "to fly on an aircraft" would probably become "to travel, go somewhere distant". "to message, text" would probably become "to pass along, speak in private". "to shop, purchase" might become "to pluck, grasp", productive foraging regions might be called "markets". Their culture is going to be really weird, they'll be paleolithic hunter-gatherers with an easily learned writing system, allowing much of the paleolithic period to be preserved in writing, and since the Behru have indefinite lifespans, there might be a few lucky people who manage to survive for thousands of years and be living historians.
[[User:Greatbuddha|Greatbuddha]] ([[User talk:Greatbuddha|talk]]) 05:00, 15 November 2013 (CET)

Behru cesik

2013-11-09T17:10:43Z

Greatbuddha:

Behru Cesik (Meaning Behru way of speaking) is the highest language of the Behru empire. The stage of the language represented in this article is that spoken when the empire conquered the Yamazi dynasty of Winanda and began imposing its culture over a wide area.
==Phonology==
===Phonemes===
All Behru consonants except /h/ have voiced and voiceless counterparts. Voiceless consonants are usually weakly aspirated, the voiceless sonorants strongly so. Voiceless consonants are listed after their voiced counterparts in the table. Romanization is listed in '''Bold '''below the ipa. Romanization will be used in all sections of the article other than the phonology section.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="margin: 0px auto;"
|+Consonants (muhlámaleslzilíi)
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|Labial (Kálihi)
! scope="col"|Alveolar (jüdíixáahniík)
! scope="col"|Post alveolar (jüdíixëhnémihi)
! scope="col"|Palato-alveolar (jüdíixáansingerihi)
! scope="col"|Palatal (singerihi)
! scope="col"|Velar (singezóok)
! scope="col"|Glottal (mákughétóok)
|-
! scope="row"|Plosive (zotozilíi)
|
p b

'''p b'''
|
t d

'''t d'''
|
|
|
|
g k

'''g k'''
|
h

'''h'''
|-
! scope="row"| Afrricate (zotaxehmozilíi)
|
|
|
|
tɕ dʑ

'''c j'''
|
|
|
|-
! scope="row"|Fricative (xehmozilíil)
|
ɸ β

'''f v'''
|
s z

'''s z'''
|
|
ɕ ʑ

'''sh zh'''
|
|
x ɣ

'''x gh'''
|
|-
! scope="row"|Nasal (dzátacetozilíi)
|
m m̥ʰ

'''m hm'''
|
n n̥ʰ

'''n hn'''
|
|
|
ɲ ɲ̥ʰ

'''ñ hñ'''
|
ŋ ŋ̥ʰ

'''ng hng'''
|
|-
! scope="row"|Approximant (manjiuzilíi)
|
w w̥ʰ

'''w hw'''
|
l l̥ʰ

'''l hl'''
|
r r̥ʰ

'''r hr'''
|
|
j j̥ʰ

'''y hy'''
|
|
|}
Behru has 4 base vowels, a, ɛ, u, and o, whose qualities change based on length and stress. Each vowel has 3 forms, long, short, and reduced. The vowel centralizes when it reduces, a and o reduce to ə̆, u reduces to ʊ, ɛ reduces to ɪ̆. The vowel ɛ uniquely changes to i: when lengthened. As before, romanized forms are marked in the chart. In addition, vowels may carry a high tone or a low tone, a high tone is marked with an acute, e.g., á, í, úu, óo. Low tone is unmarked. Reduced vowels are always low tone, even if derived from an originally high toned vowel.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="margin: 0px auto;"
|+Vowels (lámozilíi)
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|Front
! scope="col"|Front-mid
! scope="col"|Mid
! scope="col"|Mid-back
! scope="col"|Back
|-
! scope="row"|Close
|
i:

'''ii '''
|
ɪ̆

'''i'''
|
|
ʊ̆

'''ü'''
|
u u:

'''uu u'''
|-
! scope="row"|Mid
|
ɛ

'''e'''
|
|
ə̆

'''ë'''
|
|
o o:

'''oo o'''
|-
! scope="row"|Open
|
a: a

'''aa a'''
|
|
|
|
|}

===Phonotactical restraints and Sandhi===
'''Rule 1 '''

All''' '''syllables start with 1 to 4 consonants and contain only 1 vowel, no more, no less.

j̥ʰa, mút, cen, xoo, ɲɛ are all permitted.

ɛt, u and itɕ are not permitted due to not having an initial consonant.

sɛun, lai, and ɣə̆if are not permitted due to having 2 vowels.

tpt, xn, mj̥ʰ are not permitted due to having no vowels.

''*exception: kl̥t and zrn are permitted because /l/ and /r/ may optionally function as reduced vowels.

'''Rule 2 '''

All consonants in a consonant cluster must agree in voicing if they do not, the voicing of the first consonant of the second syllable controls the voicing.
kx, tɸ, n̥ts, bw, dɣy and m̥y̥ʰ are all permitted due to all members of the cluster agreeing in voice.
sʊ̆ɸk+zwáan must be changed to sʊ̆βgzwáan because they do not agree in voicing. As z is the first consonant of the second syllable and is voiced, it changes all unvoiced consonants in the cluster to voiced, changing k to g and ɸ to β
l̥ʰən+ksɛ must become l̥ʰən̥ksɛ, because k, the first consonant of the second syllable, is unvoiced, changing the voiced n to voiceless n̥.

'''Rule 3'''

Syllable initial consonant clusters are permitted, they may consist at most

Stop + Fricative + Liquid (/l/ or /r/) + /w/ or /j/, or

Nasal+ /w/ or /j/ in that order.

kfr̥j̥ is permitted as it contains a stop fricative, liquid, and /j/ in the right order, and all consonants agree in voicing, as specified in rule two.
kn̥ and ŋr are not permitted as nasals may not coexist with stops, fricatives, or liquids in consonant clusters.
skj̥ is not permitted as fricatives may not precede stops,
sɲ̥ is not permitted as fricatives may not precede nasals.
mj is permitted as /j/ may come after a nasal.
zlw is permitted as all constituents are in the right order, fricative>liquid> /w/ or /y/
wzl and lzw are not, however, they are not in the right order.
βj is permitted, the contituents are in the right order and of the right type.
'''
Rule 4'''
any alveolar consonant followed by /j/ is transformed to its palatal counterpart.
tj̥ and dj become tɕ and dʑ respectively.
sj̥ and zj become ɕ and ʑ respectively
nj and n̥j̥ʰ become ɲ and ɲ̥ʰ respectively.

'''Rule 5 '''
The combinations /ji:/ and /jɪ/ are always converted to /ʑi:/ and /ʑɪ/ respectively. In the same manner, /wʊ/ and /wu:/ are always converted to /βʊ/ and /βu:/ respectively. This rule overides rule 3, the syllable /zlji:/ will be converted to /zlʑi:/ even though /zlʑ/ is otherwise forbidden at the beginning of a syllable due to having a fricative after a liquid. The /β/ and /ʑ/ will be converted into /ɸ/ and /ɕ/ if it would violated rule 2, /pl̥w̥ʰʊ/ would be converted to /pl̥ɸʊ/, not /pl̥βʊ/, /kj̥i:/ to /kɕi:/, not /kʑi:/.
'''
Rule 6'''
The only consonants that may occur syllable finally are t/d, p/b/, ɸ/β, k/g, n/n̥, m/m̥, ɲ/ɲ̥, ŋ/ŋ̥, and ɕ/ʑ. Voicing is not distinguished in the final position. Final stops and fricatives may have nasals preceding them , and ɕ/ʑ and ɸ/βmay precede any one of the others(but not eachother). Two nasals may not occur in a row in these syllables.
raβn is a permitted syllable, but raβʑ is not. ramβ is permitted. l̥̥ʰʊm̥k is permitted, l̥ʰumn is not. kaβʑ and kaʑβ are not permitted, ʑ and β may not be together at the end of a syllable.
'''Rule 7'''
A sequence of vowels is always interrupted by glides and or has the first vowel deleted to avoid violating rule 1. The change depends on the first vowel, ɛ, ɪ, and ii insert /j/ in a sequence of vowels. /ɪ/ is deleted when /j/ is inserted. uu, u, o, and ʊ insert /w/ in a sequence of vowels. /u/ and /ʊ/ are deleted when /w/ is inserted.
kaɛ would become kɛ
kau would become ku
kɛɛ would become kɛjɛ
kɪo: would become kjo:
ki:o would become ki:jo
ku:a would become ku:wa
kua and kʊa would both become kwa
kɛi: would become kɛji:, which would then become kɛʑi: due to rule 5
kʊu and kuu would both become kwu, which would then become kβu due to rule 5, and then kɸu due to rule 1.
sɪɪ would become sjɪ due to rule 5, which would then become ɕi due to rule 4.

==Nouns==
Behru nouns delcine for 12 cases and 3 numbers. The 12 cases can be grouped into the simple cases, Nominative, Causative, Ablative, Benefactive, Posessive, Instrumental, Adessive, Locative, and Dative, and the complex cases, Accusative, Genitive, and Comparative. The complex cases use a different stem than simple cases.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="margin: 0px auto;"
|+Declension of Vowel deleting nouns
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|
múki, ''dog-like animal''

(i-type )
! scope="col"|
ratu, ''wind''

(u-type )
! scope="col"|
ksopa, ''shelf''

(a-type)
|-
! scope="row"|Nominative
|múkësh
|ratët
|ksopët
|-
! scope="row"|Causative
|múkye
|ratúsh
|ksopé
|-
! scope="row"|Ablative
|múking
|ratung
|ksopang
|-
! scope="row"|Benefactive
|múkimpi (múki-kimpi)
|ratwimpi
|ksopempi
|-
! scope="row"|Posessive
|múkihno (múki-kihno)
|ratwihno
|ksopehno
|-
! scope="row"|Adessive
|múkicra (múki-kicra)
|ratwicra
|ksopecra
|-
! scope="row"|Instrumental
|múkl
|rato
|ksopo
|-
! scope="row"|Locative
|múxi (múk-hi)
|raswi (rat-hwi)
|ksofi (ksop-hi)
|-
! scope="row"|Dative
|múkci
|ratcwi
|ksopci
|-
! scope="row"|Paucal stem
|múkíi-
|raswíi-
|ksopégii-
|}

{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Declension of vowel holding nouns
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|myéngu ''water''
! scope="col"|bghoze ''bucket''
! scope="col"|nadno ''berry''
! scope="col"|rwidli ''people, tribe''
! scope="col"|hnáza ''platform, step''
|-
! scope="row"|Nominative
|myénguzu
|bghozezu
|nadnozu
|rwidlizu
|hnázazu
|-
! scope="row"|Causative
|myéngóye
|bghozéjje
|nadnóye
|rwidlíish
|hnázáash
|-
! scope="row"|Ablative
|myéngweng
|bghozeng
|nadnweng
|rwidleng
|hnázang
|-
! scope="row"|Benefactive
|myéngwimpi
|bghozempi
|nadnokimpi
|rwidlikimpi
|hnázempi
|-
! scope="row"|Posessive
|myéngwihno
|bghozehno
|nadnokihno
|rwidlikihno
|hnázehno
|-
! scope="row"|
Adessive
|myéngwicra
|bghozecra
|nadnokicra
|rwidlikicra
|hnázecra
|-
! scope="row"|Instrumental
|myéngo
|bghozho (bghoz-yo)
|nadno
|rwidlyl
|hnáza
|-
! scope="row"|Locative
|myéngwíik
|bghozíik
|nadnóok
|rwidllíik
|hnazíik
|-
! scope="row"|Dative
|myénguci
|bghozeci
|nadnoci
|rwidlici
|hnázaci
|-
! scope="row"|Paucal stem
|myéngugíi
|bghozíi
|nadnwíi
|rwidlíi
|hnázegíi
|}

{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="margin: 0px auto;"
|+Declension of sonorant nouns.
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|tsan ''support''
! scope="col"|húm ''fluid''
! scope="col"|byéng ''metal''
! scope="col"|südzlar ''elbow''
! scope="col"|kwél ''cloud''
|-
! scope="row"|Nominative
|tsaan
|húum
|bzhíing
|südzlaar
|kwíil
|-
! scope="row"|Causative
|tsañje
|húhmye
|byén'gye
|südzlarje
|kwélje
|-
! scope="row"|Ablative
|tsanding
|húmbing
|byén'ging
|südlarjing
|kwélzing
|-
! scope="row"|Benefactive
|tsaanpi
|húmpi
|bzhíingpi
|südzlarpi
|kwíilpi
|-
! scope="row"|Posessive
|tsaahnno
|húuhmno
|bzhíihngno
|südzlahrno
|kwíihlno
|-
! scope="row"|Adessive
|tsaancra
|húumcra
|bzhíingcra
|südzlarcra
|kwíilcra
|-
! scope="row"|Instrumental
|tsaahnu
|húuhmu
|bzhíihngu
|südzlaarzho
|kwíiyo
|-
! scope="row"|Locative
|tsanti
|húmpi
|byéngki
|südzlarshi
|kwélsi
|-
! scope="row"|Dative
|tsaanci
|húumci
|bzhíingci
|südzlaarci
|kwíilci
|-
! scope="row"|Paucal stem
|tsansíi
|húmvíi
|byéngxíi
|südzlarzhíi
|kwélzíi
|}
==Verbs ==
Behru verbs agree with both subject and object in number an animacy, and can function as replacements for many nouns. For example, the Behru word "muhlamaleslzilíi" means "you can't sing them", a verb used in place of a noun meaning "consonants". Like a regular noun, it may have endings added to it and be declined.
===Abstract endings (kshémudoon ceddobaaghe)===
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Abstract Intransitive endings
|-
! scope="row"|Number
! scope="col"|Singular
! scope="col"|Paucal
! scope="col"|Plural
|-
! scope="row"|First person
|hi
|bu
|ñji
|-
! scope="row"|Second person
|ka
|ku
|(long)he
|-
! scope="row"|Third person
|hyu
|zú
|hlon
|-
! scope="row"|Fourth person
|li
|
|
|}


[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Iyoorcli sáhmik (conscript)

2013-11-08T21:45:05Z

Greatbuddha:

Iyoorcli Sáahmik (also known as simply Yasáahmik) is an abjad ancestral to most writing systems used on Shuno. It is my attempt at a conscript with Indic aesthetics.
[[File:Yásahmikv.JPG|center]]

[[File:Yásahmikk.JPG|center]]

Iyoorcli sáhmik (conscript)

2013-11-08T21:44:18Z

Greatbuddha:

File:Yásahmikv.JPG

2013-11-08T21:42:46Z

Greatbuddha: Yásahmik vowels

Yásahmik vowels

File:Yásahmikk.JPG

2013-11-08T21:40:53Z

Greatbuddha: Yásahmik consonant alloforms k-gh

Yásahmik consonant alloforms k-gh

Iyoorcli sáhmik (conscript)

2013-11-08T21:35:33Z

Greatbuddha: Created page with " Iyoorcli Sáahmik (also known as simply Yasáahmik) is an abjad ancestral to most writing systems used on Shuno. It is my attempt at a conscript with Indic aesthetics."

Iyoorcli Sáahmik (also known as simply Yasáahmik) is an abjad ancestral to most writing systems used on Shuno. It is my attempt at a conscript with Indic aesthetics.

Second Linguifex Relay

2013-11-07T03:33:25Z

Greatbuddha: /* Signup */

{{Relay_navigation_sidebar}}
The '''Second Linguifex Relay''' is an upcoming conlang relay, a game of conlingual telephone, on Linguifex. Succeeding the [[First Linguifex Relay|Saola Peadid]] relay, starting in [[Valian]], the second will be written in [[Ris]]. The relaymaster will be [[User:Waahlis|Waahlis]]. The '''Second Linguifex Relay''' introduces a periodical change in terminology; this relay will use the terms ''seat'' and ''whisper'' and rather than ''slot'' and ''torch''.

The game is similar to [[w:Chinese Whispers|Chinese Whispers]]. The procedure is simple, you will receive a conlang text, a ''whisper'', from the previous ''seat'' with an interlinear/gloss which you are to translate into your own conlang and add information so that the next person can decipher it and make a new translation. You will have '''48''' hours from the time of having received the whisper to prepare a translation of it into your conlang, gloss it and then send it to the next person in the chain. You are free to include either a glossary and grammar notes or an interlinear (or both!). The choice is up to you, but it is always recommended to at least add an interlinear.

In the event that you fail to whisper within your allotted 48 hours, the turn will skip your seat and go to the next participant.

The starting date will be set after the seats have been taken. Everyone is welcome to partake, but for reasons of convenience, an account on Linguifex is required (as the posting of the material will be on talk pages and such). Every person is restricted to one entry, but the choice of conlang is up to them. In the case that two people chose the same language, a first-come first-served basis will be adopted (unless, say the language creator chooses to join in).

==Signup==
The signup started Wednesday 2013-11-06 and will end when the seats are filled. Seven seats are available from the start, and users may choose any seat still empty. Please note that the number of seats might change due to special requests or an eagerness to begin. Sign up in the next section.
===Seats===
The final seat will be a retranslation into the source conlang, as well as the first translation into English. In conjunction, the original text will be published in English.
*'''First seat''' - [[User:Waahlis|Wåhlis]], relaymaster, with ''[[Ris]]''.
*'''Second seat''' - [[User:Ílchőfti Lēmáthīd|Ílchőfti Lēmáthīd]] with ''[[Netagin]]''.
*'''Third seat''' - [[User:Chrysophylax|Χρυσοφύλαξ]] with a hitherto undecided language.
*'''Fourth seat''' - [[User:Greatbuddha|Greatbuddha]] ([[User talk:Greatbuddha|talk]]) 04:33, 7 November 2013 (CET) with ''[[Behru_cesik]]
*'''Fifth seat''' -
*'''Sixth seat''' -
*'''Seventh seat''' -
*'''Final seat''' - Retranslation into [[Ris]] and [[w:English|English]], as well as publication of the original English text.

==How-to==
Once you've received the conlang text with glosses and all, you create a page called "Second Linguifex Relay/X", where X is your language. Translate and gloss the text into your conlang (try to include an interlinear gloss), and check the '''Seats''' list on this page: Take a look who's next after you and go to their talk page and create a new topic called "Second Linguifex Relay"; and link the page where you keep your translation.

[[Category:Relays]][[Category:Linguifex relays]]

Talk:Second Linguifex Relay

2013-11-07T02:33:13Z

Greatbuddha: Created page with "Sign me up, I have no idea where the signup s in the forum. I'll be using Behru cesik ~~~~"

Sign me up, I have no idea where the signup s in the forum. I'll be using Behru cesik
[[User:Greatbuddha|Greatbuddha]] ([[User talk:Greatbuddha|talk]]) 03:33, 7 November 2013 (CET)

Behru cesik

2013-11-07T02:17:31Z

Greatbuddha:

Behru Cesik (Meaning Behru way of speaking) is the highest language of the Behru empire. The stage of the language represented in this article is that spoken when the empire conquered the Yamazi dynasty of Winanda and began imposing its culture over a wide area.
==Phonology==
===Phonemes===
All Behru consonants except /h/ have voiced and voiceless counterparts. Voiceless consonants are usually weakly aspirated, the voiceless sonorants strongly so. Voiceless consonants are listed after their voiced counterparts in the table. Romanization is listed in '''Bold '''below the ipa. Romanization will be used in all sections of the article other than the phonology section.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="margin: 0px auto;"
|+Consonants
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|Labial
! scope="col"|Alveolar
! scope="col"|Post alveolar
! scope="col"|Palato-alveolar
! scope="col"|Palatal
! scope="col"|Velar
! scope="col"|Glottal
|-
! scope="row"|Plosive
|
p b

'''p b'''
|
t d

'''t d'''
|
|
|
|
g k

'''g k'''
|
h

'''h'''
|-
! scope="row"|Affricate
|
|
|
|
tɕ dʑ

'''c j'''
|
|
|
|-
! scope="row"|Fricative
|
ɸ β

'''f v'''
|
s z

'''s z'''
|
|
ɕ ʑ

'''sh zh'''
|
|
x ɣ

'''x gh'''
|
|-
! scope="row"|Nasal
|
m m̥ʰ

'''m hm'''
|
n n̥ʰ

'''n hn'''
|
|
|
ɲ ɲ̥ʰ

'''ñ hñ'''
|
ŋ ŋ̥ʰ

'''ng hng'''
|
|-
! scope="row"|Aproximant
|
w w̥ʰ

'''w hw'''
|
l l̥ʰ

'''l hl'''
|
r r̥ʰ

'''r hr'''
|
|
j j̥ʰ

'''y hy'''
|
|
|}
Behru has 4 base vowels, a, ɛ, u, and o, whose qualities change based on length and stress. Each vowel has 3 forms, long, short, and reduced. The vowel centralizes when it reduces, a and o reduce to ə̆, u reduces to ʊ, ɛ reduces to ɪ̆. The vowel ɛ uniquely changes to i: when lengthened. As before, romanized forms are marked in the chart. In addition, vowels may carry a high tone or a low tone, a high tone is marked with an acute, e.g., á, í, úu, óo. Low tone is unmarked. Reduced vowels are always low tone, even if derived from an originally high toned vowel.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="margin: 0px auto;"
|+Vowels
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|Front
! scope="col"|Front-mid
! scope="col"|Mid
! scope="col"|Mid-back
! scope="col"|Back
|-
! scope="row"|Close
|
i:

'''ii '''
|
ɪ̆

'''i'''
|
|
ʊ̆

'''ü'''
|
u u:

'''uu u'''
|-
! scope="row"|Mid
|
ɛ

'''e'''
|
|
ə̆

'''ë'''
|
|
o o:

'''oo o'''
|-
! scope="row"|Open
|
a: a

'''aa a'''
|
|
|
|
|}

===Phonotactical restraints and Sandhi===
'''Rule 1 '''

All''' '''syllables start with 1 to 4 consonants and contain only 1 vowel, no more, no less.

j̥ʰa, mút, cen, xoo, ɲɛ are all permitted.

ɛt, u and itɕ are not permitted due to not having an initial consonant.

sɛun, lai, and ɣə̆if are not permitted due to having 2 vowels.

tpt, xn, mj̥ʰ are not permitted due to having no vowels.

''*exception: kl̥t and zrn are permitted because /l/ and /r/ may optionally function as reduced vowels.

'''Rule 2 '''

All consonants in a consonant cluster must agree in voicing if they do not, the voicing of the first consonant of the second syllable controls the voicing.
kx, tɸ, n̥ts, bw, dɣy and m̥y̥ʰ are all permitted due to all members of the cluster agreeing in voice.
sʊ̆ɸk+zwáan must be changed to sʊ̆βgzwáan because they do not agree in voicing. As z is the first consonant of the second syllable and is voiced, it changes all unvoiced consonants in the cluster to voiced, changing k to g and ɸ to β
l̥ʰən+ksɛ must become l̥ʰən̥ksɛ, because k, the first consonant of the second syllable, is unvoiced, changing the voiced n to voiceless n̥.

'''Rule 3'''

Syllable initial consonant clusters are permitted, they may consist at most

Stop + Fricative + Liquid (/l/ or /r/) + /w/ or /j/, or

Nasal+ /w/ or /j/ in that order.

kfr̥j̥ is permitted as it contains a stop fricative, liquid, and /j/ in the right order, and all consonants agree in voicing, as specified in rule two.
kn̥ and ŋr are not permitted as nasals may not coexist with stops, fricatives, or liquids in consonant clusters.
skj̥ is not permitted as fricatives may not precede stops,
sɲ̥ is not permitted as fricatives may not precede nasals.
mj is permitted as /j/ may come after a nasal.
zlw is permitted as all constituents are in the right order, fricative>liquid> /w/ or /y/
wzl and lzw are not, however, they are not in the right order.
βj is permitted, the contituents are in the right order and of the right type.
'''
Rule 4'''
any alveolar consonant followed by /j/ is transformed to its palatal counterpart.
tj̥ and dj become tɕ and dʑ respectively.
sj̥ and zj become ɕ and ʑ respectively
nj and n̥j̥ʰ become ɲ and ɲ̥ʰ respectively.

'''Rule 5 '''
The combinations /ji:/ and /jɪ/ are always converted to /ʑi:/ and /ʑɪ/ respectively. In the same manner, /wʊ/ and /wu:/ are always converted to /βʊ/ and /βu:/ respectively. This rule overides rule 3, the syllable /zlji:/ will be converted to /zlʑi:/ even though /zlʑ/ is otherwise forbidden at the beginning of a syllable due to having a fricative after a liquid. The /β/ and /ʑ/ will be converted into /ɸ/ and /ɕ/ if it would violated rule 2, /pl̥w̥ʰʊ/ would be converted to /pl̥ɸʊ/, not /pl̥βʊ/, /kj̥i:/ to /kɕi:/, not /kʑi:/.
'''
Rule 6'''
The only consonants that may occur syllable finally are t/d, p/b/, ɸ/β, k/g, n/n̥, m/m̥, ɲ/ɲ̥, ŋ/ŋ̥, and ɕ/ʑ. Voicing is not distinguished in the final position. Final stops and fricatives may have nasals preceding them , and ɕ/ʑ and ɸ/βmay precede any one of the others(but not eachother). Two nasals may not occur in a row in these syllables.
raβn is a permitted syllable, but raβʑ is not. ramβ is permitted. l̥̥ʰʊm̥k is permitted, l̥ʰumn is not. kaβʑ and kaʑβ are not permitted, ʑ and β may not be together at the end of a syllable.
'''Rule 7'''
A sequence of vowels is always interrupted by glides and or has the first vowel deleted to avoid violating rule 1. The change depends on the first vowel, ɛ, ɪ, and ii insert /j/ in a sequence of vowels. /ɪ/ is deleted when /j/ is inserted. uu, u, o, and ʊ insert /w/ in a sequence of vowels. /u/ and /ʊ/ are deleted when /w/ is inserted.
kaɛ would become kɛ
kau would become ku
kɛɛ would become kɛjɛ
kɪo: would become kjo:
ki:o would become ki:jo
ku:a would become ku:wa
kua and kʊa would both become kwa
kɛi: would become kɛji:, which would then become kɛʑi: due to rule 5
kʊu and kuu would both become kwu, which would then become kβu due to rule 5, and then kɸu due to rule 1.
sɪɪ would become sjɪ due to rule 5, which would then become ɕi due to rule 4.
==Nouns==
Behru nouns delcine for 12 cases and 3 numbers. The 12 cases can be grouped into the simple cases, Nominative, Causative, Ablative, Benefactive, Posessive, Instrumental, Adessive, Locative, and Dative, and the complex cases, Accusative, Genitive, and Comparative. The complex cases use a different stem than simple cases.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="margin: 0px auto;"
|+Declension of Vowel deleting nouns
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|
múki, ''dog-like animal''

(i-type )
! scope="col"|
ratu, ''wind''

(u-type )
! scope="col"|
ksopa, ''shelf''

(a-type)
|-
! scope="row"|Nominative
|múkësh
|ratët
|ksopët
|-
! scope="row"|Causative
|múkye
|ratúsh
|ksopé
|-
! scope="row"|Ablative
|múking
|ratung
|ksopang
|-
! scope="row"|Benefactive
|múkimpi (múki-kimpi)
|ratwimpi
|ksopempi
|-
! scope="row"|Posessive
|múkihno (múki-kihno)
|ratwihno
|ksopehno
|-
! scope="row"|Adessive
|múkicra (múki-kicra)
|ratwicra
|ksopecra
|-
! scope="row"|Instrumental
|múkl
|rato
|ksopo
|-
! scope="row"|Locative
|múxi (múk-hi)
|raswi (rat-hwi)
|ksofi (ksop-hi)
|-
! scope="row"|Dative
|múkci
|ratcwi
|ksopci
|-
! scope="row"|Paucal stem
|múkíi-
|raswíi-
|ksopégii-
|}

{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Declension of vowel holding nouns
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|
myéngu ''water''

(u-type)
! scope="col"|bghoze ''bucket''
! scope="col"|nadno ''berry''
! scope="col"|rwidli ''people, tribe''
! scope="col"|hnáza ''platform, step''
|-
! scope="row"|Nominative
|myénguzu
|bghozezu
|nadnozu
|rwidlizu
|hnázazu
|-
! scope="row"|Causative
|myéngóye
|bghozéjje
|nadnóye
|rwidlíish
|hnázáash
|-
! scope="row"|Ablative
|myéngweng
|bghozeng
|nadnweng
|rwidleng
|hnázang
|-
! scope="row"|Benefactive
|myéngwimpi
|bghozempi
|nadnokimpi
|rwidlikimpi
|hnázempi
|-
! scope="row"|Posessive
|myéngwihno
|bghozehno
|nadnokihno
|rwidlikihno
|hnázehno
|-
! scope="row"|
Adessive
|myéngwicra
|bghozecra
|nadnokicra
|rwidlikicra
|hnázecra
|-
! scope="row"|Instrumental
|myéngo
|bghozho (bghoz-yo)
|nadno
|rwidlyl
|hnáza
|-
! scope="row"|Locative
|myéngwíik
|bghozíik
|nadnóok
|rwidllíik
|hnazíik
|-
! scope="row"|Dative
|myénguci
|bghozeci
|nadnoci
|rwidlici
|hnázaci
|-
! scope="row"|Paucal stem
|myéngugíi
|bghozíi
|nadnwíi
|rwidlíi
|hnázegíi
|}

{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="margin: 0px auto;"
|+Declension of sonorant nouns.
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|tsan ''support''
! scope="col"|húm ''fluid''
! scope="col"|byéng ''metal''
! scope="col"|südzlar ''elbow''
! scope="col"|kwél ''cloud''
|-
! scope="row"|Nominative
|tsaan
|húum
|bzhíing
|südzlaar
|kwíil
|-
! scope="row"|Causative
|tsañje
|húhmye
|byén'gye
|südzlarje
|kwélje
|-
! scope="row"|Ablative
|tsanding
|húmbing
|byén'ging
|südlarjing
|kwélzing
|-
! scope="row"|Benefactive
|tsaanpi
|húmpi
|bzhíingpi
|südzlarpi
|kwíilpi
|-
! scope="row"|Posessive
|tsaahnno
|húuhmno
|bzhíihngno
|südzlahrno
|kwíihlno
|-
! scope="row"|Adessive
|tsaancra
|húumcra
|bzhíingcra
|südzlarcra
|kwíilcra
|-
! scope="row"|Instrumental
|tsaahnu
|húuhmu
|bzhíihngu
|südzlaarzho
|kwíiyo
|-
! scope="row"|Locative
|tsanti
|húmpi
|byéngki
|südzlarshi
|kwélsi
|-
! scope="row"|Dative
|tsaanci
|húumci
|bzhíingci
|südzlaarci
|kwíilci
|-
! scope="row"|Paucal stem
|tsansíi
|húmvíi
|byéngxíi
|südzlarzhíi
|kwélzíi
|}


[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Talk:Themsarian/Bipersonal affixes

2013-11-02T14:20:00Z

Greatbuddha: Created page with "Have you considered using charts of subject and then object prefixes, rather than a giant combination of both? I've noticed you're bipersonal affixes are really just a subject..."

Have you considered using charts of subject and then object prefixes, rather than a giant combination of both? I've noticed you're bipersonal affixes are really just a subject affix+ an object affix.
[[User:Greatbuddha|Greatbuddha]] ([[User talk:Greatbuddha|talk]]) 15:20, 2 November 2013 (CET)

Sangi/Morphology

2013-08-18T14:50:47Z

Greatbuddha: Someone please delete the subpages i don't know how

=Nouns=

==Nominal Structure==

Like verbs, nouns have a series of slots into which certain affixes can be placed. They are all suffixes and show case, position, direction, number, definiteness, size, and possession.

An overview of the suffixes would be:

Slot 1: Stem

Slot 2: Measure

Slot 3: Case-Number

Slot 4: Possession

===Slot 1 – The Stem===

The stem may undergo a number of different mutations but only I-mutation makes a semantic difference.

I-mutation – This causes the noun to show plurality.

Plural mutation – This also causes the noun the show plurality. It is quite rare that a word will not be able to undergo at least one of these.

Stem weakening I - This creates the genitive stem in the singular.

Stem weakening II – This creates the stative stem.

Stem Strengthening – This creates the locative stem. This strengthening also applies to stem ending in “-i” and “-e” but not “-j” and long plosives. The stem must also undergo aspirant mutation to form the locative stem fully.

To create the genitive stem and stative stem in the plural, the plural stem undergoes the two stem weakening processes above.

The form a noun takes to show the collective form, “a group of...”, “a flock of sheep,” etc. is the plural stem with singular suffixes. For example, “swáma” vs. “swámbe” - “because of a herd of cows” vs. “because of cows”. The dual number is formed in the opposite fashion, using the singular stem with plural suffixes. This means that the nominative singular and dual are identical, as it is with the plural and collective, but are different in other cases, e.g. “súma” vs. “súmbe” “because of a cow” vs. “because of two cows”. The dual form may also me the default plural for nouns which come in pairs, e.g. eyes, but only in non-nominative cases. The fact that the collective is written as a singular means that a new collective can be formed from it, so, for example, you may have “sú” (cow), “swá” (a herd of cows) and “swé” (many herds of cows) and further to “swí” or if “swia” depending on how far one wishes to take the meaning of the word, but cases of more than two collective forms are very, very rare.

Definiteness is shown only in stems which can undergo consonantal a-affection so a vocalic stem can never be marked for definiteness, in the nominative stem at least. All stems undergo a-affection so say the genitive stem must be formed before a-affection is applied (e.g. -t>-d>-dz)

===Slot 2 – Measure===

The suffixes of slot 2 give an overview of the size of the object in relation to its general sized counterpart. There are suffixes for height, length, width, and a combination of all of these. Two suffixes at the most can be placed in this slot because using three would be a redundant process. This slot actually extends the original stem creating a new one. It is this "suffix" which undergoes the necessary mutations for stem alteration, not the basic stem.

-od – This suffix appears after labial consonants and is the suffix meaning “generally larger”, e.g. “lap – laugh” > “lapodi – hysterical laugh”.

-i – This suffix also appears after labial consonants and means “generally smaller”, e.g. “lap – laugh” > “lepfi – chuckle”.

-uc – This suffix appears after dental consonants and means “generally bigger”, e.g. “pat – bath” > “patuc – swimming pool”.

-es – This suffix also appears after dental consonants and means “generally smaller”, e.g. “pat – bath” > “pećes – wash basin”.

-op – This suffix appears after velar consonants and means “generally bigger”, e.g. “toc – dog” > “tųcop” – big dog (class of dogs, like a Great Dane)”.

-el – This suffix also appears after velar consonants and means “generally smaller”, e.g. “toc – dog” > “tœćel – puppy”.

-ot – This suffix appears after sibilants and means “generally bigger”, e.g. “cússi – ghost” > “cóssot - Demon”.

-et - This suffix also appears after sibilants and means “generally smaller”, e.g. “cússi – ghost” > “cúśśet –little ghost, spirit”.

-ac – This suffix appears after r and l and means “generally bigger”, e.g. “úr – house” > óźac – mansion”.

-em – This suffix appears after r and l and means “generally smaller”, e.g. “úr – house” > “úśem – cottage”. The -e- in this suffix does not cause i-affection of vowels or the letter -l-, as would be expected.

-rd – This suffix appears after vowels and means “generally bigger”, e.g. “sa – cat” > “sardi – big cat”. It appears as -ḑ in quick speech as well as in informal writing, so “sardi” may appear as “saḑi” instead.

-l – This suffix also appears after vowels and means “generally smaller”, e.g. “sa – cat” > “sal – kitten”.

The above suffixes can be seen as augmentative and diminutive suffixes.

The other sets of suffixes are not dependent on the final sound of the stem and are limited to a single dimension. The [] vowels are used after C-clusters only.

-[o]g – bigger in height, e.g. “úrgi – skyscraper”.

-[e]s – smaller in height, e.g. “úrs~úş – bungalow”.

-[a]rc – wider, e.g.

-[i]t – thinner, e.g.

-[a]ng – longer, e.g. “snéjang – dragon”.

-[i]l – shorter, e.g. “snéjil – worm”.

It should be noted that the affection caused by the suffixes' vowels are marked by pronunciation. This is because these words are technically new, having formed through a derivational suffix.

===Slot 3 – Case-Number ===

The suffixes for case and number are attached to the eight different stems formed in slot 1. Singular suffixes are attached to singular stems and plural suffixes are attached to plural stems so these pairs will be discussed as pairs. The suffixed will be discussed according to their stems. The definite suffix does not create a new stem.

====I Nominative Stem====

-i/e, -i/e – These are the nominative suffixes of the general gender and represent the subject of the verb. “-e” is used with collective nouns and “-i” with singular.

-o, -o – These are the male nominative suffixes.

-a, -a – These are the female nominative suffixes.

-n, -ndi – These are the accusative suffixes and represent the (direct) object of the verb.

-t, -ði – These are the dative suffixes and represent the indirect object of dynamic verbs and the direct objects of stative verbs.

-ma, -mbe – These are the causal suffixes and they represent the cause of the verbs performance.

-mi, -mbi - These are the passive suffixes used with the passive voice. They represent the "by..." construct.

-V, -Vi – These are the vocative suffixes and represent the English “Oh...”. The V is the last vowel of the stem, so this suffix may be the same as the nominative or “-u”.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
| nominative
| -/i/e
| i.pl.-[i]
|-
| nom (male)
| -o
| i.pl.-o
|-
| nom (fem)
| -a
| i.pl.-a
|-
| accusative
| -n
| i.pl.-ndi
|-
| dative
| -t
| i.pl.-ði
|-
| causal
| -ma
| i.pl.-mbe
|-
| passive
| -mi
| i.pl.-mbi
|-
| vocative
| -V
| i.pl.-Vi
|}

====II Genitive Stem====

-l, -lli – These are the genitive suffixes and are translated as “of...” or "...'s"

-s -st – These are the benefactive suffixes and are translated as “for (the benefit of)...”.

-sca, -sće – These suffixes translate as “in (regards to)” and “about” as in “talk about”.

-se, -sti – These are the distributive suffixes and are translated as “per...”.

-u, -au – These are the partitive suffixes and are translated as “a number of ...”. The number can be specified. It can also be used when an object is actually part of the noun in question like “armo poǵium – the arm of my body”, hence the term “partitive”. The partitive also marks atelic verb meaning, showing that the verb may or may not have been fully completed, as opposed to fully completed, e.g. "I shot the bear (dead)" (telic) vs. "I shot at the bear (but am not telling whether or not it is dead)" (atelic).

-le, -lli – These are the instrumental suffixes and represent the object used in the performance of the verb.

-tu, -ðau – These are the comitative suffixes and they represent the object (usually people) that also participated in the action, e.g. “iéra zëëmindi sinditum – I play games with my sibling.”

-cta, -cse – These are the sociative suffixes and show that the verb was performed within the range of a sense or in the company of the noun in question.

-it, -iði – These are the anti-instrumental suffixes and show what was not used in the performance of the verb.

-ssi, -si – These are the anti-comitative suffixes and show what did not participate in the action.

-lca, -lge – These are the anti-sociative suffixes and show that the action was performed outside the senses of the noun.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
| genitive
| w.-l
| i.pl.w.-lli
|-
| benefactive
| w.-s
| i.pl.w.-st
|-
| regardive
| w.-sca
| i.pl.w.-sće
|-
| distributive
| w.-se
| i.pl.w.-sti
|-
| partitive
| w.-u
| i.pl.w.A-au
|-
| instrumental
| w.-le
| i.pl.w.-lli
|-
| comitative
| w.-tu
| i.pl.w.-ðau
|-
| sociative
| w.-cta
| i.pl.w.-cse
|-
| anti-instrumental
| w.+I-it
| i.pl.w.I-iði
|-
| anti-comitative
| w.-ssi
| i.pl.w.-si
|-
| anti-sociative
| w.-lca
| i.pl.w.-lge
|}

====III Stative Stem====

-tta, -te – These show that something is currently in a state of being.

-ta, -ðe – These show that the object's state of being is moving away from its original state.

-ja, -je – These show that the object's state of being is moving towards a new state.

-cca, -ce – These mark the location of the beginning of a journey.

-ca, -śe – These mark the location of the end of a journey.

-ga, -he – These mark the cause of the journey or the object of a search.

-pa, -ve - These mark the comparative case. It shows likeness or comparison to the marked noun. The exact use varies but is usually used in examples like "something tastes like/similar to a fish" where fish would be in the comparative case.

-ba, -fe - These mark the equative case. Similar to the comparative case, is marks likeness to the object it marks. It usually forms nouns or adjectives like "arrowlike". It is mainly used to form complex adjectives which would replace entire subordinate clauses like "the man, who is king-like" which would then become "the king-like man".

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
| stat.
| 2.-tta
| i.pl.2.-te
|-
| stat.from
| 2.-ta
| i.pl.2.-ðe
|-
| stat.to
| 2.I-ja
| i.pl.2.I-je
|-
| loc.init.
| 2.-cca
| i.pl.2.-ce
|-
| loc.end
| 2.-ca
| i.pl.2.-śe
|-
| loc.caus.
| 2.-ga
| i.pl.2.-he
|-
| comp.
| 2.-
| i.pl.2.-
|-
| equ.
| 2.-
| i.pl.2.-
|}

====IV Locative Stem====

The locative, movement and temporal suffixes will be listed in order of position, movement to, movement from and movement along.

-sa/ste, -sta/śte, -ssa/se, -śa/ge – These are the interior suffixes relate to the inside of the noun.

-la/lle, -lda/lte, -lla/le, -lsa/lde – These are the surface suffixes and relate to the noun's surface.

-na/nde, -nda/nte, -nna/ne, -nsa/nde – These are the exterior suffixes and relate to the area around the noun. Also used as the general suffixes of position a movement.

-ra/(se), -rda/(te), -rra/(de), -rsa/(je) – These are the temporal suffixes and relate to time. They mean, respectively, “at…” or “on/in this…”, “until…” or “up to…”, “as of…” or “from…” and “between… and…” In quick speech, the “non-locative” temporal cases are usually made retroflex becoming -ḑa -ŗa and -şa. When used with the temporal demonstratives it can add meaning off “after” and “before”. The temporal suffixes can also be used with nouns that represent events.

The non-temporal locative cases can be given a slightly temporal meaning by adding -r to the end, e.g. "lihînaśar" means "throughout life", "during life" or "in life" implying a movement through the time of life.

It can be seen that all of the plural suffixes belonging to all stems are a result of consonantal and vocalic plural mutations. The difference, though, is not marked on the vowel by means of diacritics. This has been the preferred method because it allows the stem to be clearly defined and identified in writing.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
| in(side)
| s.-sa
| i.pl.s.-ste
|-
| in(to)
| s.-sta
| i.pl.s.-śte
|-
| out (of)
| s.-ssa
| i.pl.s.-se
|-
| through
| s.-śa
| i.pl.s.-ge
|-
| on
| s.-la
| i.pl.s.-lle
|-
| on(to)
| s.-lda
| i.pl.s.-lte
|-
| off (of)
| s.-lla
| i.pl.s.-le
|-
| along
| s.-lsa
| i.pl.s.-lde
|-
| at
| s.-na
| i.pl.s.-nde
|-
| towards
| s.-nda
| i.pl.s.-nte
|-
| away (from)
| s.-nna
| i.pl.s.-ne
|-
| past
| s.-nsa
| i.pl.s.-nde
|-
| “at…” or “on/in this…”
| s.-ra
| i.pl.s.-se
|-
| “until…” or “up to…”
| s.-rda
| i.pl.s.-te
|-
| “as of…” or “from…”
| s.-rra
| i.pl.s.-de
|-
| “between… and…”
| s.-rsa
| i.pl.s.I-je
|}

More specific prepositions in English are indicated by combinations of the locative case suffixes and postpositions which give the general positionon the noun, derived from the surface locative prepositions of English, such as "pochem" meaning "bottom" which when combined with the suffix -na/-nde means "under".

===Slot 4 – Possessive Suffixes===

The possessive suffixes, when used alone, show possession by an already established noun which has been replaced by a pronoun, therefore they mean “my”, “our”, “your”, “his/her/its” and “their”. When used in combination with the definite article they take the meaning of “... own”.

-[i]m – This means “my”, e.g. “tocim – my dog.”

-[i]t – This means “your (singular)”, e.g. “sat – your cat.”

-[i]c – This means “his”, “her” and “its”, as gender is rarely marked in Sangi, e.g. “úric – her house.”

-[i]p – This means “our”, e.g. “tuśip – our dogs.”

-[i]s – This means “your (plural)”, e.g. “pwállus – your own books.”

-[i]j – This means “their”, e.g. “lanij – their country.”

The -[i]- infixes are epenthetic and cannot cause i-affection.

=Verb Structure=

The verb is built around a structure which contains six “slots”. Into each of these slots can be placed only a certain kind of affix and only a certain number of a type of affix can be used in their given slot.

An overview of the slots would be this:

Auxiliary Verb

Slot 1: Modality

Slot 2: Stem

Slot 3: Aspect-Intensity-Voice

Slot 4: Conjugation

Slot 5: Mood

Slot 6: object markers

Each of these slots and there suffixes will be dealt with in detail, slot by slot and examples of verb conjugations will be given at the end to clear things up. Auxiliary verbs are rare, and many speakers are not able to construct this structure because they have never used or heard them. Typically all information is contained within the main verb complex, but when an auxiliary verb is used, the main verb appears in the second infinitive. They are so rare a construction that an example can not be provided here.

In addition to this there may also appear a word, originally a separate phrase that has not been contracted over time, which represents certain moods beyond those five represented in the verb complex itself.

==Slot 1 – Modality==

t[e]’ – This means “can”. Negative – ć[e]’. Conditional meaning – could.

ś[e]’ – This means “shall”. Negative – sc[e]’. Conditional meaning – should.

m[e]’ – This means “must” or “need to”. Negative – n[e]’. Conditional meaning – might, may.

w[e]’ – This means “want to”. Negative – l[e]’. Conditional meaning – would.

c[e]’ – This means “like to”. Negative – þ[e]’. Conditional meaning – would like to.

The infix -a- causes the meaning to become conditional. It causes A-Affection and is then omitted where it does this, otherwise it remains “a”.

If there is no actual modality to the verb, i.e. it is basic, then the negative markers are “i” before consonants and “r” before vowels. These markers are also negative markers in all other word classes. The conditionals are “ja” and “ra”.

{| class="wikitable"
! meaning
! positive
! negative
! conditional
! conditional negative
|-
| ---
| -
| i-, r-
| a-
| ra-
|-
| can
| t[e]-
| ć[e]-
| tsa-
| ića-
|-
| shall
| ś[e]-
| sc[e]-
| śa-
| sca-
|-
| must
| m[e]-
| n[e]-
| ma-
| n[d]a-
|-
| want to
| w[e]-
| l[e]-
| ija-
| ja-
|-
| like to
| c[e]-
| þ[e]-
| ća-
| þa-
|}

==Slot 2 – Stem==

The stem has the possibility of undergoing stem gradation and vowel mutation in order to show the different tenses and aspects.

I-mutation - This shows the future tense.

A-mutation – This shows the past tense.

Stem gradation – The weak stem shows that the action is progressive. It is formed by moving the final consonant of the stem one step in the weak direction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Consonant
! Weak I
! Weak II
! Weak I + A-affection
! I-Affection (suffix -j if none occurs or after vowels)
! Weak I + I-affection
! Weak II + I-affection
! Weak II + A-affection
! Weak I + [j]a
|-
| A-mutation
| Past
| Past progressive
| Past perfect
| Past progressive perfect
| Passive past
| Passive past progressive
| Passive past perfect
| Passive past perfect progressive
| Reciprocal past
|-
| Vowel
| Present
| Present progressive
| Present perfect
| Present progressive perfect
| Passive present
| Passive present progressive
| Passive present perfect
| Passive present perfect progressive
| Reciprocal present
|-
| I-Mutation
| Future
| Future progressive
| Future perfect
| Future progressive perfect
| Passive future
| Passive future progressive
| Passive future perfect
| Passive future perfect progressive
| Reciprocal future
|}

Example: "i" (eat)

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Consonant
! Weak I
! Weak II
! Weak I + A-affection
! I-Affection (suffix -j if none occurs or after vowels)
! Weak I + I-affection
! Weak II + I-affection
! Weak II + A-affection
! Weak I + a
|-
| A-mutation
| e-
| et-
| ed-
| ets-
| ej-
| ech-
| egh-
| edz-
| eta-
|-
| Vowel
| i-
| it-
| id-
| its-
| ij-
| ich-
| igh-
| idz-
| ita-
|-
| I-Mutation
| ai-
| ait-
| aid-
| aits-
| aij-
| aich-
| aigh-
| aidz-
| aita-
|}

Before the stem occur may occur a set of prefixes which indicate position, direction and use in relation to a noun in the sentence. These prefixes are usually dropped when used with the object itself with the noun taking the case with the corresponding meaning. This however only occurs with cases that correspond to that prefix. For example, no case exists to mark the prepostion "by" so the verb "pa^t.es-" (meaning "to join" but literally "to tread by") will never occur as "t.es-" followed by a noun marking "by". On the other hand a verb with the prefix "in-" will occur with this prefix when used on its own but without the prefix followed by a noun marking "in" through case marking when use with an object. In otherwords, the meaning of certain verbs is defined fully by the case which the object of it takes.

Another set of prefixes marking the andative and venitive. The venitive marks a general movement to someone, somthing whether it be the speaker, the listener or something else and is marked by the prefix "ca[N]-" (the N only arises before a nasal consonant and as an "n" before a vowel) originally from the word meaning "to come". The andative marks the opposite direction, i.e. movement away from something, and is marked by the prefix "z[y]-" originally from the word for "to go". These prefixes and may also form new verbs from old ones. For example, the verb "pe-" meaning "to carry" (from the Old English root form "beran", "bear" in Modern English) becomes "to bring" in the venitive (cape-) and "to take" in the andative (zype-). These prefixes could be used when a noun attributed to it or they may not be so "cape-" would become "pe-" when used with a noun carrying the suffix for the "towards" case.

===List of Preposition Prefixes===

{| class="wikitable"
! Prefix
! Meaning
! Case governed
|-
| zy-
| andative
| ---, "away from"
|-
| ca[N]-
| ventive
| ---, "towards"
|-
| in-
| position inside
| "inside"
|-
| epâ-C, epr-V
| position outside, near to, etc.
| "about" "around"
|}

==Slot 3 – Apect-Intensity-Voice==

There are twenty-nine suffixes which can accommodate this slot but the usual number used in any single verb complex never exceeds around five, although more extreme complexes are used as examples of the flexibility of this slot. These are preceded by “a” when used after a consonant cluster. The marker -ss- is used if the aspect is that intended merely by the tense but the final sound is a vowel and it is followed byt the intensity-voice markers.

-st – This suffix translates roughly as “going to” or “about to”. It shows that the subject intends/intended to perform the action in the immediate future. It is also used in the past tense to mark the future-in-past tense of a verb.

-s – This suffix means “begin (to)”.

-t – This means “continue (to)”.

-d – This means “for a while”.

-j – This means “finish” or “stop”

-cc – This also means “finish” but carries the implication of “quit” as it is more long term or even permanent.

-c – This is the third “finish” suffix but carries the implication that you have only stopped for a while and will perform the action again or continue to perform the previous action which is incomplete.

-sc - This suffix translates as "already".

-g – This means “resume” or continue a previously incomplete action. It also marks the idea that the action was continued, but in a different way than it previously was. So the English sentence, "I continued to catch the ball with my left hand" could mean that I had been catching the ball with my left hand previously, so "catch" would be marked with the "-t" suffix but it could also mean that I had been catching the ball with my right hand before, or with my feet or mouth so "catch" would instead be marked with "-g" in this example.

-r – Translates as “on and on” and shows that the action was continued for a long period of time which may be undetermined.

-rd – Shares a similar meaning with “-r” but translates as “again an again” showing that the action was not continuous but made up of small segments. May appear as -ḑ.

-rs – This translates as “… is tired of ….-ing” or “sick of ….” When used with the intensive suffix. It is usually written as and realised as -ş.

-n – Shows that the performance was intentional.

-m – Shows that the performance was unintentional or accidental.

-ns – Shows that the action was performed only once.

-nt – shows that the action was performed many times.

-ŋŋ – This is used to mean “any more” in the negative and “still” in the positive.

-lt – This means “try to”.

-ł – This means “for a time” and relates to time period longer than that associated with the suffix “-d”.

-i – This translates as “simply”, “just” or “only” and shows that it was the only action performed by the speaker.

-ţ – “for the first time”

-ņ – “for the last time”

-p - This translates as "sometimes" or "occasionally".

-b - This translates as "often" or "regularly", something habitual but not excessive.

-w, -v - These translate as "a lot" or "more often than not". “-w” is used after consonants, “-v” after vowels.

-h - This translates as "excessively" or "more than is necessary or required" maybe “too much”

-e – This means “again”.

-ln – This means “now” and emphasises that the action is being performed at that specific time.

-ild – This translates as “(and/or/but) … (simultaneous/ at the same time)”. It is used in phrases like “you can eat and walk at the same time” where the “and walk at the same time” would become simply “ośildin”. If the verbs are conjugated identically then the second one appears in the infinitive form as shown above. For the meaning of “but” to be realised, the word “pa” precedes the verb. A preceding “o” or “w” means “or”.

-l - This means "always".

-ll – This means “forever” and shows that the action is continued uninterrupted for unimaginable amounts of time or even indefinitely, e.g. pillár – he will exist forever. It adds more emphasis to the meaning of the “-l” suffix and can actually be used alongside it to add more emphasis, e.g. pilallár - he will always exist, forever.

Three additional suffixes, attached after the others of this slot define the intensity of the action;

-o – This shows that the verb is intensive, performed with force, speed, etc.

-a – This suffix lowers the intensity of an intensive action but it cannot be used with a “moderate” verb. This suffix can only be used with an aspect suffix and is also the default vowel of that suffix.

-e – This suffix marks the lowest of intensities and shows that there was very little force or effort behind the verb. It can also be used to make a difficult action appear to be easy, to down play this difficulty, although this comes off as arrogance when used by the actor of the verb.

If two aspect suffixes are used, the suffixes of intensity can be used to make a finer definition of the intensity of the state or action.

After these vowels go the voice markers which combine with the degree markers to form the end voice-degree-aspect suffix.

A further set of suffixes fills this slot. These are the voice markers and relate to the actor of the verb. These are all marked by the structures “X-caus. VERB…” in the active voice and “VERB X-caus….” in the passive. The mark causality, permission, changes of state and “aid”. If no X is used then the meaning is automatically passive with an indefinite cause.

-o – This prefix marks the causative voice. This changes, for example, the sentence “children read books” to “they make children read books” and the sentence “he collects things” to “let’s make him collect things”. It basically comes out as “X makes/causes Y do/be Z” or “Y was made/caused to do/be Z by X”. In the first structure the sentence structure is the same but X is placed at the beginning in the causative case. In the second structure X is placed after the verb in the causative case. Y is accusative in the first and nominative in the second.

-a – This marks the permissive voice. This shows that the actor was allowed to perform the verb in the sense that it was given permission. The subject of this prefix takes the passive conjugation ending. For example “He let me run” would be “hama randaaha” and the “passive version” would be “randaaha hama” (I was allowed to run because he let me”.

-ir – This prefix means “to become” and shows that the subject's state of being or characteristics changed. When used in the active structure it means “X made be become …” and “I become … because of X” when used in the passive.

-u – This is the Adjutative voice and indicates that the action was performed with help. In the active it would mean “X helped Y do Z” and “Y was helped to do Z by X” in the passive.

{| class="wikitable"
! Intensity
! ---
! Low
! Middle
! High
|-
| Voice
| ---
| -e-
| -a-
| -o-
|-
| Causative
| -o-
| -ao-
| -ao-
| -ó-
|-
| Permissive
| -a-
| -á-
| -á-
| -ah-
|-
| Change
| -ir-
| -ír-
| -eir-
| -uir-
|-
| Adjutative
| -u-
| -eu-
| -au-
| -ou-
|}

The voice suffixes cannot appear on their own and must at least be combined with the suffix of general intensity.

The voice suffixes also have a second, consonantal form for when it appears twice or after another mood suffix. The causative takes -c-, the permissive takes -s-, the adjutative takes -m- and the mood marking change takes -t-.

==Slot 4 – Conjugation==

This slot contains the largest number of available suffixes but, unlike previous slots, only one suffix can occupy this space. The suffixes of this slot are used to separate stative and dynamic verbs as well as perfect and imperfect aspects. The verb conjugates for three persons; 1st, 2nd, 3rd. There is also a single impersonal ending used in phrases like "it is raining" where the pronoun in English is actually a dummy pronoun, making this sentence "rĕ́nas".

Conjugation suffixes come in 2 parts. The first part defines the verb class, e.g. dynamic process, cognitive stative and so on. The second part defines aspect and volition. Both parts are declined for person, but only the second part is declined for number as well. Part 1 is also open to I-affection and a-affection from part 2 suffixes.

Part 1
{| class="wikitable"
!
! Dynamic
!
! Stative
!
|-
!
! Activity-Process
! Sensation
! Cognitive-Perception
! Relation
! Basic Stative
|-
| Inf-sing
| -[h]
| -s
| -N
| -r
| -l
|-
| Pural-imp
| -[h]
| -N
| -s
| -l
| -r
|}

Part 2
{| class="wikitable"
!
! Involitional
! Volitional
|-
| Inf
| -ei
| -íj
|-
| 1s
| -a
| -ej
|-
| 2s
| -u
| -uj
|-
| 3s
| -ar
| -eś
|-
| 1pl
| -e
| -ij
|-
| 2pl
| -o
| -uj
|-
| 3pl
| -er
| -iś
|-
| imp
| -as
| -eś
|}

NOTES:

Although the infinitive suffixes are of slot 4, they must always come at the end of the verb complex, e.g. “spi{e}johei – to speak to someone”, where the “-o” suffix makes the root verb transitive and the “-ei” suffix is at the end.

==Slot 5 – Mood==

The slot 5 suffixes show that the verb has not been performed by the time of speech but that it may be afterwards or what would happen if it was to be performed.

-[je]s – This suffix is translated as “if” and is the first part of “if-then” statements.

-[e]n – This suffix is translated as “then” and is the second part of “if-then” statements.

-[e]m – This suffix marks hypothetical situations.

-[e]t – This is the imperative suffix. It shows that the speaker is ordering the actor to perform the action. Unlike in English, the imperative can be directed at all persons.

-[je]r – This is the optative suffix and it indicates hope that the action will take place on the part of the speaker. It is, though, usually found in interrogative sentences and is translates as “might ...?” or “please...”.

==Slot 6 – Object Suffixes==

The object suffixes represent the objects of a verb in the accusative case or the dative case, depending on the meaning of the verb.

-[e]a – 1st person

-[e]o – 2nd person

-[e]r – 3rd person/indefinite

=Mood=

Non-complex mood is represented in a phrase initial word which derived from a contraction of an older phrase which represented that mood. These words may pick up added meaning if the verb complex also represents mood, but generally each mood has its own word, although certain ones need an obligatory mood marker. These words do conjugate, but only very simply and not with the normal conjugation endings. They conjugated for person, number and volition but not for tense, class or perfection. There is also an infinitive form to mark a mood which is non-person specific, like the reportative moods.

{| class="wikitable"
!
!Involitional
!Voltional
|-
| Inf
| -ei
| -ech
|-
| 1st sing
| -a
| -at
|-
| 2nd sing
| -u
| -ut
|-
| 3rd sing
| -á
| -át
|-
| 1st pl
| -e
| -et
|-
| 2nd pl
| -o
| -ot
|-
| 3rd pl
| -é
| -ét
|}

==Evidentiality==

These moods are used to mark the source of the knowledge of the statement, whether it is from a direct or indirect source is specified in the word, and a lack of these mords indicates no attempt to reference the source. The most basic of these is a plain "indirect" knowledge, which gives no mention of source, while the others may give a source, or even multiple sources.

The basic "indirect" word is "osan-"

The other evidential moods mark the source of information. They mark whether the statement was witnessed or not, whether the information was obtained firsthand, secondhand or even thirdhand, if the statement was senseed by a specific sensory organ or not, in other words, it was seen or not seen, or whether the statement's truth comes from hearsay or a direct source, i.e. quotative.

===Witness vs. Non-witness===

This mood simply indicates whether the statement was witnessed or not. Usually it implies that the action was actually seen or simply heard about, but does not actually state the exact source of witness or the source of information in the opposite case. It is mainly a vague source of reliabilty, later built upon with more specific information.

The word marking witness is "nois-" and the one marking non-witness is "annois-".

===Firsthand vs. Secondhand vs. Thirdhand===

This 3-way distinction serves to show how far back along the "grape-vine" the source of the information is. Generally, the further back it occurs, the less reliable it is considered, but this may not always be the case.

Firsthand is marked by "and-", secondhand is marked by "st-" and third hand is marked by "ch-"

===Sensory===

There are 10 sensory mood markers, 5 for the senses, i.e. sight, hearing, tasting, smelling, touching, and another 5 for the lack of their use.

Sight is marked by "gh-" while it's opposite is marked by "agh-"

Hearing is marked by "j-" while it's opposite is marked by "zh-"

Taste is marked by "ches-" while it's opposite is marked by "t.es-"

Smell is marked by "shimj-" while it's opposite is marked by "s.im-"

Touch is marked by "sat-" while it's opposite is marked by "ast-"

===Reportative===

The reportative states whether or not the source of information was hearsay or quotative, i.e. if the information came from a direct source.

The quotative is marke by "dar-" while the hearsay word is "d.-"

==Epistemic Moods==

The epistemic moods mark the speakers view on the truth of the statement, whether they believe it to be true or false, whether they doubt the truth, if they have assumed it to be true and so on.

===Assumptive===

As the name suggests, this mood indicates that the information is assumed to be true, either because it usually is or for some other reason. It is marked by the word "tic-"

===Deductive===

This inidicates that the information in the statement was worked out from previous information and may sometimes translate as "thus" or "therefore" if used with the mood infinitive. It is marked by the word "picur-"

===Dubitative===

This indicates that the information given is under doubt. It is marked by the word "tw-"

===Speculative===

This indicates that the information is held to be true through speculation. It is similar to the assumptive but has a slightly different shade of meaning in that the information may not always be true. It is marked by the word "ult-"

===Others===

==Other Moods==

There are other moods which do not neatly into the above two categories, such as the moods which mark desires, wishes, pleas or even fears and "curses", then there are the moods which express surprise or shock and finally the gnomic tense.

===Gnomic tense===

The gnomic tense marks generally true statements such as "elephants are grey", that is, statements which are generally held to always be true. It is marked by the word "t.ol-".

===Mirative Mood===

The mirative mood marks unexpected and new information and usually translate into English as exclamations of surprise, such as "your daughter plays the piano so well!" or "she was here?". It is marked by the word "sr-".

There is also an admirative mood which marks surprise, using the word "sp-"

===Immediate Imperative===

This is simply marked by the word "n-" and when used with any mood marking desire, intent and so on, shifts the meaning to one more immediately after the time of the command.

===plea, insistence, imploring, self-encouragement, wish, desire, intent===

===fears and curses===

===Hypothetical Mood===

The hypothetical mood indicates an untrue statement which could easily be true, seen in the example "You know you shouldn't play with knives! You could have hurt someone!" where the second statement is in the hypothetical mood. It is marked by the word "het-"

=Clauses=

Clauses in English with the meaning "because" are started with the temporal pronouns "nû", etc, in reflection of the Old English forms meaning "since" and so on. The appropriate one is used according to the tense of the main verb, not of the following one.
[[Category:Sangi|Verbs]]

=Sangi Adjectives=

===Adjectival Structure===

The structure of the adjective is similar to that of the noun, although there are fewer slots and it does not involve case or number in its structure. An overview of the adjectival complex would be;

Slot 1: Stem

Slot 2: Equative, comparative and superlative suffixes

Slot 3: Demonstrative and indefinite suffixes.

====Slot 1 – Stem====

The stem can only undergo purely phonological changes dependent on the attached suffixes.

The word "too", as in "too big" or "too much" is translated as a suffix "-Tel" in which the "T" matches the previous sound in nasality, voice and sibilance with an underlying "t" which occurs after vowels. So this "T" will appear as <t> after vowels and voiceless plosives and approximants, <d> after voiced plosives, as <n> after nasals, as [s] or [z] after fricatives or affricates (depending on voiceing) and the various forms of [r] and [l] after them. Essentially te "t" will be realised as an alveolar consonants with the same manner of articulation as the previous sound.

To say "very", the augmentative and diminutive suffixes found on nouns are used here too. The diminutive suffixes carry the idea of "not very".

====Slot 2 – Equative, Comparative and Superlative Suffixes====

Unlike in English, all adjectives form there comparative and superlative forms with suffixes. Constructions of comparison like “..-er than” are also formed using suffixes as are the negatives of all forms.

-r – This is the comparative suffix and is used like the English -er and more, e.g. “picer – bigger.”

-ss – This is the superlative suffix and is used like the English -est and most, e.g. “śimoļessi – smallest.”

-ise – This is the equative suffix and is used like the English “as” or the sentence “of the same ...-ness”, e.g. “toco piéise – the dog of the same blackness.”

-era – This is the comparative suffix of comparison and is used like the English more than or -er than, e.g. “piþera – bigger than.”

-essa – This is the superlative suffix of comparison and is used when comparing a noun to a group of nouns to a group with similar characteristics and can be translated as “..-est of them”, e.g. “piþessa- the biggest (of them)”. If another noun is mentioned as the group it must take the partitive suffix.

-eisa – This is the equative suffix of comparison and is used closer to the similar use of “as...as” in English, e.g. “piþeisa - as big as.”

====Slot 3 – Demonstrative and Indefinite Suffixes====

The demonstrative suffixes are used in place of the words this, that and that over there and are -te, -ta and -tal respectively. The indefinite suffixes are -ni, -sa and -pe and represent the words any, some and every respectively.

==Numerals==

Decline as both nouns and adjectives based on context.

Ordinal – -

Cardinal – -ss(i)

Multiplicative – -nt(i)

Fractional – -rs(a)~ş(a)

[[Category:Sangi|Adjectives]]