https://linguifex.com/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Imralu 2026-04-05T20:06:02Z User contributions MediaWiki 1.43.6 https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Miwo%C5%A1&diff=367035 2024-03-31T07:23:01Z

<p>Imralu: Sorry, just realised I double-posted with í (correct) and with i (incorrect). This article can be deleted.</p> <hr /> <div>See [[Míwoš]]</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=M%C3%ADwo%C5%A1&diff=366991 2024-03-30T16:19:36Z

<p>Imralu: Created page</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> <br /> ==Etymology and Other Names==<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> ===Vowels===<br /> ===Chroneme===<br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> ===Prosody===<br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Overview of Clauseword Structure===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ROOT &lt;br /&gt;(&lt;infixes&gt;)<br /> ! (-suffixes)<br /> ! (-interfix-&lt;br /&gt;BASE)<br /> ! (-SKIP-&lt;br /&gt;interfix-&lt;br /&gt;BASE)<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | SUBJECTIFIER<br /> ! style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ROOT &lt;br /&gt;(&lt;infixes&gt;)<br /> ! (-suffixes)<br /> ! (-interfix-&lt;br /&gt;BASE)<br /> ! (-SKIP-&lt;br /&gt;interfix-&lt;br /&gt;BASE)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | CORE<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | (POSTMODIFIERS)<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | CORE<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | (POSTMODIFIERS)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | BASE<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | (BASE)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | PREDICATE<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | SUBJECT<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | CLAUSEWORD<br /> |}<br /> ====Types of Morphemes====<br /> ===Roots===<br /> ====Non-Syllabic Roots====<br /> ====Bound Roots====<br /> ===Infixes===<br /> ===Suffixes===<br /> ===Interfixes===<br /> ====SKIP Morpheme====<br /> ===Lone Bases (Direct Imperatives)===<br /> ===Subjectifiers===<br /> ===Subject Incorporation=== <br /> ===Reversal===<br /> ==Syntax==<br /> ==Grammatical Categories==<br /> ===Anaphora===<br /> ===Aspect===<br /> ==='Be'===<br /> ===Case===<br /> ===Cause and Effect===<br /> ===Causative===<br /> ===Collective===<br /> ===Comparison===<br /> ===Compounding===<br /> ===Conditionals===<br /> ===Definiteness===<br /> ===Degree===<br /> ===Deixis===<br /> ===Demonstratives===<br /> ===Existence===<br /> ===Gender===<br /> ==='Have'===<br /> ===Instrumental Roots===<br /> ===Location===<br /> ===Manner===<br /> ===Mood===<br /> ===Motion===<br /> ===Number===<br /> ===Numbers===<br /> ===Plural===<br /> ===Quantifiers===<br /> ===Rank===<br /> ===Singular===<br /> ===Tense===<br /> ===Time===<br /> ===Transitivity===<br /> ===Subordination===<br /> ===Valency===<br /> ===Voice===<br /> ==Discourse Features==</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Miwo%C5%A1&diff=366990 2024-03-30T13:52:08Z

<p>Imralu: Started entry</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> <br /> ==Etymology and Other Names==<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> ===Vowels===<br /> ===Chroneme===<br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> ===Prosody===<br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Overview of Clauseword Structure===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ROOT &lt;br /&gt;(&lt;infixes&gt;)<br /> ! (-suffixes)<br /> ! (-interfix-&lt;br /&gt;BASE)<br /> ! (-SKIP-&lt;br /&gt;interfix-&lt;br /&gt;BASE)<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | SUBJECTIFIER<br /> ! style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ROOT &lt;br /&gt;(&lt;infixes&gt;)<br /> ! (-suffixes)<br /> ! (-interfix-&lt;br /&gt;BASE)<br /> ! (-SKIP-&lt;br /&gt;interfix-&lt;br /&gt;BASE)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | CORE<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | (POSTMODIFIERS)<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | CORE<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | (POSTMODIFIERS)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | BASE<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | (BASE)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | PREDICATE<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | SUBJECT<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | CLAUSEWORD<br /> |}<br /> ====Types of Morphemes====<br /> ===Roots===<br /> ====Non-Syllabic Roots====<br /> ====Bound Roots====<br /> ===Infixes===<br /> ===Suffixes===<br /> ===Interfixes===<br /> ====SKIP Morpheme====<br /> ===Lone Bases (Direct Imperatives)===<br /> ===Subjectifiers===<br /> ===Subject Incorporation=== <br /> ===Reversal===<br /> ==Syntax==<br /> ==Grammatical Categories==<br /> ===Anaphora===<br /> ===Aspect===<br /> ==='Be'===<br /> ===Case===<br /> ===Cause and Effect===<br /> ===Causative===<br /> ===Collective===<br /> ===Comparison===<br /> ===Compounding===<br /> ===Conditionals===<br /> ===Definiteness===<br /> ===Degree===<br /> ===Deixis===<br /> ===Demonstratives===<br /> ===Existence===<br /> ===Gender===<br /> ==='Have'===<br /> ===Instrumental Roots===<br /> ===Location===<br /> ===Manner===<br /> ===Mood===<br /> ===Motion===<br /> ===Number===<br /> ===Numbers===<br /> ===Plural===<br /> ===Quantifiers===<br /> ===Rank===<br /> ===Singular===<br /> ===Tense===<br /> ===Time===<br /> ===Transitivity===<br /> ===Subordination===<br /> ===Valency===<br /> ===Voice===<br /> ==Discourse Features==</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=327960 2023-10-18T07:52:17Z

<p>Imralu: /* Morphology */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | /pʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''pq'''› || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lateral affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡ɮ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dl'''› || || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡ɬ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tl'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡ɬʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tlq'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɬʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ t͡ɬə͉ʔ].<br /> # In careful speech, affricates are distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together across word boundaries. The clusters are pronounced with a separate release.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is frequently also a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! !! Front !! Front &lt;/br&gt;Labialised || Back || Back &lt;/br&gt;Labialised<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /y/ [ʏ͍] ‹'''ü'''› || || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /ø/ [œ͍] ‹'''ö'''› || || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || || /a/ [ɑ] ‹'''a'''› ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The labialised vowels are pronounced by phenotypical Balog as unrounded vowels due to their protruding lower canines, however they are distinguished from their unlabialised counterparts by lip compression which has a similar auditory effect to rounding. This compression may sometimes be so extreme as to form a complete closure in the centre of the lips, leaving the airflow to escape laterally. Non-Balog speakers of Balog typically pronounce these vowels as rounded vowels. <br /> <br /> The phonetic realisation of these vowels, especially the higher ones, is generally quite lax, hence the symbols &lt; ɪ ʏ͍ ʊ͍ ɛ œ͍ ɔ͍ æ ɑ &gt; have been used here to represent the phones. The symbols &lt; i y u e ø o æ a &gt; were chosen to represent the phonemes purely for ease of typing, although in all cases except that of /a/, the IPA value of each of these characters is well within the range of possible realisations. A pure [a] would be right on the edge of the ranges of /æ/ and /a/: with the most fronted pronunciations of /a/ being in the realm of [ä].<br /> <br /> ====Diphthongs====<br /> All mid and low vowels can begin falling diphthongs. The following sequences are diphthongs: /ai au æi æy ei eu ey oi ou øi øy/. All other vowel combinations will be separated by a consonant, including the semivowels /w/ and /j/.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> Syllables in Balog are maximally CSVC, where C represents a consonant, S semivowel /w/ or /j/ and V a vowel. Syllables with a CS onset are rather rare.<br /> <br /> Consonant clusters other than those in which the second element is a semivowel do not occur within a morpheme or even within a clause, meaning that the appearance of such a consonant cluster reliably indicates a clause boundary. <br /> <br /> Any consonant may appear initially or medially in a morpheme. Ejective consonants cannot appear at the end of a morpheme. The plain voiceless stops and affricates are sometimes allophonically ejectivised at the end of an utterance.<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Vowel Length and Gemination===<br /> A number of proclitic morphemes such as the nominals (which indicate a subject), the essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ and the possessive proclitics ⫽niː⫽ and ⫽nuː⫽ contain the archiphoneme ⫽ː⫽ which is realised as the gemination of the following consonant, which belongs to the next morpheme, unless the next morpheme is a verb consisting of a single consonant or another morpheme containing ⫽ː⫽, in which case ⫽ː⫽ is realised as a lengthening of the vowel of the proclitic. <br /> <br /> For example, verb corresponding to the first person singular subject pronoun (&quot;I&quot;) may be either '''''ž''''' or '''''žan'''''. Applying the b-ranked, definite subject nominal clitic ⫽aː⫽ results in '''''aaž''''' or '''''ažžan''''' respectively (both meaning 'I', with the latter being more emphatically singular, 'I and no one else'). The essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''weež''''' or '''''wežžan''''' respectively ('who is me') and the a sequence of essive ⫽weː⫽ and subordinate possessive ⫽niː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''wenniiž''''' or '''''wennižžan''''' respectively ('my', 'which is mine').<br /> <br /> ===Vowel Harmony===<br /> All of the eight monophthongs and eleven diphthongs can be assigned to a harmonic class. Only /i/, /e/ and /ei/ are neutral. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! !! Neutral!! Front-&lt;/br&gt;Harmonic || Back-&lt;/br&gt;Harmonic<br /> |-<br /> ! High Monophthongs<br /> | /i/ || /y/ || /u/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Monophthongs<br /> | /e/ || /ø/ || /o/<br /> |-<br /> ! Low Monophthongs<br /> | || /æ/ || /a/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs to non-labial<br /> | /ei/ || /øi/ || /oi/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs non-labial to labial<br /> | || /ey/ || /eu/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs labial to labial<br /> | || /øy/ || /ou/<br /> |-<br /> ! High diphthongs to non-labial<br /> | || /æi/ || /ai/<br /> |-<br /> ! High diphthongs to labial<br /> | || /æy/ || /au/<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Individual morphemes in Balog cannot contain both front-harmonic and back-harmonic vowels. Both sets can coexist with neutral vowels. The front harmonic vowels are relatively rare in Balog, with the majority of roots containing only back-harmonic and or neutral vowels.<br /> <br /> In the standard dialect of Tšqaigal, the hub of the Balog empire, vowel harmony spreads only to derivational affixes. For example, the causative infix '''''-uw-''''' becomes '''''-üw-'''''when added to front-harmonic words such as '''''däz''''' ('be an assertion/claim') → '''''düwäz'''''. In other dialects, front vowel harmony may spread from subject clitics, including the subordinator '''''ää=''''', onto roots, neutralising the difference between front-harmonic and back-harmonic roots in these positions. Back vowel harmony does not spread from clitics to roots. Vowel harmony does not spread through compounding, except for some very old compound words.<br /> <br /> Front harmonic vowels are often associated with animateness, as in the minimal pair '''''maš''''' 'what' vs '''''mäš''''' 'who'.<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> In the Balog's own grammatical tradition, three parts of speech are recognised:<br /> <br /> * '''''Xam''''' &quot;meat&quot; <br /> * '''''Mološ''''' &quot;sauce&quot; <br /> * '''''Tlaz''''' &quot;spice&quot;<br /> <br /> According to grammatical descriptions of Balog in Balog, '''''xam''''' or &quot;meat words&quot; are those that are integral to the meaning of a sentence. These are the content words or ''contentives''. '''''Mološ''''' or &quot;sauce words&quot; glue the meat words together and form grammatically correct sentences. These are termed 'linkers'. '''''Tlaz''''' or &quot;spice words&quot; provide finer shades of meaning and bring greater context and clarity to the whole utterance, although it is often possible to omit them. These are called 'particles' in English.<br /> <br /> ===Contentives (''Xam'')===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each contentive exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or be preceded by a subject clitic in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;contentives&quot;.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog contentives does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each contentive may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verbs]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Contentive!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the contentive '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the contentive '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A contentive such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the contentive '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the contentive '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the contentive '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word or similarity to its conceptual archetype. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Contentive: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> nax | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX XXX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Particles===<br /> Particles modify contentives to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of particles are very short words. For example, particles indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a contentive and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal contentives, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of a subject clitic followed by a contentive (phrase).<br /> <br /> In the following example, the continuous particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || Garag || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; garag of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Linkers=== <br /> Linkers are morphemes that attach to the first word of a contentive phrase in order to coordinate them with or subordinate them in some manner into another contentive phrase. Clitic linkers include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the rest of the clause consists of only a single consonant and otherwise geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a contentive phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC.R2 || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC.R5 || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg weddag'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''dag''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF.R5 || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellouh'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eqe(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''louh''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC.R4 || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> ''Subject clitics'' or ''subjectifiers'' appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''rank'', described below. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC) !! Unrankable&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific <br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;6&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uu='''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uquu='''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhuu='''''&lt;/span&gt; || —<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aa='''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqaa='''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ahaa='''''&lt;/span&gt; || —<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oo='''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqoo=''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ohoo='''''&lt;/span&gt; || —<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ee='''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqee='''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehee='''''&lt;/span&gt; || —<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ii='''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqii='''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihii='''''&lt;/span&gt; || —<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, animate&quot; !! (ANIM)<br /> | — || — || — || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''üü='''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, inanimate&quot; !! (INAN)<br /> | — || — || — || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aii='''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;6&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The above table gives the forms as expressed in old prescriptive texts in Balog. In everyday use, however, the usage of what are here termed the specific indefinite forms (with VqVV=) and the non-specific indefinite forms is different.<br /> <br /> Due to the fact that non-specific referents are unknown, the ranked non-specific forms with /h/ are nowadays usually replaced by the unknown clitics '''''üü=''''' and '''''aii='''''. Formerly, the ranked forms were used in order to set the rank of an unknown entity so that it may be discussed in following sentences, however, this distinction is no longer maintained and unknown entities, unless their rank is clear from the context, are left unranked and referred to using '''''üü=''''' and '''''aii='''''. The distinction between the VqVV= forms and VhVV= forms has thus effectively been neutralised. The non-specific subject clitics of the form VhVV= are nowadays chiefly used as allomorphs of the specific indefinite subject clitics with the form VqVV=, being more frequently used in environments near another instance of /ʔ/. For example, '''''luq eqeggitsag''''' 'a Balog's assistant is present' may also be pronounced as '''''luq eheggitsag''''' with no change in meaning. When speaking of the desire of a non-specific non-Balog man's presence, the unknown animate subject clitic will be used: '''''he luq üggitsag''''' 'May a Balog's assistant be present.' Some speakers have a preference for the VhVV= forms and others for the VqVV= forms. A few speakers still abide by the old prescriptive norms, distinguishing specific from non-specific from unrankable unknown entities.<br /> <br /> Furthermore, the definite forms (VV=) are frequently used even for specific indefinite referents, with the indefinite forms (VqVV= and VhVV=) being more emphatically indefinite, representing a marked indication to the listener that they are not expected to know the identity of the referent. When speaking to higher ranked individuals, failure to use the indefinite forms when needed is seen as an affront to the hierarchy of respect as it effectively eliminates any indication of the listener's knowledge of the situation.<br /> <br /> =====Rank=====<br /> All known referents are assigned a '''rank''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Rank is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the rank used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, ranks may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse in order to show a hierarchy. Rank is the chief means of anaphoric reference and even person and number marking proforms such as '''''ž''''' 'I' and '''''l''''' 'you' (singular) are frequently dropped once they have been assigned a rank.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of rank is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are ranked higher than smaller, weaker referents. In some contexts, height alone has been agreed upon as the way to assign ranks. The highest rank, glossed R1, the &quot;powerful&quot; rank, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is a slight exception, frequently assigned to those who do not necessarily have physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the R1-ranked referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; or &quot;untouchable&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the U-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this rank. This is common with a few contentives such as '''''guwax''''' 'sun' and '''''tot''''' 'time'.<br /> ======Proforms======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=327956 2023-10-18T06:28:38Z

<p>Imralu: /* Verbs */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | /pʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''pq'''› || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lateral affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡ɮ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dl'''› || || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡ɬ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tl'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡ɬʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tlq'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɬʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ t͡ɬə͉ʔ].<br /> # In careful speech, affricates are distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together across word boundaries. The clusters are pronounced with a separate release.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is frequently also a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! !! Front !! Front &lt;/br&gt;Labialised || Back || Back &lt;/br&gt;Labialised<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /y/ [ʏ͍] ‹'''ü'''› || || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /ø/ [œ͍] ‹'''ö'''› || || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || || /a/ [ɑ] ‹'''a'''› ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The labialised vowels are pronounced by phenotypical Balog as unrounded vowels due to their protruding lower canines, however they are distinguished from their unlabialised counterparts by lip compression which has a similar auditory effect to rounding. This compression may sometimes be so extreme as to form a complete closure in the centre of the lips, leaving the airflow to escape laterally. Non-Balog speakers of Balog typically pronounce these vowels as rounded vowels. <br /> <br /> The phonetic realisation of these vowels, especially the higher ones, is generally quite lax, hence the symbols &lt; ɪ ʏ͍ ʊ͍ ɛ œ͍ ɔ͍ æ ɑ &gt; have been used here to represent the phones. The symbols &lt; i y u e ø o æ a &gt; were chosen to represent the phonemes purely for ease of typing, although in all cases except that of /a/, the IPA value of each of these characters is well within the range of possible realisations. A pure [a] would be right on the edge of the ranges of /æ/ and /a/: with the most fronted pronunciations of /a/ being in the realm of [ä].<br /> <br /> ====Diphthongs====<br /> All mid and low vowels can begin falling diphthongs. The following sequences are diphthongs: /ai au æi æy ei eu ey oi ou øi øy/. All other vowel combinations will be separated by a consonant, including the semivowels /w/ and /j/.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> Syllables in Balog are maximally CSVC, where C represents a consonant, S semivowel /w/ or /j/ and V a vowel. Syllables with a CS onset are rather rare.<br /> <br /> Consonant clusters other than those in which the second element is a semivowel do not occur within a morpheme or even within a clause, meaning that the appearance of such a consonant cluster reliably indicates a clause boundary. <br /> <br /> Any consonant may appear initially or medially in a morpheme. Ejective consonants cannot appear at the end of a morpheme. The plain voiceless stops and affricates are sometimes allophonically ejectivised at the end of an utterance.<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Vowel Length and Gemination===<br /> A number of proclitic morphemes such as the nominals (which indicate a subject), the essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ and the possessive proclitics ⫽niː⫽ and ⫽nuː⫽ contain the archiphoneme ⫽ː⫽ which is realised as the gemination of the following consonant, which belongs to the next morpheme, unless the next morpheme is a verb consisting of a single consonant or another morpheme containing ⫽ː⫽, in which case ⫽ː⫽ is realised as a lengthening of the vowel of the proclitic. <br /> <br /> For example, verb corresponding to the first person singular subject pronoun (&quot;I&quot;) may be either '''''ž''''' or '''''žan'''''. Applying the b-ranked, definite subject nominal clitic ⫽aː⫽ results in '''''aaž''''' or '''''ažžan''''' respectively (both meaning 'I', with the latter being more emphatically singular, 'I and no one else'). The essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''weež''''' or '''''wežžan''''' respectively ('who is me') and the a sequence of essive ⫽weː⫽ and subordinate possessive ⫽niː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''wenniiž''''' or '''''wennižžan''''' respectively ('my', 'which is mine').<br /> <br /> ===Vowel Harmony===<br /> All of the eight monophthongs and eleven diphthongs can be assigned to a harmonic class. Only /i/, /e/ and /ei/ are neutral. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! !! Neutral!! Front-&lt;/br&gt;Harmonic || Back-&lt;/br&gt;Harmonic<br /> |-<br /> ! High Monophthongs<br /> | /i/ || /y/ || /u/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Monophthongs<br /> | /e/ || /ø/ || /o/<br /> |-<br /> ! Low Monophthongs<br /> | || /æ/ || /a/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs to non-labial<br /> | /ei/ || /øi/ || /oi/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs non-labial to labial<br /> | || /ey/ || /eu/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs labial to labial<br /> | || /øy/ || /ou/<br /> |-<br /> ! High diphthongs to non-labial<br /> | || /æi/ || /ai/<br /> |-<br /> ! High diphthongs to labial<br /> | || /æy/ || /au/<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Individual morphemes in Balog cannot contain both front-harmonic and back-harmonic vowels. Both sets can coexist with neutral vowels. The front harmonic vowels are relatively rare in Balog, with the majority of roots containing only back-harmonic and or neutral vowels.<br /> <br /> In the standard dialect of Tšqaigal, the hub of the Balog empire, vowel harmony spreads only to derivational affixes. For example, the causative infix '''''-uw-''''' becomes '''''-üw-'''''when added to front-harmonic words such as '''''däz''''' ('be an assertion/claim') → '''''düwäz'''''. In other dialects, front vowel harmony may spread from subject clitics, including the subordinator '''''ää=''''', onto roots, neutralising the difference between front-harmonic and back-harmonic roots in these positions. Back vowel harmony does not spread from clitics to roots. Vowel harmony does not spread through compounding, except for some very old compound words.<br /> <br /> Front harmonic vowels are often associated with animateness, as in the minimal pair '''''maš''''' 'what' vs '''''mäš''''' 'who'.<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Contentives (''Xam'')===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each contentive exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or be preceded by a subject clitic in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;contentives&quot;.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog contentives does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each contentive may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verbs]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Contentive!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the contentive '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the contentive '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A contentive such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the contentive '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the contentive '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the contentive '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word or similarity to its conceptual archetype. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Contentive: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> nax | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX XXX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following verb phrase consists of only a consonant and otherwise geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellouh'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eqe(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''louh''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(d) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status'', described below. <br /> <br /> In everyday use, when not speaking to a much higher ranked individual, the definite forms are frequently used even for specific indefinite referents, with the specific, indefinite forms with &lt;q&gt; being more emphatically indefinite, representing a marked indication to the listener that they are not expected to know the identity of the referent. When speaking to higher ranked individuals, failure to use the indefinite specific forms when needed is seen as an affront to the hierarchy of respect as it effectively eliminates any indication of the listener's knowledge of the situation.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC) !! Unrankable&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific <br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;6&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || —<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || —<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || —<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || —<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || —<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, animate&quot; !! (ANIM)<br /> | — || — || — || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ü(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, inanimate&quot; !! (INAN)<br /> | — || — || — || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ai(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;6&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Due to the rarity of use of the ranked nonspecific subject clitics, which are chiefly replaced by the unranked, unknown subject clitics, the non-specific subject clitics, with /h/, are increasingly being used as allomorphs of the specific indefinite subject clitics with /ʔ/, being more frequently used in environments near another /ʔ/. For example, '''''luq eqeggitsag''''' 'a Balog's assistant is present' may also be pronounced as '''''luq eheggitsag''''' with no change in meaning. When speaking of the desire of a non-specific non-Balog man's presence, the unknown animate subject clitic will be used: '''''he luq eheggitsag''''' 'May a Balog's assistant be present.'<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=327955 2023-10-18T06:17:28Z

<p>Imralu: /* Subject Clitics */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | /pʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''pq'''› || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lateral affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡ɮ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dl'''› || || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡ɬ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tl'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡ɬʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tlq'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɬʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ t͡ɬə͉ʔ].<br /> # In careful speech, affricates are distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together across word boundaries. The clusters are pronounced with a separate release.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is frequently also a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! !! Front !! Front &lt;/br&gt;Labialised || Back || Back &lt;/br&gt;Labialised<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /y/ [ʏ͍] ‹'''ü'''› || || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /ø/ [œ͍] ‹'''ö'''› || || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || || /a/ [ɑ] ‹'''a'''› ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The labialised vowels are pronounced by phenotypical Balog as unrounded vowels due to their protruding lower canines, however they are distinguished from their unlabialised counterparts by lip compression which has a similar auditory effect to rounding. This compression may sometimes be so extreme as to form a complete closure in the centre of the lips, leaving the airflow to escape laterally. Non-Balog speakers of Balog typically pronounce these vowels as rounded vowels. <br /> <br /> The phonetic realisation of these vowels, especially the higher ones, is generally quite lax, hence the symbols &lt; ɪ ʏ͍ ʊ͍ ɛ œ͍ ɔ͍ æ ɑ &gt; have been used here to represent the phones. The symbols &lt; i y u e ø o æ a &gt; were chosen to represent the phonemes purely for ease of typing, although in all cases except that of /a/, the IPA value of each of these characters is well within the range of possible realisations. A pure [a] would be right on the edge of the ranges of /æ/ and /a/: with the most fronted pronunciations of /a/ being in the realm of [ä].<br /> <br /> ====Diphthongs====<br /> All mid and low vowels can begin falling diphthongs. The following sequences are diphthongs: /ai au æi æy ei eu ey oi ou øi øy/. All other vowel combinations will be separated by a consonant, including the semivowels /w/ and /j/.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> Syllables in Balog are maximally CSVC, where C represents a consonant, S semivowel /w/ or /j/ and V a vowel. Syllables with a CS onset are rather rare.<br /> <br /> Consonant clusters other than those in which the second element is a semivowel do not occur within a morpheme or even within a clause, meaning that the appearance of such a consonant cluster reliably indicates a clause boundary. <br /> <br /> Any consonant may appear initially or medially in a morpheme. Ejective consonants cannot appear at the end of a morpheme. The plain voiceless stops and affricates are sometimes allophonically ejectivised at the end of an utterance.<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Vowel Length and Gemination===<br /> A number of proclitic morphemes such as the nominals (which indicate a subject), the essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ and the possessive proclitics ⫽niː⫽ and ⫽nuː⫽ contain the archiphoneme ⫽ː⫽ which is realised as the gemination of the following consonant, which belongs to the next morpheme, unless the next morpheme is a verb consisting of a single consonant or another morpheme containing ⫽ː⫽, in which case ⫽ː⫽ is realised as a lengthening of the vowel of the proclitic. <br /> <br /> For example, verb corresponding to the first person singular subject pronoun (&quot;I&quot;) may be either '''''ž''''' or '''''žan'''''. Applying the b-ranked, definite subject nominal clitic ⫽aː⫽ results in '''''aaž''''' or '''''ažžan''''' respectively (both meaning 'I', with the latter being more emphatically singular, 'I and no one else'). The essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''weež''''' or '''''wežžan''''' respectively ('who is me') and the a sequence of essive ⫽weː⫽ and subordinate possessive ⫽niː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''wenniiž''''' or '''''wennižžan''''' respectively ('my', 'which is mine').<br /> <br /> ===Vowel Harmony===<br /> All of the eight monophthongs and eleven diphthongs can be assigned to a harmonic class. Only /i/, /e/ and /ei/ are neutral. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! !! Neutral!! Front-&lt;/br&gt;Harmonic || Back-&lt;/br&gt;Harmonic<br /> |-<br /> ! High Monophthongs<br /> | /i/ || /y/ || /u/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Monophthongs<br /> | /e/ || /ø/ || /o/<br /> |-<br /> ! Low Monophthongs<br /> | || /æ/ || /a/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs to non-labial<br /> | /ei/ || /øi/ || /oi/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs non-labial to labial<br /> | || /ey/ || /eu/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs labial to labial<br /> | || /øy/ || /ou/<br /> |-<br /> ! High diphthongs to non-labial<br /> | || /æi/ || /ai/<br /> |-<br /> ! High diphthongs to labial<br /> | || /æy/ || /au/<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Individual morphemes in Balog cannot contain both front-harmonic and back-harmonic vowels. Both sets can coexist with neutral vowels. The front harmonic vowels are relatively rare in Balog, with the majority of roots containing only back-harmonic and or neutral vowels.<br /> <br /> In the standard dialect of Tšqaigal, the hub of the Balog empire, vowel harmony spreads only to derivational affixes. For example, the causative infix '''''-uw-''''' becomes '''''-üw-'''''when added to front-harmonic words such as '''''däz''''' ('be an assertion/claim') → '''''düwäz'''''. In other dialects, front vowel harmony may spread from subject clitics, including the subordinator '''''ää=''''', onto roots, neutralising the difference between front-harmonic and back-harmonic roots in these positions. Back vowel harmony does not spread from clitics to roots. Vowel harmony does not spread through compounding, except for some very old compound words.<br /> <br /> Front harmonic vowels are often associated with animateness, as in the minimal pair '''''maš''''' 'what' vs '''''mäš''''' 'who'.<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following verb phrase consists of only a consonant and otherwise geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellouh'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eqe(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''louh''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(d) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status'', described below. <br /> <br /> In everyday use, when not speaking to a much higher ranked individual, the definite forms are frequently used even for specific indefinite referents, with the specific, indefinite forms with &lt;q&gt; being more emphatically indefinite, representing a marked indication to the listener that they are not expected to know the identity of the referent. When speaking to higher ranked individuals, failure to use the indefinite specific forms when needed is seen as an affront to the hierarchy of respect as it effectively eliminates any indication of the listener's knowledge of the situation.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC) !! Unrankable&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific <br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;6&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || —<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || —<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || —<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || —<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || —<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, animate&quot; !! (ANIM)<br /> | — || — || — || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ü(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, inanimate&quot; !! (INAN)<br /> | — || — || — || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ai(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;6&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Due to the rarity of use of the ranked nonspecific subject clitics, which are chiefly replaced by the unranked, unknown subject clitics, the non-specific subject clitics, with /h/, are increasingly being used as allomorphs of the specific indefinite subject clitics with /ʔ/, being more frequently used in environments near another /ʔ/. For example, '''''luq eqeggitsag''''' 'a Balog's assistant is present' may also be pronounced as '''''luq eheggitsag''''' with no change in meaning. When speaking of the desire of a non-specific non-Balog man's presence, the unknown animate subject clitic will be used: '''''he luq eheggitsag''''' 'May a Balog's assistant be present.'<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=327954 2023-10-18T05:46:41Z

<p>Imralu: /* Subject Clitics */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | /pʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''pq'''› || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lateral affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡ɮ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dl'''› || || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡ɬ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tl'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡ɬʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tlq'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɬʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ t͡ɬə͉ʔ].<br /> # In careful speech, affricates are distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together across word boundaries. The clusters are pronounced with a separate release.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is frequently also a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! !! Front !! Front &lt;/br&gt;Labialised || Back || Back &lt;/br&gt;Labialised<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /y/ [ʏ͍] ‹'''ü'''› || || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /ø/ [œ͍] ‹'''ö'''› || || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || || /a/ [ɑ] ‹'''a'''› ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The labialised vowels are pronounced by phenotypical Balog as unrounded vowels due to their protruding lower canines, however they are distinguished from their unlabialised counterparts by lip compression which has a similar auditory effect to rounding. This compression may sometimes be so extreme as to form a complete closure in the centre of the lips, leaving the airflow to escape laterally. Non-Balog speakers of Balog typically pronounce these vowels as rounded vowels. <br /> <br /> The phonetic realisation of these vowels, especially the higher ones, is generally quite lax, hence the symbols &lt; ɪ ʏ͍ ʊ͍ ɛ œ͍ ɔ͍ æ ɑ &gt; have been used here to represent the phones. The symbols &lt; i y u e ø o æ a &gt; were chosen to represent the phonemes purely for ease of typing, although in all cases except that of /a/, the IPA value of each of these characters is well within the range of possible realisations. A pure [a] would be right on the edge of the ranges of /æ/ and /a/: with the most fronted pronunciations of /a/ being in the realm of [ä].<br /> <br /> ====Diphthongs====<br /> All mid and low vowels can begin falling diphthongs. The following sequences are diphthongs: /ai au æi æy ei eu ey oi ou øi øy/. All other vowel combinations will be separated by a consonant, including the semivowels /w/ and /j/.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> Syllables in Balog are maximally CSVC, where C represents a consonant, S semivowel /w/ or /j/ and V a vowel. Syllables with a CS onset are rather rare.<br /> <br /> Consonant clusters other than those in which the second element is a semivowel do not occur within a morpheme or even within a clause, meaning that the appearance of such a consonant cluster reliably indicates a clause boundary. <br /> <br /> Any consonant may appear initially or medially in a morpheme. Ejective consonants cannot appear at the end of a morpheme. The plain voiceless stops and affricates are sometimes allophonically ejectivised at the end of an utterance.<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Vowel Length and Gemination===<br /> A number of proclitic morphemes such as the nominals (which indicate a subject), the essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ and the possessive proclitics ⫽niː⫽ and ⫽nuː⫽ contain the archiphoneme ⫽ː⫽ which is realised as the gemination of the following consonant, which belongs to the next morpheme, unless the next morpheme is a verb consisting of a single consonant or another morpheme containing ⫽ː⫽, in which case ⫽ː⫽ is realised as a lengthening of the vowel of the proclitic. <br /> <br /> For example, verb corresponding to the first person singular subject pronoun (&quot;I&quot;) may be either '''''ž''''' or '''''žan'''''. Applying the b-ranked, definite subject nominal clitic ⫽aː⫽ results in '''''aaž''''' or '''''ažžan''''' respectively (both meaning 'I', with the latter being more emphatically singular, 'I and no one else'). The essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''weež''''' or '''''wežžan''''' respectively ('who is me') and the a sequence of essive ⫽weː⫽ and subordinate possessive ⫽niː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''wenniiž''''' or '''''wennižžan''''' respectively ('my', 'which is mine').<br /> <br /> ===Vowel Harmony===<br /> All of the eight monophthongs and eleven diphthongs can be assigned to a harmonic class. Only /i/, /e/ and /ei/ are neutral. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! !! Neutral!! Front-&lt;/br&gt;Harmonic || Back-&lt;/br&gt;Harmonic<br /> |-<br /> ! High Monophthongs<br /> | /i/ || /y/ || /u/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Monophthongs<br /> | /e/ || /ø/ || /o/<br /> |-<br /> ! Low Monophthongs<br /> | || /æ/ || /a/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs to non-labial<br /> | /ei/ || /øi/ || /oi/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs non-labial to labial<br /> | || /ey/ || /eu/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs labial to labial<br /> | || /øy/ || /ou/<br /> |-<br /> ! High diphthongs to non-labial<br /> | || /æi/ || /ai/<br /> |-<br /> ! High diphthongs to labial<br /> | || /æy/ || /au/<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Individual morphemes in Balog cannot contain both front-harmonic and back-harmonic vowels. Both sets can coexist with neutral vowels. The front harmonic vowels are relatively rare in Balog, with the majority of roots containing only back-harmonic and or neutral vowels.<br /> <br /> In the standard dialect of Tšqaigal, the hub of the Balog empire, vowel harmony spreads only to derivational affixes. For example, the causative infix '''''-uw-''''' becomes '''''-üw-'''''when added to front-harmonic words such as '''''däz''''' ('be an assertion/claim') → '''''düwäz'''''. In other dialects, front vowel harmony may spread from subject clitics, including the subordinator '''''ää=''''', onto roots, neutralising the difference between front-harmonic and back-harmonic roots in these positions. Back vowel harmony does not spread from clitics to roots. Vowel harmony does not spread through compounding, except for some very old compound words.<br /> <br /> Front harmonic vowels are often associated with animateness, as in the minimal pair '''''maš''''' 'what' vs '''''mäš''''' 'who'.<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following verb phrase consists of only a consonant and otherwise geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellouh'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eqe(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''louh''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(d) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status'', described below. <br /> <br /> In everyday use, when not speaking to a much higher ranked individual, the definite forms are frequently used even for specific indefinite referents, with the specific, indefinite forms with &lt;q&gt; being more emphatically indefinite, representing a marked indication to the listener that they are not expected to know the identity of the referent. When speaking to higher ranked individuals, failure to use the indefinite specific forms when needed is seen as an affront to the hierarchy of respect as it effectively eliminates any indication of the listener's knowledge of the situation.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC) !! Unrankable&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific <br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;6&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || <br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; ||<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; ||<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; ||<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; ||<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, animate&quot; !! (ANIM)<br /> | || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ü(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, inanimate&quot; !! (INAN)<br /> | || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ai(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;6&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=327953 2023-10-18T05:46:20Z

<p>Imralu: /* Subject Clitics */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | /pʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''pq'''› || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lateral affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡ɮ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dl'''› || || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡ɬ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tl'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡ɬʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tlq'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɬʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ t͡ɬə͉ʔ].<br /> # In careful speech, affricates are distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together across word boundaries. The clusters are pronounced with a separate release.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is frequently also a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! !! Front !! Front &lt;/br&gt;Labialised || Back || Back &lt;/br&gt;Labialised<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /y/ [ʏ͍] ‹'''ü'''› || || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /ø/ [œ͍] ‹'''ö'''› || || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || || /a/ [ɑ] ‹'''a'''› ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The labialised vowels are pronounced by phenotypical Balog as unrounded vowels due to their protruding lower canines, however they are distinguished from their unlabialised counterparts by lip compression which has a similar auditory effect to rounding. This compression may sometimes be so extreme as to form a complete closure in the centre of the lips, leaving the airflow to escape laterally. Non-Balog speakers of Balog typically pronounce these vowels as rounded vowels. <br /> <br /> The phonetic realisation of these vowels, especially the higher ones, is generally quite lax, hence the symbols &lt; ɪ ʏ͍ ʊ͍ ɛ œ͍ ɔ͍ æ ɑ &gt; have been used here to represent the phones. The symbols &lt; i y u e ø o æ a &gt; were chosen to represent the phonemes purely for ease of typing, although in all cases except that of /a/, the IPA value of each of these characters is well within the range of possible realisations. A pure [a] would be right on the edge of the ranges of /æ/ and /a/: with the most fronted pronunciations of /a/ being in the realm of [ä].<br /> <br /> ====Diphthongs====<br /> All mid and low vowels can begin falling diphthongs. The following sequences are diphthongs: /ai au æi æy ei eu ey oi ou øi øy/. All other vowel combinations will be separated by a consonant, including the semivowels /w/ and /j/.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> Syllables in Balog are maximally CSVC, where C represents a consonant, S semivowel /w/ or /j/ and V a vowel. Syllables with a CS onset are rather rare.<br /> <br /> Consonant clusters other than those in which the second element is a semivowel do not occur within a morpheme or even within a clause, meaning that the appearance of such a consonant cluster reliably indicates a clause boundary. <br /> <br /> Any consonant may appear initially or medially in a morpheme. Ejective consonants cannot appear at the end of a morpheme. The plain voiceless stops and affricates are sometimes allophonically ejectivised at the end of an utterance.<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Vowel Length and Gemination===<br /> A number of proclitic morphemes such as the nominals (which indicate a subject), the essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ and the possessive proclitics ⫽niː⫽ and ⫽nuː⫽ contain the archiphoneme ⫽ː⫽ which is realised as the gemination of the following consonant, which belongs to the next morpheme, unless the next morpheme is a verb consisting of a single consonant or another morpheme containing ⫽ː⫽, in which case ⫽ː⫽ is realised as a lengthening of the vowel of the proclitic. <br /> <br /> For example, verb corresponding to the first person singular subject pronoun (&quot;I&quot;) may be either '''''ž''''' or '''''žan'''''. Applying the b-ranked, definite subject nominal clitic ⫽aː⫽ results in '''''aaž''''' or '''''ažžan''''' respectively (both meaning 'I', with the latter being more emphatically singular, 'I and no one else'). The essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''weež''''' or '''''wežžan''''' respectively ('who is me') and the a sequence of essive ⫽weː⫽ and subordinate possessive ⫽niː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''wenniiž''''' or '''''wennižžan''''' respectively ('my', 'which is mine').<br /> <br /> ===Vowel Harmony===<br /> All of the eight monophthongs and eleven diphthongs can be assigned to a harmonic class. Only /i/, /e/ and /ei/ are neutral. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! !! Neutral!! Front-&lt;/br&gt;Harmonic || Back-&lt;/br&gt;Harmonic<br /> |-<br /> ! High Monophthongs<br /> | /i/ || /y/ || /u/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Monophthongs<br /> | /e/ || /ø/ || /o/<br /> |-<br /> ! Low Monophthongs<br /> | || /æ/ || /a/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs to non-labial<br /> | /ei/ || /øi/ || /oi/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs non-labial to labial<br /> | || /ey/ || /eu/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs labial to labial<br /> | || /øy/ || /ou/<br /> |-<br /> ! High diphthongs to non-labial<br /> | || /æi/ || /ai/<br /> |-<br /> ! High diphthongs to labial<br /> | || /æy/ || /au/<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Individual morphemes in Balog cannot contain both front-harmonic and back-harmonic vowels. Both sets can coexist with neutral vowels. The front harmonic vowels are relatively rare in Balog, with the majority of roots containing only back-harmonic and or neutral vowels.<br /> <br /> In the standard dialect of Tšqaigal, the hub of the Balog empire, vowel harmony spreads only to derivational affixes. For example, the causative infix '''''-uw-''''' becomes '''''-üw-'''''when added to front-harmonic words such as '''''däz''''' ('be an assertion/claim') → '''''düwäz'''''. In other dialects, front vowel harmony may spread from subject clitics, including the subordinator '''''ää=''''', onto roots, neutralising the difference between front-harmonic and back-harmonic roots in these positions. Back vowel harmony does not spread from clitics to roots. Vowel harmony does not spread through compounding, except for some very old compound words.<br /> <br /> Front harmonic vowels are often associated with animateness, as in the minimal pair '''''maš''''' 'what' vs '''''mäš''''' 'who'.<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following verb phrase consists of only a consonant and otherwise geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellouh'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eqe(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''louh''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(d) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status'', described below. <br /> <br /> In everyday use, when not speaking to a much higher ranked individual, the definite forms are frequently used even for specific indefinite referents, with the specific, indefinite forms with &lt;q&gt; being more emphatically indefinite, representing a marked indication to the listener that they are not expected to know the identity of the referent. When speaking to higher ranked individuals, failure to use the indefinite specific forms when needed is seen as an affront to the hierarchy of respect as it effectively eliminates any indication of the listener's knowledge of the situation.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC) !! Unrankable&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific <br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || <br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; ||<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; ||<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; ||<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; ||<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, animate&quot; !! (ANIM)<br /> | || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ü(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, inanimate&quot; !! (INAN)<br /> | || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ai(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;6&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=327952 2023-10-18T05:29:47Z

<p>Imralu: /* Vowel Harmony */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | /pʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''pq'''› || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lateral affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡ɮ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dl'''› || || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡ɬ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tl'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡ɬʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tlq'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɬʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ t͡ɬə͉ʔ].<br /> # In careful speech, affricates are distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together across word boundaries. The clusters are pronounced with a separate release.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is frequently also a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! !! Front !! Front &lt;/br&gt;Labialised || Back || Back &lt;/br&gt;Labialised<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /y/ [ʏ͍] ‹'''ü'''› || || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /ø/ [œ͍] ‹'''ö'''› || || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || || /a/ [ɑ] ‹'''a'''› ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The labialised vowels are pronounced by phenotypical Balog as unrounded vowels due to their protruding lower canines, however they are distinguished from their unlabialised counterparts by lip compression which has a similar auditory effect to rounding. This compression may sometimes be so extreme as to form a complete closure in the centre of the lips, leaving the airflow to escape laterally. Non-Balog speakers of Balog typically pronounce these vowels as rounded vowels. <br /> <br /> The phonetic realisation of these vowels, especially the higher ones, is generally quite lax, hence the symbols &lt; ɪ ʏ͍ ʊ͍ ɛ œ͍ ɔ͍ æ ɑ &gt; have been used here to represent the phones. The symbols &lt; i y u e ø o æ a &gt; were chosen to represent the phonemes purely for ease of typing, although in all cases except that of /a/, the IPA value of each of these characters is well within the range of possible realisations. A pure [a] would be right on the edge of the ranges of /æ/ and /a/: with the most fronted pronunciations of /a/ being in the realm of [ä].<br /> <br /> ====Diphthongs====<br /> All mid and low vowels can begin falling diphthongs. The following sequences are diphthongs: /ai au æi æy ei eu ey oi ou øi øy/. All other vowel combinations will be separated by a consonant, including the semivowels /w/ and /j/.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> Syllables in Balog are maximally CSVC, where C represents a consonant, S semivowel /w/ or /j/ and V a vowel. Syllables with a CS onset are rather rare.<br /> <br /> Consonant clusters other than those in which the second element is a semivowel do not occur within a morpheme or even within a clause, meaning that the appearance of such a consonant cluster reliably indicates a clause boundary. <br /> <br /> Any consonant may appear initially or medially in a morpheme. Ejective consonants cannot appear at the end of a morpheme. The plain voiceless stops and affricates are sometimes allophonically ejectivised at the end of an utterance.<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Vowel Length and Gemination===<br /> A number of proclitic morphemes such as the nominals (which indicate a subject), the essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ and the possessive proclitics ⫽niː⫽ and ⫽nuː⫽ contain the archiphoneme ⫽ː⫽ which is realised as the gemination of the following consonant, which belongs to the next morpheme, unless the next morpheme is a verb consisting of a single consonant or another morpheme containing ⫽ː⫽, in which case ⫽ː⫽ is realised as a lengthening of the vowel of the proclitic. <br /> <br /> For example, verb corresponding to the first person singular subject pronoun (&quot;I&quot;) may be either '''''ž''''' or '''''žan'''''. Applying the b-ranked, definite subject nominal clitic ⫽aː⫽ results in '''''aaž''''' or '''''ažžan''''' respectively (both meaning 'I', with the latter being more emphatically singular, 'I and no one else'). The essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''weež''''' or '''''wežžan''''' respectively ('who is me') and the a sequence of essive ⫽weː⫽ and subordinate possessive ⫽niː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''wenniiž''''' or '''''wennižžan''''' respectively ('my', 'which is mine').<br /> <br /> ===Vowel Harmony===<br /> All of the eight monophthongs and eleven diphthongs can be assigned to a harmonic class. Only /i/, /e/ and /ei/ are neutral. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! !! Neutral!! Front-&lt;/br&gt;Harmonic || Back-&lt;/br&gt;Harmonic<br /> |-<br /> ! High Monophthongs<br /> | /i/ || /y/ || /u/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Monophthongs<br /> | /e/ || /ø/ || /o/<br /> |-<br /> ! Low Monophthongs<br /> | || /æ/ || /a/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs to non-labial<br /> | /ei/ || /øi/ || /oi/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs non-labial to labial<br /> | || /ey/ || /eu/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs labial to labial<br /> | || /øy/ || /ou/<br /> |-<br /> ! High diphthongs to non-labial<br /> | || /æi/ || /ai/<br /> |-<br /> ! High diphthongs to labial<br /> | || /æy/ || /au/<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Individual morphemes in Balog cannot contain both front-harmonic and back-harmonic vowels. Both sets can coexist with neutral vowels. The front harmonic vowels are relatively rare in Balog, with the majority of roots containing only back-harmonic and or neutral vowels.<br /> <br /> In the standard dialect of Tšqaigal, the hub of the Balog empire, vowel harmony spreads only to derivational affixes. For example, the causative infix '''''-uw-''''' becomes '''''-üw-'''''when added to front-harmonic words such as '''''däz''''' ('be an assertion/claim') → '''''düwäz'''''. In other dialects, front vowel harmony may spread from subject clitics, including the subordinator '''''ää=''''', onto roots, neutralising the difference between front-harmonic and back-harmonic roots in these positions. Back vowel harmony does not spread from clitics to roots. Vowel harmony does not spread through compounding, except for some very old compound words.<br /> <br /> Front harmonic vowels are often associated with animateness, as in the minimal pair '''''maš''''' 'what' vs '''''mäš''''' 'who'.<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following verb phrase consists of only a consonant and otherwise geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellouh'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eqe(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''louh''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(d) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status'', described below. <br /> <br /> In everyday use, when not speaking to a much higher ranked individual, the definite forms are frequently used even for specific indefinite referents, with the specific, indefinite forms with &lt;q&gt; being more emphatically indefinite, representing a marked indication to the listener that they are not expected to know the identity of the referent. When speaking to higher ranked individuals, failure to use the indefinite specific forms when needed is seen as an affront to the hierarchy of respect as it effectively eliminates any indication of the listener's knowledge of the situation.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, animate&quot; !! (ANIM)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, inanimate&quot; !! (INAN)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ei(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=327951 2023-10-18T05:27:01Z

<p>Imralu: /* Morphophonology */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | /pʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''pq'''› || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lateral affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡ɮ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dl'''› || || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡ɬ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tl'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡ɬʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tlq'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɬʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ t͡ɬə͉ʔ].<br /> # In careful speech, affricates are distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together across word boundaries. The clusters are pronounced with a separate release.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is frequently also a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! !! Front !! Front &lt;/br&gt;Labialised || Back || Back &lt;/br&gt;Labialised<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /y/ [ʏ͍] ‹'''ü'''› || || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /ø/ [œ͍] ‹'''ö'''› || || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || || /a/ [ɑ] ‹'''a'''› ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The labialised vowels are pronounced by phenotypical Balog as unrounded vowels due to their protruding lower canines, however they are distinguished from their unlabialised counterparts by lip compression which has a similar auditory effect to rounding. This compression may sometimes be so extreme as to form a complete closure in the centre of the lips, leaving the airflow to escape laterally. Non-Balog speakers of Balog typically pronounce these vowels as rounded vowels. <br /> <br /> The phonetic realisation of these vowels, especially the higher ones, is generally quite lax, hence the symbols &lt; ɪ ʏ͍ ʊ͍ ɛ œ͍ ɔ͍ æ ɑ &gt; have been used here to represent the phones. The symbols &lt; i y u e ø o æ a &gt; were chosen to represent the phonemes purely for ease of typing, although in all cases except that of /a/, the IPA value of each of these characters is well within the range of possible realisations. A pure [a] would be right on the edge of the ranges of /æ/ and /a/: with the most fronted pronunciations of /a/ being in the realm of [ä].<br /> <br /> ====Diphthongs====<br /> All mid and low vowels can begin falling diphthongs. The following sequences are diphthongs: /ai au æi æy ei eu ey oi ou øi øy/. All other vowel combinations will be separated by a consonant, including the semivowels /w/ and /j/.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> Syllables in Balog are maximally CSVC, where C represents a consonant, S semivowel /w/ or /j/ and V a vowel. Syllables with a CS onset are rather rare.<br /> <br /> Consonant clusters other than those in which the second element is a semivowel do not occur within a morpheme or even within a clause, meaning that the appearance of such a consonant cluster reliably indicates a clause boundary. <br /> <br /> Any consonant may appear initially or medially in a morpheme. Ejective consonants cannot appear at the end of a morpheme. The plain voiceless stops and affricates are sometimes allophonically ejectivised at the end of an utterance.<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Vowel Length and Gemination===<br /> A number of proclitic morphemes such as the nominals (which indicate a subject), the essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ and the possessive proclitics ⫽niː⫽ and ⫽nuː⫽ contain the archiphoneme ⫽ː⫽ which is realised as the gemination of the following consonant, which belongs to the next morpheme, unless the next morpheme is a verb consisting of a single consonant or another morpheme containing ⫽ː⫽, in which case ⫽ː⫽ is realised as a lengthening of the vowel of the proclitic. <br /> <br /> For example, verb corresponding to the first person singular subject pronoun (&quot;I&quot;) may be either '''''ž''''' or '''''žan'''''. Applying the b-ranked, definite subject nominal clitic ⫽aː⫽ results in '''''aaž''''' or '''''ažžan''''' respectively (both meaning 'I', with the latter being more emphatically singular, 'I and no one else'). The essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''weež''''' or '''''wežžan''''' respectively ('who is me') and the a sequence of essive ⫽weː⫽ and subordinate possessive ⫽niː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''wenniiž''''' or '''''wennižžan''''' respectively ('my', 'which is mine').<br /> <br /> ===Vowel Harmony===<br /> All of the eight monophthongs and eleven diphthongs can be assigned to a harmonic class. Only /i/, /e/ and /ei/ are neutral. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! !! Neutral!! Front-&lt;/br&gt;Harmonic || Back-&lt;/br&gt;Harmonic<br /> |-<br /> ! High Monophthongs<br /> | /i/ || /y/ || /u/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Monophthongs<br /> | /e/ || /ø/ || /o/<br /> |-<br /> ! Low Monophthongs<br /> | || /æ/ || /a/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs to non-labial<br /> | /ei/ || /øi/ || /oi/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs non-labial to labial<br /> | || /ey/ || /eu/<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid Diphthongs labial to labial<br /> | || /øy/ || /ou/<br /> |-<br /> ! High diphthongs to non-labial<br /> | || /æi/ || /ai/<br /> |-<br /> ! High diphthongs to labial<br /> | || /æy/ || /au/<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Individual morphemes in Balog cannot contain both front-harmonic and back-harmonic vowels. Both sets can coexist with neutral vowels. The front harmonic vowels are relatively rare in Balog, with the majority of roots containing only back-harmonic and or neutral vowels.<br /> <br /> In the standard dialect of Tšqaigal, the hub of the Balog empire, vowel harmony spreads only to derivational affixes. For example, the causative infix '''''-uw-''''' becomes '''''-üw-'''''when added to front-harmonic words such as '''''däz''''' ('be an assertion/claim') → '''''düwäz'''''. In other dialects, front vowel harmony may spread from subject clitics, including the subordinator '''''ää=''''', onto roots, neutralising the difference between front-harmonic and back-harmonic roots in these positions. Back vowel harmony does not spread from clitics to roots.<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following verb phrase consists of only a consonant and otherwise geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellouh'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eqe(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''louh''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(d) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status'', described below. <br /> <br /> In everyday use, when not speaking to a much higher ranked individual, the definite forms are frequently used even for specific indefinite referents, with the specific, indefinite forms with &lt;q&gt; being more emphatically indefinite, representing a marked indication to the listener that they are not expected to know the identity of the referent. When speaking to higher ranked individuals, failure to use the indefinite specific forms when needed is seen as an affront to the hierarchy of respect as it effectively eliminates any indication of the listener's knowledge of the situation.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, animate&quot; !! (ANIM)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, inanimate&quot; !! (INAN)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ei(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=327950 2023-10-18T04:40:45Z

<p>Imralu: /* Diphthongs */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | /pʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''pq'''› || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lateral affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡ɮ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dl'''› || || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡ɬ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tl'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡ɬʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tlq'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɬʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ t͡ɬə͉ʔ].<br /> # In careful speech, affricates are distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together across word boundaries. The clusters are pronounced with a separate release.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is frequently also a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! !! Front !! Front &lt;/br&gt;Labialised || Back || Back &lt;/br&gt;Labialised<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /y/ [ʏ͍] ‹'''ü'''› || || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /ø/ [œ͍] ‹'''ö'''› || || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || || /a/ [ɑ] ‹'''a'''› ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The labialised vowels are pronounced by phenotypical Balog as unrounded vowels due to their protruding lower canines, however they are distinguished from their unlabialised counterparts by lip compression which has a similar auditory effect to rounding. This compression may sometimes be so extreme as to form a complete closure in the centre of the lips, leaving the airflow to escape laterally. Non-Balog speakers of Balog typically pronounce these vowels as rounded vowels. <br /> <br /> The phonetic realisation of these vowels, especially the higher ones, is generally quite lax, hence the symbols &lt; ɪ ʏ͍ ʊ͍ ɛ œ͍ ɔ͍ æ ɑ &gt; have been used here to represent the phones. The symbols &lt; i y u e ø o æ a &gt; were chosen to represent the phonemes purely for ease of typing, although in all cases except that of /a/, the IPA value of each of these characters is well within the range of possible realisations. A pure [a] would be right on the edge of the ranges of /æ/ and /a/: with the most fronted pronunciations of /a/ being in the realm of [ä].<br /> <br /> ====Diphthongs====<br /> All mid and low vowels can begin falling diphthongs. The following sequences are diphthongs: /ai au æi æy ei eu ey oi ou øi øy/. All other vowel combinations will be separated by a consonant, including the semivowels /w/ and /j/.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> Syllables in Balog are maximally CSVC, where C represents a consonant, S semivowel /w/ or /j/ and V a vowel. Syllables with a CS onset are rather rare.<br /> <br /> Consonant clusters other than those in which the second element is a semivowel do not occur within a morpheme or even within a clause, meaning that the appearance of such a consonant cluster reliably indicates a clause boundary. <br /> <br /> Any consonant may appear initially or medially in a morpheme. Ejective consonants cannot appear at the end of a morpheme. The plain voiceless stops and affricates are sometimes allophonically ejectivised at the end of an utterance.<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Vowel Length and Gemination===<br /> A number of proclitic morphemes such as the nominals (which indicate a subject), the essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ and the possessive proclitics ⫽niː⫽ and ⫽nuː⫽ contain the archiphoneme ⫽ː⫽ which is realised as the gemination of the following consonant, which belongs to the next morpheme, unless the next morpheme is a verb consisting of a single consonant or another morpheme containing ⫽ː⫽, in which case ⫽ː⫽ is realised as a lengthening of the vowel of the proclitic. <br /> <br /> For example, verb corresponding to the first person singular subject pronoun (&quot;I&quot;) may be either '''''ž''''' or '''''žan'''''. Applying the b-ranked, definite subject nominal clitic ⫽aː⫽ results in '''''aaž''''' or '''''ažžan''''' respectively (both meaning 'I', with the latter being more emphatically singular, 'I and no one else'). The essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''weež''''' or '''''wežžan''''' respectively ('who is me') and the a sequence of essive ⫽weː⫽ and subordinate possessive ⫽niː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''wenniiž''''' or '''''wennižžan''''' respectively ('my', 'which is mine').<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following verb phrase consists of only a consonant and otherwise geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellouh'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eqe(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''louh''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(d) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status'', described below. <br /> <br /> In everyday use, when not speaking to a much higher ranked individual, the definite forms are frequently used even for specific indefinite referents, with the specific, indefinite forms with &lt;q&gt; being more emphatically indefinite, representing a marked indication to the listener that they are not expected to know the identity of the referent. When speaking to higher ranked individuals, failure to use the indefinite specific forms when needed is seen as an affront to the hierarchy of respect as it effectively eliminates any indication of the listener's knowledge of the situation.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, animate&quot; !! (ANIM)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, inanimate&quot; !! (INAN)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ei(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=327949 2023-10-18T04:30:32Z

<p>Imralu: /* Vowels */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | /pʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''pq'''› || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lateral affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡ɮ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dl'''› || || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡ɬ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tl'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡ɬʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tlq'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɬʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ t͡ɬə͉ʔ].<br /> # In careful speech, affricates are distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together across word boundaries. The clusters are pronounced with a separate release.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is frequently also a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! !! Front !! Front &lt;/br&gt;Labialised || Back || Back &lt;/br&gt;Labialised<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /y/ [ʏ͍] ‹'''ü'''› || || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /ø/ [œ͍] ‹'''ö'''› || || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || || /a/ [ɑ] ‹'''a'''› ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The labialised vowels are pronounced by phenotypical Balog as unrounded vowels due to their protruding lower canines, however they are distinguished from their unlabialised counterparts by lip compression which has a similar auditory effect to rounding. This compression may sometimes be so extreme as to form a complete closure in the centre of the lips, leaving the airflow to escape laterally. Non-Balog speakers of Balog typically pronounce these vowels as rounded vowels. <br /> <br /> The phonetic realisation of these vowels, especially the higher ones, is generally quite lax, hence the symbols &lt; ɪ ʏ͍ ʊ͍ ɛ œ͍ ɔ͍ æ ɑ &gt; have been used here to represent the phones. The symbols &lt; i y u e ø o æ a &gt; were chosen to represent the phonemes purely for ease of typing, although in all cases except that of /a/, the IPA value of each of these characters is well within the range of possible realisations. A pure [a] would be right on the edge of the ranges of /æ/ and /a/: with the most fronted pronunciations of /a/ being in the realm of [ä].<br /> <br /> ====Diphthongs====<br /> All mid and low vowels can begin falling diphthongs. The following sequences are diphthongs: /ai au æi æy ei eu ey ou oi øy øi/. All other vowel combinations will be separated by a consonant, including the semivowels /w/ and /j/.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> Syllables in Balog are maximally CSVC, where C represents a consonant, S semivowel /w/ or /j/ and V a vowel. Syllables with a CS onset are rather rare.<br /> <br /> Consonant clusters other than those in which the second element is a semivowel do not occur within a morpheme or even within a clause, meaning that the appearance of such a consonant cluster reliably indicates a clause boundary. <br /> <br /> Any consonant may appear initially or medially in a morpheme. Ejective consonants cannot appear at the end of a morpheme. The plain voiceless stops and affricates are sometimes allophonically ejectivised at the end of an utterance.<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Vowel Length and Gemination===<br /> A number of proclitic morphemes such as the nominals (which indicate a subject), the essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ and the possessive proclitics ⫽niː⫽ and ⫽nuː⫽ contain the archiphoneme ⫽ː⫽ which is realised as the gemination of the following consonant, which belongs to the next morpheme, unless the next morpheme is a verb consisting of a single consonant or another morpheme containing ⫽ː⫽, in which case ⫽ː⫽ is realised as a lengthening of the vowel of the proclitic. <br /> <br /> For example, verb corresponding to the first person singular subject pronoun (&quot;I&quot;) may be either '''''ž''''' or '''''žan'''''. Applying the b-ranked, definite subject nominal clitic ⫽aː⫽ results in '''''aaž''''' or '''''ažžan''''' respectively (both meaning 'I', with the latter being more emphatically singular, 'I and no one else'). The essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''weež''''' or '''''wežžan''''' respectively ('who is me') and the a sequence of essive ⫽weː⫽ and subordinate possessive ⫽niː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''wenniiž''''' or '''''wennižžan''''' respectively ('my', 'which is mine').<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following verb phrase consists of only a consonant and otherwise geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellouh'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eqe(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''louh''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(d) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status'', described below. <br /> <br /> In everyday use, when not speaking to a much higher ranked individual, the definite forms are frequently used even for specific indefinite referents, with the specific, indefinite forms with &lt;q&gt; being more emphatically indefinite, representing a marked indication to the listener that they are not expected to know the identity of the referent. When speaking to higher ranked individuals, failure to use the indefinite specific forms when needed is seen as an affront to the hierarchy of respect as it effectively eliminates any indication of the listener's knowledge of the situation.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, animate&quot; !! (ANIM)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, inanimate&quot; !! (INAN)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ei(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=327948 2023-10-18T04:28:37Z

<p>Imralu: /* Vowels */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | /pʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''pq'''› || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lateral affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡ɮ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dl'''› || || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡ɬ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tl'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡ɬʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tlq'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɬʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ t͡ɬə͉ʔ].<br /> # In careful speech, affricates are distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together across word boundaries. The clusters are pronounced with a separate release.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is frequently also a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Front &lt;/br&gt;Labialised || Back || Back &lt;/br&gt;Labialised<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /y/ [ʏ͍] ‹'''ü'''› || || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /ø/ [œ͍] ‹'''ö'''› || || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || || /a/ [ɑ] ‹'''a'''› ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The labialised vowels are pronounced by phenotypical Balog as unrounded vowels due to their protruding lower canines, however they are distinguished from their unlabialised counterparts by lip compression which has a similar auditory effect to rounding. This compression may sometimes be so extreme as to form a complete closure in the centre of the lips, leaving the airflow to escape laterally. Non-Balog speakers of Balog typically pronounce these vowels as rounded vowels. <br /> <br /> The phonetic realisation of these vowels, especially the higher ones, is generally quite lax, hence the symbols &lt; ɪ ʏ͍ ʊ͍ ɛ œ͍ ɔ͍ æ ɑ &gt; have been used here to represent the phones. The symbols &lt; i y u e ø o æ a &gt; were chosen to represent the phonemes purely for ease of typing, although in all cases except that of /a/, the IPA value of each of these characters is well within the range of possible realisations. A pure [a] would be right on the edge of the ranges of /æ/ and /a/: with the most fronted pronunciations of /a/ being in the realm of [ä].<br /> <br /> ====Diphthongs====<br /> All mid and low vowels can begin falling diphthongs. The following sequences are diphthongs: /ai au æi æy ei eu ey ou oi øy øi/. All other vowel combinations will be separated by a consonant, including the semivowels /w/ and /j/.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> Syllables in Balog are maximally CSVC, where C represents a consonant, S semivowel /w/ or /j/ and V a vowel. Syllables with a CS onset are rather rare.<br /> <br /> Consonant clusters other than those in which the second element is a semivowel do not occur within a morpheme or even within a clause, meaning that the appearance of such a consonant cluster reliably indicates a clause boundary. <br /> <br /> Any consonant may appear initially or medially in a morpheme. Ejective consonants cannot appear at the end of a morpheme. The plain voiceless stops and affricates are sometimes allophonically ejectivised at the end of an utterance.<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Vowel Length and Gemination===<br /> A number of proclitic morphemes such as the nominals (which indicate a subject), the essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ and the possessive proclitics ⫽niː⫽ and ⫽nuː⫽ contain the archiphoneme ⫽ː⫽ which is realised as the gemination of the following consonant, which belongs to the next morpheme, unless the next morpheme is a verb consisting of a single consonant or another morpheme containing ⫽ː⫽, in which case ⫽ː⫽ is realised as a lengthening of the vowel of the proclitic. <br /> <br /> For example, verb corresponding to the first person singular subject pronoun (&quot;I&quot;) may be either '''''ž''''' or '''''žan'''''. Applying the b-ranked, definite subject nominal clitic ⫽aː⫽ results in '''''aaž''''' or '''''ažžan''''' respectively (both meaning 'I', with the latter being more emphatically singular, 'I and no one else'). The essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''weež''''' or '''''wežžan''''' respectively ('who is me') and the a sequence of essive ⫽weː⫽ and subordinate possessive ⫽niː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''wenniiž''''' or '''''wennižžan''''' respectively ('my', 'which is mine').<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following verb phrase consists of only a consonant and otherwise geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellouh'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eqe(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''louh''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(d) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status'', described below. <br /> <br /> In everyday use, when not speaking to a much higher ranked individual, the definite forms are frequently used even for specific indefinite referents, with the specific, indefinite forms with &lt;q&gt; being more emphatically indefinite, representing a marked indication to the listener that they are not expected to know the identity of the referent. When speaking to higher ranked individuals, failure to use the indefinite specific forms when needed is seen as an affront to the hierarchy of respect as it effectively eliminates any indication of the listener's knowledge of the situation.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, animate&quot; !! (ANIM)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, inanimate&quot; !! (INAN)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ei(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=327947 2023-10-18T04:22:19Z

<p>Imralu: /* Vowels */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | /pʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''pq'''› || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lateral affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡ɮ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dl'''› || || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡ɬ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tl'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡ɬʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tlq'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɬʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ t͡ɬə͉ʔ].<br /> # In careful speech, affricates are distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together across word boundaries. The clusters are pronounced with a separate release.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is frequently also a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Front &lt;/br&gt;Labialised || Back || Back &lt;/br&gt;Labialised<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /y/ [ʏ͍] ‹'''ü'''› || || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /ø/ [œ͍] ‹'''ö'''› || || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || || /a/ [ɑ] ‹'''a'''› ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The labialised vowels are pronounced by phenotypical Balog as unrounded vowels due to their protruding lower canines, however they are distinguished from their unlabialised counterparts by lip compression which has a similar auditory effect to rounding. This compression may sometimes be so extreme as to form a complete closure in the centre of the lips, leaving the airflow to escape laterally. Non-Balog speakers of Balog typically pronounce these vowels as rounded vowels. <br /> <br /> The phonetic realisation of these vowels, especially the higher ones, is generally quite lax, hence the symbols &lt; ɪ ʏ͍ ʊ͍ ɛ œ͍ ɔ͍ æ ɑ &gt; have been used here to represent the phones. The symbols &lt; i y u e ø o æ a &gt; were chosen to represent the phonemes purely for ease of typing, although in all cases except that of /a/, the IPA value of each of these characters is well within the range of possible realisations. A pure [a] would be right on the edge of the ranges of /æ/ and /a/: with the most fronted pronunciations of /a/ being in the realm of [ä].<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> Syllables in Balog are maximally CSVC, where C represents a consonant, S semivowel /w/ or /j/ and V a vowel. Syllables with a CS onset are rather rare.<br /> <br /> Consonant clusters other than those in which the second element is a semivowel do not occur within a morpheme or even within a clause, meaning that the appearance of such a consonant cluster reliably indicates a clause boundary. <br /> <br /> Any consonant may appear initially or medially in a morpheme. Ejective consonants cannot appear at the end of a morpheme. The plain voiceless stops and affricates are sometimes allophonically ejectivised at the end of an utterance.<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Vowel Length and Gemination===<br /> A number of proclitic morphemes such as the nominals (which indicate a subject), the essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ and the possessive proclitics ⫽niː⫽ and ⫽nuː⫽ contain the archiphoneme ⫽ː⫽ which is realised as the gemination of the following consonant, which belongs to the next morpheme, unless the next morpheme is a verb consisting of a single consonant or another morpheme containing ⫽ː⫽, in which case ⫽ː⫽ is realised as a lengthening of the vowel of the proclitic. <br /> <br /> For example, verb corresponding to the first person singular subject pronoun (&quot;I&quot;) may be either '''''ž''''' or '''''žan'''''. Applying the b-ranked, definite subject nominal clitic ⫽aː⫽ results in '''''aaž''''' or '''''ažžan''''' respectively (both meaning 'I', with the latter being more emphatically singular, 'I and no one else'). The essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''weež''''' or '''''wežžan''''' respectively ('who is me') and the a sequence of essive ⫽weː⫽ and subordinate possessive ⫽niː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''wenniiž''''' or '''''wennižžan''''' respectively ('my', 'which is mine').<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following verb phrase consists of only a consonant and otherwise geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellouh'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eqe(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''louh''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(d) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status'', described below. <br /> <br /> In everyday use, when not speaking to a much higher ranked individual, the definite forms are frequently used even for specific indefinite referents, with the specific, indefinite forms with &lt;q&gt; being more emphatically indefinite, representing a marked indication to the listener that they are not expected to know the identity of the referent. When speaking to higher ranked individuals, failure to use the indefinite specific forms when needed is seen as an affront to the hierarchy of respect as it effectively eliminates any indication of the listener's knowledge of the situation.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, animate&quot; !! (ANIM)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, inanimate&quot; !! (INAN)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ei(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=309019 2023-06-10T13:39:01Z

<p>Imralu: /* Essive */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | /pʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''pq'''› || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lateral affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡ɮ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dl'''› || || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡ɬ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tl'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡ɬʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tlq'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɬʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ t͡ɬə͉ʔ].<br /> # In careful speech, affricates are distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together across word boundaries. The clusters are pronounced with a separate release.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is frequently also a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Back<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || /a/ [ɐ] ‹'''a'''›<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> Syllables in Balog are maximally CSVC, where C represents a consonant, S semivowel /w/ or /j/ and V a vowel. Syllables with a CS onset are rather rare.<br /> <br /> Consonant clusters other than those in which the second element is a semivowel do not occur within a morpheme or even within a clause, meaning that the appearance of such a consonant cluster reliably indicates a clause boundary. <br /> <br /> Any consonant may appear initially or medially in a morpheme. Ejective consonants cannot appear at the end of a morpheme. The plain voiceless stops and affricates are sometimes allophonically ejectivised at the end of an utterance.<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Vowel Length and Gemination===<br /> A number of proclitic morphemes such as the nominals (which indicate a subject), the essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ and the possessive proclitics ⫽niː⫽ and ⫽nuː⫽ contain the archiphoneme ⫽ː⫽ which is realised as the gemination of the following consonant, which belongs to the next morpheme, unless the next morpheme is a verb consisting of a single consonant or another morpheme containing ⫽ː⫽, in which case ⫽ː⫽ is realised as a lengthening of the vowel of the proclitic. <br /> <br /> For example, verb corresponding to the first person singular subject pronoun (&quot;I&quot;) may be either '''''ž''''' or '''''žan'''''. Applying the b-ranked, definite subject nominal clitic ⫽aː⫽ results in '''''aaž''''' or '''''ažžan''''' respectively (both meaning 'I', with the latter being more emphatically singular, 'I and no one else'). The essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''weež''''' or '''''wežžan''''' respectively ('who is me') and the a sequence of essive ⫽weː⫽ and subordinate possessive ⫽niː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''wenniiž''''' or '''''wennižžan''''' respectively ('my', 'which is mine').<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following verb phrase consists of only a consonant and otherwise geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellouh'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eqe(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''louh''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(d) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status'', described below. <br /> <br /> In everyday use, when not speaking to a much higher ranked individual, the definite forms are frequently used even for specific indefinite referents, with the specific, indefinite forms with &lt;q&gt; being more emphatically indefinite, representing a marked indication to the listener that they are not expected to know the identity of the referent. When speaking to higher ranked individuals, failure to use the indefinite specific forms when needed is seen as an affront to the hierarchy of respect as it effectively eliminates any indication of the listener's knowledge of the situation.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, animate&quot; !! (ANIM)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, inanimate&quot; !! (INAN)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ei(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=309018 2023-06-10T13:38:24Z

<p>Imralu: /* Syntactic Clitics */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | /pʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''pq'''› || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lateral affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡ɮ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dl'''› || || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡ɬ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tl'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡ɬʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tlq'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɬʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ t͡ɬə͉ʔ].<br /> # In careful speech, affricates are distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together across word boundaries. The clusters are pronounced with a separate release.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is frequently also a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Back<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || /a/ [ɐ] ‹'''a'''›<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> Syllables in Balog are maximally CSVC, where C represents a consonant, S semivowel /w/ or /j/ and V a vowel. Syllables with a CS onset are rather rare.<br /> <br /> Consonant clusters other than those in which the second element is a semivowel do not occur within a morpheme or even within a clause, meaning that the appearance of such a consonant cluster reliably indicates a clause boundary. <br /> <br /> Any consonant may appear initially or medially in a morpheme. Ejective consonants cannot appear at the end of a morpheme. The plain voiceless stops and affricates are sometimes allophonically ejectivised at the end of an utterance.<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Vowel Length and Gemination===<br /> A number of proclitic morphemes such as the nominals (which indicate a subject), the essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ and the possessive proclitics ⫽niː⫽ and ⫽nuː⫽ contain the archiphoneme ⫽ː⫽ which is realised as the gemination of the following consonant, which belongs to the next morpheme, unless the next morpheme is a verb consisting of a single consonant or another morpheme containing ⫽ː⫽, in which case ⫽ː⫽ is realised as a lengthening of the vowel of the proclitic. <br /> <br /> For example, verb corresponding to the first person singular subject pronoun (&quot;I&quot;) may be either '''''ž''''' or '''''žan'''''. Applying the b-ranked, definite subject nominal clitic ⫽aː⫽ results in '''''aaž''''' or '''''ažžan''''' respectively (both meaning 'I', with the latter being more emphatically singular, 'I and no one else'). The essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''weež''''' or '''''wežžan''''' respectively ('who is me') and the a sequence of essive ⫽weː⫽ and subordinate possessive ⫽niː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''wenniiž''''' or '''''wennižžan''''' respectively ('my', 'which is mine').<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following verb phrase consists of only a consonant and otherwise geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellow'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eqe(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''low''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(d) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status'', described below. <br /> <br /> In everyday use, when not speaking to a much higher ranked individual, the definite forms are frequently used even for specific indefinite referents, with the specific, indefinite forms with &lt;q&gt; being more emphatically indefinite, representing a marked indication to the listener that they are not expected to know the identity of the referent. When speaking to higher ranked individuals, failure to use the indefinite specific forms when needed is seen as an affront to the hierarchy of respect as it effectively eliminates any indication of the listener's knowledge of the situation.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, animate&quot; !! (ANIM)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, inanimate&quot; !! (INAN)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ei(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=309010 2023-06-10T03:44:20Z

<p>Imralu: /* Subject Clitics */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | /pʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''pq'''› || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lateral affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡ɮ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dl'''› || || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡ɬ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tl'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡ɬʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tlq'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɬʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ t͡ɬə͉ʔ].<br /> # In careful speech, affricates are distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together across word boundaries. The clusters are pronounced with a separate release.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is frequently also a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Back<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || /a/ [ɐ] ‹'''a'''›<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> Syllables in Balog are maximally CSVC, where C represents a consonant, S semivowel /w/ or /j/ and V a vowel. Syllables with a CS onset are rather rare.<br /> <br /> Consonant clusters other than those in which the second element is a semivowel do not occur within a morpheme or even within a clause, meaning that the appearance of such a consonant cluster reliably indicates a clause boundary. <br /> <br /> Any consonant may appear initially or medially in a morpheme. Ejective consonants cannot appear at the end of a morpheme. The plain voiceless stops and affricates are sometimes allophonically ejectivised at the end of an utterance.<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Vowel Length and Gemination===<br /> A number of proclitic morphemes such as the nominals (which indicate a subject), the essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ and the possessive proclitics ⫽niː⫽ and ⫽nuː⫽ contain the archiphoneme ⫽ː⫽ which is realised as the gemination of the following consonant, which belongs to the next morpheme, unless the next morpheme is a verb consisting of a single consonant or another morpheme containing ⫽ː⫽, in which case ⫽ː⫽ is realised as a lengthening of the vowel of the proclitic. <br /> <br /> For example, verb corresponding to the first person singular subject pronoun (&quot;I&quot;) may be either '''''ž''''' or '''''žan'''''. Applying the b-ranked, definite subject nominal clitic ⫽aː⫽ results in '''''aaž''''' or '''''ažžan''''' respectively (both meaning 'I', with the latter being more emphatically singular, 'I and no one else'). The essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''weež''''' or '''''wežžan''''' respectively ('who is me') and the a sequence of essive ⫽weː⫽ and subordinate possessive ⫽niː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''wenniiž''''' or '''''wennižžan''''' respectively ('my', 'which is mine').<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following morpheme consists of only a consonant and, when the following morpheme is syllabic, geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellow'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''low''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status'', described below. <br /> <br /> In everyday use, when not speaking to a much higher ranked individual, the definite forms are frequently used even for specific indefinite referents, with the specific, indefinite forms with &lt;q&gt; being more emphatically indefinite, representing a marked indication to the listener that they are not expected to know the identity of the referent. When speaking to higher ranked individuals, failure to use the indefinite specific forms when needed is seen as an affront to the hierarchy of respect as it effectively eliminates any indication of the listener's knowledge of the situation.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, animate&quot; !! (ANIM)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Unknown, inanimate&quot; !! (INAN)<br /> | || || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ei(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=308418 2023-06-05T00:57:02Z

<p>Imralu: /* Morphophonology */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | /pʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''pq'''› || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lateral affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡ɮ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dl'''› || || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡ɬ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tl'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡ɬʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tlq'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɬʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ t͡ɬə͉ʔ].<br /> # In careful speech, affricates are distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together across word boundaries. The clusters are pronounced with a separate release.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is frequently also a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Back<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || /a/ [ɐ] ‹'''a'''›<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> Syllables in Balog are maximally CSVC, where C represents a consonant, S semivowel /w/ or /j/ and V a vowel. Syllables with a CS onset are rather rare.<br /> <br /> Consonant clusters other than those in which the second element is a semivowel do not occur within a morpheme or even within a clause, meaning that the appearance of such a consonant cluster reliably indicates a clause boundary. <br /> <br /> Any consonant may appear initially or medially in a morpheme. Ejective consonants cannot appear at the end of a morpheme. The plain voiceless stops and affricates are sometimes allophonically ejectivised at the end of an utterance.<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Vowel Length and Gemination===<br /> A number of proclitic morphemes such as the nominals (which indicate a subject), the essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ and the possessive proclitics ⫽niː⫽ and ⫽nuː⫽ contain the archiphoneme ⫽ː⫽ which is realised as the gemination of the following consonant, which belongs to the next morpheme, unless the next morpheme is a verb consisting of a single consonant or another morpheme containing ⫽ː⫽, in which case ⫽ː⫽ is realised as a lengthening of the vowel of the proclitic. <br /> <br /> For example, verb corresponding to the first person singular subject pronoun (&quot;I&quot;) may be either '''''ž''''' or '''''žan'''''. Applying the b-ranked, definite subject nominal clitic ⫽aː⫽ results in '''''aaž''''' or '''''ažžan''''' respectively (both meaning 'I', with the latter being more emphatically singular, 'I and no one else'). The essive proclitic ⫽weː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''weež''''' or '''''wežžan''''' respectively ('who is me') and the a sequence of essive ⫽weː⫽ and subordinate possessive ⫽niː⫽ applied to '''''ž''''' or '''''žan''''' results in '''''wenniiž''''' or '''''wennižžan''''' respectively ('my', 'which is mine').<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following morpheme consists of only a consonant and, when the following morpheme is syllabic, geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellow'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''low''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status''. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=308417 2023-06-05T00:34:08Z

<p>Imralu: /* Phonotactics */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | /pʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''pq'''› || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lateral affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡ɮ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dl'''› || || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡ɬ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tl'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡ɬʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tlq'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɬʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ t͡ɬə͉ʔ].<br /> # In careful speech, affricates are distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together across word boundaries. The clusters are pronounced with a separate release.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is frequently also a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Back<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || /a/ [ɐ] ‹'''a'''›<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> Syllables in Balog are maximally CSVC, where C represents a consonant, S semivowel /w/ or /j/ and V a vowel. Syllables with a CS onset are rather rare.<br /> <br /> Consonant clusters other than those in which the second element is a semivowel do not occur within a morpheme or even within a clause, meaning that the appearance of such a consonant cluster reliably indicates a clause boundary. <br /> <br /> Any consonant may appear initially or medially in a morpheme. Ejective consonants cannot appear at the end of a morpheme. The plain voiceless stops and affricates are sometimes allophonically ejectivised at the end of an utterance.<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Gemination===<br /> ===Prenasalisation===<br /> ===Vowel Frontness===<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following morpheme consists of only a consonant and, when the following morpheme is syllabic, geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellow'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''low''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status''. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=308416 2023-06-05T00:22:24Z

<p>Imralu: /* Consonants */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | /pʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''pq'''› || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lateral affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡ɮ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dl'''› || || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡ɬ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tl'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡ɬʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tlq'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɬʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ t͡ɬə͉ʔ].<br /> # In careful speech, affricates are distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together across word boundaries. The clusters are pronounced with a separate release.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is frequently also a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Back<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || /a/ [ɐ] ‹'''a'''›<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Gemination===<br /> ===Prenasalisation===<br /> ===Vowel Frontness===<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following morpheme consists of only a consonant and, when the following morpheme is syllabic, geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellow'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''low''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status''. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=307077 2023-05-30T12:34:00Z

<p>Imralu: /* Clause Apposition */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ].<br /> # The affricates are not distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together by compounding processes or even across word boundaries. They are ascribed phonemic status due to their phonotactic patterning.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is always a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Back<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || /a/ [ɐ] ‹'''a'''›<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Gemination===<br /> ===Prenasalisation===<br /> ===Vowel Frontness===<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following morpheme consists of only a consonant and, when the following morpheme is syllabic, geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellow'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''low''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status''. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=307051 2023-05-30T06:45:31Z

<p>Imralu: /* Clause Apposition */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ].<br /> # The affricates are not distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together by compounding processes or even across word boundaries. They are ascribed phonemic status due to their phonotactic patterning.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is always a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Back<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || /a/ [ɐ] ‹'''a'''›<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Gemination===<br /> ===Prenasalisation===<br /> ===Vowel Frontness===<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following morpheme consists of only a consonant and, when the following morpheme is syllabic, geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellow'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''low''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status''. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> As shown above, an intransitive clause such as 'the tree falls over,' can easily be expressed in Balog by means of a single clause. However, the strictly monovalent (intransitive) nature of all verbs in Balog prevents clauses from containing objects or adjuncts. The equivalent of sentences in other languages that contain an object must be multiclausal in Balog, with each argument being associated with its own verb. Typically, the agent of an action is the subject of a clause giving information about the manner of the action, very frequently indicating the body part or tool used whereas the patient is the subject of a verb conveying more semantic information. In the following examples, clauses are separated with commas, although this is not usually done.<br /> <br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''B'avvaŋ, magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''b''''' || '''''a(:)-''''' || '''''vaŋ,''''' || '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | use.hand || DEF(B)- || hunt, || fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP, || VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''The hunter pushes the tree over by hand.''&lt;br&gt;''The hunter pushed the tree over by hand.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Clauses that are placed next to each other in apposition, without any linking conjunction, are interpreted as causally and pragmatically related to one another. The conjunctive adverb ''tšqe'' &quot;and unrelatedly&quot; can be used to prevent this as well as to introduce new topics.<br /> <br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=306784 2023-05-28T09:04:10Z

<p>Imralu: /* Essive */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ].<br /> # The affricates are not distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together by compounding processes or even across word boundaries. They are ascribed phonemic status due to their phonotactic patterning.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is always a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Back<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || /a/ [ɐ] ‹'''a'''›<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Gemination===<br /> ===Prenasalisation===<br /> ===Vowel Frontness===<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following morpheme consists of only a consonant and, when the following morpheme is syllabic, geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellow'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''low''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;my big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;this big book of mine&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status''. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=306783 2023-05-28T08:06:28Z

<p>Imralu: /* Adverbs */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ].<br /> # The affricates are not distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together by compounding processes or even across word boundaries. They are ascribed phonemic status due to their phonotactic patterning.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is always a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Back<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || /a/ [ɐ] ‹'''a'''›<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Gemination===<br /> ===Prenasalisation===<br /> ===Vowel Frontness===<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following morpheme consists of only a consonant and, when the following morpheme is syllabic, geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellow'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''low''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;is a big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;is a big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status''. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=306782 2023-05-28T08:05:57Z

<p>Imralu: /* Essive */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ].<br /> # The affricates are not distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together by compounding processes or even across word boundaries. They are ascribed phonemic status due to their phonotactic patterning.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is always a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Back<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || /a/ [ɐ] ‹'''a'''›<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Gemination===<br /> ===Prenasalisation===<br /> ===Vowel Frontness===<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following morpheme consists of only a consonant and, when the following morpheme is syllabic, geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''aqabbalog weŋŋaž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddžeb weššwaŋ'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''šwaŋ''' <br /> |-<br /> | SPEC(b) || be.slave|| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || execute.PRF.PASS<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the slave who has been executed&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''iddemeg webbad'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''bad''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.big<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;the big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''''eqeŋŋal wellow'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''ŋal''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''low''' <br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || use.leg || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &quot;a sleepwalker&quot;, &quot;a walker who sleeps&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''''iddemeg wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &quot;is a big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | '''''iddiž weddemeg webbad wennuuž'''''<br /> |-<br /> | '''i(:)- || '''diž''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''demeg''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''nu(:)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | DEF(e) || be.DEM.PROX.1 || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || be.book || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || POSS.DOM- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | &quot;is a big book&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status''. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=306727 2023-05-27T10:45:20Z

<p>Imralu: /* Clause Syntax */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ].<br /> # The affricates are not distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together by compounding processes or even across word boundaries. They are ascribed phonemic status due to their phonotactic patterning.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is always a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Back<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || /a/ [ɐ] ‹'''a'''›<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Gemination===<br /> ===Prenasalisation===<br /> ===Vowel Frontness===<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following morpheme consists of only a consonant and, when the following morpheme is syllabic, geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''balog weŋŋaž'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || SPEC(B)- || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &quot;is a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status''. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(:)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=306726 2023-05-27T08:13:22Z

<p>Imralu: /* Syntactic Clitics */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ].<br /> # The affricates are not distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together by compounding processes or even across word boundaries. They are ascribed phonemic status due to their phonotactic patterning.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is always a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Back<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || /a/ [ɐ] ‹'''a'''›<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Gemination===<br /> ===Prenasalisation===<br /> ===Vowel Frontness===<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics=== <br /> Syntactic clitics are morphemes that attach to the first word of a verb phrase in order to subordinate them in some manner into another verb phrase. Syntactic clitics include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the following morpheme consists of only a consonant and, when the following morpheme is syllabic, geminates the following consonant.<br /> <br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''balog weŋŋaž'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || SPEC(B)- || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &quot;is a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status''. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(:)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(i)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(i)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=306722 2023-05-27T01:14:19Z

<p>Imralu: /* Essive */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ].<br /> # The affricates are not distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together by compounding processes or even across word boundaries. They are ascribed phonemic status due to their phonotactic patterning.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is always a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Back<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || /a/ [ɐ] ‹'''a'''›<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Gemination===<br /> ===Prenasalisation===<br /> ===Vowel Frontness===<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics===<br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''balog weŋŋaž'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''balog''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''we(:)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''ŋaž''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.Balog || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ESS-&lt;/span&gt; || SPEC(B)- || be.tall<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &quot;is a tall Balog&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status''. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(u)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(u)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(u)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(a)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(a)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(a)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(o)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(o)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(o)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(e)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(e)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(e)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(i)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(i)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(i)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(ä)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(ä)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(ä)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The doubled final vowel of of the subject clitics only appears when attached to a verb consisting of a single consonant. In other cases, the subject clitics trigger the gemination of the following consonant.<br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(i)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(i)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=306721 2023-05-27T01:03:47Z

<p>Imralu: /* Essive */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ].<br /> # The affricates are not distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together by compounding processes or even across word boundaries. They are ascribed phonemic status due to their phonotactic patterning.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is always a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Back<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || /a/ [ɐ] ‹'''a'''›<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Gemination===<br /> ===Prenasalisation===<br /> ===Vowel Frontness===<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics===<br /> ====Essive====<br /> The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a verb phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun.<br /> <br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status''. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(u)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(u)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(u)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(a)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(a)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(a)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(o)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(o)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(o)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(e)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(e)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(e)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(i)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(i)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(i)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(ä)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(ä)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(ä)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The doubled final vowel of of the subject clitics only appears when attached to a verb consisting of a single consonant. In other cases, the subject clitics trigger the gemination of the following consonant.<br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(i)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(i)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=305940 2023-05-14T10:57:49Z

<p>Imralu: /* Verbs */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ].<br /> # The affricates are not distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together by compounding processes or even across word boundaries. They are ascribed phonemic status due to their phonotactic patterning.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is always a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Back<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || /a/ [ɐ] ‹'''a'''›<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Gemination===<br /> ===Prenasalisation===<br /> ===Vowel Frontness===<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics===<br /> ====Essive====<br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status''. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(u)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(u)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(u)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(a)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(a)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(a)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(o)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(o)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(o)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(e)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(e)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(e)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(i)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(i)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(i)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(ä)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(ä)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(ä)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The doubled final vowel of of the subject clitics only appears when attached to a verb consisting of a single consonant. In other cases, the subject clitics trigger the gemination of the following consonant.<br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(i)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(i)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Iliaqu&diff=295775 2023-01-26T02:34:11Z

<p>Imralu: /* To */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Iliaqu<br /> |nativename = iliaqu<br /> |pronunciation = [ìʎàʔú]<br /> |region = Qu<br /> |ethnicity = Ngolu / Ilaqu<br /> |speakers = {{formatnum:100,000}}<br /> |setting = [[Verse:Qu|Qu]]<br /> |fam1 = Language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2013-2020<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> {{infobox|bg=#F2DC77|native=iliaqu|in=Qu|no=100,000 (approx.)|tree=Isolate (as far as known)|wo=VSO|morph=Isolating/futional|ms=Nominative-Accusative|creator=[[User:Imralu|Imralu]]|date=2013-2014}}<br /> <br /> '''Iliaqu''' (IPA: /ˌɪljəˈʔuː/), also known as '''Ngolu''' or sometimes '''Qu''' (endonym: ''iliaqu'' IPA: [ìʎàʔú]) is a language isolate spoken throughout the known regions of the space habitat [[Verse:Qu|Qu]] by the Ngolu people, whose number is estimated to be around 100,000. As the Ngolu are almost entirely monolingual, and while voluntary travel to and from Qu remains impossible, the language is not in any danger of extinction. At this stage, little is known of dialect differences within Qu. There are estimated to be somewhere between 50 and 100 Iliaqu speakers on Earth who have simply mysteriously appeared in various locations. Small communities of Ngolu speakers been brought or have found their way together, the most well-known and well-studied of which is a group of about 15 living in and around Berlin, Germany.<br /> <br /> Iliaqu is an isolating/fusional, head-initial (right-branching) language with VSO word order and nominative-accusative alignment. Verbs (verbals) make up the only open class of word, with nouns (nominals) constituting a closed class of heavily fusional words that fill the roll of pronouns and articles in other languages, marking grammatical person, number, definiteness and specificity, gender, accessibility, and case.<br /> <br /> ==Terminology==<br /> There appear to have been fewer than ten isolated instances of non-Ngolu people arriving in Qu and there are no other cultures or languages known to exist in Qu. In such a linguistically and culturally homogenous environment, the Ngolu have had no need for endonyms for their culture, people or language. Traditionally, they have described their language simply as '''ilia''' [ìʎá] 'speech', themselves as '''golu''' [ŋòlú] 'people', and their world as '''qu''' [ʔú] 'world'. <br /> <br /> With the new knowledge of other cultures and the entire universe outside of Qu, neologisms have arisen to distinguish their language and their people from those of the outsiders. For the Ngolu arrivals Earth, contact with other cultures has forced them to acknowledge that the other languages they hear must have the ability to convey information just as their language. Consequently, on Earth, the word '''ilia''' generally refers to any language. To disambiguate their own language, they may call it '''ilia qu''' [ìʎáʔú] or '''iliaqu''' [ìʎàʔú] 'Qu speech'. Non-Ngolu are still referred to as '''taia''' ('ghost', 'demon') and Earth maybe referred to as '''utaia''' [ùtàjá] 'ghost world' or a loan word such as '''hiia''', which was common among the Berlin group (from German ''hier'') although it now seems to be dying out in favour of '''utaia'''. With the acknowledgement that non-Ngolu people are also people and the consequent expansion of the term '''golu''' to include non-Ngolu, the term '''goqu''' [ŋòʔú] ('Qu people', formed by adding the human prefix '''go-''' to the word '''qu''') is gaining ground and may be contrasted with '''taia''' or '''goutaia''' [ŋòu̯tàjá].<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !VOWELS<br /> !Front<br /> !Central<br /> !Back<br /> |-<br /> !High<br /> |'''i''' ‹i›<br /> |<br /> |'''u''' ‹u›<br /> |-<br /> !Mid<br /> |'''e''' ‹e›<br /> |<br /> |'''o''' ‹o›<br /> |-<br /> !Low<br /> |<br /> |'''a''' ‹a›<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Each vowel may be 'strong' or 'weak'. These are essentially stressed and unstressed. There is only ever one 'strong' vowel per word and it is nearly always the final vowel. Where it is not, it is always the penultimate vowel and the in that case the final vowel is always /i/ or /u/. Non-final strong vowels are indicated in the romanisation using an acute accent, ‹áéíóú›.<br /> <br /> The realisation of strong vowels varies across accents. There appears to be a cline ranging from a pitch-based pronunciation to a weight-based pronunciation (used chiefly by men). At the pitch-based end of the spectrum, 'strong' vowels are pronounced with a high tone and 'weak' vowels with a low-tone. At the end of a non-interrogative utterance, a high-tone becomes a falling tone. At the end of a question, a high tone may be lengthened and/or undergo an additional rise. At the weight-based extreme, strong vowels cause gemination of the following consonant but are pronounced as long themselves when the following sound is (1) a vowel, (2) a consonant cluster or (3) an already geminated consonant. Utterance finally, strong vowels are generally neither pronounced with a high tone nor lengthened but are usually pronounced slightly louder. <br /> <br /> The high vowels, /i/ and /u/, when 'weak' and adjacent to another vowel are pronounced non-syllabically as [i̯~j] and [u̯~w]). Non-syllabic /i/ merges with and palatalises any preceding dental/alveolar consonant.<br /> <br /> In these two word examples, the pitch-based pronunciation is given before the weight-based pronunciation.<br /> <br /> :*'''ju muja''' [ʒúmùʒâ] ~ [ʒumːuˈʒa]<br /> :*'''ju aio''' [ʒúàjô] ~ [ʒuːaˈjo]<br /> :*'''ju uaia''' [ʒúwàjâ] [ʒuːwaˈja]<br /> :*'''ju ntu''' [ʒúntû] ~ [ʒu:nˈtu]<br /> :*'''ju lleue''' [ʒúlːèwê] ~ [ʒuːlːeˈwe]<br /> <br /> ===Consonants===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !CONSONANTS<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Dental/Alveolar<br /> !Post-alveolar<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> | '''m''' ‹m›<br /> | <br /> | '''n''' ‹n›<br /> |<br /> | '''ŋ''' ‹g›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> | '''b''' ‹b›<br /> |<br /> | '''t''' ‹t›<br /> |<br /> | '''k''' ‹k›<br /> | '''ʔ''' ‹q›<br /> |-<br /> !Ejective<br /> |<br /> | <br /> | '''tʼ''' ‹tt›<br /> |<br /> | '''kʼ''' ‹kk›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiced Fricative<br /> | <br /> | '''v''' ‹v›<br /> | '''z''' ‹z›<br /> | '''ʒ''' ‹j›<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiceless Fricative<br /> | <br /> | <br /> | '''s''' ‹s›<br /> | '''ʃ''' ‹x›<br /> | <br /> | '''h''' ‹h›<br /> |-<br /> !Tap<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''ɾ''' ‹r› <br /> |<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''l''' ‹l› <br /> |<br /> |<br /> | <br /> |}<br /> <br /> * The nasal consonants /m n ŋ/, unlike other consonants, may occur before another consonant and then assimilate in place of articulation to that consonant. For this reason, many authors posit the archiphoneme /N/. /N/ may be syllabic post pausa, carrying a low tone. Before /l/, /N/ assimilates to [l̪] or [l̪̩]. Before /v/, it is pronounced as [ɱ] or [ɱ̩].<br /> * The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental [n̪ t̪ t̪ʼ ɾ̪ l̪]. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears. Some speakers palatalise /t/ and /d/ to [t͡ʃ] and [d͡ʒ] respectively. The ejective /tʼ/, however, is rarely or never palatalised as [t͡ʃʼ].<br /> * /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive [d̪].<br /> * Geminate /m/, /n/ and /l/ (resulting from /Nm/, /Nn/ and /Nl/) may be pronounced as [m̩b], [n̪̩d̪] and [l̪̩d̪] respectively, particularly by men and particularly post pausa.<br /> * /s/ and /z/ are normally alveolar. When followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are not distinguished from /ʃ ʒ/. <br /> * /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ cannot be followed by non-syllabic /i/.<br /> * The phonemes /s/ and /ɾ/ do not occur at the beginning of a word.<br /> * The glottal stop /ʔ/ and the ejective consonants /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ are restricted to positions immediately before a 'strong' vowel, although there may be an intervening non-syllabic 'weak' /i/ or /u/ after the ejectives. At the beginning of a 'weak' syllable, ejective consonants become pronounced as their equivalent plain plosive and the glottal stop disappears. For example, ''kka'' [kʼá] and ''kkue'' [kʷʼé] are allowed while expected ''*kkina'' (derived from ''kka'' plus the infix ''-in-'') is instead present as ''kina'' [kì.ná]. In connected speech, /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ may be pronounced as [t̚ʔ k̚ʔ] or even [tː kː]. However, a strong ejective pronunciation is always heard post pausa.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> Phonemically, a syllable may be '''((N)C)V''', where '''V''' is a vowel '''(C)''' an optional consonant and '''(N)''' an optional nasal which assimilates to its following consonant in its point of articulation. <br /> <br /> Phonetically, syllables may be more complex. '''(N)''' is pronounced syllabically post pausa and otherwise is pronounced in the coda of the preceding syllable. The non-syllabic pronunciations of /i/ and /u/ mean that a syllable can be (C)(S)V(S)(N), where '''(S)''' is a semivowel.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::'''nxua intaneti'''<br /> ::/Nʃu.á.i.Nta.ne.tí/<br /> ::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí]<br /> ::''is on the internet''<br /> <br /> ===Epenthetic /s/===<br /> <br /> An epenthetic /s/ sometimes appears between words when the second word begins with a vowel. In the romanisation used here, the /s/ is written on the end of the preceding word. The rules are somewhat complex and are best shown as a table. The final vowels of preceding words are shown vertically on the left. Initial vowels of the following word are shown along the top. An epenthetic /s/ doesn't appear before '''i''' and '''u''' when a syllabic vowel (V) immediately follows within the same word. In the table, the word borders are shown with an '''s''' indicating where the epenthetic /s/ always appears. In other positions in the table, the epenthetic /s/ can still appear in very clear emphatic speech.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''i(V)-'' || ''u(V)-'' || ''i-'' || ''u-'' || ''e-'' || ''o-'' || ''a-''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-i'' || '''-i i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i e-''' || '''-i o-''' || '''-i a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-u'' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u u-''' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} u-''' || '''-u e-''' || '''-u o-''' || '''-u a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-e'' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-o'' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-a'' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ua''' || [è.né.wá] || '''u''' followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} u''' || [è.né.sú] || '''u''' not followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ima''' || [è.néj.má] || '''i''' is weak and can become non-syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} eme''' || [è.né.sè.mé] || '''e''' is always syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni ua''' || [è.ní.wá] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni u''' || [è.ní.ú] || final '''i''' before syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni iu''' || [è.ní.jú] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni{{color|MediumBlue|s}} iui''' || [è.ní.sì.wí] || final '''i''' before initial syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene iui''' || [è.néj.wí] || final '''e''' followed by 'weak' '''i''' which becomes non-syllabic<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> There are four classes of words in Ngolu. Ngolu is a very verb-heavy language, with verbals making up the only truly open word class.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''Nominals''': closed<br /> :* '''Verbals''': open<br /> :* '''Particles''': closed<br /> :* '''Interjections''': closed (mostly)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Nominals===<br /> Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of nominals, the &lt;u&gt;pronominals&lt;/u&gt;, are essentially the equivalent of pronouns and articles in other languages, inflecting for number, grammatical person, definiteness, specificity, gender, case and an inflectional dimension unique to Iliaqu, ''accessibility''. Pronominals can appear on their own or can be followed by a verbal or verbal phrase. When followed by a verbal, they can be regarded as the head of an underlying relative clause which nominalises the verbal and allows it to function as an argument in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> :As a pronoun:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|it}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :As an article:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|the}} house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In addition to the pronominals, there are two &lt;u&gt;complementisers&lt;/u&gt; which are essentially subordinating conjunctions which inflect for case. '''Zuo''' can be thought of as roughly equivalent to the English subordinating conjunction 'that' and '''kuo''' can be thought of as 'the time when'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''olos''' || '''ene''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''g-ixi''' || '''ja''' || '''nana''' || '''g-uje''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.strange || DAT.1s.ACS || NOM.C || be.not || COP-DAT.3s.INAN.DEF || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.father || COP-GEN.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is strange&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;is not&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the one who&quot; || &quot;is father&quot; || &quot;is hers/his&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I think it's strange {{color|MediumBlue|that}} his / her father didn't go / wasn't there.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Number====<br /> Pronominals indicate two numbers, singular and plural. Plural is marked by the prefix '''i-''', which occurs before some case prefixes and after others (see [[Ngolu#Case|Case]] below for more information).<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The singular is used before quantifiers indicating a specific plural quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a group of two&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|two}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> When the plural is used, this indicates multiples of the indicated quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are groups of two&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|pairs of}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Many words denoting powders and granular substances are used in the plural with the singular referring to an individual grain.<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a grain of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the grain of sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are grains of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the (grain{{color|MediumBlue|s}} of) sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Water referred to as '''hunia''', potable water, is indicated in the plural as well when it is a quantity larger than what one person can drink in one sitting. <br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (large quantity of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (serving of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Gender====<br /> In the third person, nominals distinguish between animate and inanimate referents. When it comes to animals, the use of the genders depends on the speaker's [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]]. ''Kali'' (women, children and uninitiated men) and ''tuva'' (slaves) refer to all motile animals in the animate gender, generally as inaccessible although pets may be accessible. ''Muja'' (initiated men) refer to animals other than pets in the inanimate gender. The Ngolu believe this allows ''muja'' to hunt without remorse.<br /> <br /> The following examples illustrate the difference. Examples which are specific to the rank of the speaker or the listener will be marked as such after the translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The interplay between a speaker and listener's rank is complex and may result in unexpected gender choices. For example, a slave must refer to him- or herself in the third person inanimate gender when speaking to ''balu'' and above unless specifically given permission otherwise. To read more about this, see [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|Social Stratification and Language Use]].<br /> <br /> ====Person====<br /> Three grammatical persons are marked by pronominals. The first person pronominals contain '''n'''. The second person pronominals contain a non-syllabic '''u''' (realised as '''v''' before '''u'''). In the third person, '''j''', '''x''', '''m''', '''z''', '''k''' and Ø appear depending on gender, definiteness and specificity.<br /> <br /> =====Clusivity=====<br /> The plural forms of all the basic pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness. <br /> <br /> The first person inclusive (second plus first persons) may be indicated by compound pronominals, the dual forms (&quot;you, one person, and I&quot;) being '''uana''', '''uanu''', '''vuna''', '''vunu''' and the plural forms being '''iuana''', '''iuanu''', '''ivuna''', '''ivunu'''. Which of the four options is used depends on [[#accessibility|accessibility]]. These compound forms are not used universally and many speakers use juxtaposition of pronouns, such as '''vu nu''' instead of '''vunu''' or '''iua na''' or '''iua ina''' instead of '''iuana'''.<br /> <br /> Even addressing people in the second person, should the group include third persons who are not being addressed, many speakers will make note of these separately, for example '''ju vu''' (gloss: NOM.3s.ICS.DEF NOM.2s.ICS) and this is somewhat prescriptively enforced. The nominal '''ivu''' (gloss: NOM.2p.ICS), for example, is recommended only for use to address two or more people when all are present or when the message is at the very least expected to be passed onto those who are not present. <br /> <br /> The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person. The compound 2nd+1st person pronouns are not subject to this ordering rule.<br /> <br /> Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive.<br /> <br /> ====Definiteness and Specificity====<br /> <br /> In the third person, pronominals indicate definiteness (whether the listener knows which individual) and specificity (whether the speaker knows which individual).<br /> <br /> =====Definite=====<br /> The Definite (+specific, +definite) is used when the listener is assumed to know which specific individual or individuals the speaker is referring to. In the following examples, '''ji ala''' (or just '''ji''') refers to a specific bird which the listener is assumed to be already aware of, possibly because it is already been mentioned.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|the bird}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|it}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Specific=====<br /> The Specific (+specific, -definite) is used when the speaker has a specific individual or individuals in mind but the listener is not assumed to know which one(s). In the following examples, '''mi ala''' (or '''mi''') refers to a specific bird but not one which the speaker expects the listener to know of.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a (particular) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|one (in particular)}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Non-Specific=====<br /> The Non-Specific (or General) does not refer to any specific individual(s) but to the abstract idea of a member or members of a particular class, any individual of which could be described. It often used when talking about desires or in negative sentences. In the examples below, '''i ala''' refers to any bird.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a(ny) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|anyone}}.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Accessibility====<br /> Accessibility is a concept integral to Ngolu culture. Outside of the third person non-specific, all animate nominals have two forms, one ''accessible'' (gloss: ACS) and one ''inaccessible'' (gloss: ICS). Accessible nominals have a low vowel,'''a''' in the nominative stem, '''e''' in the accusative stem, and these correspond to the high vowels '''u''' and '''i''' respectively in inaccessible nominals. Accessibility is typically explained as an indication of whether physical contact is permitted or not, however it is more generally a means of conveying social closeness or distance even when no actual touching is involved.<br /> <br /> In the first person, the English word ''I'' can be translated as either '''na''' (NOM.1s.ACS) or '''nu''' (NOM.1s.ICS). Using '''na''' signals to the listener &quot;I am accessible to you.&quot; This means the speaker feels close and emotionally open to the listener and physical contact is permitted or even welcome. Using '''nu''' informs the listener that physical contact is not welcome at the current time. This is typically because of emotional distance, such as when talking to strangers, casual acquaintances or people whom the speaker does not like, but it may also signal an unwillingness to be touched for other, often fleeting reasons, such as illness, pain or emotional tension. Between close friends and lovers, suddenly switching to '''nu''' may indicate that the speaker has taken offence at something.<br /> <br /> In the second and third persons, accessibility indicates the the referent's ''perceived'' accessibility ''to the speaker''. Using '''ua''' (NOM.2s.ACS) indicates that the speaker assumes he or she may touch the listener. Using '''vu''' (NOM.2s.ICS) indicates either a more respectful or colder social distance (cf. French &quot;vous&quot;, which, coincidentally, sounds identical). In the third person, '''ja''' (NOM.3s.ACS.DEF) and '''ju''' (NOM.3s.ICS.DEF) indicate the speaker's relationship to the referent. In plural, accessible indicates that ''all'' members of the group are accessible. Even one individual who the speaker regards as inaccessible, will cause the group to be marked as inaccessible. Inaccessibility is thus the 'default' and when speaking of generic or unknown individuals, these will be indicated with inaccessible nominals.<br /> <br /> Accessibility produces four speech modes or 'stances'. In situations between peers of equal rank, generally the speech mode with either be accessible (using accessible nominals in both first and second persons) or inaccessible (using inaccessible nominals in both). In situations of unequal dominance, which generally, but do not always, run along lines of rank, the dominant party speaks in the dominant mode, using inaccessible first person nominals and accessible second person nominals. The subordinate party speaks in the subordinate or submissive mode, using the reverse.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | speech mode || first person || second person || meaning<br /> |-<br /> | accessible mode (ACS) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may touch me. I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | inaccessible mode (ICS) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may not touch me. I may not touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | dominant mode (DOM) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may not touch me but I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | submissive mode (SUB) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may touch me but I may not touch you.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The speech mode used depends not only on who the speaker and listener are to one another, but how they feel about each other in that moment. A friend or lover who is deeply offended may suddenly switch to the inaccessible or dominant mode to indicate that they are now not happy and had better not be touched until the offence is resolved. The submissive mode may be used in order to flirt with an acquaintance. Flirting may be met with the accessible or inaccessible modes, which essentially give an answer. No answer (yet) is signalled by the adoption of the dominant mode. Smooth social interactions are ensured by the concordance of speech modes, ACS↔ACS, ICS↔ICS, DOM↔SUB. Conflict is often caused by the refusal to agree or by physical contact with someone marked in speech as inaccessible.<br /> <br /> Examples of the four speech modes in use.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ICS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Case====<br /> Ngolu possesses 14 grammatical cases. The nominative and accusative case appear to be the oldest and all other forms appear to derive from the agglomeration of adpositions onto them. The first group (accusative, dative, ablative, locative, genitive and possessive) appear to be relatively old. At some point after these adpositions fused onto the nominals, the plural marker '''i-''' also became a prefix. For example '''''i-e-ji''''' 'to them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;PL-DAT-ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;. The second group of derived cases (vocative, causal, benefactive, instrumental, comitative, topical, essive) appear to have developed more recently from prepositions added to either the nominative or the accusative case as the plural marker '''i-''' is sandwiched in the middle. For example '''''te-i-ji''''' 'about them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;because.of-PL.ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;.<br /> <br /> =====Nominative=====<br /> The nominative case indicates the grammatical subject of a verb. The nominative case is always formed with a back vowel, '''u''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''a''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''u''' shows animate and '''a''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''muja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|na}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.initiated.man || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be an initiated man&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} am an initiated man.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''loe''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || sleep || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} is not sleeping. / {{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} didn't sleep.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|He}} killed / murdered something / someone''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good || NOM.C || be.not || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It's good {{color|MediumBlue|that}} it's not raining.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zoua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuo}}''' || '''tavi''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ja}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.difficult || NOM.TEMP.C || be.child || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;the time when&quot; || &quot;be child&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He had a difficult childhood.<br /> (≈ {{color|MediumBlue|The time when}} {{color|MediumBlue|s/he}} was a child was difficult.)''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Accusative=====<br /> The accusative case indicates the grammatical object of a verb. The accusative case is formed with a front vowel, '''i''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''e''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''i''' represents animate and '''e''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''. The complementisers are '''jo''' and '''kio'''<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''ti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.PRF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;have finished&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Someone murdered {{color|MediumBlue|him}} / {{color|MediumBlue|He}} was murdered.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jave''' || '''ja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kivo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | throw || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF || ACC.3s.INAN.DEF || be.rock<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;throw&quot; || &quot;the being&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be rock&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''He threw {{color|MediumBlue|the rock}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jo}}''' || '''vai''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.C || stay || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; |''I want you {{color|MediumBlue|to}} stay. (≈ I want {{color|MediumBlue|that}} you stay.)'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In informal speech, the accusative case may replace the dative case when it indicates an experiencer. This does not occur with verbs that also have an accusative role and use the dative case to indicate a recipient.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ine}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || ACC.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Dative=====<br /> The dative case indicates an indirect object of the verb, a destination or goal of a movement or an experiencer. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'to' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''e(r)-''' ('''ie(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volos''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ene}}''' || '''izi''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || DAT.1s.ACS || ACC.3p.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;some things that&quot; || &quot;be water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} was given water. / Someone gave {{color|MediumBlue|me}} water.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|iene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || '''uana'''<br /> |-<br /> | JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM.1+2DU.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go - to them&quot; || &quot;you and I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''vais''' || '''inu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekio}}''' || '''loe''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF || stay || NOM.1p.ICS || DAT.TEMP.C || sleep || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;we&quot; || &quot;until&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''We stayed {{color|MediumBlue|until}} they slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Ablative=====<br /> The ablative case is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'from' in English. It is formed by suffixing '''-i''' to a nominative nominal. The complementisers are '''zuio''' and '''kuio''' in the ablative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Kuaqa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mala}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-uni}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.distant || NOM.1s.ICS || ABL.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || COP-GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be far&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;from the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm far away {{color|MediumBlue|from my home}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go - from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Get away {{color|MediumBlue|from me}}!'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || '''xuua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuio}}''' || '''iti''' || ('''ju''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;to her/him&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;since&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || (&quot;s/he&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Locative=====<br /> The locative case indicates a location. It is more or less equivalent to the prepositions 'in', 'on' and 'at' in English. It is also used to replace the verb &quot;have&quot; when indicating immediate possession as in &quot;to have something on one's person&quot;. It is formed by suffixing '''-a''' to a nominative nominal in the inaccessible and inanimate and prefixing '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ia(r)-''') to an accessible nominative nominal. The prefixed form is also used for the non-specific animate and inanimate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''bani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ana}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.money || LOC.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be money&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I don't have any money (with me). (≈ There is no money {{color|MediumBlue|at me}}.)'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|xua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mo}}''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.what || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be what&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Where are you?'' (≈ You are {{color|MediumBlue|at the what}}?) — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''iio''' || '''jas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azuo}}''' || '''muana''' || '''iti''' || '''exi''' || '''muana''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.fish || NOM.3s.ACS || LOC.C || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.small || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; || &quot;he&quot; || &quot;where&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || &quot;to the thing that&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be big&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''He's fishing {{color|MediumBlue|where}} the stream flows into the river.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || '''xuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;begin&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be yours&quot; || &quot;when&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || (&quot;to the inaccessible one&quot;) || &quot;that thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Genitive=====<br /> The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''egio''' || '''tani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|une}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.threesome || be.sibling || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a group of three&quot; || &quot;be siblings&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I have three siblings.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tta''' || '''xu''' || '''gula''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|uji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tio}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.large || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.pair.of.arms || COP-GEN.3s.DEF.ICS || be.that.3<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be large&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of arms&quot; || &quot;be of the person who&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|That person over there}} has big arms. / The arms {{color|MediumBlue|of that person over there}} are big.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Possessive=====<br /> The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) but to a nominative nominal rather than an accusative one.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || POS.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;owned by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} have / own a house.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It should be noted that, although in many languages, the genitive or possessive case is usually adnominal, referring to an immediately adjacent noun phrase, in Iliaqu, all nominals, regardless of case, refer to the predicate in their clause unless verbalised with the [[#Nominal_to_Verbal|copular prefix]]. Compare the following sentences.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || COP-POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in {{color|MediumBlue|my}} boot.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in the boot {{color|MediumBlue| and it's mine}}.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|I own}} a snake which is in the boot. — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the second sentence, the lack of the copula on '''une''' indicates that it represents an argument of the predicate ('''masa''' 'there is a snake'), meaning that it is the snake which belongs to the speaker, not the boot. The word order, placing the unadorned possessive argument ('''une''') after the much heavier locative argument ('''xua xa buja''') is heavily marked, placing focus on the fact that the snake is the speaker's legal possession.<br /> <br /> Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, ''ataiva'', the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for ''ataiva'' to avoid the possessive case entirely in favour of the genitive case.<br /> <br /> =====Vocative=====<br /> The vocative case is used to address someone or attract their attention. It is formed by adding '''e(r)-''' ('''ei-''' in plural) to a nominative nominal. <br /> <br /> The most common greeting words for most uses are simply vocative nominals. They must reflect the number and accessibility of the addressee(s). <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is common for inaccessibles to be greeted in the third person, with '''eju''' frequently replacing '''evu'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Third person definite forms, however, may also be used with accessibles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eja}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh he who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Among accessibles, the '''e-''' prefix may be added directly to a personal name. This and the predicate prefix '''i-''' are the only example of verbals (as all names are verbals) taking a non-derivational affix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|e}}-xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | hey-be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey - be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hey}} Xagu!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the indefinite, the vocative can be used to summon help from non-specific people.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eru}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when one person's assistance is enough.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3p.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when more than one person's assistance is required.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative complementiser '''ezuo''' is used to mean 'if only' or 'I wish'. It is also used for making polite requests. Literally, it's something like 'o that'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezuo}}''' || '''hunia''' || '''nua'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.C || be.potable || LOC.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if only&quot; || &quot;be beverage&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''May I have some water please? ({{color|MediumBlue|If only}} I had some water.)'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative temporal complementiser '''ekuo''' is used to express nostalgia about a past time or anticipation for a future time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || '''ata''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh for the time when&quot; || &quot;be adult&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I can't wait till}} I'm grown up.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Causal=====<br /> The causal case describes a cause. It is equivalent to the English &quot;because of&quot;. It is formed by prefixing '''te(r)-''' (plural: '''tei-''') to the accusative nominals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zaxa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.sick || NOM.1s.ICS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am sick&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm ill {{color|MediumBlue|because of you}}. / You made me ill.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ezo''' || '''zouas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tejo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''mala''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.now || be.difficult || DAT.1s.ICS || CAU.C || be.not || be.house || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;because&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''Things are tough for me at the moment {{color|MediumBlue|because}} I don't have a house..'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Benefactive=====<br /> The benefactive case indicates either a beneficiary or benefactor of an action or situation or a goal. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'for'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''kua(r)-''' (plural: '''kuai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.this.1 || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;there is this, by me&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''This is {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}. (≈ There's this {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.)'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bioi''' || '''vaia''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.willing || do.everything || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;would&quot; || &quot;do everything&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I would do anything {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''etie''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''leu''' || '''ue''' || '''veji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || move.to.here.1 || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.C || rescue || ACC.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;finish&quot; || &quot;come here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;rescue&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;about the person&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; |''I came here {{color|MediumBlue|(in order) to}} save you from him/her.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''naxe''' || '''molu''' || '''iu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''mue''' || '''lau''' || '''iu''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | must || be.dead || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || BEN.C || be.able || be.alive || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;must&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;can&quot; || &quot;live&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates that&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; |''Some must die {{color|MediumBlue|so that}} others may live.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kuas''' || '''enies''' || '''e''' || '''kueta''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuakio}}''' || '''gehuo''' || '''ua''' || '''ji''' || '''uako'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || carry || ACC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.hunting.knife || BEN.TEMP.C || encounter || NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.enemy<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;carry&quot; || &quot;a non-specific thing which&quot; || &quot;be a hunting knife&quot; || &quot;in case&quot; || &quot;encounter&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''Carry a knife {{color|MediumBlue|in case}} you cross paths with enemies.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Instrumental=====<br /> The instrumental case describes the means or method by which something is done. It is equivalent to the English preposition &quot;with&quot; when it means &quot;using&quot;. It is formed by adding the prefix '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''vuja''' || '''zi''' || '''vaku''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kueta}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || hunt || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.babirusa || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.hunting.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;deliberately killed&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;hunts&quot; || &quot;a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a babirusa&quot; || &quot;using a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a hunting knife&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''The hunter killed the babirusa {{color|MediumBlue|with a hunting knife}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g-iara''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC.3p.NSPC.INAN || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;certain people&quot; || &quot;by&quot; || &quot;wait&quot; || &quot;at anything which&quot; || &quot;is bushes&quot; || &quot;be-at any things which&quot; || &quot;be drinking water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Comitative=====<br /> The comitative case indicates an accompanying person or thing. It is equivalent to 'with' in English when it means 'along with' or 'accompanied by'. It is formed by prefixing '''le(r)-''' (plural: '''lei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''ja''' || '''meha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|leje}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jalu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Meha || COM.3s.DEF.ACS || Jalu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is hunting&quot; || &quot;the person who&quot; || &quot;is Meha&quot; || &quot;with the person who&quot; || &quot;is Jalu&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''Meha is hunting {{color|MediumBlue|with Jalu}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''hu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || move.PFV || COM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come/go&quot; || &quot;with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Come {{color|MediumBlue|with me}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bata''' || '''ja''' || '''umatu''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lejo'''}} || '''buga''' || '''taba''' || '''iju''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | dance || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Umatu || COM.C || hit || be.drum || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;dance&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be Umatu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;be drum&quot; || &quot;the beings who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Umatu danced {{color|MediumBlue|while}} the others played the drums.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Topical=====<br /> The topical case indicates the topic or theme of an act of communication and in many instances also something which is kept in mind when a particular action is performed. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'about'. It is formed by prefixing '''ve(r)-''' (plural '''vei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''ila''' || '''na''' || '''leue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vezi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|valo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || speak || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.interesting<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;speak&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;about something that&quot; || &quot;is interesting&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to talk to you {{color|MediumBlue|about something interesting}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''teuas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vexi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiau}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | thank || DAT.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.food<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;thank&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;about the thing that&quot; || &quot;is food&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Thanks {{color|MediumBlue|for the food}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''malemale''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''moio''' || '''iu''' || '''azo''' || '''lo''' || '''zola''' || '''iu''' || '''babo'''<br /> |-<br /> | gossip || TOP.C || do.what || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other || ADV || be.solely || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;gossip&quot; || &quot;about the fact that&quot; || &quot;do what&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be only&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Only unintelligent people gossip {{color|MediumBlue|about}} what other people do.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Essive=====<br /> The essive case indicates the role of something in the sentence. It is roughly equivalent to the English words 'as' or 'like'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''o(r)-''' (plural: '''oi-''') to the nominative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''atia''' || '''nas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|omas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ali}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.there.2 || NOM.1s.ACS || ESS.3s.SPEC.ACS || be.same.rank.friend || COP-DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;as a person who&quot; || &quot;be a friend of the same rank&quot; || &quot;be to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm here {{color|MediumBlue|as your friend}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ozuo}}''' || '''ka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.visible || ESS.C || be.going.to || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;appear&quot; || &quot;as if&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It looks {{color|MediumBlue|like}} it's going to rain.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Tables====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Simple pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | na<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | nu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ina<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | inu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate specific<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ma<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | mu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ima<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | imu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate definite<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate specific<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | izu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | a<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ia<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> animate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> inanimate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Compound pronominals<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dominant<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dual<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Complimentisers<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | temporal<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====First Person=====<br /> First person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''nu''' || '''inu''' || '''na''' || '''ina'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ni''' || '''ini''' || '''ne''' || '''ine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''nua''' || '''inua''' || '''ana''' || '''iana''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uni''' || '''iuni''' || '''une''' || '''iune'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''unu''' || '''iunu''' || '''una''' || '''iuna'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''enu''' || '''einu''' || '''ena''' || '''eina''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teni''' || '''teini''' || '''tene''' || '''teine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuani''' || '''kuaini''' || '''kuane''' || '''kuaine''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ani''' || '''aini''' || '''ane''' || '''aine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leni''' || '''leini''' || '''lene''' || '''leine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veni''' || '''veini''' || '''vene''' || '''veine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''onu''' || '''oinu''' || '''ona''' || '''oina''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS.SG || ICS:PL || ACS.SG || ACS.PL<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ue''' || '''iue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eui''' || '''ieui''' || '''eue''' || '''ieue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''vui''' || '''ivui''' || '''uai''' || '''iuai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''vua''' || '''ivua''' || '''aua''' || '''iaua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uui''' || '''iuui''' || '''uue''' || '''iuue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uvu''' || '''iuvu''' || '''uua''' || '''iuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''evu''' || '''eivu''' || '''eua''' || '''eiua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teui''' || '''teiui''' || '''teue''' || '''teiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiui''' || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaiue''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aui''' || '''aiui''' || '''aue''' || '''aiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leui''' || '''leiui''' || '''leue''' || '''leiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veui''' || '''veiui''' || '''veue''' || '''veiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ovu''' || '''oivu''' || '''oua''' || '''oiua''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || ICS.DU<br /> || ACS.DU<br /> || DOM.DU<br /> || SUB.DU<br /> || ICS.PL<br /> || ACS.PL<br /> || DOM.PL<br /> || SUB.PL<br /> |-<br /> || Nominative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Accusative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Dative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvuna<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''ju''' || '''iju''' || '''ja''' || '''ija''' || '''xu''' || '''ixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ji''' || '''iji''' || '''je''' || '''ije''' || '''xi''' || '''ixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jui''' || '''ijui''' || '''jai''' || '''ijai''' || '''xui''' || '''ixui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''jua''' || '''ijua''' || '''aja''' || '''iaja''' || '''xua''' || '''ixua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uji''' || '''iuji''' || '''uje''' || '''iuje''' || '''uxi''' || '''iuxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uju''' || '''iuju''' || '''uja''' || '''iuja''' || '''*uxu''' || '''*iuxu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eju''' || '''eiju''' || '''eja''' || '''eija''' || '''exu''' || '''eixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teji''' || '''teiji''' || '''teje''' || '''teije''' || '''texi''' || '''teixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaiji''' || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuaixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aji''' || '''aiji''' || '''aje''' || '''aije''' || '''axi''' || '''aixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leji''' || '''leiji''' || '''leje''' || '''leije''' || '''lexi''' || '''leixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veji''' || '''veiji''' || '''veje''' || '''veije''' || '''vexi''' || '''veixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oju''' || '''oiju''' || '''oja''' || '''oija''' || '''oxu''' || '''oixu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''mu''' || '''imu''' || '''ma''' || '''ima''' || '''zu''' || '''izu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''mi''' || '''imi''' || '''me''' || '''ime''' || '''zi''' || '''izi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''emi''' || '''iemi''' || '''eme''' || '''ieme''' || '''ezi''' || '''iezi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mui''' || '''imui''' || '''mai''' || '''imai''' || '''zui''' || '''izui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''mua''' || '''imua''' || '''ama''' || '''iama''' || '''zua''' || '''izua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''umi''' || '''iumi''' || '''ume''' || '''iume''' || '''uzi''' || '''iuzi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''umu''' || '''iumu''' || '''uma''' || '''iuma''' || '''*uzu''' || '''*iuzu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''emu''' || '''eimu''' || '''ema''' || '''eima''' || '''ezu''' || '''eizu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''temi''' || '''teimi''' || '''teme''' || '''teime''' || '''tezi''' || '''teizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuami''' || '''kuaimi''' || '''kuame''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuazi''' || '''kuaizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ami''' || '''aimi''' || '''ame''' || '''aime''' || '''azi''' || '''aizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lemi''' || '''leimi''' || '''leme''' || '''leime''' || '''lezi''' || '''leizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vemi''' || '''veimi''' || '''veme''' || '''veime''' || '''vezi''' || '''veizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''omu''' || '''oimu''' || '''oma''' || '''oima''' || '''ozu''' || '''oizu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ANIM Sg. || ANIM Pl. || INAN Sg. || INAN Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''u''' || '''iu''' || '''a''' || '''ia'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''i''' || '''iri''' || '''e''' || '''ie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eri''' || '''ieri''' || '''ere''' || '''iere'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ai''' || '''iai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''iaru''' || '''ara''' || '''iara'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''iuri''' || '''ure''' || '''iure'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''iuru''' || '''ura'''* || '''iura'''*<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu''' || '''era''' || '''eia''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' || '''tere''' || '''teie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' || '''kuare''' || '''kuaie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' || '''are''' || '''aie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' || '''lere''' || '''leie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veri''' || '''veiri''' || '''vere''' || '''veie''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu''' || '''ora''' || '''oia'''<br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> =====Complementisers=====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''jo''' || 'that' || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''ejo''' || 'to the place where' || '''ekio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || *'''uzuo''' || || *'''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vejo''' || 'about V-ing' || '''vekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |}<br /> ::&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Verbals===<br /> <br /> Verbals constitute the only open class of words in Ngolu. They are essentially content words, equivalent to what in other languages are verbs ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''loe''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to sleep' || [NOM] sleeps<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kau''' || 'to eat' || [NOM] eats [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to hunt' (= 'to be a hunter') || [NOM] hunts [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''volo''' || 'to give' || [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mahu''' || 'to know' || [DAT] knows [NOM] = [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ila''' || 'to speak/talk' || [NOM] speaks [ACC]/[INS] (= language) to [DAT]/[COM] about [TOP]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mue''' || 'to be able to' || [NOM] can / is able to […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... nouns ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''iio''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be a fish' || [NOM] is a fish of [GEN] belonging to [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to be a hunter' (= 'to hunt') || [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person<br /> |-<br /> |• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of a different rank)' || [NOM] is a friend of [DAT], lover of [GEN] and concubine of [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ilia''' || 'to be speech/language' || [NOM] is the speech/language of [GEN]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... adjectives ... <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''tta''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be large' || [NOM] is large<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kaiu''' || 'to be edible' ('to be food') || [NOM] is edible to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kuaqa''' || 'to be far/distant' || [NOM] is far from [ABL]/[DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''xeva''' || 'to be visible' (= 'to see') || [NOM is visible to [DAT]; [DAT] sees [NOM]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lau''' || 'to be alive' (= 'to live', 'to be a living being') || [NOM] is alive<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lubi''' || 'to be closed/shut' || [NOM] is closed/shut to [DAT]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... and adverbs.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''jau''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to intentionally ...' || [NOM] is intentionally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mola''' || 'to be merely ...' (= 'to be insignificant') || [NOM] is just/only/merely […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> They are generally thought of as 'content words' but even many grammatical functions are expressed by verbals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''kka''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be not ...' || [NEGATIVE] || [NOM] is not […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hua''' || 'to be always ...', 'to be eternally ...' || [GNOMIC] || [NOM] is eternally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hau''' || 'to be defined by being ...' || [ESSENTIAL] || [NOM] is essentially […] by definition<br /> |-<br /> |• '''he''' || 'to undergo' || [PASSIVE] || [NOM] undergoes […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''eti''' || 'to have previously done ...' || [PAST] || [NOM] did […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Regardless of the verbal's semantic meaning and which part of speech carries the bulk of the meaning when translated into another language, each verbal can be used in the same syntactic positions as any other verbal. All verbals can appear as a predicate, an argument (when preceded by a nominal) or as a modifier to another, preceding verbal. Compare the following two sentences which show how a semantically verb-like verbal, '''gahu''' ('to howl'), and a semantically more noun-like verbal, '''zagua''' ('to be a gibbon') can simply be swapped. Both can appear in the predicate, both can appear in an argument and neither needs to be inflected to take on either role.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{|<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || scope=&quot;col&quot; width=&quot;10&quot; | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''gahu''' || || '''ju''' || '''zagua'''<br /> |-<br /> | howl || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.gibbon<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;howls&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a gibbon&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''The gibbon howls.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |- style=&quot;height: 2em;&quot;<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''zagua''' || || '''ju''' || '''gahu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.gibbon || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is a gibbon&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;howls&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''What howls is a gibbon.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Argument Structure====<br /> <br /> Verbals each have an inherent argument structure, controlling which case are used for which role. Dictionaries, and the examples above, mark the meanings of each relevant case when used with each verbal.<br /> <br /> Many argument structures are as would be expected.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''volo''' = [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> :* '''vuja''' = [NOM] hunts [ACC]; [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]<br /> :* '''akku''' = [NOM] is blood; [NOM] is the blood of [GEN]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volo''' || '''na''' || '''xi''' || '''eje'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to him&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I give it to him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is a tendency for experiencers to be in the dative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''hualo''' = [DAT] loves/cares about [NOM]; [NOM] is loved by [DAT]<br /> :* '''xeva''' = [DAT] sees [NOM]; [NOM] is seen by [DAT]<br /> :* '''zoua''' = [NOM] is difficult for [DAT]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''eni''' || '''ju''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was seen&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I saw the king.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Although that is not always the case, as this pair of opposites shows.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''mahu''' = [DAT] knows [NOM]; [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> :* '''zau''' = [NOM] doesn't know about [TOP]; [NOM] is ignorant of [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mahu''' || '''eni''' || ('''xu''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.1s.ICS || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || (&quot;it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zau''' || '''nu''' || ('''vexi''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || (TOP.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || (&quot;about it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I don't know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also an unusual class of verbals where the nominative role usually refers to a body part, the genitive refers to the possessor and when there is an accusative argument, the whole thing refers to an action performed (with the body part) by the possessor.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bale''' = [NOM] is a fist of [GEN]; [GEN] punches [ACC]<br /> :* '''bane''' = [NOM] is a hand of [GEN]; [GEN] holds, grasps, clutches [ACC]<br /> :* '''buja''' = [NOM] is a heavy boot of [GEN]; [GEN] crushes [ACC] under his boot<br /> :* '''gula''' = [NOM] is the pair of arms of [GEN]; [GEN] hugs [ACC]<br /> :* '''juaza''' = [NOM] is the penis of [GEN]; [GEN] fucks [ACC] (vulgar!)<br /> :* '''kanu''' = [NOM] is the nose of [GEN]; [GEN] sniffs [ACC]<br /> :* '''kula''' = [NOM] is the pair of ears of [GEN]; [GEN] listens to [ACC]<br /> :* '''mama''' = [NOM] is the pair of breasts of [GEN]; [GEN] breast-feeds [ACC]<br /> :* '''miva''' = [NOM] is a finger of [GEN]; [GEN] touches, feels [ACC]<br /> :* '''musari''' = [NOM] is a molar of [GEN]; [GEN] chews [ACC]<br /> :* '''omo''' = [NOM] is the pair of eyes of [GEN]; [GEN] looks at [ACC]<br /> :* '''umakka''' = [NOM] is a tooth (incisor, canine) of [GEN]; [GEN] bites [ACC]<br /> :* '''zuru''' = [NOM] is a war against [ACC]; [GEN] wages war on [ACC]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I have eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xu''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || be.this.1<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is this, here by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''These are my eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xi''' || '''masa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || be.snake<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a snake&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking at the snake'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The verbal '''lama''' is somewhat similar, although it may simply be understood through an idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''lama''' = [NOM] is a tear of [GEN]/[LOC]; [GEN]/[LOC] weeps (silently) about [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lamas''' || '''aja''' || '''teui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is (a) tear(s)&quot; || &quot;at him/her&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The above sentence may also be translated as &quot;There are tears on him/her because of you,&quot; or &quot;S/He has tears because of you,&quot; making it less clear as to whether this is a good example of an apparent non-nominative subject.<br /> <br /> There is a proposed additional place within the argument structure of many verbals, that of a following modifier. A following modifier may mark a specific role which may either be marked by another case or may only be filled by a following modifier. The notation used here indicates a following modifier with […].<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''maue''' = [NOM] is a group of seven […]<br /> :* '''kka''' = [NOM] is not […]<br /> :* '''mia''' = [NOM] approaches [DAT]/[…]<br /> :* '''tehi''' = [NOM] is possibly […]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''mala''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | approach || be.house || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''iju''' || '''exi''' || '''mala''' <br /> |-<br /> | approach || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN || be.house <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;they&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Derivation of Verbals====<br /> <br /> There are two kinds of derivational affixes, one which converts a nominal into a verbal and many others which convert a verbal into another verbal with a different meaning.<br /> <br /> =====Nominal to Verbal=====<br /> All nominals can be converted into a verbal by adding a copula prefix. The copula prefix is '''g-''' before a vowel, '''k''' or '''g''', '''m-''' before '''m''', '''b''' and '''v''', '''l-''' before '''l''' and '''n-''' before all other consonants. The copula prefix essentially prevents a nominal from signalling the start of an argument. Used with the dative or ablative case, the meaning may be interpreted as a verb of motion.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nu''' 'I' [NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}nu''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} me' [COP-NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''eni''' 'to me' [DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}eni''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} to me', '{{color|MediumBlue|to come}} to me' [COP-DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''xu mala''' 'the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xu mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} the house'<br /> :* '''xua mala''' 'at the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xua mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} at the house'<br /> :* '''kuaini''' 'for us' [BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}kuaini''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} for us' [COP-BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> <br /> <br /> Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}nu''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-NOM.1s.ICS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be I&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I{{color|MediumBlue|'m}} me.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}xuas''' || '''azikuo''' || '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.≈school || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a school for adolescent boys&quot; || &quot;s/he&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} not at school.'' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} to me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|l-}}lene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;be with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} with me. / {{color|MediumBlue|Be}} with me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''nini''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}une''' || '''ja''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.mother || COP-GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.this<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be this&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''This is my mother.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Verbal to Verbal=====<br /> <br /> A far more common means of derivation is from verbal to verbal. This is chiefly done by means of infixing although prefixes and suffixes also exist.<br /> <br /> ======Collective======<br /> <br /> The collective infix '''-ig-''' indicates a group of the named entity.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''ala''' 'to be a bird'<br /> ::→ '''al{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}a''' 'to be {{color|MediumBlue|a flock}} of bird{{color|MediumBlue|s}}'<br /> :* '''balu''' 'to be a royal guardsman'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to be the royal guard'<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to eat {{color|MediumBlue|together}}'<br /> :* '''uttia''' 'to be a tree'<br /> ::→ '''ut{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}ia''' 'to be a forest'<br /> <br /> <br /> ======Gerundive======<br /> <br /> The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something. The accusative role is promoted to the nominative role, as with the passive construction with '''he''', but in addition the assertion is made that this is a good or customary use for the referent in question.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''huna''' 'to drink'<br /> ::→ '''hun{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a''' 'to be (fresh) water', 'to be potable', 'to be drinkable' (to be something to be drunk)<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular)<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular)<br /> :* '''jalo''' 'to welcome', 'to receive', 'to accept (into a place)'<br /> ::→ '''jal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a guest' (one who is to be welcomed)<br /> :* '''asu''' 'to be seated', 'to be sitting'<br /> ::→ '''a{{color|MediumBlue|x}}u''' 'to be a chair', 'to be a seat' (to be something to be sat on) [''*asiu'' → ''axu'']<br /> :* '''ila''' 'to speak', 'to talk'<br /> ::→ '''il{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a'''' 'to be language' (to be something to be spoken)<br /> :* '''zoi''' 'to say', 'to tell'<br /> ::→ '''zo{{color|MediumBlue|j}}i''' 'to be worth saying', 'to be fitting/appropriate' (to be something to be said) [''*zoii'' → ''zoji'']<br /> :* '''go''' 'to do something', 'to act'<br /> ::→ '''g{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a duty', 'to be an obligation', 'to be a good idea' (to be something to be done)<br /> :* '''mue''' 'to be able', 'to be capable'<br /> ::→ '''m{{color|MediumBlue|i}}ue''' 'to be a required skill' (to be something that someone should be able to do)<br /> :* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes'; (with genitive subject) 'to look at'<br /> ::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at)<br /> :* '''bale''' 'to be a fist'; (with genitive subject) 'to punch'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}e''' 'to be punchable', 'to have a punchable face' (to be one who ought to be punched, a common pejorative word)<br /> :* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', (with genitive subject) 'to crush under a boot'<br /> ::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot) [''*bujia'' → ''buji'']<br /> :* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter'<br /> ::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted) [''*vujia'' → ''vuji'']<br /> <br /> ======Locative======<br /> <br /> The prefix '''a-''' indicates being at a particular place.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''tio''' 'to be that'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}tio''' 'to be there' (≈ 'to be at that')<br /> :* '''mala''' 'to be a house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}mala''' 'to be at home' (≈ 'to be at house')<br /> <br /> ======Ornative======<br /> <br /> The ornative prefix '''o-''' indicates having or being equipped with something.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bani''' 'to be money'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money')<br /> :* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with room(s)')<br /> :* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair')<br /> :* '''ulu''' 'to be muscle'<br /> ::→ '''u{{color|MediumBlue|o}}lu''' 'to be muscular' (≈ 'to be with muscle', with metathesis turning /ou/ into /uo/)<br /> <br /> ====Verbals with inherent gender / rank distinctions====<br /> <br /> Many verbals semantically encode gender within their meaning. In some cases, there are pairs of words, such as the following.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nini''' 'to be a mother / aunt'<br /> :* '''nana''' 'to be a father / uncle'<br /> <br /> <br /> In this instance, the divide along genders is easy for non-Ngolu to conceptualise. However many other concepts are also divided by gender, or, more accurately, rank, and this frequently has to do with the Ngolu's strict cultural taboos around gender and rank. For example, Ngolu men and women are expected to sing, dance, dress and urinate differently.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''laha''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''kali'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''lasa''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''kali'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''miia''' 'to wear' (of a ''kali'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''kele''' 'to urinate' (of a ''kali'', to urinate while sitting or squatting)<br /> <br /> :* '''uaie''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''muja'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''bata''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''muja'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''uara''' 'to wear' (of a ''muja'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''zatu''' 'to urinate' (of a ''muja'', to urinate while standing)<br /> <br /> <br /> In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank.<br /> <br /> Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha''' ('to fight physically'), '''aiuo''' ('to shoot').<br /> <br /> Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word.<br /> <br /> Verbals may also specify the gender/rank of an argument other than the nominal. For example, the word ''bale'' means 'to be a fist', specifying a ''muja'' in the role of the genitive possessor. Similarly, items of clothing specific to one gender can only appear with possessors in the corresponding gender.<br /> <br /> When a subject (or another argument) does not match the gender/rank specified in the verbal, there must be paraphrasing. There are generally two ways this is done, with '''ko''' and with '''hui'''.<br /> <br /> =====Ko=====<br /> <br /> '''Ko''' is a verbal meaning 'to be similar'. It can be placed before a gendered verbal when the subject (or other relevant argument) does not match. For example, the word for ''enemy'' is '''uako'''. It is a ''muja'' verb, perhaps best translated as 'to be a ''muja'' enemy'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.enemy || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is no direct equivalent for a ''kali'' who is an enemy. To express the idea of a ''kali'' being an enemy, what is essentially said is &quot;S/he is ''like'' an enemy.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.similar || be.enemy.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be.like&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The closest analogue in English would be with words such as 'midwife', which has no easy male equivalent. In Ngolu, it is as though one simply says 'He's like a midwife.' Similarly, in the following example, there is no word equivalent to a woman's fist, only a man's fist. Therefore, she made something ''like'' a man's fist.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''li''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|bale}}''' || '''uji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || begin || be.similar || be.MUJA.fist || GEN.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;start&quot; || &quot;be like&quot; || &quot;be a (man's) fist&quot; || &quot;of the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She made {{color|MediumBlue|a fist}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Hui=====<br /> <br /> '''Hui''' is similar to '''ko''' except it is filled with contempt and criticism. It is a verbal which could be translated as 'to shamefully break gender taboos by approximating |…|'. There is essentially no grammatical difference between '''ko''' and '''hui''' - the former is simply neutral and the later conveys strong condemnation of breaking taboos.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || sing.KALI<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;sing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|There's a man (shamefully) trying to sing like a woman}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ttio}}''' || '''ju''' || '''je'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || strike || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him/her.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Particles and Grammatical Affixes===<br /> <br /> Particles are words which cannot be classified as either nominals or verbals. Most of them are equivalent to conjunctions, introducing clauses. In many cases, the line between verb and particle is a little blurred and difficult to find and research is still ongoing.<br /> <br /> ====''Au''====<br /> <br /> ====''Au'' and ''teu''====<br /> <br /> '''Au''' and '''teu''' are used to order the events multiple clause sentence. '''Au''' introduces the clause in which the first action took place and is thus roughly equivalent to 'first' or 'after' whereas '''teu''' introduces a later action and is thus equivalent to 'then' or 'before'. They are usually used as correlative conjunctions, with both present in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | first;after|| eat || NOM.1s.ICS || second;before || sleep || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|First}} I ate, {{color|MediumBlue|then}} I slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I ate {{color|MediumBlue|before}} I slept.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|After}} I ate, I slept.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The order of the clauses can be reversed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | second/before || sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Before}} I slept, I ate.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Sometimes the first of the two conjunctions is omitted.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''— [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept, {{color|MediumBlue|but first}}, I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> '''Au''' is also a verbal occasionally used to mean &quot;to be first&quot;, however in this usage it has mostly been replaced by the regular '''tahu'''.<br /> <br /> ====''Ha''====<br /> <br /> '''Ha''' forms polar (yes/no) questions. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Polar_Questions|Polar Questions]]<br /> <br /> It also introduces the protasis of realis conditional sentences, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Hai''====<br /> <br /> '''Hai''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Haizuo''====<br /> <br /> '''Haizuo''' is an emphatic form of '''hai'''. It introduces the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''I-''====<br /> <br /> The clitic particle '''i-''' appears on the beginning of any part of the predicate when it is preceded in a sentence by any non-predicate element. For example, in the following sentence, '''hu mala''' is the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''mala''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || be.house || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Topicalised arguments can be brought forward in the sentence to before the verb phrase. The verb phrase must now be marked with '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;As for me&lt;/u&gt;, I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The predicate phrase can even be split, with arguments appearing inside it.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;I&lt;/u&gt;'m going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In extreme cases, there can even be more than one split in a predicate phrase, with '''i-''' necessary each time the predicate is resumed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''leuis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || COM.2s.ICS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I want to go home with you.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Of that last example, the normal word order would be '''bio hu mala na leui'''.<br /> <br /> When added to words beginning with a syllabic '''i''', the prefix '''i-''' becomes '''j-''' ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|j}}-iio'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.this.1 || PRED-be.fish<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be this&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''This, well, this is a fish!'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... but before a non-syllabic '''i''', it remains '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''omo''' || '''g-unis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}iaha'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3S.DEF.INAN || be.pair.of.eyes || COP-GEN.1s.ICS || PRED-be.painful<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;hurt&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''As for my eyes, they're sore.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Lo''====<br /> <br /> '''Lo''' appears to be a short form of the comitative complementiser '''lejo'''. It introduces an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> ====''Mie''====<br /> <br /> ====''Teuo''====<br /> <br /> ====''To''====<br /> <br /> ''To'' generally introduces consequences. It often roughly means 'so' or 'therefore'. In these cases, it may replaced by the more emphatic '''toua'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ba''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(ua)}}''' || '''ka''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''muanaiti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || rain || therefore || be.PROS || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.stream<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;so&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be stream&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''It's raining hard, {{color|MediumBlue|so}} the streams are going to swell.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is used in conjunction with '''ha''' (and sometimes '''hai''' or '''haizuo''') to form conditional clauses where it introduces the apodosis. See [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]] for examples.<br /> <br /> It is also frequently used to replace '''i-''' in introducing a main clause after a subordinate clause other than a conditional clause.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''enio'''<br /> |-<br /> | LOC.TEMP.C || rain || then || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.plant<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;when&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be plant&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|When}} it rains{{color|MediumBlue|, (then)}} the plants grow.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Toi''====<br /> <br /> '''Toi''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Toua''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xe''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xue''====<br /> <br /> ===Interjections===<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> <br /> ===Phrase Structure===<br /> <br /> ====Verbal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A verbal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL ...]]]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> When multiple verbals are stacked one after the other, the head is on the left and modifiers on the right.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a large house / are large houses''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jiio''' || '''ttiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | run || be.quick<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;run&quot; || &quot;be fast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''runs quickly / run quickly''<br /> ''is a fast runner / are fast runners''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''hunts birds / hunt birds''<br /> ''is a bird hunter / are bird hunters''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In many cases, verbals with more grammatical than semantic content are followed by much more semantically rich modifying verbals. In these cases, the preceding words are nevertheless heads and the following words modifiers.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bas''' || '''ali''' || '''g-eji''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || be.friend.(of.the.same.sex) || COP-DAT.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;be friend&quot; || &quot;be to inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;be the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a good friend / are good friends of the king''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''huna'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || drink<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;drink&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''drank / has drunk / have drunk''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''toto''' || '''kas''' || '''euo''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.really || be.PROS || be.pair || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be in fact&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''are actually going to be two big ones''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''buua''' || '''tio''' || '''vaxu''' || '''zara'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.on.top.of || be.that.3 || be.table || write<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be one top of&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot; || &quot;be a table&quot; || &quot;write&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''is / are on top of that desk over there''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Each complex verbal phrase comprised of more than one verbal has its own case structure which defines how the cases are used in a sentence. The case structure is determined by the rightmost verbal which shares the same nominative argument as the leftmost verbal in the phrase.<br /> <br /> $$$$$$$ [examples to come]<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A nominal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''NOMINAL [VERBAL PHRASE]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> An unadorned nominal on its own functions as a pronoun.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''he'', ''she''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''its''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> Adorned nominal phrases consist of a nominal followed by a verbal phrase. In this case, the nominal acts as the head of a relative clause in which the verbal phrase sits.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju''' || '''xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || execute<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;execute&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the executioner''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi''' || '''tukaue'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.collar.indicating.the.owner.of.a.slave<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a slave's collar&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''of the slave's collar''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Structure===<br /> <br /> With unmarked word order, a clause generally has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''[PARTICLE] PREDICATE [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] ...'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> A &lt;tt&gt;'''PREDICATE'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a verbal phrase and an &lt;tt&gt;'''ARGUMENT'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a nominal phrase or a subordinate clause.<br /> <br /> In many cases, one or more arguments may precede the predicate or may even appear in the middle of the predicate, dividing it into two or more pieces.<br /> <br /> Unmarked word order:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental)<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau''' || '''azi''' || '''akuala''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; || &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''I ate food with a knife.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted, nominal argument partially fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || Pred... || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || ...icate || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''nu''' || '''i-kau''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || NOM.1s.ICS || eat || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Predicate-Only Clauses====<br /> <br /> The simplest clauses in Ngolu consist of nothing but a verbal or a verbal phrase used as the predicate. There are no obligatory arguments in Ngolu and all may be omitted from the clause and left to context, even the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's raining. / It rains.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's good.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> A verbal with no arguments indicates an activity or state without specifying the identity of any participants. Essentially, Ngolu is a pro-drop language. With prior context, omitted arguments can be understood as referring to someone or something already discussed. With no prior context, however, verbal-only sentences are simply understood with a &quot;someone or something&quot; as the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kau'''<br /> |-<br /> | eat<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;eats&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He, she or it is eating. (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Something or someone is eating.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He or it is hunting. / He or it is a hunter.'' (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''Something or someone is hunting. / There's a hunter.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Simple declarative or existential statements are frequently verbal-only.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.fire<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a fire&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's a fire. / There's a fire. / Fire!''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====One-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Multi-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Subordinate Clauses====<br /> <br /> =====Complementiser Clauses=====<br /> <br /> =====Adverbial Clauses=====<br /> <br /> Adverbial clauses are introduced by the particle '''lo''', which may be derived from '''lejo''', the comitative case of the copula 'zuo'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''lo''' || '''juo''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | want || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ADV || be.outside || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be outside&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to eat outside.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Relative Clauses=====<br /> <br /> ===Topic and Focus===<br /> <br /> ===Affirmation and Negation===<br /> <br /> The verbals '''ahe''' and '''kka''' indicate polarity, being positive and negative respectively. On their own, they are roughly equivalent to 'yes' and 'no'. <br /> <br /> Positive sentences are generally unmarked and '''ahe''' generally appears only for emphasis.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || '''bo''' || '''xu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.indeed || be.wanted || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;be wanted&quot; || &quot;the thing&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|do}} want it.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation is performed by means of '''kka'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xua''' || '''uttia'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be tree&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''S/He{{color|MediumBlue|'s not}} at the tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''mula''' || '''ju''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.liked || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be liked&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|don't}} like him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> After a negative question or statement, '''ahe''' indicates a contradictory, positive answer whereas '''kka''' indicates a negative answer in agreement.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.not || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be.not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Is{{color|MediumBlue|n't}} it raining?''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.indeed || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be indeed&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Yes, it is}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.not || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be not&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No, it's not}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation (as well as affirmation) is generally performed in the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''xeva''' || '''ju''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|eri}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.seen || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;to anyone who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No one else}} saw her.'' (Literally: ''{{color|MediumBlue|Anyone else didn't}} see her.'')<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> To negate or affirm an argument, it is placed within an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || '''los''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''ahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV || be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV || be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Both '''kka''' and '''ahe''' have equivalent adverbial forms, '''kku''' and '''lahe''' respectively, which do not require the use of '''lo''' when negating or affirming an argument. The previous sentence may be expressed as follows.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kku}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV.be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV.be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Interrogation===<br /> <br /> ====Polar Questions====<br /> <br /> Polar questions are indicated with '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} raining{{color|MediumBlue|?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Do}} you love me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Ha''' can occur at the end of a sentence, where it functions as a question tag.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | rain || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot; || Q<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''It's raining, {{color|MediumBlue|isn't it?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;?&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''You love me, {{color|MediumBlue|don't you?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Individual arguments in a sentence may be called into question by placing them inside an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]] introduced by '''lo'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} me who you love{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''na''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || ADV || Q || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} you who loves me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Alternative Questions====<br /> <br /> Alternative questions use two or more instances of '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Bio''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''kau''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''huna''' || '''vu'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || Q || eat || Q || drink || NOM.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;or&quot; || &quot;drink&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''Would you like anything to {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} eat {{color|MediumBlue|or}} drink{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Xevu''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ja''' || '''mahu''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ju''' || '''laiuiie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mahu || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Laiuiie<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Mahu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Laiuiie&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''Have you seen {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} Mahu {{color|MediumBlue|or}} Laiuiie{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Content Questions====<br /> <br /> ====Embedded Questions====<br /> <br /> Any type of question may be embedded inside a complementiser phrase.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Zau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ti''' || '''uaizue''' || '''ji''' || '''tavi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || TOP.C || Q || be.PRF || find || ACC.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.child<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;about that&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || be.PRF || &quot;find&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I don't know {{color|MediumBlue|if}} the child has been found.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Voice===<br /> <br /> ===Time===<br /> <br /> Marking of time (tense and aspect) is not obligatory in Ngolu and may always be left up to context. For our purposes here, we shall not distinguish between actions (e.g. ''kill'') and states (e.g. ''want'', ''be a house'') as temporal marking is identical for both. The word ''action'' will be used henceforth and should be understood to mean &quot;action or state&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Relative tenses====<br /> When time needs to be indicated, it is most often done by means of a verbal indicating a &quot;relative tense&quot; (aspect). These are relative to a contextually understood time in question, the &quot;reference time&quot;. The three basic &quot;relative tense&quot; markers are ... <br /> <br /> <br /> *'''ti''' &quot;perfect&quot; (PRF), indicating an action that occurred before the reference time<br /> *'''zo''' &quot;progressive&quot; (PROG), indicating an action underway at the reference time<br /> *'''ka''' &quot;prospective (PROS), indicating an action occurring after the reference time<br /> <br /> <br /> By default, the reference is the present, the time in which the utterance is made. However, if another time is contextually understood, any of these may refer to events in the past, present or future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|zo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROG || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be underway&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Absolute tenses====<br /> The prefix '''e-''' attached to the beginning of any of these aspect markers creates an absolute tense marker. The '''e-''' sets the reference time to the current moment in which the utterance is made. This is usually only used to disambiguate or to emphasise a time frame.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''eti''' &quot;past&quot; (PST), indicating an action that occurred in the past<br /> *'''ezo''' &quot;present&quot; (PRES), indicating an action underway in the present<br /> *'''eka''' &quot;future (FUT), indicating an action that will occur in the future<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be earlier&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRES || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Continuation====<br /> There are also compounds formed from two time words that indicate continuation from one time frame to another using a linking ''-e-''. This linking ''-e-'' is probably not related to the ''e-'' of absolute temporal reference, but to the ''e-'' prefix of dative case nominals and the derivation prefix ''e-'' that can be added to verbals indicating motion towards something.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''tiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that starting before the reference time and continuing up to it<br /> *'''zueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action continuing from the reference time and extending to a later time<br /> *'''etiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that started in the past and continues to the present<br /> *'''ezueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action that starts in the present and will continue into the future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezos}}''' || '''oila''' || '''na''' || '''xiies''' || '''oge'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF.PROG|| read || NOM.1S.ACS || ACC.3S.DEF.INAN.PROX || be.book<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have been doing&quot; || &quot;read&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;this thing which&quot; || &quot;is a book&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|have been}} read{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} this book.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Perfective and imperfective====<br /> In addition, the word '''bie''' contrasts with '''zo'''. Whereas '''zo''' specifies that an action is underway at the reference time, essentially taking a &quot;snapshot&quot; of the interior of an action, after its beginning and before its completion, '''bie''' specifies perfectivity, metaphorically painting a picture of the whole completed action without permitting a look inside. On its own, it does not specify whether the completed action occurs before or after the reference time, but it does explicitly specify that the action is ''not'' underway at the reference time. <br /> <br /> Both ''bie'' and ''zo'' may be suffixed to other verbals indicating time in order to explicitly distinguish the imperfective (progressive) aspect from the perfective aspect, while also specifying time.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfectivity:<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | imperfective (progressive)<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfective<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | bie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | relative time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kabie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | absolute time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekabie<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Note that '''zo''' appears twice in the table although it really only has one function; it specifies an action underway at the reference time (i.e. concurrent with it), which itself may be unspecified.<br /> <br /> The reduplicated forms '''zozo''' ('these days', 'in those days') and '''ezozo''' ('these days') do not appear in the above table as they indicate a loosening of the bounds of the reference time or current time. The reference or current time can be tightened or emphasised with '''bazo''' ('right now', 'right then', 'at that/this very moment') or '''ebazo''' ('right now', 'at this very moment').<br /> <br /> ====Resultative perfect====<br /> The word '''bue''' indicates a ''resultative perfect'', functioning similarly to '''ti''' in that it describes an action occurring prior to the reference time, however the focus of '''bue''' is not on the action itself, but on the resulting post-action state at the reference time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|bue}}''' || '''kaxa''' || '''xu''' || '''giloxuo'''<br /> |-<br /> | RES.PRF|| break(INTR) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || window.pane<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is in the resulting state&quot; || &quot;break&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a window pane&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''The window {{color|MediumBlue|is}} br{{color|MediumBlue|o}}k{{color|MediumBlue|en}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bue''' is frequently prefixed to the following word (for example ''buekaxa'' instead of ''bue kaxa''). Its passive equivalent '''hi-''' is always prefixed.<br /> <br /> ====Time word stacking====<br /> More than one time word can be used together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT|| be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will&quot; || &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST|| be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;will&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> These are usually compounded together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekati}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|etika}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST-PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Distance from reference time====<br /> The precise distance from the reference time can be indicated using adverbial clauses with '''lo''' followed by the unit of time, '''(e)ti''' or '''(e)ka''' and an ordinal number, which begins with ''t-''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''zaxa''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teuo}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.ill || ADV || be.year || be.PRF || be.second<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;becomes&quot; || &quot;is ill&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;is earlier&quot; || &quot;is second&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he fell ill {{color|MediumBlue|two years before/ago}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> This sentence could be translated somewhat more literally as &quot;S/he fell ill while there was the second previous year.&quot; Note that replacing '''ti''' with '''eti''' would force the interpretation with &quot;ago&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || Bie || bilo || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tahu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PFV || die || ADV || be.month || be.PROS || be.first<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is completed&quot; || &quot;dies&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;is about to&quot; || &quot;is first&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he died {{color|MediumBlue|one month later}}. / S/he will die {{color|MediumBlue|in one month}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A more literally translation could be &quot;S/he died while there was the second coming year.&quot; Note again that replacing '''ka''' with '''eka''' would force the interpretation with &quot;in one month&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment. <br /> <br /> In the following example, in which a duration is specified rather than a specific time, the adverbial clause contains only the length of time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS || ADV || be.five || be.year<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another means of conveying the same information is to place the time specifiers after the tense or aspect marker and then introducing the rest of the sentence with '''to'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''li''' || '''zaxa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || be.two || be.year || thus || begin || be.ill<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become&quot; || &quot;be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Two years ago,}} s/he fell ill.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || ... || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''bilo'''<br /> |-<br /> | || be.going.to || be.one || be.month || thus || die<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;is going to&quot; || &quot;is one&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;die&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|One month later,}} s/he died.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.five || be.year || thus || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Miscellaneous time words====<br /> There are a range of other verbals which indicate time in a similar way. Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> ''Days''<br /> * '''ariu''' &quot;yesterday&quot;<br /> * '''aku''' &quot;today&quot;<br /> * '''anu''' &quot;tomorrow&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Lighting''<br /> * '''auo''' &quot;by day&quot;<br /> * '''eio''' &quot;by night&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Distance in time''<br /> * '''ttie''' / '''ettie''' &quot;just&quot; (similar to '''ti''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''tieka''' / '''etieka''' &quot;about to&quot; (similar to '''ka''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''ti ti''' / '''eti ti''' &quot;a long time ago&quot; (reduplication for distance into the past)<br /> * '''ka ka''' / '''eka ka''' &quot;eventually&quot; (reduplication for distance into the future)<br /> <br /> ''Other aspectual differences''<br /> * '''hua''' &quot;always&quot;, &quot;permanently&quot; [gnomic]<br /> * '''niu''' &quot;habitually&quot; [habitual]<br /> * '''guegue''' &quot;repeatedly&quot;, &quot;again and again&quot; [iterative]<br /> * '''egue''' &quot;again&quot;<br /> * '''tara''' &quot;suddenly&quot;<br /> * '''li''' &quot;starts&quot;, &quot;begins&quot;, &quot;commences&quot;<br /> * '''bi''' &quot;stops&quot;, &quot;ceases&quot;<br /> * '''ligue''' &quot;resumes&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Demonstratives===<br /> <br /> Demonstratives distinguish three degrees of distance associated with the three grammatical persons.<br /> <br /> * '''''tie''''' 'this' or 'these' near the speaker [1st person - proximal]<br /> * '''''tia''''' 'that' or 'those' near the listener [2nd person - medial]<br /> * '''''tio''''' 'that' or 'those' away from both speaker and listener [3rd person - distal]<br /> <br /> When speaking to someone of the same or higher rank and referring to the something that is close to both speaker and listener (such as a house that both are inside), the 2nd person '''''tia''''' 'that' is used. Only persons of higher rank may use the first person form '''''tie''''' in such situations.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.MED || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.PROX || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The association between the grammatical persons and the demonstratives is strong, with words, statements and actions made by a person frequently being referred to using the appropriate demonstrative. For example, a commonly used phrase for &quot;therefore&quot; is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}'' (literally 'because of this (by me)') when the reasoning is based on what the speaker just said, but when the reasoning is based on what their interlocutor just said, this phrase is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}'' (literally 'because of that (by you)').<br /> <br /> ====Contractions====<br /> <br /> The demonstrative verbals '''''tie''''', '''''tia''''' and '''''tio''''' form very common contractions with third person definite nominals, transforming the above examples as follows:<br /> <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tia}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}} mala''''' 'this house' / 'that house' (by you) <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tie}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}} mala''''' 'this house' (by me)<br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what I said' <br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what you said' <br /> <br /> Here is a table of forms:<br /> <br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Proximal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Medial || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Distal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Proximal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''|| '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Medial || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Distal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Proximal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Medial || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Distal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Proximal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Medial || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Distal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Proximal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Medial || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Distal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Proximal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Medial || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Distal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Proximal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Medial || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Distal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Proximal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Medial || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Distal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Proximal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Medial || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Distal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Proximal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Medial || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Distal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Proximal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Medial || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Distal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Proximal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Medial || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Distal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Proximal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Medial || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Distal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Essive Proximal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Medial || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Distal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Location===<br /> <br /> ===Movement===<br /> <br /> Movement is expressed in a variety of ways in Ngolu. <br /> <br /> One of the most common methods for talking about movement is using the words '''hu''' and '''mia'''. There is no distinction between coming and going but rather a distinction between the perfective '''hu''', meaning 'come' or 'go', and the imperfective '''mia''', 'be one one's way', 'be coming', 'be going'. The destination may be indicated by a subsequent modifying verbal or by a dative argument. The origin is indicated by an ablative argument.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nu''' || '''exi''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || NOM.1s.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|mia}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.IPFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be on the way&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|'m going / on my way}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || move.PFV || ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Please {{color|MediumBlue|get}} away from me.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another method for expressing movement is to affix the copula prefix '''g-''', '''m-''', '''n-''' to a dative or ablative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-exi}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to you&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'll {{color|MediumBlue|come to you}}.'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Get away from me}}!'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The third way to express movement is to use an inceptive (inchoative) morpheme in conjunction with a word indicating location. For example, the verbal '''xa''' means 'to be inside' and the verbal '''atio''' means 'to be there (away from us)' - adding the infix '''-in-''' (perfective inceptive) or '''-ij-''' (imperfective inceptive) gives '''xina''' ('to go in', 'to enter') and '''xija''' ('to be on the way in'), '''atinio''' ('to go there') and '''atijo''' ('to be on the way there'). The free standing verbal '''li''' ('to begin, start, commence') may also be used, with '''li xa''' and '''li atio''' being equivalent to '''xina''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xina}}''' || '''iju''' || '''i-oba''' || '''loe'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || enter.PFV || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || PRED-be.room || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;enter&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible ones&quot; || &quot;be room&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''They {{color|MediumBlue|went into}} the bedroom.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bios''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|atinio}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || go.there.3 || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''S/He wants {{color|MediumBlue|to go there}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The inceptive infixes are frequently used with the verbals denoting location in the four cardinal directions: '''la''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' ('to be in the east', 'to be in the west', 'to be in the north', 'to be in the south' respectively) creating the perfective forms '''lina''', '''tina''', '''ginio''' and '''vino''' and the imperfective forms '''lija''', '''tija''', '''gijo''' and '''vijo'''. Direction within Qu, with its noticeable tube shape (with 'east/west' pointing along the tube and 'north/south' going around the circumference), is a much more salient feature than on Earth and referencing direction with motion is common. In certain circumstances, describing movement without reference to direction is regarded as too imprecise, such as when men are discussing hunting in the forest where there may be no obvious landmarks to identify as the destination of a movement.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''La''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' may be used to modify another verb of motion with or without taking an inceptive infix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|lina}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|gio}}''' || '''inais''' || '''ixi''' || '''vaku'''<br /> |-<br /> | go.east.PFV || be.in.the.north || ABL.1p.ACS || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.babirusa<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go east&quot; || &quot;be in the north&quot; || &quot;from us&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be babirusa&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''The babirusas {{color|MediumBlue|moved (east)-northeast}} away from us.'' — '''muja''' [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Additionally, there is yet another prefix '''e-''' which may be related to the '''e-''' prefix at the beginning of nominals in the dative case. Words with this prefix indicate perfective movement and include '''etie''' ('to come here') '''etia''' ('to go/come there/here by you') and '''etio''' ('to go there'). These words are slightly more commonly used than their equivalents '''atinie''', '''atinia''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> ===Causes===<br /> <br /> ===Goals===<br /> <br /> ===Conditionals===<br /> <br /> Conditional sentences in Ngolu use particles to indicate the condition clause (protasis) and the result clause (apodosis). These particles differ depending on whether the condition is possible (realis) or hypothetical (irrealis).<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''PROTASIS'' || ''APODOSIS''<br /> |-<br /> | ''REALIS'' || '''ha''' || '''to'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''IRREALIS'' || '''hai''' &lt;br&gt; '''haizuo''' (emphatic) || '''toi''' &lt;br&gt; '''to''' (possible only when apodosis clause appears second)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Realis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''anu''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''kka''' || '''vuja''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | if || be.tomorrow || rain || then || be.not || hunt.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if&quot; || &quot;be tomorrow&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} it rains tomorrow, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} he won't hunt.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ('''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''') || '''ttio''' || '''nu''' || '''ue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''vai''' || '''tiaia'''<br /> |-<br /> | (then) || hit || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.2s.ACS || if || stay || do.that.2<br /> |-<br /> | (&quot;then&quot;) || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;if&quot; || &quot;keep&quot; || &quot;do that which you are doing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I'll hit you {{color|MediumBlue|if}} you keep doing that.'' — '''muja''' [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Irrealis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''g-ua''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(i)}}''' || '''hales''' || '''eji''' || '''jo''' || '''nio'''|| '''mo'''<br /> |-<br /> | if.IRR || be-NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ACS || then.(would) || ask || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.C || happen || be.what<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;imagine if&quot; || &quot;be you&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then (would)&quot; || &quot;ask&quot; || &quot;(to) the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;happen&quot; || &quot;be what&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} you, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} I{{color|MediumBlue|'d}} ask him/her what happened.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || '''obani'''<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;stop&quot; || &quot;work&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || &quot;be more&quot; || &quot;be rich&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|would}} stop working, {{color|MediumBlue|if}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} richer.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''ti''' || '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''leui''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || ('''ti''') || '''mahu''' || ('''xu''') || ('''ene''')<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || be.PRF || move || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ICS || if.IRR || (be.PRF) || be.known || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN) || (DAT.1s.ACS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;move&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || (&quot;be finished&quot;) || &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''I would have come with you if I had known that.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Numbers===<br /> <br /> ===Quantity===<br /> <br /> ===Degree===<br /> <br /> ===Comparison===<br /> <br /> ==Pragmatics==<br /> <br /> ===Social Stratification and Language Use===<br /> <br /> Ngolu society is heavily stratified into five social divisions. These social divisions, or strata, are hierarchical and from highest to lowest are as follows.<br /> <br /> * 5. ''ju '''taqu''''' - the king<br /> * 4. ''iju '''balu''''' - the king's men<br /> * 3. ''iju '''muja''''' - initiated men<br /> * 2. ''iju '''kali''''' - free citizens<br /> * 1. ''iju '''tuva''''' - slaves and prisoners (''ixu tuva'' in the speech of '''muja''', '''balu''' and '''taqu''')<br /> <br /> Language use is, to a large extent, determined by the strata of the speaker, addressee and third person referents.<br /> <br /> ===Speech Crime===<br /> <br /> [[Category:Languages]]<br /> [[Category:Conlangs]]</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Iliaqu&diff=295774 2023-01-26T02:21:20Z

<p>Imralu: /* Argument Structure */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Iliaqu<br /> |nativename = iliaqu<br /> |pronunciation = [ìʎàʔú]<br /> |region = Qu<br /> |ethnicity = Ngolu / Ilaqu<br /> |speakers = {{formatnum:100,000}}<br /> |setting = [[Verse:Qu|Qu]]<br /> |fam1 = Language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2013-2020<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> {{infobox|bg=#F2DC77|native=iliaqu|in=Qu|no=100,000 (approx.)|tree=Isolate (as far as known)|wo=VSO|morph=Isolating/futional|ms=Nominative-Accusative|creator=[[User:Imralu|Imralu]]|date=2013-2014}}<br /> <br /> '''Iliaqu''' (IPA: /ˌɪljəˈʔuː/), also known as '''Ngolu''' or sometimes '''Qu''' (endonym: ''iliaqu'' IPA: [ìʎàʔú]) is a language isolate spoken throughout the known regions of the space habitat [[Verse:Qu|Qu]] by the Ngolu people, whose number is estimated to be around 100,000. As the Ngolu are almost entirely monolingual, and while voluntary travel to and from Qu remains impossible, the language is not in any danger of extinction. At this stage, little is known of dialect differences within Qu. There are estimated to be somewhere between 50 and 100 Iliaqu speakers on Earth who have simply mysteriously appeared in various locations. Small communities of Ngolu speakers been brought or have found their way together, the most well-known and well-studied of which is a group of about 15 living in and around Berlin, Germany.<br /> <br /> Iliaqu is an isolating/fusional, head-initial (right-branching) language with VSO word order and nominative-accusative alignment. Verbs (verbals) make up the only open class of word, with nouns (nominals) constituting a closed class of heavily fusional words that fill the roll of pronouns and articles in other languages, marking grammatical person, number, definiteness and specificity, gender, accessibility, and case.<br /> <br /> ==Terminology==<br /> There appear to have been fewer than ten isolated instances of non-Ngolu people arriving in Qu and there are no other cultures or languages known to exist in Qu. In such a linguistically and culturally homogenous environment, the Ngolu have had no need for endonyms for their culture, people or language. Traditionally, they have described their language simply as '''ilia''' [ìʎá] 'speech', themselves as '''golu''' [ŋòlú] 'people', and their world as '''qu''' [ʔú] 'world'. <br /> <br /> With the new knowledge of other cultures and the entire universe outside of Qu, neologisms have arisen to distinguish their language and their people from those of the outsiders. For the Ngolu arrivals Earth, contact with other cultures has forced them to acknowledge that the other languages they hear must have the ability to convey information just as their language. Consequently, on Earth, the word '''ilia''' generally refers to any language. To disambiguate their own language, they may call it '''ilia qu''' [ìʎáʔú] or '''iliaqu''' [ìʎàʔú] 'Qu speech'. Non-Ngolu are still referred to as '''taia''' ('ghost', 'demon') and Earth maybe referred to as '''utaia''' [ùtàjá] 'ghost world' or a loan word such as '''hiia''', which was common among the Berlin group (from German ''hier'') although it now seems to be dying out in favour of '''utaia'''. With the acknowledgement that non-Ngolu people are also people and the consequent expansion of the term '''golu''' to include non-Ngolu, the term '''goqu''' [ŋòʔú] ('Qu people', formed by adding the human prefix '''go-''' to the word '''qu''') is gaining ground and may be contrasted with '''taia''' or '''goutaia''' [ŋòu̯tàjá].<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !VOWELS<br /> !Front<br /> !Central<br /> !Back<br /> |-<br /> !High<br /> |'''i''' ‹i›<br /> |<br /> |'''u''' ‹u›<br /> |-<br /> !Mid<br /> |'''e''' ‹e›<br /> |<br /> |'''o''' ‹o›<br /> |-<br /> !Low<br /> |<br /> |'''a''' ‹a›<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Each vowel may be 'strong' or 'weak'. These are essentially stressed and unstressed. There is only ever one 'strong' vowel per word and it is nearly always the final vowel. Where it is not, it is always the penultimate vowel and the in that case the final vowel is always /i/ or /u/. Non-final strong vowels are indicated in the romanisation using an acute accent, ‹áéíóú›.<br /> <br /> The realisation of strong vowels varies across accents. There appears to be a cline ranging from a pitch-based pronunciation to a weight-based pronunciation (used chiefly by men). At the pitch-based end of the spectrum, 'strong' vowels are pronounced with a high tone and 'weak' vowels with a low-tone. At the end of a non-interrogative utterance, a high-tone becomes a falling tone. At the end of a question, a high tone may be lengthened and/or undergo an additional rise. At the weight-based extreme, strong vowels cause gemination of the following consonant but are pronounced as long themselves when the following sound is (1) a vowel, (2) a consonant cluster or (3) an already geminated consonant. Utterance finally, strong vowels are generally neither pronounced with a high tone nor lengthened but are usually pronounced slightly louder. <br /> <br /> The high vowels, /i/ and /u/, when 'weak' and adjacent to another vowel are pronounced non-syllabically as [i̯~j] and [u̯~w]). Non-syllabic /i/ merges with and palatalises any preceding dental/alveolar consonant.<br /> <br /> In these two word examples, the pitch-based pronunciation is given before the weight-based pronunciation.<br /> <br /> :*'''ju muja''' [ʒúmùʒâ] ~ [ʒumːuˈʒa]<br /> :*'''ju aio''' [ʒúàjô] ~ [ʒuːaˈjo]<br /> :*'''ju uaia''' [ʒúwàjâ] [ʒuːwaˈja]<br /> :*'''ju ntu''' [ʒúntû] ~ [ʒu:nˈtu]<br /> :*'''ju lleue''' [ʒúlːèwê] ~ [ʒuːlːeˈwe]<br /> <br /> ===Consonants===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !CONSONANTS<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Dental/Alveolar<br /> !Post-alveolar<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> | '''m''' ‹m›<br /> | <br /> | '''n''' ‹n›<br /> |<br /> | '''ŋ''' ‹g›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> | '''b''' ‹b›<br /> |<br /> | '''t''' ‹t›<br /> |<br /> | '''k''' ‹k›<br /> | '''ʔ''' ‹q›<br /> |-<br /> !Ejective<br /> |<br /> | <br /> | '''tʼ''' ‹tt›<br /> |<br /> | '''kʼ''' ‹kk›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiced Fricative<br /> | <br /> | '''v''' ‹v›<br /> | '''z''' ‹z›<br /> | '''ʒ''' ‹j›<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiceless Fricative<br /> | <br /> | <br /> | '''s''' ‹s›<br /> | '''ʃ''' ‹x›<br /> | <br /> | '''h''' ‹h›<br /> |-<br /> !Tap<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''ɾ''' ‹r› <br /> |<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''l''' ‹l› <br /> |<br /> |<br /> | <br /> |}<br /> <br /> * The nasal consonants /m n ŋ/, unlike other consonants, may occur before another consonant and then assimilate in place of articulation to that consonant. For this reason, many authors posit the archiphoneme /N/. /N/ may be syllabic post pausa, carrying a low tone. Before /l/, /N/ assimilates to [l̪] or [l̪̩]. Before /v/, it is pronounced as [ɱ] or [ɱ̩].<br /> * The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental [n̪ t̪ t̪ʼ ɾ̪ l̪]. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears. Some speakers palatalise /t/ and /d/ to [t͡ʃ] and [d͡ʒ] respectively. The ejective /tʼ/, however, is rarely or never palatalised as [t͡ʃʼ].<br /> * /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive [d̪].<br /> * Geminate /m/, /n/ and /l/ (resulting from /Nm/, /Nn/ and /Nl/) may be pronounced as [m̩b], [n̪̩d̪] and [l̪̩d̪] respectively, particularly by men and particularly post pausa.<br /> * /s/ and /z/ are normally alveolar. When followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are not distinguished from /ʃ ʒ/. <br /> * /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ cannot be followed by non-syllabic /i/.<br /> * The phonemes /s/ and /ɾ/ do not occur at the beginning of a word.<br /> * The glottal stop /ʔ/ and the ejective consonants /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ are restricted to positions immediately before a 'strong' vowel, although there may be an intervening non-syllabic 'weak' /i/ or /u/ after the ejectives. At the beginning of a 'weak' syllable, ejective consonants become pronounced as their equivalent plain plosive and the glottal stop disappears. For example, ''kka'' [kʼá] and ''kkue'' [kʷʼé] are allowed while expected ''*kkina'' (derived from ''kka'' plus the infix ''-in-'') is instead present as ''kina'' [kì.ná]. In connected speech, /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ may be pronounced as [t̚ʔ k̚ʔ] or even [tː kː]. However, a strong ejective pronunciation is always heard post pausa.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> Phonemically, a syllable may be '''((N)C)V''', where '''V''' is a vowel '''(C)''' an optional consonant and '''(N)''' an optional nasal which assimilates to its following consonant in its point of articulation. <br /> <br /> Phonetically, syllables may be more complex. '''(N)''' is pronounced syllabically post pausa and otherwise is pronounced in the coda of the preceding syllable. The non-syllabic pronunciations of /i/ and /u/ mean that a syllable can be (C)(S)V(S)(N), where '''(S)''' is a semivowel.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::'''nxua intaneti'''<br /> ::/Nʃu.á.i.Nta.ne.tí/<br /> ::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí]<br /> ::''is on the internet''<br /> <br /> ===Epenthetic /s/===<br /> <br /> An epenthetic /s/ sometimes appears between words when the second word begins with a vowel. In the romanisation used here, the /s/ is written on the end of the preceding word. The rules are somewhat complex and are best shown as a table. The final vowels of preceding words are shown vertically on the left. Initial vowels of the following word are shown along the top. An epenthetic /s/ doesn't appear before '''i''' and '''u''' when a syllabic vowel (V) immediately follows within the same word. In the table, the word borders are shown with an '''s''' indicating where the epenthetic /s/ always appears. In other positions in the table, the epenthetic /s/ can still appear in very clear emphatic speech.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''i(V)-'' || ''u(V)-'' || ''i-'' || ''u-'' || ''e-'' || ''o-'' || ''a-''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-i'' || '''-i i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i e-''' || '''-i o-''' || '''-i a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-u'' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u u-''' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} u-''' || '''-u e-''' || '''-u o-''' || '''-u a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-e'' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-o'' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-a'' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ua''' || [è.né.wá] || '''u''' followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} u''' || [è.né.sú] || '''u''' not followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ima''' || [è.néj.má] || '''i''' is weak and can become non-syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} eme''' || [è.né.sè.mé] || '''e''' is always syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni ua''' || [è.ní.wá] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni u''' || [è.ní.ú] || final '''i''' before syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni iu''' || [è.ní.jú] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni{{color|MediumBlue|s}} iui''' || [è.ní.sì.wí] || final '''i''' before initial syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene iui''' || [è.néj.wí] || final '''e''' followed by 'weak' '''i''' which becomes non-syllabic<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> There are four classes of words in Ngolu. Ngolu is a very verb-heavy language, with verbals making up the only truly open word class.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''Nominals''': closed<br /> :* '''Verbals''': open<br /> :* '''Particles''': closed<br /> :* '''Interjections''': closed (mostly)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Nominals===<br /> Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of nominals, the &lt;u&gt;pronominals&lt;/u&gt;, are essentially the equivalent of pronouns and articles in other languages, inflecting for number, grammatical person, definiteness, specificity, gender, case and an inflectional dimension unique to Iliaqu, ''accessibility''. Pronominals can appear on their own or can be followed by a verbal or verbal phrase. When followed by a verbal, they can be regarded as the head of an underlying relative clause which nominalises the verbal and allows it to function as an argument in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> :As a pronoun:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|it}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :As an article:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|the}} house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In addition to the pronominals, there are two &lt;u&gt;complementisers&lt;/u&gt; which are essentially subordinating conjunctions which inflect for case. '''Zuo''' can be thought of as roughly equivalent to the English subordinating conjunction 'that' and '''kuo''' can be thought of as 'the time when'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''olos''' || '''ene''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''g-ixi''' || '''ja''' || '''nana''' || '''g-uje''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.strange || DAT.1s.ACS || NOM.C || be.not || COP-DAT.3s.INAN.DEF || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.father || COP-GEN.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is strange&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;is not&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the one who&quot; || &quot;is father&quot; || &quot;is hers/his&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I think it's strange {{color|MediumBlue|that}} his / her father didn't go / wasn't there.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Number====<br /> Pronominals indicate two numbers, singular and plural. Plural is marked by the prefix '''i-''', which occurs before some case prefixes and after others (see [[Ngolu#Case|Case]] below for more information).<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The singular is used before quantifiers indicating a specific plural quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a group of two&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|two}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> When the plural is used, this indicates multiples of the indicated quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are groups of two&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|pairs of}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Many words denoting powders and granular substances are used in the plural with the singular referring to an individual grain.<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a grain of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the grain of sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are grains of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the (grain{{color|MediumBlue|s}} of) sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Water referred to as '''hunia''', potable water, is indicated in the plural as well when it is a quantity larger than what one person can drink in one sitting. <br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (large quantity of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (serving of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Gender====<br /> In the third person, nominals distinguish between animate and inanimate referents. When it comes to animals, the use of the genders depends on the speaker's [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]]. ''Kali'' (women, children and uninitiated men) and ''tuva'' (slaves) refer to all motile animals in the animate gender, generally as inaccessible although pets may be accessible. ''Muja'' (initiated men) refer to animals other than pets in the inanimate gender. The Ngolu believe this allows ''muja'' to hunt without remorse.<br /> <br /> The following examples illustrate the difference. Examples which are specific to the rank of the speaker or the listener will be marked as such after the translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The interplay between a speaker and listener's rank is complex and may result in unexpected gender choices. For example, a slave must refer to him- or herself in the third person inanimate gender when speaking to ''balu'' and above unless specifically given permission otherwise. To read more about this, see [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|Social Stratification and Language Use]].<br /> <br /> ====Person====<br /> Three grammatical persons are marked by pronominals. The first person pronominals contain '''n'''. The second person pronominals contain a non-syllabic '''u''' (realised as '''v''' before '''u'''). In the third person, '''j''', '''x''', '''m''', '''z''', '''k''' and Ø appear depending on gender, definiteness and specificity.<br /> <br /> =====Clusivity=====<br /> The plural forms of all the basic pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness. <br /> <br /> The first person inclusive (second plus first persons) may be indicated by compound pronominals, the dual forms (&quot;you, one person, and I&quot;) being '''uana''', '''uanu''', '''vuna''', '''vunu''' and the plural forms being '''iuana''', '''iuanu''', '''ivuna''', '''ivunu'''. Which of the four options is used depends on [[#accessibility|accessibility]]. These compound forms are not used universally and many speakers use juxtaposition of pronouns, such as '''vu nu''' instead of '''vunu''' or '''iua na''' or '''iua ina''' instead of '''iuana'''.<br /> <br /> Even addressing people in the second person, should the group include third persons who are not being addressed, many speakers will make note of these separately, for example '''ju vu''' (gloss: NOM.3s.ICS.DEF NOM.2s.ICS) and this is somewhat prescriptively enforced. The nominal '''ivu''' (gloss: NOM.2p.ICS), for example, is recommended only for use to address two or more people when all are present or when the message is at the very least expected to be passed onto those who are not present. <br /> <br /> The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person. The compound 2nd+1st person pronouns are not subject to this ordering rule.<br /> <br /> Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive.<br /> <br /> ====Definiteness and Specificity====<br /> <br /> In the third person, pronominals indicate definiteness (whether the listener knows which individual) and specificity (whether the speaker knows which individual).<br /> <br /> =====Definite=====<br /> The Definite (+specific, +definite) is used when the listener is assumed to know which specific individual or individuals the speaker is referring to. In the following examples, '''ji ala''' (or just '''ji''') refers to a specific bird which the listener is assumed to be already aware of, possibly because it is already been mentioned.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|the bird}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|it}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Specific=====<br /> The Specific (+specific, -definite) is used when the speaker has a specific individual or individuals in mind but the listener is not assumed to know which one(s). In the following examples, '''mi ala''' (or '''mi''') refers to a specific bird but not one which the speaker expects the listener to know of.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a (particular) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|one (in particular)}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Non-Specific=====<br /> The Non-Specific (or General) does not refer to any specific individual(s) but to the abstract idea of a member or members of a particular class, any individual of which could be described. It often used when talking about desires or in negative sentences. In the examples below, '''i ala''' refers to any bird.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a(ny) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|anyone}}.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Accessibility====<br /> Accessibility is a concept integral to Ngolu culture. Outside of the third person non-specific, all animate nominals have two forms, one ''accessible'' (gloss: ACS) and one ''inaccessible'' (gloss: ICS). Accessible nominals have a low vowel,'''a''' in the nominative stem, '''e''' in the accusative stem, and these correspond to the high vowels '''u''' and '''i''' respectively in inaccessible nominals. Accessibility is typically explained as an indication of whether physical contact is permitted or not, however it is more generally a means of conveying social closeness or distance even when no actual touching is involved.<br /> <br /> In the first person, the English word ''I'' can be translated as either '''na''' (NOM.1s.ACS) or '''nu''' (NOM.1s.ICS). Using '''na''' signals to the listener &quot;I am accessible to you.&quot; This means the speaker feels close and emotionally open to the listener and physical contact is permitted or even welcome. Using '''nu''' informs the listener that physical contact is not welcome at the current time. This is typically because of emotional distance, such as when talking to strangers, casual acquaintances or people whom the speaker does not like, but it may also signal an unwillingness to be touched for other, often fleeting reasons, such as illness, pain or emotional tension. Between close friends and lovers, suddenly switching to '''nu''' may indicate that the speaker has taken offence at something.<br /> <br /> In the second and third persons, accessibility indicates the the referent's ''perceived'' accessibility ''to the speaker''. Using '''ua''' (NOM.2s.ACS) indicates that the speaker assumes he or she may touch the listener. Using '''vu''' (NOM.2s.ICS) indicates either a more respectful or colder social distance (cf. French &quot;vous&quot;, which, coincidentally, sounds identical). In the third person, '''ja''' (NOM.3s.ACS.DEF) and '''ju''' (NOM.3s.ICS.DEF) indicate the speaker's relationship to the referent. In plural, accessible indicates that ''all'' members of the group are accessible. Even one individual who the speaker regards as inaccessible, will cause the group to be marked as inaccessible. Inaccessibility is thus the 'default' and when speaking of generic or unknown individuals, these will be indicated with inaccessible nominals.<br /> <br /> Accessibility produces four speech modes or 'stances'. In situations between peers of equal rank, generally the speech mode with either be accessible (using accessible nominals in both first and second persons) or inaccessible (using inaccessible nominals in both). In situations of unequal dominance, which generally, but do not always, run along lines of rank, the dominant party speaks in the dominant mode, using inaccessible first person nominals and accessible second person nominals. The subordinate party speaks in the subordinate or submissive mode, using the reverse.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | speech mode || first person || second person || meaning<br /> |-<br /> | accessible mode (ACS) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may touch me. I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | inaccessible mode (ICS) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may not touch me. I may not touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | dominant mode (DOM) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may not touch me but I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | submissive mode (SUB) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may touch me but I may not touch you.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The speech mode used depends not only on who the speaker and listener are to one another, but how they feel about each other in that moment. A friend or lover who is deeply offended may suddenly switch to the inaccessible or dominant mode to indicate that they are now not happy and had better not be touched until the offence is resolved. The submissive mode may be used in order to flirt with an acquaintance. Flirting may be met with the accessible or inaccessible modes, which essentially give an answer. No answer (yet) is signalled by the adoption of the dominant mode. Smooth social interactions are ensured by the concordance of speech modes, ACS↔ACS, ICS↔ICS, DOM↔SUB. Conflict is often caused by the refusal to agree or by physical contact with someone marked in speech as inaccessible.<br /> <br /> Examples of the four speech modes in use.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ICS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Case====<br /> Ngolu possesses 14 grammatical cases. The nominative and accusative case appear to be the oldest and all other forms appear to derive from the agglomeration of adpositions onto them. The first group (accusative, dative, ablative, locative, genitive and possessive) appear to be relatively old. At some point after these adpositions fused onto the nominals, the plural marker '''i-''' also became a prefix. For example '''''i-e-ji''''' 'to them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;PL-DAT-ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;. The second group of derived cases (vocative, causal, benefactive, instrumental, comitative, topical, essive) appear to have developed more recently from prepositions added to either the nominative or the accusative case as the plural marker '''i-''' is sandwiched in the middle. For example '''''te-i-ji''''' 'about them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;because.of-PL.ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;.<br /> <br /> =====Nominative=====<br /> The nominative case indicates the grammatical subject of a verb. The nominative case is always formed with a back vowel, '''u''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''a''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''u''' shows animate and '''a''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''muja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|na}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.initiated.man || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be an initiated man&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} am an initiated man.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''loe''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || sleep || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} is not sleeping. / {{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} didn't sleep.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|He}} killed / murdered something / someone''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good || NOM.C || be.not || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It's good {{color|MediumBlue|that}} it's not raining.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zoua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuo}}''' || '''tavi''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ja}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.difficult || NOM.TEMP.C || be.child || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;the time when&quot; || &quot;be child&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He had a difficult childhood.<br /> (≈ {{color|MediumBlue|The time when}} {{color|MediumBlue|s/he}} was a child was difficult.)''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Accusative=====<br /> The accusative case indicates the grammatical object of a verb. The accusative case is formed with a front vowel, '''i''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''e''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''i''' represents animate and '''e''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''. The complementisers are '''jo''' and '''kio'''<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''ti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.PRF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;have finished&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Someone murdered {{color|MediumBlue|him}} / {{color|MediumBlue|He}} was murdered.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jave''' || '''ja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kivo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | throw || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF || ACC.3s.INAN.DEF || be.rock<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;throw&quot; || &quot;the being&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be rock&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''He threw {{color|MediumBlue|the rock}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jo}}''' || '''vai''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.C || stay || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; |''I want you {{color|MediumBlue|to}} stay. (≈ I want {{color|MediumBlue|that}} you stay.)'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In informal speech, the accusative case may replace the dative case when it indicates an experiencer. This does not occur with verbs that also have an accusative role and use the dative case to indicate a recipient.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ine}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || ACC.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Dative=====<br /> The dative case indicates an indirect object of the verb, a destination or goal of a movement or an experiencer. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'to' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''e(r)-''' ('''ie(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volos''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ene}}''' || '''izi''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || DAT.1s.ACS || ACC.3p.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;some things that&quot; || &quot;be water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} was given water. / Someone gave {{color|MediumBlue|me}} water.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|iene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || '''uana'''<br /> |-<br /> | JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM.1+2DU.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go - to them&quot; || &quot;you and I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''vais''' || '''inu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekio}}''' || '''loe''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF || stay || NOM.1p.ICS || DAT.TEMP.C || sleep || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;we&quot; || &quot;until&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''We stayed {{color|MediumBlue|until}} they slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Ablative=====<br /> The ablative case is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'from' in English. It is formed by suffixing '''-i''' to a nominative nominal. The complementisers are '''zuio''' and '''kuio''' in the ablative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Kuaqa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mala}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-uni}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.distant || NOM.1s.ICS || ABL.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || COP-GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be far&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;from the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm far away {{color|MediumBlue|from my home}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go - from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Get away {{color|MediumBlue|from me}}!'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || '''xuua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuio}}''' || '''iti''' || ('''ju''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;to her/him&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;since&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || (&quot;s/he&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Locative=====<br /> The locative case indicates a location. It is more or less equivalent to the prepositions 'in', 'on' and 'at' in English. It is also used to replace the verb &quot;have&quot; when indicating immediate possession as in &quot;to have something on one's person&quot;. It is formed by suffixing '''-a''' to a nominative nominal in the inaccessible and inanimate and prefixing '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ia(r)-''') to an accessible nominative nominal. The prefixed form is also used for the non-specific animate and inanimate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''bani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ana}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.money || LOC.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be money&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I don't have any money (with me). (≈ There is no money {{color|MediumBlue|at me}}.)'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|xua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mo}}''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.what || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be what&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Where are you?'' (≈ You are {{color|MediumBlue|at the what}}?) — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''iio''' || '''jas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azuo}}''' || '''muana''' || '''iti''' || '''exi''' || '''muana''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.fish || NOM.3s.ACS || LOC.C || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.small || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; || &quot;he&quot; || &quot;where&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || &quot;to the thing that&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be big&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''He's fishing {{color|MediumBlue|where}} the stream flows into the river.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || '''xuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;begin&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be yours&quot; || &quot;when&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || (&quot;to the inaccessible one&quot;) || &quot;that thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Genitive=====<br /> The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''egio''' || '''tani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|une}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.threesome || be.sibling || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a group of three&quot; || &quot;be siblings&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I have three siblings.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tta''' || '''xu''' || '''gula''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|uji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tio}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.large || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.pair.of.arms || COP-GEN.3s.DEF.ICS || be.that.3<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be large&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of arms&quot; || &quot;be of the person who&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|That person over there}} has big arms. / The arms {{color|MediumBlue|of that person over there}} are big.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Possessive=====<br /> The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) but to a nominative nominal rather than an accusative one.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || POS.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;owned by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} have / own a house.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It should be noted that, although in many languages, the genitive or possessive case is usually adnominal, referring to an immediately adjacent noun phrase, in Iliaqu, all nominals, regardless of case, refer to the predicate in their clause unless verbalised with the [[#Nominal_to_Verbal|copular prefix]]. Compare the following sentences.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || COP-POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in {{color|MediumBlue|my}} boot.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in the boot {{color|MediumBlue| and it's mine}}.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|I own}} a snake which is in the boot. — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the second sentence, the lack of the copula on '''une''' indicates that it represents an argument of the predicate ('''masa''' 'there is a snake'), meaning that it is the snake which belongs to the speaker, not the boot. The word order, placing the unadorned possessive argument ('''une''') after the much heavier locative argument ('''xua xa buja''') is heavily marked, placing focus on the fact that the snake is the speaker's legal possession.<br /> <br /> Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, ''ataiva'', the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for ''ataiva'' to avoid the possessive case entirely in favour of the genitive case.<br /> <br /> =====Vocative=====<br /> The vocative case is used to address someone or attract their attention. It is formed by adding '''e(r)-''' ('''ei-''' in plural) to a nominative nominal. <br /> <br /> The most common greeting words for most uses are simply vocative nominals. They must reflect the number and accessibility of the addressee(s). <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is common for inaccessibles to be greeted in the third person, with '''eju''' frequently replacing '''evu'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Third person definite forms, however, may also be used with accessibles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eja}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh he who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Among accessibles, the '''e-''' prefix may be added directly to a personal name. This and the predicate prefix '''i-''' are the only example of verbals (as all names are verbals) taking a non-derivational affix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|e}}-xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | hey-be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey - be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hey}} Xagu!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the indefinite, the vocative can be used to summon help from non-specific people.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eru}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when one person's assistance is enough.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3p.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when more than one person's assistance is required.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative complementiser '''ezuo''' is used to mean 'if only' or 'I wish'. It is also used for making polite requests. Literally, it's something like 'o that'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezuo}}''' || '''hunia''' || '''nua'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.C || be.potable || LOC.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if only&quot; || &quot;be beverage&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''May I have some water please? ({{color|MediumBlue|If only}} I had some water.)'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative temporal complementiser '''ekuo''' is used to express nostalgia about a past time or anticipation for a future time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || '''ata''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh for the time when&quot; || &quot;be adult&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I can't wait till}} I'm grown up.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Causal=====<br /> The causal case describes a cause. It is equivalent to the English &quot;because of&quot;. It is formed by prefixing '''te(r)-''' (plural: '''tei-''') to the accusative nominals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zaxa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.sick || NOM.1s.ICS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am sick&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm ill {{color|MediumBlue|because of you}}. / You made me ill.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ezo''' || '''zouas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tejo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''mala''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.now || be.difficult || DAT.1s.ICS || CAU.C || be.not || be.house || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;because&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''Things are tough for me at the moment {{color|MediumBlue|because}} I don't have a house..'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Benefactive=====<br /> The benefactive case indicates either a beneficiary or benefactor of an action or situation or a goal. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'for'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''kua(r)-''' (plural: '''kuai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.this.1 || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;there is this, by me&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''This is {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}. (≈ There's this {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.)'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bioi''' || '''vaia''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.willing || do.everything || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;would&quot; || &quot;do everything&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I would do anything {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''etie''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''leu''' || '''ue''' || '''veji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || move.to.here.1 || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.C || rescue || ACC.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;finish&quot; || &quot;come here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;rescue&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;about the person&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; |''I came here {{color|MediumBlue|(in order) to}} save you from him/her.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''naxe''' || '''molu''' || '''iu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''mue''' || '''lau''' || '''iu''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | must || be.dead || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || BEN.C || be.able || be.alive || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;must&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;can&quot; || &quot;live&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates that&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; |''Some must die {{color|MediumBlue|so that}} others may live.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kuas''' || '''enies''' || '''e''' || '''kueta''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuakio}}''' || '''gehuo''' || '''ua''' || '''ji''' || '''uako'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || carry || ACC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.hunting.knife || BEN.TEMP.C || encounter || NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.enemy<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;carry&quot; || &quot;a non-specific thing which&quot; || &quot;be a hunting knife&quot; || &quot;in case&quot; || &quot;encounter&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''Carry a knife {{color|MediumBlue|in case}} you cross paths with enemies.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Instrumental=====<br /> The instrumental case describes the means or method by which something is done. It is equivalent to the English preposition &quot;with&quot; when it means &quot;using&quot;. It is formed by adding the prefix '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''vuja''' || '''zi''' || '''vaku''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kueta}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || hunt || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.babirusa || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.hunting.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;deliberately killed&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;hunts&quot; || &quot;a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a babirusa&quot; || &quot;using a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a hunting knife&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''The hunter killed the babirusa {{color|MediumBlue|with a hunting knife}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g-iara''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC.3p.NSPC.INAN || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;certain people&quot; || &quot;by&quot; || &quot;wait&quot; || &quot;at anything which&quot; || &quot;is bushes&quot; || &quot;be-at any things which&quot; || &quot;be drinking water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Comitative=====<br /> The comitative case indicates an accompanying person or thing. It is equivalent to 'with' in English when it means 'along with' or 'accompanied by'. It is formed by prefixing '''le(r)-''' (plural: '''lei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''ja''' || '''meha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|leje}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jalu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Meha || COM.3s.DEF.ACS || Jalu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is hunting&quot; || &quot;the person who&quot; || &quot;is Meha&quot; || &quot;with the person who&quot; || &quot;is Jalu&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''Meha is hunting {{color|MediumBlue|with Jalu}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''hu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || move.PFV || COM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come/go&quot; || &quot;with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Come {{color|MediumBlue|with me}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bata''' || '''ja''' || '''umatu''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lejo'''}} || '''buga''' || '''taba''' || '''iju''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | dance || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Umatu || COM.C || hit || be.drum || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;dance&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be Umatu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;be drum&quot; || &quot;the beings who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Umatu danced {{color|MediumBlue|while}} the others played the drums.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Topical=====<br /> The topical case indicates the topic or theme of an act of communication and in many instances also something which is kept in mind when a particular action is performed. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'about'. It is formed by prefixing '''ve(r)-''' (plural '''vei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''ila''' || '''na''' || '''leue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vezi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|valo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || speak || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.interesting<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;speak&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;about something that&quot; || &quot;is interesting&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to talk to you {{color|MediumBlue|about something interesting}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''teuas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vexi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiau}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | thank || DAT.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.food<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;thank&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;about the thing that&quot; || &quot;is food&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Thanks {{color|MediumBlue|for the food}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''malemale''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''moio''' || '''iu''' || '''azo''' || '''lo''' || '''zola''' || '''iu''' || '''babo'''<br /> |-<br /> | gossip || TOP.C || do.what || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other || ADV || be.solely || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;gossip&quot; || &quot;about the fact that&quot; || &quot;do what&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be only&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Only unintelligent people gossip {{color|MediumBlue|about}} what other people do.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Essive=====<br /> The essive case indicates the role of something in the sentence. It is roughly equivalent to the English words 'as' or 'like'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''o(r)-''' (plural: '''oi-''') to the nominative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''atia''' || '''nas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|omas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ali}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.there.2 || NOM.1s.ACS || ESS.3s.SPEC.ACS || be.same.rank.friend || COP-DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;as a person who&quot; || &quot;be a friend of the same rank&quot; || &quot;be to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm here {{color|MediumBlue|as your friend}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ozuo}}''' || '''ka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.visible || ESS.C || be.going.to || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;appear&quot; || &quot;as if&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It looks {{color|MediumBlue|like}} it's going to rain.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Tables====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Simple pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | na<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | nu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ina<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | inu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate specific<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ma<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | mu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ima<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | imu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate definite<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate specific<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | izu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | a<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ia<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> animate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> inanimate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Compound pronominals<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dominant<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dual<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Complimentisers<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | temporal<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====First Person=====<br /> First person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''nu''' || '''inu''' || '''na''' || '''ina'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ni''' || '''ini''' || '''ne''' || '''ine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''nua''' || '''inua''' || '''ana''' || '''iana''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uni''' || '''iuni''' || '''une''' || '''iune'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''unu''' || '''iunu''' || '''una''' || '''iuna'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''enu''' || '''einu''' || '''ena''' || '''eina''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teni''' || '''teini''' || '''tene''' || '''teine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuani''' || '''kuaini''' || '''kuane''' || '''kuaine''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ani''' || '''aini''' || '''ane''' || '''aine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leni''' || '''leini''' || '''lene''' || '''leine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veni''' || '''veini''' || '''vene''' || '''veine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''onu''' || '''oinu''' || '''ona''' || '''oina''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS.SG || ICS:PL || ACS.SG || ACS.PL<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ue''' || '''iue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eui''' || '''ieui''' || '''eue''' || '''ieue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''vui''' || '''ivui''' || '''uai''' || '''iuai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''vua''' || '''ivua''' || '''aua''' || '''iaua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uui''' || '''iuui''' || '''uue''' || '''iuue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uvu''' || '''iuvu''' || '''uua''' || '''iuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''evu''' || '''eivu''' || '''eua''' || '''eiua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teui''' || '''teiui''' || '''teue''' || '''teiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiui''' || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaiue''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aui''' || '''aiui''' || '''aue''' || '''aiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leui''' || '''leiui''' || '''leue''' || '''leiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veui''' || '''veiui''' || '''veue''' || '''veiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ovu''' || '''oivu''' || '''oua''' || '''oiua''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || ICS.DU<br /> || ACS.DU<br /> || DOM.DU<br /> || SUB.DU<br /> || ICS.PL<br /> || ACS.PL<br /> || DOM.PL<br /> || SUB.PL<br /> |-<br /> || Nominative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Accusative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Dative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvuna<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''ju''' || '''iju''' || '''ja''' || '''ija''' || '''xu''' || '''ixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ji''' || '''iji''' || '''je''' || '''ije''' || '''xi''' || '''ixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jui''' || '''ijui''' || '''jai''' || '''ijai''' || '''xui''' || '''ixui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''jua''' || '''ijua''' || '''aja''' || '''iaja''' || '''xua''' || '''ixua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uji''' || '''iuji''' || '''uje''' || '''iuje''' || '''uxi''' || '''iuxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uju''' || '''iuju''' || '''uja''' || '''iuja''' || '''*uxu''' || '''*iuxu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eju''' || '''eiju''' || '''eja''' || '''eija''' || '''exu''' || '''eixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teji''' || '''teiji''' || '''teje''' || '''teije''' || '''texi''' || '''teixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaiji''' || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuaixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aji''' || '''aiji''' || '''aje''' || '''aije''' || '''axi''' || '''aixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leji''' || '''leiji''' || '''leje''' || '''leije''' || '''lexi''' || '''leixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veji''' || '''veiji''' || '''veje''' || '''veije''' || '''vexi''' || '''veixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oju''' || '''oiju''' || '''oja''' || '''oija''' || '''oxu''' || '''oixu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''mu''' || '''imu''' || '''ma''' || '''ima''' || '''zu''' || '''izu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''mi''' || '''imi''' || '''me''' || '''ime''' || '''zi''' || '''izi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''emi''' || '''iemi''' || '''eme''' || '''ieme''' || '''ezi''' || '''iezi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mui''' || '''imui''' || '''mai''' || '''imai''' || '''zui''' || '''izui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''mua''' || '''imua''' || '''ama''' || '''iama''' || '''zua''' || '''izua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''umi''' || '''iumi''' || '''ume''' || '''iume''' || '''uzi''' || '''iuzi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''umu''' || '''iumu''' || '''uma''' || '''iuma''' || '''*uzu''' || '''*iuzu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''emu''' || '''eimu''' || '''ema''' || '''eima''' || '''ezu''' || '''eizu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''temi''' || '''teimi''' || '''teme''' || '''teime''' || '''tezi''' || '''teizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuami''' || '''kuaimi''' || '''kuame''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuazi''' || '''kuaizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ami''' || '''aimi''' || '''ame''' || '''aime''' || '''azi''' || '''aizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lemi''' || '''leimi''' || '''leme''' || '''leime''' || '''lezi''' || '''leizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vemi''' || '''veimi''' || '''veme''' || '''veime''' || '''vezi''' || '''veizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''omu''' || '''oimu''' || '''oma''' || '''oima''' || '''ozu''' || '''oizu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ANIM Sg. || ANIM Pl. || INAN Sg. || INAN Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''u''' || '''iu''' || '''a''' || '''ia'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''i''' || '''iri''' || '''e''' || '''ie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eri''' || '''ieri''' || '''ere''' || '''iere'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ai''' || '''iai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''iaru''' || '''ara''' || '''iara'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''iuri''' || '''ure''' || '''iure'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''iuru''' || '''ura'''* || '''iura'''*<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu''' || '''era''' || '''eia''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' || '''tere''' || '''teie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' || '''kuare''' || '''kuaie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' || '''are''' || '''aie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' || '''lere''' || '''leie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veri''' || '''veiri''' || '''vere''' || '''veie''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu''' || '''ora''' || '''oia'''<br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> =====Complementisers=====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''jo''' || 'that' || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''ejo''' || 'to the place where' || '''ekio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || *'''uzuo''' || || *'''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vejo''' || 'about V-ing' || '''vekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |}<br /> ::&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Verbals===<br /> <br /> Verbals constitute the only open class of words in Ngolu. They are essentially content words, equivalent to what in other languages are verbs ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''loe''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to sleep' || [NOM] sleeps<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kau''' || 'to eat' || [NOM] eats [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to hunt' (= 'to be a hunter') || [NOM] hunts [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''volo''' || 'to give' || [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mahu''' || 'to know' || [DAT] knows [NOM] = [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ila''' || 'to speak/talk' || [NOM] speaks [ACC]/[INS] (= language) to [DAT]/[COM] about [TOP]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mue''' || 'to be able to' || [NOM] can / is able to […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... nouns ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''iio''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be a fish' || [NOM] is a fish of [GEN] belonging to [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to be a hunter' (= 'to hunt') || [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person<br /> |-<br /> |• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of a different rank)' || [NOM] is a friend of [DAT], lover of [GEN] and concubine of [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ilia''' || 'to be speech/language' || [NOM] is the speech/language of [GEN]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... adjectives ... <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''tta''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be large' || [NOM] is large<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kaiu''' || 'to be edible' ('to be food') || [NOM] is edible to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kuaqa''' || 'to be far/distant' || [NOM] is far from [ABL]/[DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''xeva''' || 'to be visible' (= 'to see') || [NOM is visible to [DAT]; [DAT] sees [NOM]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lau''' || 'to be alive' (= 'to live', 'to be a living being') || [NOM] is alive<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lubi''' || 'to be closed/shut' || [NOM] is closed/shut to [DAT]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... and adverbs.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''jau''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to intentionally ...' || [NOM] is intentionally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mola''' || 'to be merely ...' (= 'to be insignificant') || [NOM] is just/only/merely […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> They are generally thought of as 'content words' but even many grammatical functions are expressed by verbals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''kka''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be not ...' || [NEGATIVE] || [NOM] is not […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hua''' || 'to be always ...', 'to be eternally ...' || [GNOMIC] || [NOM] is eternally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hau''' || 'to be defined by being ...' || [ESSENTIAL] || [NOM] is essentially […] by definition<br /> |-<br /> |• '''he''' || 'to undergo' || [PASSIVE] || [NOM] undergoes […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''eti''' || 'to have previously done ...' || [PAST] || [NOM] did […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Regardless of the verbal's semantic meaning and which part of speech carries the bulk of the meaning when translated into another language, each verbal can be used in the same syntactic positions as any other verbal. All verbals can appear as a predicate, an argument (when preceded by a nominal) or as a modifier to another, preceding verbal. Compare the following two sentences which show how a semantically verb-like verbal, '''gahu''' ('to howl'), and a semantically more noun-like verbal, '''zagua''' ('to be a gibbon') can simply be swapped. Both can appear in the predicate, both can appear in an argument and neither needs to be inflected to take on either role.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{|<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || scope=&quot;col&quot; width=&quot;10&quot; | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''gahu''' || || '''ju''' || '''zagua'''<br /> |-<br /> | howl || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.gibbon<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;howls&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a gibbon&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''The gibbon howls.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |- style=&quot;height: 2em;&quot;<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''zagua''' || || '''ju''' || '''gahu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.gibbon || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is a gibbon&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;howls&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''What howls is a gibbon.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Argument Structure====<br /> <br /> Verbals each have an inherent argument structure, controlling which case are used for which role. Dictionaries, and the examples above, mark the meanings of each relevant case when used with each verbal.<br /> <br /> Many argument structures are as would be expected.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''volo''' = [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> :* '''vuja''' = [NOM] hunts [ACC]; [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]<br /> :* '''akku''' = [NOM] is blood; [NOM] is the blood of [GEN]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volo''' || '''na''' || '''xi''' || '''eje'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to him&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I give it to him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is a tendency for experiencers to be in the dative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''hualo''' = [DAT] loves/cares about [NOM]; [NOM] is loved by [DAT]<br /> :* '''xeva''' = [DAT] sees [NOM]; [NOM] is seen by [DAT]<br /> :* '''zoua''' = [NOM] is difficult for [DAT]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''eni''' || '''ju''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was seen&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I saw the king.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Although that is not always the case, as this pair of opposites shows.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''mahu''' = [DAT] knows [NOM]; [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> :* '''zau''' = [NOM] doesn't know about [TOP]; [NOM] is ignorant of [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mahu''' || '''eni''' || ('''xu''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.1s.ICS || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || (&quot;it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zau''' || '''nu''' || ('''vexi''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || (TOP.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || (&quot;about it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I don't know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also an unusual class of verbals where the nominative role usually refers to a body part, the genitive refers to the possessor and when there is an accusative argument, the whole thing refers to an action performed (with the body part) by the possessor.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bale''' = [NOM] is a fist of [GEN]; [GEN] punches [ACC]<br /> :* '''bane''' = [NOM] is a hand of [GEN]; [GEN] holds, grasps, clutches [ACC]<br /> :* '''buja''' = [NOM] is a heavy boot of [GEN]; [GEN] crushes [ACC] under his boot<br /> :* '''gula''' = [NOM] is the pair of arms of [GEN]; [GEN] hugs [ACC]<br /> :* '''juaza''' = [NOM] is the penis of [GEN]; [GEN] fucks [ACC] (vulgar!)<br /> :* '''kanu''' = [NOM] is the nose of [GEN]; [GEN] sniffs [ACC]<br /> :* '''kula''' = [NOM] is the pair of ears of [GEN]; [GEN] listens to [ACC]<br /> :* '''mama''' = [NOM] is the pair of breasts of [GEN]; [GEN] breast-feeds [ACC]<br /> :* '''miva''' = [NOM] is a finger of [GEN]; [GEN] touches, feels [ACC]<br /> :* '''musari''' = [NOM] is a molar of [GEN]; [GEN] chews [ACC]<br /> :* '''omo''' = [NOM] is the pair of eyes of [GEN]; [GEN] looks at [ACC]<br /> :* '''umakka''' = [NOM] is a tooth (incisor, canine) of [GEN]; [GEN] bites [ACC]<br /> :* '''zuru''' = [NOM] is a war against [ACC]; [GEN] wages war on [ACC]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I have eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xu''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || be.this.1<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is this, here by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''These are my eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xi''' || '''masa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || be.snake<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a snake&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking at the snake'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The verbal '''lama''' is somewhat similar, although it may simply be understood through an idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''lama''' = [NOM] is a tear of [GEN]/[LOC]; [GEN]/[LOC] weeps (silently) about [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lamas''' || '''aja''' || '''teui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is (a) tear(s)&quot; || &quot;at him/her&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The above sentence may also be translated as &quot;There are tears on him/her because of you,&quot; or &quot;S/He has tears because of you,&quot; making it less clear as to whether this is a good example of an apparent non-nominative subject.<br /> <br /> There is a proposed additional place within the argument structure of many verbals, that of a following modifier. A following modifier may mark a specific role which may either be marked by another case or may only be filled by a following modifier. The notation used here indicates a following modifier with […].<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''maue''' = [NOM] is a group of seven […]<br /> :* '''kka''' = [NOM] is not […]<br /> :* '''mia''' = [NOM] approaches [DAT]/[…]<br /> :* '''tehi''' = [NOM] is possibly […]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''mala''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | approach || be.house || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''iju''' || '''exi''' || '''mala''' <br /> |-<br /> | approach || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN || be.house <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;they&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Derivation of Verbals====<br /> <br /> There are two kinds of derivational affixes, one which converts a nominal into a verbal and many others which convert a verbal into another verbal with a different meaning.<br /> <br /> =====Nominal to Verbal=====<br /> All nominals can be converted into a verbal by adding a copula prefix. The copula prefix is '''g-''' before a vowel, '''k''' or '''g''', '''m-''' before '''m''', '''b''' and '''v''', '''l-''' before '''l''' and '''n-''' before all other consonants. The copula prefix essentially prevents a nominal from signalling the start of an argument. Used with the dative or ablative case, the meaning may be interpreted as a verb of motion.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nu''' 'I' [NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}nu''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} me' [COP-NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''eni''' 'to me' [DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}eni''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} to me', '{{color|MediumBlue|to come}} to me' [COP-DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''xu mala''' 'the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xu mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} the house'<br /> :* '''xua mala''' 'at the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xua mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} at the house'<br /> :* '''kuaini''' 'for us' [BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}kuaini''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} for us' [COP-BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> <br /> <br /> Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}nu''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-NOM.1s.ICS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be I&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I{{color|MediumBlue|'m}} me.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}xuas''' || '''azikuo''' || '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.≈school || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a school for adolescent boys&quot; || &quot;s/he&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} not at school.'' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} to me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|l-}}lene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;be with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} with me. / {{color|MediumBlue|Be}} with me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''nini''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}une''' || '''ja''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.mother || COP-GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.this<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be this&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''This is my mother.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Verbal to Verbal=====<br /> <br /> A far more common means of derivation is from verbal to verbal. This is chiefly done by means of infixing although prefixes and suffixes also exist.<br /> <br /> ======Collective======<br /> <br /> The collective infix '''-ig-''' indicates a group of the named entity.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''ala''' 'to be a bird'<br /> ::→ '''al{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}a''' 'to be {{color|MediumBlue|a flock}} of bird{{color|MediumBlue|s}}'<br /> :* '''balu''' 'to be a royal guardsman'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to be the royal guard'<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to eat {{color|MediumBlue|together}}'<br /> :* '''uttia''' 'to be a tree'<br /> ::→ '''ut{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}ia''' 'to be a forest'<br /> <br /> <br /> ======Gerundive======<br /> <br /> The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something. The accusative role is promoted to the nominative role, as with the passive construction with '''he''', but in addition the assertion is made that this is a good or customary use for the referent in question.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''huna''' 'to drink'<br /> ::→ '''hun{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a''' 'to be (fresh) water', 'to be potable', 'to be drinkable' (to be something to be drunk)<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular)<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular)<br /> :* '''jalo''' 'to welcome', 'to receive', 'to accept (into a place)'<br /> ::→ '''jal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a guest' (one who is to be welcomed)<br /> :* '''asu''' 'to be seated', 'to be sitting'<br /> ::→ '''a{{color|MediumBlue|x}}u''' 'to be a chair', 'to be a seat' (to be something to be sat on) [''*asiu'' → ''axu'']<br /> :* '''ila''' 'to speak', 'to talk'<br /> ::→ '''il{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a'''' 'to be language' (to be something to be spoken)<br /> :* '''zoi''' 'to say', 'to tell'<br /> ::→ '''zo{{color|MediumBlue|j}}i''' 'to be worth saying', 'to be fitting/appropriate' (to be something to be said) [''*zoii'' → ''zoji'']<br /> :* '''go''' 'to do something', 'to act'<br /> ::→ '''g{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a duty', 'to be an obligation', 'to be a good idea' (to be something to be done)<br /> :* '''mue''' 'to be able', 'to be capable'<br /> ::→ '''m{{color|MediumBlue|i}}ue''' 'to be a required skill' (to be something that someone should be able to do)<br /> :* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes'; (with genitive subject) 'to look at'<br /> ::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at)<br /> :* '''bale''' 'to be a fist'; (with genitive subject) 'to punch'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}e''' 'to be punchable', 'to have a punchable face' (to be one who ought to be punched, a common pejorative word)<br /> :* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', (with genitive subject) 'to crush under a boot'<br /> ::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot) [''*bujia'' → ''buji'']<br /> :* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter'<br /> ::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted) [''*vujia'' → ''vuji'']<br /> <br /> ======Locative======<br /> <br /> The prefix '''a-''' indicates being at a particular place.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''tio''' 'to be that'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}tio''' 'to be there' (≈ 'to be at that')<br /> :* '''mala''' 'to be a house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}mala''' 'to be at home' (≈ 'to be at house')<br /> <br /> ======Ornative======<br /> <br /> The ornative prefix '''o-''' indicates having or being equipped with something.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bani''' 'to be money'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money')<br /> :* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with room(s)')<br /> :* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair')<br /> :* '''ulu''' 'to be muscle'<br /> ::→ '''u{{color|MediumBlue|o}}lu''' 'to be muscular' (≈ 'to be with muscle', with metathesis turning /ou/ into /uo/)<br /> <br /> ====Verbals with inherent gender / rank distinctions====<br /> <br /> Many verbals semantically encode gender within their meaning. In some cases, there are pairs of words, such as the following.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nini''' 'to be a mother / aunt'<br /> :* '''nana''' 'to be a father / uncle'<br /> <br /> <br /> In this instance, the divide along genders is easy for non-Ngolu to conceptualise. However many other concepts are also divided by gender, or, more accurately, rank, and this frequently has to do with the Ngolu's strict cultural taboos around gender and rank. For example, Ngolu men and women are expected to sing, dance, dress and urinate differently.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''laha''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''kali'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''lasa''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''kali'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''miia''' 'to wear' (of a ''kali'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''kele''' 'to urinate' (of a ''kali'', to urinate while sitting or squatting)<br /> <br /> :* '''uaie''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''muja'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''bata''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''muja'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''uara''' 'to wear' (of a ''muja'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''zatu''' 'to urinate' (of a ''muja'', to urinate while standing)<br /> <br /> <br /> In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank.<br /> <br /> Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha''' ('to fight physically'), '''aiuo''' ('to shoot').<br /> <br /> Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word.<br /> <br /> Verbals may also specify the gender/rank of an argument other than the nominal. For example, the word ''bale'' means 'to be a fist', specifying a ''muja'' in the role of the genitive possessor. Similarly, items of clothing specific to one gender can only appear with possessors in the corresponding gender.<br /> <br /> When a subject (or another argument) does not match the gender/rank specified in the verbal, there must be paraphrasing. There are generally two ways this is done, with '''ko''' and with '''hui'''.<br /> <br /> =====Ko=====<br /> <br /> '''Ko''' is a verbal meaning 'to be similar'. It can be placed before a gendered verbal when the subject (or other relevant argument) does not match. For example, the word for ''enemy'' is '''uako'''. It is a ''muja'' verb, perhaps best translated as 'to be a ''muja'' enemy'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.enemy || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is no direct equivalent for a ''kali'' who is an enemy. To express the idea of a ''kali'' being an enemy, what is essentially said is &quot;S/he is ''like'' an enemy.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.similar || be.enemy.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be.like&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The closest analogue in English would be with words such as 'midwife', which has no easy male equivalent. In Ngolu, it is as though one simply says 'He's like a midwife.' Similarly, in the following example, there is no word equivalent to a woman's fist, only a man's fist. Therefore, she made something ''like'' a man's fist.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''li''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|bale}}''' || '''uji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || begin || be.similar || be.MUJA.fist || GEN.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;start&quot; || &quot;be like&quot; || &quot;be a (man's) fist&quot; || &quot;of the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She made {{color|MediumBlue|a fist}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Hui=====<br /> <br /> '''Hui''' is similar to '''ko''' except it is filled with contempt and criticism. It is a verbal which could be translated as 'to shamefully break gender taboos by approximating |…|'. There is essentially no grammatical difference between '''ko''' and '''hui''' - the former is simply neutral and the later conveys strong condemnation of breaking taboos.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || sing.KALI<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;sing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|There's a man (shamefully) trying to sing like a woman}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ttio}}''' || '''ju''' || '''je'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || strike || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him/her.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Particles and Grammatical Affixes===<br /> <br /> Particles are words which cannot be classified as either nominals or verbals. Most of them are equivalent to conjunctions, introducing clauses. In many cases, the line between verb and particle is a little blurred and difficult to find and research is still ongoing.<br /> <br /> ====''Au''====<br /> <br /> ====''Au'' and ''teu''====<br /> <br /> '''Au''' and '''teu''' are used to order the events multiple clause sentence. '''Au''' introduces the clause in which the first action took place and is thus roughly equivalent to 'first' or 'after' whereas '''teu''' introduces a later action and is thus equivalent to 'then' or 'before'. They are usually used as correlative conjunctions, with both present in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | first;after|| eat || NOM.1s.ICS || second;before || sleep || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|First}} I ate, {{color|MediumBlue|then}} I slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I ate {{color|MediumBlue|before}} I slept.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|After}} I ate, I slept.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The order of the clauses can be reversed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | second/before || sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Before}} I slept, I ate.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Sometimes the first of the two conjunctions is omitted.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''— [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept, {{color|MediumBlue|but first}}, I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> '''Au''' is also a verbal occasionally used to mean &quot;to be first&quot;, however in this usage it has mostly been replaced by the regular '''tahu'''.<br /> <br /> ====''Ha''====<br /> <br /> '''Ha''' forms polar (yes/no) questions. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Polar_Questions|Polar Questions]]<br /> <br /> It also introduces the protasis of realis conditional sentences, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Hai''====<br /> <br /> '''Hai''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Haizuo''====<br /> <br /> '''Haizuo''' is an emphatic form of '''hai'''. It introduces the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''I-''====<br /> <br /> The clitic particle '''i-''' appears on the beginning of any part of the predicate when it is preceded in a sentence by any non-predicate element. For example, in the following sentence, '''hu mala''' is the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''mala''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || be.house || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Topicalised arguments can be brought forward in the sentence to before the verb phrase. The verb phrase must now be marked with '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;As for me&lt;/u&gt;, I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The predicate phrase can even be split, with arguments appearing inside it.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;I&lt;/u&gt;'m going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In extreme cases, there can even be more than one split in a predicate phrase, with '''i-''' necessary each time the predicate is resumed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''leuis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || COM.2s.ICS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I want to go home with you.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Of that last example, the normal word order would be '''bio hu mala na leui'''.<br /> <br /> When added to words beginning with a syllabic '''i''', the prefix '''i-''' becomes '''j-''' ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|j}}-iio'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.this.1 || PRED-be.fish<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be this&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''This, well, this is a fish!'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... but before a non-syllabic '''i''', it remains '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''omo''' || '''g-unis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}iaha'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3S.DEF.INAN || be.pair.of.eyes || COP-GEN.1s.ICS || PRED-be.painful<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;hurt&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''As for my eyes, they're sore.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Lo''====<br /> <br /> '''Lo''' appears to be a short form of the comitative complementiser '''lejo'''. It introduces an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> ====''Mie''====<br /> <br /> ====''Teuo''====<br /> <br /> ====''To''====<br /> <br /> ''To'' generally introduces consequences. It often roughly means 'so' or 'therefore'. In these cases, it may replaced by the more emphatic '''toua'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ba''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(ua)}}''' || '''ka''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''muanaiti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || rain || therefore || be.PROS || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.stream<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;so&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be stream&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''It's raining hard, so the streams are going to swell.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is used in conjunction with '''ha''' (and sometimes '''hai''' or '''haizuo''') to form conditional clauses where it introduces the apodosis. See [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]] for examples.<br /> <br /> It is also frequently used to replace '''i-''' in introducing a main clause after a subordinate clause other than a conditional clause.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''enio'''<br /> |-<br /> | LOC.TEMP.C || rain || then || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.plant<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;when&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be plant&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|When}} it rains{{color|MediumBlue|, (then)}} the plants grow.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Toi''====<br /> <br /> '''Toi''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Toua''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xe''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xue''====<br /> <br /> ===Interjections===<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> <br /> ===Phrase Structure===<br /> <br /> ====Verbal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A verbal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL ...]]]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> When multiple verbals are stacked one after the other, the head is on the left and modifiers on the right.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a large house / are large houses''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jiio''' || '''ttiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | run || be.quick<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;run&quot; || &quot;be fast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''runs quickly / run quickly''<br /> ''is a fast runner / are fast runners''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''hunts birds / hunt birds''<br /> ''is a bird hunter / are bird hunters''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In many cases, verbals with more grammatical than semantic content are followed by much more semantically rich modifying verbals. In these cases, the preceding words are nevertheless heads and the following words modifiers.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bas''' || '''ali''' || '''g-eji''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || be.friend.(of.the.same.sex) || COP-DAT.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;be friend&quot; || &quot;be to inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;be the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a good friend / are good friends of the king''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''huna'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || drink<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;drink&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''drank / has drunk / have drunk''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''toto''' || '''kas''' || '''euo''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.really || be.PROS || be.pair || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be in fact&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''are actually going to be two big ones''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''buua''' || '''tio''' || '''vaxu''' || '''zara'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.on.top.of || be.that.3 || be.table || write<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be one top of&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot; || &quot;be a table&quot; || &quot;write&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''is / are on top of that desk over there''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Each complex verbal phrase comprised of more than one verbal has its own case structure which defines how the cases are used in a sentence. The case structure is determined by the rightmost verbal which shares the same nominative argument as the leftmost verbal in the phrase.<br /> <br /> $$$$$$$ [examples to come]<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A nominal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''NOMINAL [VERBAL PHRASE]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> An unadorned nominal on its own functions as a pronoun.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''he'', ''she''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''its''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> Adorned nominal phrases consist of a nominal followed by a verbal phrase. In this case, the nominal acts as the head of a relative clause in which the verbal phrase sits.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju''' || '''xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || execute<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;execute&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the executioner''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi''' || '''tukaue'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.collar.indicating.the.owner.of.a.slave<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a slave's collar&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''of the slave's collar''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Structure===<br /> <br /> With unmarked word order, a clause generally has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''[PARTICLE] PREDICATE [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] ...'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> A &lt;tt&gt;'''PREDICATE'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a verbal phrase and an &lt;tt&gt;'''ARGUMENT'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a nominal phrase or a subordinate clause.<br /> <br /> In many cases, one or more arguments may precede the predicate or may even appear in the middle of the predicate, dividing it into two or more pieces.<br /> <br /> Unmarked word order:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental)<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau''' || '''azi''' || '''akuala''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; || &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''I ate food with a knife.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted, nominal argument partially fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || Pred... || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || ...icate || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''nu''' || '''i-kau''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || NOM.1s.ICS || eat || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Predicate-Only Clauses====<br /> <br /> The simplest clauses in Ngolu consist of nothing but a verbal or a verbal phrase used as the predicate. There are no obligatory arguments in Ngolu and all may be omitted from the clause and left to context, even the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's raining. / It rains.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's good.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> A verbal with no arguments indicates an activity or state without specifying the identity of any participants. Essentially, Ngolu is a pro-drop language. With prior context, omitted arguments can be understood as referring to someone or something already discussed. With no prior context, however, verbal-only sentences are simply understood with a &quot;someone or something&quot; as the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kau'''<br /> |-<br /> | eat<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;eats&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He, she or it is eating. (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Something or someone is eating.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He or it is hunting. / He or it is a hunter.'' (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''Something or someone is hunting. / There's a hunter.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Simple declarative or existential statements are frequently verbal-only.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.fire<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a fire&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's a fire. / There's a fire. / Fire!''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====One-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Multi-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Subordinate Clauses====<br /> <br /> =====Complementiser Clauses=====<br /> <br /> =====Adverbial Clauses=====<br /> <br /> Adverbial clauses are introduced by the particle '''lo''', which may be derived from '''lejo''', the comitative case of the copula 'zuo'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''lo''' || '''juo''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | want || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ADV || be.outside || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be outside&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to eat outside.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Relative Clauses=====<br /> <br /> ===Topic and Focus===<br /> <br /> ===Affirmation and Negation===<br /> <br /> The verbals '''ahe''' and '''kka''' indicate polarity, being positive and negative respectively. On their own, they are roughly equivalent to 'yes' and 'no'. <br /> <br /> Positive sentences are generally unmarked and '''ahe''' generally appears only for emphasis.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || '''bo''' || '''xu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.indeed || be.wanted || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;be wanted&quot; || &quot;the thing&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|do}} want it.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation is performed by means of '''kka'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xua''' || '''uttia'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be tree&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''S/He{{color|MediumBlue|'s not}} at the tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''mula''' || '''ju''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.liked || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be liked&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|don't}} like him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> After a negative question or statement, '''ahe''' indicates a contradictory, positive answer whereas '''kka''' indicates a negative answer in agreement.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.not || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be.not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Is{{color|MediumBlue|n't}} it raining?''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.indeed || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be indeed&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Yes, it is}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.not || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be not&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No, it's not}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation (as well as affirmation) is generally performed in the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''xeva''' || '''ju''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|eri}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.seen || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;to anyone who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No one else}} saw her.'' (Literally: ''{{color|MediumBlue|Anyone else didn't}} see her.'')<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> To negate or affirm an argument, it is placed within an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || '''los''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''ahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV || be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV || be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Both '''kka''' and '''ahe''' have equivalent adverbial forms, '''kku''' and '''lahe''' respectively, which do not require the use of '''lo''' when negating or affirming an argument. The previous sentence may be expressed as follows.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kku}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV.be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV.be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Interrogation===<br /> <br /> ====Polar Questions====<br /> <br /> Polar questions are indicated with '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} raining{{color|MediumBlue|?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Do}} you love me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Ha''' can occur at the end of a sentence, where it functions as a question tag.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | rain || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot; || Q<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''It's raining, {{color|MediumBlue|isn't it?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;?&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''You love me, {{color|MediumBlue|don't you?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Individual arguments in a sentence may be called into question by placing them inside an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]] introduced by '''lo'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} me who you love{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''na''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || ADV || Q || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} you who loves me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Alternative Questions====<br /> <br /> Alternative questions use two or more instances of '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Bio''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''kau''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''huna''' || '''vu'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || Q || eat || Q || drink || NOM.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;or&quot; || &quot;drink&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''Would you like anything to {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} eat {{color|MediumBlue|or}} drink{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Xevu''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ja''' || '''mahu''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ju''' || '''laiuiie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mahu || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Laiuiie<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Mahu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Laiuiie&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''Have you seen {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} Mahu {{color|MediumBlue|or}} Laiuiie{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Content Questions====<br /> <br /> ====Embedded Questions====<br /> <br /> Any type of question may be embedded inside a complementiser phrase.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Zau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ti''' || '''uaizue''' || '''ji''' || '''tavi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || TOP.C || Q || be.PRF || find || ACC.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.child<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;about that&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || be.PRF || &quot;find&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I don't know {{color|MediumBlue|if}} the child has been found.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Voice===<br /> <br /> ===Time===<br /> <br /> Marking of time (tense and aspect) is not obligatory in Ngolu and may always be left up to context. For our purposes here, we shall not distinguish between actions (e.g. ''kill'') and states (e.g. ''want'', ''be a house'') as temporal marking is identical for both. The word ''action'' will be used henceforth and should be understood to mean &quot;action or state&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Relative tenses====<br /> When time needs to be indicated, it is most often done by means of a verbal indicating a &quot;relative tense&quot; (aspect). These are relative to a contextually understood time in question, the &quot;reference time&quot;. The three basic &quot;relative tense&quot; markers are ... <br /> <br /> <br /> *'''ti''' &quot;perfect&quot; (PRF), indicating an action that occurred before the reference time<br /> *'''zo''' &quot;progressive&quot; (PROG), indicating an action underway at the reference time<br /> *'''ka''' &quot;prospective (PROS), indicating an action occurring after the reference time<br /> <br /> <br /> By default, the reference is the present, the time in which the utterance is made. However, if another time is contextually understood, any of these may refer to events in the past, present or future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|zo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROG || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be underway&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Absolute tenses====<br /> The prefix '''e-''' attached to the beginning of any of these aspect markers creates an absolute tense marker. The '''e-''' sets the reference time to the current moment in which the utterance is made. This is usually only used to disambiguate or to emphasise a time frame.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''eti''' &quot;past&quot; (PST), indicating an action that occurred in the past<br /> *'''ezo''' &quot;present&quot; (PRES), indicating an action underway in the present<br /> *'''eka''' &quot;future (FUT), indicating an action that will occur in the future<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be earlier&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRES || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Continuation====<br /> There are also compounds formed from two time words that indicate continuation from one time frame to another using a linking ''-e-''. This linking ''-e-'' is probably not related to the ''e-'' of absolute temporal reference, but to the ''e-'' prefix of dative case nominals and the derivation prefix ''e-'' that can be added to verbals indicating motion towards something.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''tiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that starting before the reference time and continuing up to it<br /> *'''zueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action continuing from the reference time and extending to a later time<br /> *'''etiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that started in the past and continues to the present<br /> *'''ezueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action that starts in the present and will continue into the future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezos}}''' || '''oila''' || '''na''' || '''xiies''' || '''oge'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF.PROG|| read || NOM.1S.ACS || ACC.3S.DEF.INAN.PROX || be.book<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have been doing&quot; || &quot;read&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;this thing which&quot; || &quot;is a book&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|have been}} read{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} this book.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Perfective and imperfective====<br /> In addition, the word '''bie''' contrasts with '''zo'''. Whereas '''zo''' specifies that an action is underway at the reference time, essentially taking a &quot;snapshot&quot; of the interior of an action, after its beginning and before its completion, '''bie''' specifies perfectivity, metaphorically painting a picture of the whole completed action without permitting a look inside. On its own, it does not specify whether the completed action occurs before or after the reference time, but it does explicitly specify that the action is ''not'' underway at the reference time. <br /> <br /> Both ''bie'' and ''zo'' may be suffixed to other verbals indicating time in order to explicitly distinguish the imperfective (progressive) aspect from the perfective aspect, while also specifying time.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfectivity:<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | imperfective (progressive)<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfective<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | bie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | relative time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kabie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | absolute time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekabie<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Note that '''zo''' appears twice in the table although it really only has one function; it specifies an action underway at the reference time (i.e. concurrent with it), which itself may be unspecified.<br /> <br /> The reduplicated forms '''zozo''' ('these days', 'in those days') and '''ezozo''' ('these days') do not appear in the above table as they indicate a loosening of the bounds of the reference time or current time. The reference or current time can be tightened or emphasised with '''bazo''' ('right now', 'right then', 'at that/this very moment') or '''ebazo''' ('right now', 'at this very moment').<br /> <br /> ====Resultative perfect====<br /> The word '''bue''' indicates a ''resultative perfect'', functioning similarly to '''ti''' in that it describes an action occurring prior to the reference time, however the focus of '''bue''' is not on the action itself, but on the resulting post-action state at the reference time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|bue}}''' || '''kaxa''' || '''xu''' || '''giloxuo'''<br /> |-<br /> | RES.PRF|| break(INTR) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || window.pane<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is in the resulting state&quot; || &quot;break&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a window pane&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''The window {{color|MediumBlue|is}} br{{color|MediumBlue|o}}k{{color|MediumBlue|en}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bue''' is frequently prefixed to the following word (for example ''buekaxa'' instead of ''bue kaxa''). Its passive equivalent '''hi-''' is always prefixed.<br /> <br /> ====Time word stacking====<br /> More than one time word can be used together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT|| be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will&quot; || &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST|| be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;will&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> These are usually compounded together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekati}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|etika}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST-PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Distance from reference time====<br /> The precise distance from the reference time can be indicated using adverbial clauses with '''lo''' followed by the unit of time, '''(e)ti''' or '''(e)ka''' and an ordinal number, which begins with ''t-''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''zaxa''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teuo}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.ill || ADV || be.year || be.PRF || be.second<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;becomes&quot; || &quot;is ill&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;is earlier&quot; || &quot;is second&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he fell ill {{color|MediumBlue|two years before/ago}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> This sentence could be translated somewhat more literally as &quot;S/he fell ill while there was the second previous year.&quot; Note that replacing '''ti''' with '''eti''' would force the interpretation with &quot;ago&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || Bie || bilo || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tahu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PFV || die || ADV || be.month || be.PROS || be.first<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is completed&quot; || &quot;dies&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;is about to&quot; || &quot;is first&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he died {{color|MediumBlue|one month later}}. / S/he will die {{color|MediumBlue|in one month}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A more literally translation could be &quot;S/he died while there was the second coming year.&quot; Note again that replacing '''ka''' with '''eka''' would force the interpretation with &quot;in one month&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment. <br /> <br /> In the following example, in which a duration is specified rather than a specific time, the adverbial clause contains only the length of time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS || ADV || be.five || be.year<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another means of conveying the same information is to place the time specifiers after the tense or aspect marker and then introducing the rest of the sentence with '''to'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''li''' || '''zaxa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || be.two || be.year || thus || begin || be.ill<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become&quot; || &quot;be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Two years ago,}} s/he fell ill.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || ... || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''bilo'''<br /> |-<br /> | || be.going.to || be.one || be.month || thus || die<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;is going to&quot; || &quot;is one&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;die&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|One month later,}} s/he died.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.five || be.year || thus || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Miscellaneous time words====<br /> There are a range of other verbals which indicate time in a similar way. Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> ''Days''<br /> * '''ariu''' &quot;yesterday&quot;<br /> * '''aku''' &quot;today&quot;<br /> * '''anu''' &quot;tomorrow&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Lighting''<br /> * '''auo''' &quot;by day&quot;<br /> * '''eio''' &quot;by night&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Distance in time''<br /> * '''ttie''' / '''ettie''' &quot;just&quot; (similar to '''ti''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''tieka''' / '''etieka''' &quot;about to&quot; (similar to '''ka''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''ti ti''' / '''eti ti''' &quot;a long time ago&quot; (reduplication for distance into the past)<br /> * '''ka ka''' / '''eka ka''' &quot;eventually&quot; (reduplication for distance into the future)<br /> <br /> ''Other aspectual differences''<br /> * '''hua''' &quot;always&quot;, &quot;permanently&quot; [gnomic]<br /> * '''niu''' &quot;habitually&quot; [habitual]<br /> * '''guegue''' &quot;repeatedly&quot;, &quot;again and again&quot; [iterative]<br /> * '''egue''' &quot;again&quot;<br /> * '''tara''' &quot;suddenly&quot;<br /> * '''li''' &quot;starts&quot;, &quot;begins&quot;, &quot;commences&quot;<br /> * '''bi''' &quot;stops&quot;, &quot;ceases&quot;<br /> * '''ligue''' &quot;resumes&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Demonstratives===<br /> <br /> Demonstratives distinguish three degrees of distance associated with the three grammatical persons.<br /> <br /> * '''''tie''''' 'this' or 'these' near the speaker [1st person - proximal]<br /> * '''''tia''''' 'that' or 'those' near the listener [2nd person - medial]<br /> * '''''tio''''' 'that' or 'those' away from both speaker and listener [3rd person - distal]<br /> <br /> When speaking to someone of the same or higher rank and referring to the something that is close to both speaker and listener (such as a house that both are inside), the 2nd person '''''tia''''' 'that' is used. Only persons of higher rank may use the first person form '''''tie''''' in such situations.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.MED || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.PROX || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The association between the grammatical persons and the demonstratives is strong, with words, statements and actions made by a person frequently being referred to using the appropriate demonstrative. For example, a commonly used phrase for &quot;therefore&quot; is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}'' (literally 'because of this (by me)') when the reasoning is based on what the speaker just said, but when the reasoning is based on what their interlocutor just said, this phrase is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}'' (literally 'because of that (by you)').<br /> <br /> ====Contractions====<br /> <br /> The demonstrative verbals '''''tie''''', '''''tia''''' and '''''tio''''' form very common contractions with third person definite nominals, transforming the above examples as follows:<br /> <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tia}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}} mala''''' 'this house' / 'that house' (by you) <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tie}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}} mala''''' 'this house' (by me)<br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what I said' <br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what you said' <br /> <br /> Here is a table of forms:<br /> <br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Proximal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Medial || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Distal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Proximal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''|| '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Medial || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Distal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Proximal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Medial || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Distal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Proximal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Medial || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Distal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Proximal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Medial || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Distal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Proximal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Medial || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Distal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Proximal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Medial || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Distal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Proximal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Medial || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Distal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Proximal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Medial || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Distal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Proximal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Medial || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Distal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Proximal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Medial || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Distal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Proximal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Medial || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Distal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Proximal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Medial || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Distal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Essive Proximal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Medial || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Distal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Location===<br /> <br /> ===Movement===<br /> <br /> Movement is expressed in a variety of ways in Ngolu. <br /> <br /> One of the most common methods for talking about movement is using the words '''hu''' and '''mia'''. There is no distinction between coming and going but rather a distinction between the perfective '''hu''', meaning 'come' or 'go', and the imperfective '''mia''', 'be one one's way', 'be coming', 'be going'. The destination may be indicated by a subsequent modifying verbal or by a dative argument. The origin is indicated by an ablative argument.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nu''' || '''exi''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || NOM.1s.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|mia}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.IPFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be on the way&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|'m going / on my way}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || move.PFV || ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Please {{color|MediumBlue|get}} away from me.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another method for expressing movement is to affix the copula prefix '''g-''', '''m-''', '''n-''' to a dative or ablative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-exi}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to you&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'll {{color|MediumBlue|come to you}}.'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Get away from me}}!'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The third way to express movement is to use an inceptive (inchoative) morpheme in conjunction with a word indicating location. For example, the verbal '''xa''' means 'to be inside' and the verbal '''atio''' means 'to be there (away from us)' - adding the infix '''-in-''' (perfective inceptive) or '''-ij-''' (imperfective inceptive) gives '''xina''' ('to go in', 'to enter') and '''xija''' ('to be on the way in'), '''atinio''' ('to go there') and '''atijo''' ('to be on the way there'). The free standing verbal '''li''' ('to begin, start, commence') may also be used, with '''li xa''' and '''li atio''' being equivalent to '''xina''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xina}}''' || '''iju''' || '''i-oba''' || '''loe'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || enter.PFV || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || PRED-be.room || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;enter&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible ones&quot; || &quot;be room&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''They {{color|MediumBlue|went into}} the bedroom.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bios''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|atinio}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || go.there.3 || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''S/He wants {{color|MediumBlue|to go there}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The inceptive infixes are frequently used with the verbals denoting location in the four cardinal directions: '''la''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' ('to be in the east', 'to be in the west', 'to be in the north', 'to be in the south' respectively) creating the perfective forms '''lina''', '''tina''', '''ginio''' and '''vino''' and the imperfective forms '''lija''', '''tija''', '''gijo''' and '''vijo'''. Direction within Qu, with its noticeable tube shape (with 'east/west' pointing along the tube and 'north/south' going around the circumference), is a much more salient feature than on Earth and referencing direction with motion is common. In certain circumstances, describing movement without reference to direction is regarded as too imprecise, such as when men are discussing hunting in the forest where there may be no obvious landmarks to identify as the destination of a movement.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''La''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' may be used to modify another verb of motion with or without taking an inceptive infix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|lina}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|gio}}''' || '''inais''' || '''ixi''' || '''vaku'''<br /> |-<br /> | go.east.PFV || be.in.the.north || ABL.1p.ACS || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.babirusa<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go east&quot; || &quot;be in the north&quot; || &quot;from us&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be babirusa&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''The babirusas {{color|MediumBlue|moved (east)-northeast}} away from us.'' — '''muja''' [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Additionally, there is yet another prefix '''e-''' which may be related to the '''e-''' prefix at the beginning of nominals in the dative case. Words with this prefix indicate perfective movement and include '''etie''' ('to come here') '''etia''' ('to go/come there/here by you') and '''etio''' ('to go there'). These words are slightly more commonly used than their equivalents '''atinie''', '''atinia''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> ===Causes===<br /> <br /> ===Goals===<br /> <br /> ===Conditionals===<br /> <br /> Conditional sentences in Ngolu use particles to indicate the condition clause (protasis) and the result clause (apodosis). These particles differ depending on whether the condition is possible (realis) or hypothetical (irrealis).<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''PROTASIS'' || ''APODOSIS''<br /> |-<br /> | ''REALIS'' || '''ha''' || '''to'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''IRREALIS'' || '''hai''' &lt;br&gt; '''haizuo''' (emphatic) || '''toi''' &lt;br&gt; '''to''' (possible only when apodosis clause appears second)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Realis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''anu''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''kka''' || '''vuja''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | if || be.tomorrow || rain || then || be.not || hunt.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if&quot; || &quot;be tomorrow&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} it rains tomorrow, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} he won't hunt.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ('''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''') || '''ttio''' || '''nu''' || '''ue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''vai''' || '''tiaia'''<br /> |-<br /> | (then) || hit || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.2s.ACS || if || stay || do.that.2<br /> |-<br /> | (&quot;then&quot;) || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;if&quot; || &quot;keep&quot; || &quot;do that which you are doing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I'll hit you {{color|MediumBlue|if}} you keep doing that.'' — '''muja''' [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Irrealis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''g-ua''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(i)}}''' || '''hales''' || '''eji''' || '''jo''' || '''nio'''|| '''mo'''<br /> |-<br /> | if.IRR || be-NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ACS || then.(would) || ask || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.C || happen || be.what<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;imagine if&quot; || &quot;be you&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then (would)&quot; || &quot;ask&quot; || &quot;(to) the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;happen&quot; || &quot;be what&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} you, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} I{{color|MediumBlue|'d}} ask him/her what happened.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || '''obani'''<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;stop&quot; || &quot;work&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || &quot;be more&quot; || &quot;be rich&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|would}} stop working, {{color|MediumBlue|if}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} richer.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''ti''' || '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''leui''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || ('''ti''') || '''mahu''' || ('''xu''') || ('''ene''')<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || be.PRF || move || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ICS || if.IRR || (be.PRF) || be.known || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN) || (DAT.1s.ACS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;move&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || (&quot;be finished&quot;) || &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''I would have come with you if I had known that.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Numbers===<br /> <br /> ===Quantity===<br /> <br /> ===Degree===<br /> <br /> ===Comparison===<br /> <br /> ==Pragmatics==<br /> <br /> ===Social Stratification and Language Use===<br /> <br /> Ngolu society is heavily stratified into five social divisions. These social divisions, or strata, are hierarchical and from highest to lowest are as follows.<br /> <br /> * 5. ''ju '''taqu''''' - the king<br /> * 4. ''iju '''balu''''' - the king's men<br /> * 3. ''iju '''muja''''' - initiated men<br /> * 2. ''iju '''kali''''' - free citizens<br /> * 1. ''iju '''tuva''''' - slaves and prisoners (''ixu tuva'' in the speech of '''muja''', '''balu''' and '''taqu''')<br /> <br /> Language use is, to a large extent, determined by the strata of the speaker, addressee and third person referents.<br /> <br /> ===Speech Crime===<br /> <br /> [[Category:Languages]]<br /> [[Category:Conlangs]]</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Iliaqu&diff=295773 2023-01-26T02:19:07Z

<p>Imralu: /* Argument Structure */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Iliaqu<br /> |nativename = iliaqu<br /> |pronunciation = [ìʎàʔú]<br /> |region = Qu<br /> |ethnicity = Ngolu / Ilaqu<br /> |speakers = {{formatnum:100,000}}<br /> |setting = [[Verse:Qu|Qu]]<br /> |fam1 = Language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2013-2020<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> {{infobox|bg=#F2DC77|native=iliaqu|in=Qu|no=100,000 (approx.)|tree=Isolate (as far as known)|wo=VSO|morph=Isolating/futional|ms=Nominative-Accusative|creator=[[User:Imralu|Imralu]]|date=2013-2014}}<br /> <br /> '''Iliaqu''' (IPA: /ˌɪljəˈʔuː/), also known as '''Ngolu''' or sometimes '''Qu''' (endonym: ''iliaqu'' IPA: [ìʎàʔú]) is a language isolate spoken throughout the known regions of the space habitat [[Verse:Qu|Qu]] by the Ngolu people, whose number is estimated to be around 100,000. As the Ngolu are almost entirely monolingual, and while voluntary travel to and from Qu remains impossible, the language is not in any danger of extinction. At this stage, little is known of dialect differences within Qu. There are estimated to be somewhere between 50 and 100 Iliaqu speakers on Earth who have simply mysteriously appeared in various locations. Small communities of Ngolu speakers been brought or have found their way together, the most well-known and well-studied of which is a group of about 15 living in and around Berlin, Germany.<br /> <br /> Iliaqu is an isolating/fusional, head-initial (right-branching) language with VSO word order and nominative-accusative alignment. Verbs (verbals) make up the only open class of word, with nouns (nominals) constituting a closed class of heavily fusional words that fill the roll of pronouns and articles in other languages, marking grammatical person, number, definiteness and specificity, gender, accessibility, and case.<br /> <br /> ==Terminology==<br /> There appear to have been fewer than ten isolated instances of non-Ngolu people arriving in Qu and there are no other cultures or languages known to exist in Qu. In such a linguistically and culturally homogenous environment, the Ngolu have had no need for endonyms for their culture, people or language. Traditionally, they have described their language simply as '''ilia''' [ìʎá] 'speech', themselves as '''golu''' [ŋòlú] 'people', and their world as '''qu''' [ʔú] 'world'. <br /> <br /> With the new knowledge of other cultures and the entire universe outside of Qu, neologisms have arisen to distinguish their language and their people from those of the outsiders. For the Ngolu arrivals Earth, contact with other cultures has forced them to acknowledge that the other languages they hear must have the ability to convey information just as their language. Consequently, on Earth, the word '''ilia''' generally refers to any language. To disambiguate their own language, they may call it '''ilia qu''' [ìʎáʔú] or '''iliaqu''' [ìʎàʔú] 'Qu speech'. Non-Ngolu are still referred to as '''taia''' ('ghost', 'demon') and Earth maybe referred to as '''utaia''' [ùtàjá] 'ghost world' or a loan word such as '''hiia''', which was common among the Berlin group (from German ''hier'') although it now seems to be dying out in favour of '''utaia'''. With the acknowledgement that non-Ngolu people are also people and the consequent expansion of the term '''golu''' to include non-Ngolu, the term '''goqu''' [ŋòʔú] ('Qu people', formed by adding the human prefix '''go-''' to the word '''qu''') is gaining ground and may be contrasted with '''taia''' or '''goutaia''' [ŋòu̯tàjá].<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !VOWELS<br /> !Front<br /> !Central<br /> !Back<br /> |-<br /> !High<br /> |'''i''' ‹i›<br /> |<br /> |'''u''' ‹u›<br /> |-<br /> !Mid<br /> |'''e''' ‹e›<br /> |<br /> |'''o''' ‹o›<br /> |-<br /> !Low<br /> |<br /> |'''a''' ‹a›<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Each vowel may be 'strong' or 'weak'. These are essentially stressed and unstressed. There is only ever one 'strong' vowel per word and it is nearly always the final vowel. Where it is not, it is always the penultimate vowel and the in that case the final vowel is always /i/ or /u/. Non-final strong vowels are indicated in the romanisation using an acute accent, ‹áéíóú›.<br /> <br /> The realisation of strong vowels varies across accents. There appears to be a cline ranging from a pitch-based pronunciation to a weight-based pronunciation (used chiefly by men). At the pitch-based end of the spectrum, 'strong' vowels are pronounced with a high tone and 'weak' vowels with a low-tone. At the end of a non-interrogative utterance, a high-tone becomes a falling tone. At the end of a question, a high tone may be lengthened and/or undergo an additional rise. At the weight-based extreme, strong vowels cause gemination of the following consonant but are pronounced as long themselves when the following sound is (1) a vowel, (2) a consonant cluster or (3) an already geminated consonant. Utterance finally, strong vowels are generally neither pronounced with a high tone nor lengthened but are usually pronounced slightly louder. <br /> <br /> The high vowels, /i/ and /u/, when 'weak' and adjacent to another vowel are pronounced non-syllabically as [i̯~j] and [u̯~w]). Non-syllabic /i/ merges with and palatalises any preceding dental/alveolar consonant.<br /> <br /> In these two word examples, the pitch-based pronunciation is given before the weight-based pronunciation.<br /> <br /> :*'''ju muja''' [ʒúmùʒâ] ~ [ʒumːuˈʒa]<br /> :*'''ju aio''' [ʒúàjô] ~ [ʒuːaˈjo]<br /> :*'''ju uaia''' [ʒúwàjâ] [ʒuːwaˈja]<br /> :*'''ju ntu''' [ʒúntû] ~ [ʒu:nˈtu]<br /> :*'''ju lleue''' [ʒúlːèwê] ~ [ʒuːlːeˈwe]<br /> <br /> ===Consonants===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !CONSONANTS<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Dental/Alveolar<br /> !Post-alveolar<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> | '''m''' ‹m›<br /> | <br /> | '''n''' ‹n›<br /> |<br /> | '''ŋ''' ‹g›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> | '''b''' ‹b›<br /> |<br /> | '''t''' ‹t›<br /> |<br /> | '''k''' ‹k›<br /> | '''ʔ''' ‹q›<br /> |-<br /> !Ejective<br /> |<br /> | <br /> | '''tʼ''' ‹tt›<br /> |<br /> | '''kʼ''' ‹kk›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiced Fricative<br /> | <br /> | '''v''' ‹v›<br /> | '''z''' ‹z›<br /> | '''ʒ''' ‹j›<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiceless Fricative<br /> | <br /> | <br /> | '''s''' ‹s›<br /> | '''ʃ''' ‹x›<br /> | <br /> | '''h''' ‹h›<br /> |-<br /> !Tap<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''ɾ''' ‹r› <br /> |<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''l''' ‹l› <br /> |<br /> |<br /> | <br /> |}<br /> <br /> * The nasal consonants /m n ŋ/, unlike other consonants, may occur before another consonant and then assimilate in place of articulation to that consonant. For this reason, many authors posit the archiphoneme /N/. /N/ may be syllabic post pausa, carrying a low tone. Before /l/, /N/ assimilates to [l̪] or [l̪̩]. Before /v/, it is pronounced as [ɱ] or [ɱ̩].<br /> * The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental [n̪ t̪ t̪ʼ ɾ̪ l̪]. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears. Some speakers palatalise /t/ and /d/ to [t͡ʃ] and [d͡ʒ] respectively. The ejective /tʼ/, however, is rarely or never palatalised as [t͡ʃʼ].<br /> * /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive [d̪].<br /> * Geminate /m/, /n/ and /l/ (resulting from /Nm/, /Nn/ and /Nl/) may be pronounced as [m̩b], [n̪̩d̪] and [l̪̩d̪] respectively, particularly by men and particularly post pausa.<br /> * /s/ and /z/ are normally alveolar. When followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are not distinguished from /ʃ ʒ/. <br /> * /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ cannot be followed by non-syllabic /i/.<br /> * The phonemes /s/ and /ɾ/ do not occur at the beginning of a word.<br /> * The glottal stop /ʔ/ and the ejective consonants /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ are restricted to positions immediately before a 'strong' vowel, although there may be an intervening non-syllabic 'weak' /i/ or /u/ after the ejectives. At the beginning of a 'weak' syllable, ejective consonants become pronounced as their equivalent plain plosive and the glottal stop disappears. For example, ''kka'' [kʼá] and ''kkue'' [kʷʼé] are allowed while expected ''*kkina'' (derived from ''kka'' plus the infix ''-in-'') is instead present as ''kina'' [kì.ná]. In connected speech, /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ may be pronounced as [t̚ʔ k̚ʔ] or even [tː kː]. However, a strong ejective pronunciation is always heard post pausa.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> Phonemically, a syllable may be '''((N)C)V''', where '''V''' is a vowel '''(C)''' an optional consonant and '''(N)''' an optional nasal which assimilates to its following consonant in its point of articulation. <br /> <br /> Phonetically, syllables may be more complex. '''(N)''' is pronounced syllabically post pausa and otherwise is pronounced in the coda of the preceding syllable. The non-syllabic pronunciations of /i/ and /u/ mean that a syllable can be (C)(S)V(S)(N), where '''(S)''' is a semivowel.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::'''nxua intaneti'''<br /> ::/Nʃu.á.i.Nta.ne.tí/<br /> ::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí]<br /> ::''is on the internet''<br /> <br /> ===Epenthetic /s/===<br /> <br /> An epenthetic /s/ sometimes appears between words when the second word begins with a vowel. In the romanisation used here, the /s/ is written on the end of the preceding word. The rules are somewhat complex and are best shown as a table. The final vowels of preceding words are shown vertically on the left. Initial vowels of the following word are shown along the top. An epenthetic /s/ doesn't appear before '''i''' and '''u''' when a syllabic vowel (V) immediately follows within the same word. In the table, the word borders are shown with an '''s''' indicating where the epenthetic /s/ always appears. In other positions in the table, the epenthetic /s/ can still appear in very clear emphatic speech.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''i(V)-'' || ''u(V)-'' || ''i-'' || ''u-'' || ''e-'' || ''o-'' || ''a-''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-i'' || '''-i i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i e-''' || '''-i o-''' || '''-i a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-u'' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u u-''' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} u-''' || '''-u e-''' || '''-u o-''' || '''-u a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-e'' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-o'' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-a'' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ua''' || [è.né.wá] || '''u''' followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} u''' || [è.né.sú] || '''u''' not followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ima''' || [è.néj.má] || '''i''' is weak and can become non-syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} eme''' || [è.né.sè.mé] || '''e''' is always syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni ua''' || [è.ní.wá] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni u''' || [è.ní.ú] || final '''i''' before syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni iu''' || [è.ní.jú] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni{{color|MediumBlue|s}} iui''' || [è.ní.sì.wí] || final '''i''' before initial syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene iui''' || [è.néj.wí] || final '''e''' followed by 'weak' '''i''' which becomes non-syllabic<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> There are four classes of words in Ngolu. Ngolu is a very verb-heavy language, with verbals making up the only truly open word class.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''Nominals''': closed<br /> :* '''Verbals''': open<br /> :* '''Particles''': closed<br /> :* '''Interjections''': closed (mostly)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Nominals===<br /> Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of nominals, the &lt;u&gt;pronominals&lt;/u&gt;, are essentially the equivalent of pronouns and articles in other languages, inflecting for number, grammatical person, definiteness, specificity, gender, case and an inflectional dimension unique to Iliaqu, ''accessibility''. Pronominals can appear on their own or can be followed by a verbal or verbal phrase. When followed by a verbal, they can be regarded as the head of an underlying relative clause which nominalises the verbal and allows it to function as an argument in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> :As a pronoun:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|it}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :As an article:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|the}} house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In addition to the pronominals, there are two &lt;u&gt;complementisers&lt;/u&gt; which are essentially subordinating conjunctions which inflect for case. '''Zuo''' can be thought of as roughly equivalent to the English subordinating conjunction 'that' and '''kuo''' can be thought of as 'the time when'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''olos''' || '''ene''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''g-ixi''' || '''ja''' || '''nana''' || '''g-uje''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.strange || DAT.1s.ACS || NOM.C || be.not || COP-DAT.3s.INAN.DEF || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.father || COP-GEN.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is strange&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;is not&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the one who&quot; || &quot;is father&quot; || &quot;is hers/his&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I think it's strange {{color|MediumBlue|that}} his / her father didn't go / wasn't there.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Number====<br /> Pronominals indicate two numbers, singular and plural. Plural is marked by the prefix '''i-''', which occurs before some case prefixes and after others (see [[Ngolu#Case|Case]] below for more information).<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The singular is used before quantifiers indicating a specific plural quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a group of two&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|two}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> When the plural is used, this indicates multiples of the indicated quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are groups of two&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|pairs of}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Many words denoting powders and granular substances are used in the plural with the singular referring to an individual grain.<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a grain of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the grain of sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are grains of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the (grain{{color|MediumBlue|s}} of) sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Water referred to as '''hunia''', potable water, is indicated in the plural as well when it is a quantity larger than what one person can drink in one sitting. <br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (large quantity of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (serving of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Gender====<br /> In the third person, nominals distinguish between animate and inanimate referents. When it comes to animals, the use of the genders depends on the speaker's [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]]. ''Kali'' (women, children and uninitiated men) and ''tuva'' (slaves) refer to all motile animals in the animate gender, generally as inaccessible although pets may be accessible. ''Muja'' (initiated men) refer to animals other than pets in the inanimate gender. The Ngolu believe this allows ''muja'' to hunt without remorse.<br /> <br /> The following examples illustrate the difference. Examples which are specific to the rank of the speaker or the listener will be marked as such after the translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The interplay between a speaker and listener's rank is complex and may result in unexpected gender choices. For example, a slave must refer to him- or herself in the third person inanimate gender when speaking to ''balu'' and above unless specifically given permission otherwise. To read more about this, see [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|Social Stratification and Language Use]].<br /> <br /> ====Person====<br /> Three grammatical persons are marked by pronominals. The first person pronominals contain '''n'''. The second person pronominals contain a non-syllabic '''u''' (realised as '''v''' before '''u'''). In the third person, '''j''', '''x''', '''m''', '''z''', '''k''' and Ø appear depending on gender, definiteness and specificity.<br /> <br /> =====Clusivity=====<br /> The plural forms of all the basic pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness. <br /> <br /> The first person inclusive (second plus first persons) may be indicated by compound pronominals, the dual forms (&quot;you, one person, and I&quot;) being '''uana''', '''uanu''', '''vuna''', '''vunu''' and the plural forms being '''iuana''', '''iuanu''', '''ivuna''', '''ivunu'''. Which of the four options is used depends on [[#accessibility|accessibility]]. These compound forms are not used universally and many speakers use juxtaposition of pronouns, such as '''vu nu''' instead of '''vunu''' or '''iua na''' or '''iua ina''' instead of '''iuana'''.<br /> <br /> Even addressing people in the second person, should the group include third persons who are not being addressed, many speakers will make note of these separately, for example '''ju vu''' (gloss: NOM.3s.ICS.DEF NOM.2s.ICS) and this is somewhat prescriptively enforced. The nominal '''ivu''' (gloss: NOM.2p.ICS), for example, is recommended only for use to address two or more people when all are present or when the message is at the very least expected to be passed onto those who are not present. <br /> <br /> The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person. The compound 2nd+1st person pronouns are not subject to this ordering rule.<br /> <br /> Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive.<br /> <br /> ====Definiteness and Specificity====<br /> <br /> In the third person, pronominals indicate definiteness (whether the listener knows which individual) and specificity (whether the speaker knows which individual).<br /> <br /> =====Definite=====<br /> The Definite (+specific, +definite) is used when the listener is assumed to know which specific individual or individuals the speaker is referring to. In the following examples, '''ji ala''' (or just '''ji''') refers to a specific bird which the listener is assumed to be already aware of, possibly because it is already been mentioned.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|the bird}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|it}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Specific=====<br /> The Specific (+specific, -definite) is used when the speaker has a specific individual or individuals in mind but the listener is not assumed to know which one(s). In the following examples, '''mi ala''' (or '''mi''') refers to a specific bird but not one which the speaker expects the listener to know of.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a (particular) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|one (in particular)}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Non-Specific=====<br /> The Non-Specific (or General) does not refer to any specific individual(s) but to the abstract idea of a member or members of a particular class, any individual of which could be described. It often used when talking about desires or in negative sentences. In the examples below, '''i ala''' refers to any bird.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a(ny) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|anyone}}.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Accessibility====<br /> Accessibility is a concept integral to Ngolu culture. Outside of the third person non-specific, all animate nominals have two forms, one ''accessible'' (gloss: ACS) and one ''inaccessible'' (gloss: ICS). Accessible nominals have a low vowel,'''a''' in the nominative stem, '''e''' in the accusative stem, and these correspond to the high vowels '''u''' and '''i''' respectively in inaccessible nominals. Accessibility is typically explained as an indication of whether physical contact is permitted or not, however it is more generally a means of conveying social closeness or distance even when no actual touching is involved.<br /> <br /> In the first person, the English word ''I'' can be translated as either '''na''' (NOM.1s.ACS) or '''nu''' (NOM.1s.ICS). Using '''na''' signals to the listener &quot;I am accessible to you.&quot; This means the speaker feels close and emotionally open to the listener and physical contact is permitted or even welcome. Using '''nu''' informs the listener that physical contact is not welcome at the current time. This is typically because of emotional distance, such as when talking to strangers, casual acquaintances or people whom the speaker does not like, but it may also signal an unwillingness to be touched for other, often fleeting reasons, such as illness, pain or emotional tension. Between close friends and lovers, suddenly switching to '''nu''' may indicate that the speaker has taken offence at something.<br /> <br /> In the second and third persons, accessibility indicates the the referent's ''perceived'' accessibility ''to the speaker''. Using '''ua''' (NOM.2s.ACS) indicates that the speaker assumes he or she may touch the listener. Using '''vu''' (NOM.2s.ICS) indicates either a more respectful or colder social distance (cf. French &quot;vous&quot;, which, coincidentally, sounds identical). In the third person, '''ja''' (NOM.3s.ACS.DEF) and '''ju''' (NOM.3s.ICS.DEF) indicate the speaker's relationship to the referent. In plural, accessible indicates that ''all'' members of the group are accessible. Even one individual who the speaker regards as inaccessible, will cause the group to be marked as inaccessible. Inaccessibility is thus the 'default' and when speaking of generic or unknown individuals, these will be indicated with inaccessible nominals.<br /> <br /> Accessibility produces four speech modes or 'stances'. In situations between peers of equal rank, generally the speech mode with either be accessible (using accessible nominals in both first and second persons) or inaccessible (using inaccessible nominals in both). In situations of unequal dominance, which generally, but do not always, run along lines of rank, the dominant party speaks in the dominant mode, using inaccessible first person nominals and accessible second person nominals. The subordinate party speaks in the subordinate or submissive mode, using the reverse.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | speech mode || first person || second person || meaning<br /> |-<br /> | accessible mode (ACS) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may touch me. I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | inaccessible mode (ICS) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may not touch me. I may not touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | dominant mode (DOM) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may not touch me but I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | submissive mode (SUB) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may touch me but I may not touch you.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The speech mode used depends not only on who the speaker and listener are to one another, but how they feel about each other in that moment. A friend or lover who is deeply offended may suddenly switch to the inaccessible or dominant mode to indicate that they are now not happy and had better not be touched until the offence is resolved. The submissive mode may be used in order to flirt with an acquaintance. Flirting may be met with the accessible or inaccessible modes, which essentially give an answer. No answer (yet) is signalled by the adoption of the dominant mode. Smooth social interactions are ensured by the concordance of speech modes, ACS↔ACS, ICS↔ICS, DOM↔SUB. Conflict is often caused by the refusal to agree or by physical contact with someone marked in speech as inaccessible.<br /> <br /> Examples of the four speech modes in use.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ICS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Case====<br /> Ngolu possesses 14 grammatical cases. The nominative and accusative case appear to be the oldest and all other forms appear to derive from the agglomeration of adpositions onto them. The first group (accusative, dative, ablative, locative, genitive and possessive) appear to be relatively old. At some point after these adpositions fused onto the nominals, the plural marker '''i-''' also became a prefix. For example '''''i-e-ji''''' 'to them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;PL-DAT-ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;. The second group of derived cases (vocative, causal, benefactive, instrumental, comitative, topical, essive) appear to have developed more recently from prepositions added to either the nominative or the accusative case as the plural marker '''i-''' is sandwiched in the middle. For example '''''te-i-ji''''' 'about them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;because.of-PL.ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;.<br /> <br /> =====Nominative=====<br /> The nominative case indicates the grammatical subject of a verb. The nominative case is always formed with a back vowel, '''u''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''a''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''u''' shows animate and '''a''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''muja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|na}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.initiated.man || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be an initiated man&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} am an initiated man.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''loe''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || sleep || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} is not sleeping. / {{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} didn't sleep.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|He}} killed / murdered something / someone''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good || NOM.C || be.not || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It's good {{color|MediumBlue|that}} it's not raining.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zoua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuo}}''' || '''tavi''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ja}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.difficult || NOM.TEMP.C || be.child || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;the time when&quot; || &quot;be child&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He had a difficult childhood.<br /> (≈ {{color|MediumBlue|The time when}} {{color|MediumBlue|s/he}} was a child was difficult.)''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Accusative=====<br /> The accusative case indicates the grammatical object of a verb. The accusative case is formed with a front vowel, '''i''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''e''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''i''' represents animate and '''e''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''. The complementisers are '''jo''' and '''kio'''<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''ti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.PRF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;have finished&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Someone murdered {{color|MediumBlue|him}} / {{color|MediumBlue|He}} was murdered.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jave''' || '''ja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kivo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | throw || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF || ACC.3s.INAN.DEF || be.rock<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;throw&quot; || &quot;the being&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be rock&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''He threw {{color|MediumBlue|the rock}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jo}}''' || '''vai''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.C || stay || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; |''I want you {{color|MediumBlue|to}} stay. (≈ I want {{color|MediumBlue|that}} you stay.)'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In informal speech, the accusative case may replace the dative case when it indicates an experiencer. This does not occur with verbs that also have an accusative role and use the dative case to indicate a recipient.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ine}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || ACC.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Dative=====<br /> The dative case indicates an indirect object of the verb, a destination or goal of a movement or an experiencer. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'to' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''e(r)-''' ('''ie(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volos''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ene}}''' || '''izi''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || DAT.1s.ACS || ACC.3p.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;some things that&quot; || &quot;be water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} was given water. / Someone gave {{color|MediumBlue|me}} water.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|iene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || '''uana'''<br /> |-<br /> | JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM.1+2DU.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go - to them&quot; || &quot;you and I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''vais''' || '''inu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekio}}''' || '''loe''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF || stay || NOM.1p.ICS || DAT.TEMP.C || sleep || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;we&quot; || &quot;until&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''We stayed {{color|MediumBlue|until}} they slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Ablative=====<br /> The ablative case is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'from' in English. It is formed by suffixing '''-i''' to a nominative nominal. The complementisers are '''zuio''' and '''kuio''' in the ablative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Kuaqa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mala}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-uni}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.distant || NOM.1s.ICS || ABL.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || COP-GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be far&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;from the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm far away {{color|MediumBlue|from my home}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go - from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Get away {{color|MediumBlue|from me}}!'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || '''xuua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuio}}''' || '''iti''' || ('''ju''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;to her/him&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;since&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || (&quot;s/he&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Locative=====<br /> The locative case indicates a location. It is more or less equivalent to the prepositions 'in', 'on' and 'at' in English. It is also used to replace the verb &quot;have&quot; when indicating immediate possession as in &quot;to have something on one's person&quot;. It is formed by suffixing '''-a''' to a nominative nominal in the inaccessible and inanimate and prefixing '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ia(r)-''') to an accessible nominative nominal. The prefixed form is also used for the non-specific animate and inanimate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''bani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ana}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.money || LOC.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be money&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I don't have any money (with me). (≈ There is no money {{color|MediumBlue|at me}}.)'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|xua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mo}}''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.what || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be what&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Where are you?'' (≈ You are {{color|MediumBlue|at the what}}?) — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''iio''' || '''jas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azuo}}''' || '''muana''' || '''iti''' || '''exi''' || '''muana''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.fish || NOM.3s.ACS || LOC.C || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.small || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; || &quot;he&quot; || &quot;where&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || &quot;to the thing that&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be big&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''He's fishing {{color|MediumBlue|where}} the stream flows into the river.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || '''xuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;begin&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be yours&quot; || &quot;when&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || (&quot;to the inaccessible one&quot;) || &quot;that thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Genitive=====<br /> The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''egio''' || '''tani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|une}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.threesome || be.sibling || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a group of three&quot; || &quot;be siblings&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I have three siblings.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tta''' || '''xu''' || '''gula''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|uji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tio}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.large || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.pair.of.arms || COP-GEN.3s.DEF.ICS || be.that.3<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be large&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of arms&quot; || &quot;be of the person who&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|That person over there}} has big arms. / The arms {{color|MediumBlue|of that person over there}} are big.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Possessive=====<br /> The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) but to a nominative nominal rather than an accusative one.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || POS.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;owned by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} have / own a house.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It should be noted that, although in many languages, the genitive or possessive case is usually adnominal, referring to an immediately adjacent noun phrase, in Iliaqu, all nominals, regardless of case, refer to the predicate in their clause unless verbalised with the [[#Nominal_to_Verbal|copular prefix]]. Compare the following sentences.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || COP-POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in {{color|MediumBlue|my}} boot.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in the boot {{color|MediumBlue| and it's mine}}.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|I own}} a snake which is in the boot. — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the second sentence, the lack of the copula on '''une''' indicates that it represents an argument of the predicate ('''masa''' 'there is a snake'), meaning that it is the snake which belongs to the speaker, not the boot. The word order, placing the unadorned possessive argument ('''une''') after the much heavier locative argument ('''xua xa buja''') is heavily marked, placing focus on the fact that the snake is the speaker's legal possession.<br /> <br /> Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, ''ataiva'', the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for ''ataiva'' to avoid the possessive case entirely in favour of the genitive case.<br /> <br /> =====Vocative=====<br /> The vocative case is used to address someone or attract their attention. It is formed by adding '''e(r)-''' ('''ei-''' in plural) to a nominative nominal. <br /> <br /> The most common greeting words for most uses are simply vocative nominals. They must reflect the number and accessibility of the addressee(s). <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is common for inaccessibles to be greeted in the third person, with '''eju''' frequently replacing '''evu'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Third person definite forms, however, may also be used with accessibles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eja}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh he who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Among accessibles, the '''e-''' prefix may be added directly to a personal name. This and the predicate prefix '''i-''' are the only example of verbals (as all names are verbals) taking a non-derivational affix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|e}}-xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | hey-be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey - be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hey}} Xagu!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the indefinite, the vocative can be used to summon help from non-specific people.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eru}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when one person's assistance is enough.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3p.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when more than one person's assistance is required.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative complementiser '''ezuo''' is used to mean 'if only' or 'I wish'. It is also used for making polite requests. Literally, it's something like 'o that'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezuo}}''' || '''hunia''' || '''nua'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.C || be.potable || LOC.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if only&quot; || &quot;be beverage&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''May I have some water please? ({{color|MediumBlue|If only}} I had some water.)'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative temporal complementiser '''ekuo''' is used to express nostalgia about a past time or anticipation for a future time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || '''ata''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh for the time when&quot; || &quot;be adult&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I can't wait till}} I'm grown up.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Causal=====<br /> The causal case describes a cause. It is equivalent to the English &quot;because of&quot;. It is formed by prefixing '''te(r)-''' (plural: '''tei-''') to the accusative nominals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zaxa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.sick || NOM.1s.ICS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am sick&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm ill {{color|MediumBlue|because of you}}. / You made me ill.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ezo''' || '''zouas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tejo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''mala''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.now || be.difficult || DAT.1s.ICS || CAU.C || be.not || be.house || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;because&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''Things are tough for me at the moment {{color|MediumBlue|because}} I don't have a house..'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Benefactive=====<br /> The benefactive case indicates either a beneficiary or benefactor of an action or situation or a goal. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'for'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''kua(r)-''' (plural: '''kuai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.this.1 || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;there is this, by me&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''This is {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}. (≈ There's this {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.)'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bioi''' || '''vaia''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.willing || do.everything || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;would&quot; || &quot;do everything&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I would do anything {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''etie''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''leu''' || '''ue''' || '''veji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || move.to.here.1 || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.C || rescue || ACC.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;finish&quot; || &quot;come here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;rescue&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;about the person&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; |''I came here {{color|MediumBlue|(in order) to}} save you from him/her.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''naxe''' || '''molu''' || '''iu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''mue''' || '''lau''' || '''iu''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | must || be.dead || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || BEN.C || be.able || be.alive || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;must&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;can&quot; || &quot;live&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates that&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; |''Some must die {{color|MediumBlue|so that}} others may live.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kuas''' || '''enies''' || '''e''' || '''kueta''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuakio}}''' || '''gehuo''' || '''ua''' || '''ji''' || '''uako'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || carry || ACC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.hunting.knife || BEN.TEMP.C || encounter || NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.enemy<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;carry&quot; || &quot;a non-specific thing which&quot; || &quot;be a hunting knife&quot; || &quot;in case&quot; || &quot;encounter&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''Carry a knife {{color|MediumBlue|in case}} you cross paths with enemies.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Instrumental=====<br /> The instrumental case describes the means or method by which something is done. It is equivalent to the English preposition &quot;with&quot; when it means &quot;using&quot;. It is formed by adding the prefix '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''vuja''' || '''zi''' || '''vaku''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kueta}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || hunt || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.babirusa || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.hunting.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;deliberately killed&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;hunts&quot; || &quot;a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a babirusa&quot; || &quot;using a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a hunting knife&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''The hunter killed the babirusa {{color|MediumBlue|with a hunting knife}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g-iara''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC.3p.NSPC.INAN || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;certain people&quot; || &quot;by&quot; || &quot;wait&quot; || &quot;at anything which&quot; || &quot;is bushes&quot; || &quot;be-at any things which&quot; || &quot;be drinking water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Comitative=====<br /> The comitative case indicates an accompanying person or thing. It is equivalent to 'with' in English when it means 'along with' or 'accompanied by'. It is formed by prefixing '''le(r)-''' (plural: '''lei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''ja''' || '''meha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|leje}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jalu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Meha || COM.3s.DEF.ACS || Jalu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is hunting&quot; || &quot;the person who&quot; || &quot;is Meha&quot; || &quot;with the person who&quot; || &quot;is Jalu&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''Meha is hunting {{color|MediumBlue|with Jalu}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''hu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || move.PFV || COM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come/go&quot; || &quot;with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Come {{color|MediumBlue|with me}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bata''' || '''ja''' || '''umatu''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lejo'''}} || '''buga''' || '''taba''' || '''iju''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | dance || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Umatu || COM.C || hit || be.drum || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;dance&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be Umatu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;be drum&quot; || &quot;the beings who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Umatu danced {{color|MediumBlue|while}} the others played the drums.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Topical=====<br /> The topical case indicates the topic or theme of an act of communication and in many instances also something which is kept in mind when a particular action is performed. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'about'. It is formed by prefixing '''ve(r)-''' (plural '''vei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''ila''' || '''na''' || '''leue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vezi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|valo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || speak || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.interesting<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;speak&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;about something that&quot; || &quot;is interesting&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to talk to you {{color|MediumBlue|about something interesting}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''teuas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vexi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiau}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | thank || DAT.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.food<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;thank&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;about the thing that&quot; || &quot;is food&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Thanks {{color|MediumBlue|for the food}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''malemale''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''moio''' || '''iu''' || '''azo''' || '''lo''' || '''zola''' || '''iu''' || '''babo'''<br /> |-<br /> | gossip || TOP.C || do.what || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other || ADV || be.solely || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;gossip&quot; || &quot;about the fact that&quot; || &quot;do what&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be only&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Only unintelligent people gossip {{color|MediumBlue|about}} what other people do.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Essive=====<br /> The essive case indicates the role of something in the sentence. It is roughly equivalent to the English words 'as' or 'like'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''o(r)-''' (plural: '''oi-''') to the nominative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''atia''' || '''nas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|omas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ali}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.there.2 || NOM.1s.ACS || ESS.3s.SPEC.ACS || be.same.rank.friend || COP-DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;as a person who&quot; || &quot;be a friend of the same rank&quot; || &quot;be to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm here {{color|MediumBlue|as your friend}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ozuo}}''' || '''ka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.visible || ESS.C || be.going.to || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;appear&quot; || &quot;as if&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It looks {{color|MediumBlue|like}} it's going to rain.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Tables====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Simple pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | na<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | nu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ina<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | inu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate specific<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ma<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | mu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ima<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | imu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate definite<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate specific<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | izu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | a<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ia<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> animate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> inanimate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Compound pronominals<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dominant<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dual<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Complimentisers<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | temporal<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====First Person=====<br /> First person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''nu''' || '''inu''' || '''na''' || '''ina'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ni''' || '''ini''' || '''ne''' || '''ine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''nua''' || '''inua''' || '''ana''' || '''iana''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uni''' || '''iuni''' || '''une''' || '''iune'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''unu''' || '''iunu''' || '''una''' || '''iuna'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''enu''' || '''einu''' || '''ena''' || '''eina''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teni''' || '''teini''' || '''tene''' || '''teine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuani''' || '''kuaini''' || '''kuane''' || '''kuaine''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ani''' || '''aini''' || '''ane''' || '''aine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leni''' || '''leini''' || '''lene''' || '''leine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veni''' || '''veini''' || '''vene''' || '''veine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''onu''' || '''oinu''' || '''ona''' || '''oina''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS.SG || ICS:PL || ACS.SG || ACS.PL<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ue''' || '''iue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eui''' || '''ieui''' || '''eue''' || '''ieue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''vui''' || '''ivui''' || '''uai''' || '''iuai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''vua''' || '''ivua''' || '''aua''' || '''iaua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uui''' || '''iuui''' || '''uue''' || '''iuue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uvu''' || '''iuvu''' || '''uua''' || '''iuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''evu''' || '''eivu''' || '''eua''' || '''eiua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teui''' || '''teiui''' || '''teue''' || '''teiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiui''' || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaiue''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aui''' || '''aiui''' || '''aue''' || '''aiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leui''' || '''leiui''' || '''leue''' || '''leiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veui''' || '''veiui''' || '''veue''' || '''veiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ovu''' || '''oivu''' || '''oua''' || '''oiua''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || ICS.DU<br /> || ACS.DU<br /> || DOM.DU<br /> || SUB.DU<br /> || ICS.PL<br /> || ACS.PL<br /> || DOM.PL<br /> || SUB.PL<br /> |-<br /> || Nominative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Accusative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Dative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvuna<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''ju''' || '''iju''' || '''ja''' || '''ija''' || '''xu''' || '''ixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ji''' || '''iji''' || '''je''' || '''ije''' || '''xi''' || '''ixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jui''' || '''ijui''' || '''jai''' || '''ijai''' || '''xui''' || '''ixui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''jua''' || '''ijua''' || '''aja''' || '''iaja''' || '''xua''' || '''ixua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uji''' || '''iuji''' || '''uje''' || '''iuje''' || '''uxi''' || '''iuxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uju''' || '''iuju''' || '''uja''' || '''iuja''' || '''*uxu''' || '''*iuxu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eju''' || '''eiju''' || '''eja''' || '''eija''' || '''exu''' || '''eixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teji''' || '''teiji''' || '''teje''' || '''teije''' || '''texi''' || '''teixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaiji''' || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuaixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aji''' || '''aiji''' || '''aje''' || '''aije''' || '''axi''' || '''aixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leji''' || '''leiji''' || '''leje''' || '''leije''' || '''lexi''' || '''leixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veji''' || '''veiji''' || '''veje''' || '''veije''' || '''vexi''' || '''veixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oju''' || '''oiju''' || '''oja''' || '''oija''' || '''oxu''' || '''oixu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''mu''' || '''imu''' || '''ma''' || '''ima''' || '''zu''' || '''izu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''mi''' || '''imi''' || '''me''' || '''ime''' || '''zi''' || '''izi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''emi''' || '''iemi''' || '''eme''' || '''ieme''' || '''ezi''' || '''iezi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mui''' || '''imui''' || '''mai''' || '''imai''' || '''zui''' || '''izui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''mua''' || '''imua''' || '''ama''' || '''iama''' || '''zua''' || '''izua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''umi''' || '''iumi''' || '''ume''' || '''iume''' || '''uzi''' || '''iuzi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''umu''' || '''iumu''' || '''uma''' || '''iuma''' || '''*uzu''' || '''*iuzu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''emu''' || '''eimu''' || '''ema''' || '''eima''' || '''ezu''' || '''eizu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''temi''' || '''teimi''' || '''teme''' || '''teime''' || '''tezi''' || '''teizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuami''' || '''kuaimi''' || '''kuame''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuazi''' || '''kuaizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ami''' || '''aimi''' || '''ame''' || '''aime''' || '''azi''' || '''aizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lemi''' || '''leimi''' || '''leme''' || '''leime''' || '''lezi''' || '''leizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vemi''' || '''veimi''' || '''veme''' || '''veime''' || '''vezi''' || '''veizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''omu''' || '''oimu''' || '''oma''' || '''oima''' || '''ozu''' || '''oizu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ANIM Sg. || ANIM Pl. || INAN Sg. || INAN Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''u''' || '''iu''' || '''a''' || '''ia'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''i''' || '''iri''' || '''e''' || '''ie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eri''' || '''ieri''' || '''ere''' || '''iere'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ai''' || '''iai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''iaru''' || '''ara''' || '''iara'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''iuri''' || '''ure''' || '''iure'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''iuru''' || '''ura'''* || '''iura'''*<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu''' || '''era''' || '''eia''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' || '''tere''' || '''teie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' || '''kuare''' || '''kuaie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' || '''are''' || '''aie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' || '''lere''' || '''leie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veri''' || '''veiri''' || '''vere''' || '''veie''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu''' || '''ora''' || '''oia'''<br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> =====Complementisers=====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''jo''' || 'that' || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''ejo''' || 'to the place where' || '''ekio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || *'''uzuo''' || || *'''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vejo''' || 'about V-ing' || '''vekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |}<br /> ::&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Verbals===<br /> <br /> Verbals constitute the only open class of words in Ngolu. They are essentially content words, equivalent to what in other languages are verbs ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''loe''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to sleep' || [NOM] sleeps<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kau''' || 'to eat' || [NOM] eats [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to hunt' (= 'to be a hunter') || [NOM] hunts [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''volo''' || 'to give' || [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mahu''' || 'to know' || [DAT] knows [NOM] = [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ila''' || 'to speak/talk' || [NOM] speaks [ACC]/[INS] (= language) to [DAT]/[COM] about [TOP]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mue''' || 'to be able to' || [NOM] can / is able to […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... nouns ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''iio''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be a fish' || [NOM] is a fish of [GEN] belonging to [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to be a hunter' (= 'to hunt') || [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person<br /> |-<br /> |• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of a different rank)' || [NOM] is a friend of [DAT], lover of [GEN] and concubine of [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ilia''' || 'to be speech/language' || [NOM] is the speech/language of [GEN]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... adjectives ... <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''tta''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be large' || [NOM] is large<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kaiu''' || 'to be edible' ('to be food') || [NOM] is edible to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kuaqa''' || 'to be far/distant' || [NOM] is far from [ABL]/[DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''xeva''' || 'to be visible' (= 'to see') || [NOM is visible to [DAT]; [DAT] sees [NOM]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lau''' || 'to be alive' (= 'to live', 'to be a living being') || [NOM] is alive<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lubi''' || 'to be closed/shut' || [NOM] is closed/shut to [DAT]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... and adverbs.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''jau''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to intentionally ...' || [NOM] is intentionally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mola''' || 'to be merely ...' (= 'to be insignificant') || [NOM] is just/only/merely […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> They are generally thought of as 'content words' but even many grammatical functions are expressed by verbals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''kka''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be not ...' || [NEGATIVE] || [NOM] is not […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hua''' || 'to be always ...', 'to be eternally ...' || [GNOMIC] || [NOM] is eternally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hau''' || 'to be defined by being ...' || [ESSENTIAL] || [NOM] is essentially […] by definition<br /> |-<br /> |• '''he''' || 'to undergo' || [PASSIVE] || [NOM] undergoes […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''eti''' || 'to have previously done ...' || [PAST] || [NOM] did […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Regardless of the verbal's semantic meaning and which part of speech carries the bulk of the meaning when translated into another language, each verbal can be used in the same syntactic positions as any other verbal. All verbals can appear as a predicate, an argument (when preceded by a nominal) or as a modifier to another, preceding verbal. Compare the following two sentences which show how a semantically verb-like verbal, '''gahu''' ('to howl'), and a semantically more noun-like verbal, '''zagua''' ('to be a gibbon') can simply be swapped. Both can appear in the predicate, both can appear in an argument and neither needs to be inflected to take on either role.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{|<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || scope=&quot;col&quot; width=&quot;10&quot; | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''gahu''' || || '''ju''' || '''zagua'''<br /> |-<br /> | howl || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.gibbon<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;howls&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a gibbon&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''The gibbon howls.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |- style=&quot;height: 2em;&quot;<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''zagua''' || || '''ju''' || '''gahu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.gibbon || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is a gibbon&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;howls&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''What howls is a gibbon.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Argument Structure====<br /> <br /> Verbals each have an inherent argument structure, controlling which case are used for which role. Dictionaries, and the examples above, mark the meanings of each relevant case when used with each verbal.<br /> <br /> Many argument structures are as would be expected.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''volo''' = [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> :* '''vuja''' = [NOM] hunts [ACC]; [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]<br /> :* '''akku''' = [NOM] is blood; [NOM] is the blood of [GEN]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volo''' || '''na''' || '''xi''' || '''eje'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to him&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I give it to him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is a tendency for experiencers to be in the dative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''hualo''' = [DAT] loves/cares about [NOM]; [NOM] is loved by [DAT]<br /> :* '''xeva''' = [DAT] sees [NOM]; [NOM] is seen by [DAT]<br /> :* '''zoua''' = [NOM] is difficult for [DAT]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''eni''' || '''ju''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was seen&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I saw the king.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Although that is not always the case, as this pair of opposites shows.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''mahu''' = [DAT] knows [NOM]; [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> :* '''zau''' = [NOM] doesn't know about [TOP]; [NOM] is ignorant of [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mahu''' || '''eni''' || ('''xu''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.1s.ICS || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || (&quot;it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zau''' || '''nu''' || ('''vexi''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || (TOP.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || (&quot;about it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I don't know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also an unusual class of verbals where the nominative role usually refers to a body part, the genitive refers to the possessor and when there is an accusative argument, the whole thing refers to an action performed (with the body part) by the possessor.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bale''' = [NOM] is a fist of [GEN]; [GEN] punches [ACC]<br /> :* '''bane''' = [NOM] is a hand of [GEN]; [GEN] holds, grasps, clutches [ACC]<br /> :* '''buja''' = [NOM] is a heavy boot of [GEN]; [GEN] crushes [ACC] under his boot<br /> :* '''gula''' = [NOM] is the pair of arms of [GEN]; [GEN] hugs [ACC]<br /> :* '''juaza''' = [NOM] is the penis of [GEN]; [GEN] fucks [ACC] (vulgar!)<br /> :* '''kanu''' = [NOM] is the nose of [GEN]; [GEN] sniffs [ACC]<br /> :* '''kula''' = [NOM] is the pair of ears of [GEN]; [GEN] listens to [ACC]<br /> :* '''mama''' = [NOM] is the pair of breasts of [GEN]; [GEN] breast-feeds [ACC]<br /> :* '''miva''' = [NOM] is a finger of [GEN]; [GEN] touches, feels [ACC]<br /> :* '''musari''' = [NOM] is a molar of [GEN]; [GEN] chews [ACC]<br /> :* '''omo''' = [NOM] is the pair of eyes of [GEN]; [GEN] looks at [ACC]<br /> :* '''umakka''' = [NOM] is a tooth (incisor, canine) of [GEN]; [GEN] bites [ACC]<br /> :* '''zuru''' = [NOM] is a war against [ACC]; [GEN] wages war on [ACC]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I have eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xu''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || be.this.1<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is this, here by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''These are my eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xi''' || '''masa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || be.snake<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a snake&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking at the snake'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The verbal '''lama''' is somewhat similar, although it may simply be understood through an idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''lama''' = [NOM] is a tear of [GEN]/[LOC]; [GEN]/[LOC] weeps (silently) about [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lamas''' || '''ana''' || '''teui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is (a) tear(s)&quot; || &quot;at him/her&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The above sentence may also be translated as &quot;There are tears on him/her because of you,&quot; or &quot;S/He has tears because of you,&quot; making it less clear as to whether this is a good example of an apparent non-nominative subject.<br /> <br /> There is a proposed additional place within the argument structure of many verbals, that of a following modifier. A following modifier may mark a specific role which may either be marked by another case or may only be filled by a following modifier. The notation used here indicates a following modifier with […].<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''maue''' = [NOM] is a group of seven […]<br /> :* '''kka''' = [NOM] is not […]<br /> :* '''mia''' = [NOM] approaches [DAT]/[…]<br /> :* '''tehi''' = [NOM] is possibly […]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''mala''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | approach || be.house || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''iju''' || '''exi''' || '''mala''' <br /> |-<br /> | approach || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN || be.house <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;they&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Derivation of Verbals====<br /> <br /> There are two kinds of derivational affixes, one which converts a nominal into a verbal and many others which convert a verbal into another verbal with a different meaning.<br /> <br /> =====Nominal to Verbal=====<br /> All nominals can be converted into a verbal by adding a copula prefix. The copula prefix is '''g-''' before a vowel, '''k''' or '''g''', '''m-''' before '''m''', '''b''' and '''v''', '''l-''' before '''l''' and '''n-''' before all other consonants. The copula prefix essentially prevents a nominal from signalling the start of an argument. Used with the dative or ablative case, the meaning may be interpreted as a verb of motion.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nu''' 'I' [NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}nu''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} me' [COP-NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''eni''' 'to me' [DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}eni''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} to me', '{{color|MediumBlue|to come}} to me' [COP-DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''xu mala''' 'the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xu mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} the house'<br /> :* '''xua mala''' 'at the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xua mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} at the house'<br /> :* '''kuaini''' 'for us' [BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}kuaini''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} for us' [COP-BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> <br /> <br /> Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}nu''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-NOM.1s.ICS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be I&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I{{color|MediumBlue|'m}} me.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}xuas''' || '''azikuo''' || '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.≈school || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a school for adolescent boys&quot; || &quot;s/he&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} not at school.'' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} to me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|l-}}lene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;be with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} with me. / {{color|MediumBlue|Be}} with me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''nini''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}une''' || '''ja''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.mother || COP-GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.this<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be this&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''This is my mother.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Verbal to Verbal=====<br /> <br /> A far more common means of derivation is from verbal to verbal. This is chiefly done by means of infixing although prefixes and suffixes also exist.<br /> <br /> ======Collective======<br /> <br /> The collective infix '''-ig-''' indicates a group of the named entity.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''ala''' 'to be a bird'<br /> ::→ '''al{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}a''' 'to be {{color|MediumBlue|a flock}} of bird{{color|MediumBlue|s}}'<br /> :* '''balu''' 'to be a royal guardsman'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to be the royal guard'<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to eat {{color|MediumBlue|together}}'<br /> :* '''uttia''' 'to be a tree'<br /> ::→ '''ut{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}ia''' 'to be a forest'<br /> <br /> <br /> ======Gerundive======<br /> <br /> The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something. The accusative role is promoted to the nominative role, as with the passive construction with '''he''', but in addition the assertion is made that this is a good or customary use for the referent in question.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''huna''' 'to drink'<br /> ::→ '''hun{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a''' 'to be (fresh) water', 'to be potable', 'to be drinkable' (to be something to be drunk)<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular)<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular)<br /> :* '''jalo''' 'to welcome', 'to receive', 'to accept (into a place)'<br /> ::→ '''jal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a guest' (one who is to be welcomed)<br /> :* '''asu''' 'to be seated', 'to be sitting'<br /> ::→ '''a{{color|MediumBlue|x}}u''' 'to be a chair', 'to be a seat' (to be something to be sat on) [''*asiu'' → ''axu'']<br /> :* '''ila''' 'to speak', 'to talk'<br /> ::→ '''il{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a'''' 'to be language' (to be something to be spoken)<br /> :* '''zoi''' 'to say', 'to tell'<br /> ::→ '''zo{{color|MediumBlue|j}}i''' 'to be worth saying', 'to be fitting/appropriate' (to be something to be said) [''*zoii'' → ''zoji'']<br /> :* '''go''' 'to do something', 'to act'<br /> ::→ '''g{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a duty', 'to be an obligation', 'to be a good idea' (to be something to be done)<br /> :* '''mue''' 'to be able', 'to be capable'<br /> ::→ '''m{{color|MediumBlue|i}}ue''' 'to be a required skill' (to be something that someone should be able to do)<br /> :* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes'; (with genitive subject) 'to look at'<br /> ::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at)<br /> :* '''bale''' 'to be a fist'; (with genitive subject) 'to punch'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}e''' 'to be punchable', 'to have a punchable face' (to be one who ought to be punched, a common pejorative word)<br /> :* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', (with genitive subject) 'to crush under a boot'<br /> ::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot) [''*bujia'' → ''buji'']<br /> :* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter'<br /> ::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted) [''*vujia'' → ''vuji'']<br /> <br /> ======Locative======<br /> <br /> The prefix '''a-''' indicates being at a particular place.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''tio''' 'to be that'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}tio''' 'to be there' (≈ 'to be at that')<br /> :* '''mala''' 'to be a house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}mala''' 'to be at home' (≈ 'to be at house')<br /> <br /> ======Ornative======<br /> <br /> The ornative prefix '''o-''' indicates having or being equipped with something.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bani''' 'to be money'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money')<br /> :* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with room(s)')<br /> :* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair')<br /> :* '''ulu''' 'to be muscle'<br /> ::→ '''u{{color|MediumBlue|o}}lu''' 'to be muscular' (≈ 'to be with muscle', with metathesis turning /ou/ into /uo/)<br /> <br /> ====Verbals with inherent gender / rank distinctions====<br /> <br /> Many verbals semantically encode gender within their meaning. In some cases, there are pairs of words, such as the following.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nini''' 'to be a mother / aunt'<br /> :* '''nana''' 'to be a father / uncle'<br /> <br /> <br /> In this instance, the divide along genders is easy for non-Ngolu to conceptualise. However many other concepts are also divided by gender, or, more accurately, rank, and this frequently has to do with the Ngolu's strict cultural taboos around gender and rank. For example, Ngolu men and women are expected to sing, dance, dress and urinate differently.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''laha''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''kali'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''lasa''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''kali'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''miia''' 'to wear' (of a ''kali'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''kele''' 'to urinate' (of a ''kali'', to urinate while sitting or squatting)<br /> <br /> :* '''uaie''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''muja'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''bata''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''muja'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''uara''' 'to wear' (of a ''muja'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''zatu''' 'to urinate' (of a ''muja'', to urinate while standing)<br /> <br /> <br /> In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank.<br /> <br /> Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha''' ('to fight physically'), '''aiuo''' ('to shoot').<br /> <br /> Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word.<br /> <br /> Verbals may also specify the gender/rank of an argument other than the nominal. For example, the word ''bale'' means 'to be a fist', specifying a ''muja'' in the role of the genitive possessor. Similarly, items of clothing specific to one gender can only appear with possessors in the corresponding gender.<br /> <br /> When a subject (or another argument) does not match the gender/rank specified in the verbal, there must be paraphrasing. There are generally two ways this is done, with '''ko''' and with '''hui'''.<br /> <br /> =====Ko=====<br /> <br /> '''Ko''' is a verbal meaning 'to be similar'. It can be placed before a gendered verbal when the subject (or other relevant argument) does not match. For example, the word for ''enemy'' is '''uako'''. It is a ''muja'' verb, perhaps best translated as 'to be a ''muja'' enemy'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.enemy || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is no direct equivalent for a ''kali'' who is an enemy. To express the idea of a ''kali'' being an enemy, what is essentially said is &quot;S/he is ''like'' an enemy.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.similar || be.enemy.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be.like&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The closest analogue in English would be with words such as 'midwife', which has no easy male equivalent. In Ngolu, it is as though one simply says 'He's like a midwife.' Similarly, in the following example, there is no word equivalent to a woman's fist, only a man's fist. Therefore, she made something ''like'' a man's fist.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''li''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|bale}}''' || '''uji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || begin || be.similar || be.MUJA.fist || GEN.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;start&quot; || &quot;be like&quot; || &quot;be a (man's) fist&quot; || &quot;of the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She made {{color|MediumBlue|a fist}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Hui=====<br /> <br /> '''Hui''' is similar to '''ko''' except it is filled with contempt and criticism. It is a verbal which could be translated as 'to shamefully break gender taboos by approximating |…|'. There is essentially no grammatical difference between '''ko''' and '''hui''' - the former is simply neutral and the later conveys strong condemnation of breaking taboos.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || sing.KALI<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;sing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|There's a man (shamefully) trying to sing like a woman}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ttio}}''' || '''ju''' || '''je'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || strike || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him/her.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Particles and Grammatical Affixes===<br /> <br /> Particles are words which cannot be classified as either nominals or verbals. Most of them are equivalent to conjunctions, introducing clauses. In many cases, the line between verb and particle is a little blurred and difficult to find and research is still ongoing.<br /> <br /> ====''Au''====<br /> <br /> ====''Au'' and ''teu''====<br /> <br /> '''Au''' and '''teu''' are used to order the events multiple clause sentence. '''Au''' introduces the clause in which the first action took place and is thus roughly equivalent to 'first' or 'after' whereas '''teu''' introduces a later action and is thus equivalent to 'then' or 'before'. They are usually used as correlative conjunctions, with both present in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | first;after|| eat || NOM.1s.ICS || second;before || sleep || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|First}} I ate, {{color|MediumBlue|then}} I slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I ate {{color|MediumBlue|before}} I slept.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|After}} I ate, I slept.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The order of the clauses can be reversed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | second/before || sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Before}} I slept, I ate.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Sometimes the first of the two conjunctions is omitted.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''— [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept, {{color|MediumBlue|but first}}, I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> '''Au''' is also a verbal occasionally used to mean &quot;to be first&quot;, however in this usage it has mostly been replaced by the regular '''tahu'''.<br /> <br /> ====''Ha''====<br /> <br /> '''Ha''' forms polar (yes/no) questions. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Polar_Questions|Polar Questions]]<br /> <br /> It also introduces the protasis of realis conditional sentences, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Hai''====<br /> <br /> '''Hai''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Haizuo''====<br /> <br /> '''Haizuo''' is an emphatic form of '''hai'''. It introduces the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''I-''====<br /> <br /> The clitic particle '''i-''' appears on the beginning of any part of the predicate when it is preceded in a sentence by any non-predicate element. For example, in the following sentence, '''hu mala''' is the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''mala''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || be.house || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Topicalised arguments can be brought forward in the sentence to before the verb phrase. The verb phrase must now be marked with '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;As for me&lt;/u&gt;, I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The predicate phrase can even be split, with arguments appearing inside it.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;I&lt;/u&gt;'m going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In extreme cases, there can even be more than one split in a predicate phrase, with '''i-''' necessary each time the predicate is resumed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''leuis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || COM.2s.ICS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I want to go home with you.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Of that last example, the normal word order would be '''bio hu mala na leui'''.<br /> <br /> When added to words beginning with a syllabic '''i''', the prefix '''i-''' becomes '''j-''' ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|j}}-iio'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.this.1 || PRED-be.fish<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be this&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''This, well, this is a fish!'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... but before a non-syllabic '''i''', it remains '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''omo''' || '''g-unis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}iaha'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3S.DEF.INAN || be.pair.of.eyes || COP-GEN.1s.ICS || PRED-be.painful<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;hurt&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''As for my eyes, they're sore.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Lo''====<br /> <br /> '''Lo''' appears to be a short form of the comitative complementiser '''lejo'''. It introduces an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> ====''Mie''====<br /> <br /> ====''Teuo''====<br /> <br /> ====''To''====<br /> <br /> ''To'' generally introduces consequences. It often roughly means 'so' or 'therefore'. In these cases, it may replaced by the more emphatic '''toua'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ba''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(ua)}}''' || '''ka''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''muanaiti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || rain || therefore || be.PROS || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.stream<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;so&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be stream&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''It's raining hard, so the streams are going to swell.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is used in conjunction with '''ha''' (and sometimes '''hai''' or '''haizuo''') to form conditional clauses where it introduces the apodosis. See [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]] for examples.<br /> <br /> It is also frequently used to replace '''i-''' in introducing a main clause after a subordinate clause other than a conditional clause.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''enio'''<br /> |-<br /> | LOC.TEMP.C || rain || then || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.plant<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;when&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be plant&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|When}} it rains{{color|MediumBlue|, (then)}} the plants grow.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Toi''====<br /> <br /> '''Toi''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Toua''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xe''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xue''====<br /> <br /> ===Interjections===<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> <br /> ===Phrase Structure===<br /> <br /> ====Verbal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A verbal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL ...]]]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> When multiple verbals are stacked one after the other, the head is on the left and modifiers on the right.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a large house / are large houses''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jiio''' || '''ttiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | run || be.quick<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;run&quot; || &quot;be fast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''runs quickly / run quickly''<br /> ''is a fast runner / are fast runners''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''hunts birds / hunt birds''<br /> ''is a bird hunter / are bird hunters''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In many cases, verbals with more grammatical than semantic content are followed by much more semantically rich modifying verbals. In these cases, the preceding words are nevertheless heads and the following words modifiers.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bas''' || '''ali''' || '''g-eji''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || be.friend.(of.the.same.sex) || COP-DAT.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;be friend&quot; || &quot;be to inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;be the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a good friend / are good friends of the king''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''huna'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || drink<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;drink&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''drank / has drunk / have drunk''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''toto''' || '''kas''' || '''euo''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.really || be.PROS || be.pair || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be in fact&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''are actually going to be two big ones''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''buua''' || '''tio''' || '''vaxu''' || '''zara'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.on.top.of || be.that.3 || be.table || write<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be one top of&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot; || &quot;be a table&quot; || &quot;write&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''is / are on top of that desk over there''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Each complex verbal phrase comprised of more than one verbal has its own case structure which defines how the cases are used in a sentence. The case structure is determined by the rightmost verbal which shares the same nominative argument as the leftmost verbal in the phrase.<br /> <br /> $$$$$$$ [examples to come]<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A nominal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''NOMINAL [VERBAL PHRASE]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> An unadorned nominal on its own functions as a pronoun.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''he'', ''she''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''its''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> Adorned nominal phrases consist of a nominal followed by a verbal phrase. In this case, the nominal acts as the head of a relative clause in which the verbal phrase sits.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju''' || '''xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || execute<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;execute&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the executioner''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi''' || '''tukaue'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.collar.indicating.the.owner.of.a.slave<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a slave's collar&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''of the slave's collar''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Structure===<br /> <br /> With unmarked word order, a clause generally has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''[PARTICLE] PREDICATE [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] ...'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> A &lt;tt&gt;'''PREDICATE'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a verbal phrase and an &lt;tt&gt;'''ARGUMENT'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a nominal phrase or a subordinate clause.<br /> <br /> In many cases, one or more arguments may precede the predicate or may even appear in the middle of the predicate, dividing it into two or more pieces.<br /> <br /> Unmarked word order:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental)<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau''' || '''azi''' || '''akuala''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; || &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''I ate food with a knife.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted, nominal argument partially fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || Pred... || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || ...icate || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''nu''' || '''i-kau''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || NOM.1s.ICS || eat || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Predicate-Only Clauses====<br /> <br /> The simplest clauses in Ngolu consist of nothing but a verbal or a verbal phrase used as the predicate. There are no obligatory arguments in Ngolu and all may be omitted from the clause and left to context, even the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's raining. / It rains.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's good.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> A verbal with no arguments indicates an activity or state without specifying the identity of any participants. Essentially, Ngolu is a pro-drop language. With prior context, omitted arguments can be understood as referring to someone or something already discussed. With no prior context, however, verbal-only sentences are simply understood with a &quot;someone or something&quot; as the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kau'''<br /> |-<br /> | eat<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;eats&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He, she or it is eating. (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Something or someone is eating.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He or it is hunting. / He or it is a hunter.'' (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''Something or someone is hunting. / There's a hunter.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Simple declarative or existential statements are frequently verbal-only.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.fire<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a fire&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's a fire. / There's a fire. / Fire!''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====One-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Multi-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Subordinate Clauses====<br /> <br /> =====Complementiser Clauses=====<br /> <br /> =====Adverbial Clauses=====<br /> <br /> Adverbial clauses are introduced by the particle '''lo''', which may be derived from '''lejo''', the comitative case of the copula 'zuo'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''lo''' || '''juo''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | want || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ADV || be.outside || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be outside&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to eat outside.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Relative Clauses=====<br /> <br /> ===Topic and Focus===<br /> <br /> ===Affirmation and Negation===<br /> <br /> The verbals '''ahe''' and '''kka''' indicate polarity, being positive and negative respectively. On their own, they are roughly equivalent to 'yes' and 'no'. <br /> <br /> Positive sentences are generally unmarked and '''ahe''' generally appears only for emphasis.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || '''bo''' || '''xu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.indeed || be.wanted || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;be wanted&quot; || &quot;the thing&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|do}} want it.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation is performed by means of '''kka'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xua''' || '''uttia'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be tree&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''S/He{{color|MediumBlue|'s not}} at the tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''mula''' || '''ju''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.liked || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be liked&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|don't}} like him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> After a negative question or statement, '''ahe''' indicates a contradictory, positive answer whereas '''kka''' indicates a negative answer in agreement.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.not || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be.not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Is{{color|MediumBlue|n't}} it raining?''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.indeed || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be indeed&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Yes, it is}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.not || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be not&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No, it's not}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation (as well as affirmation) is generally performed in the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''xeva''' || '''ju''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|eri}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.seen || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;to anyone who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No one else}} saw her.'' (Literally: ''{{color|MediumBlue|Anyone else didn't}} see her.'')<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> To negate or affirm an argument, it is placed within an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || '''los''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''ahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV || be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV || be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Both '''kka''' and '''ahe''' have equivalent adverbial forms, '''kku''' and '''lahe''' respectively, which do not require the use of '''lo''' when negating or affirming an argument. The previous sentence may be expressed as follows.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kku}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV.be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV.be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Interrogation===<br /> <br /> ====Polar Questions====<br /> <br /> Polar questions are indicated with '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} raining{{color|MediumBlue|?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Do}} you love me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Ha''' can occur at the end of a sentence, where it functions as a question tag.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | rain || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot; || Q<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''It's raining, {{color|MediumBlue|isn't it?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;?&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''You love me, {{color|MediumBlue|don't you?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Individual arguments in a sentence may be called into question by placing them inside an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]] introduced by '''lo'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} me who you love{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''na''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || ADV || Q || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} you who loves me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Alternative Questions====<br /> <br /> Alternative questions use two or more instances of '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Bio''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''kau''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''huna''' || '''vu'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || Q || eat || Q || drink || NOM.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;or&quot; || &quot;drink&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''Would you like anything to {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} eat {{color|MediumBlue|or}} drink{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Xevu''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ja''' || '''mahu''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ju''' || '''laiuiie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mahu || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Laiuiie<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Mahu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Laiuiie&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''Have you seen {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} Mahu {{color|MediumBlue|or}} Laiuiie{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Content Questions====<br /> <br /> ====Embedded Questions====<br /> <br /> Any type of question may be embedded inside a complementiser phrase.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Zau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ti''' || '''uaizue''' || '''ji''' || '''tavi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || TOP.C || Q || be.PRF || find || ACC.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.child<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;about that&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || be.PRF || &quot;find&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I don't know {{color|MediumBlue|if}} the child has been found.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Voice===<br /> <br /> ===Time===<br /> <br /> Marking of time (tense and aspect) is not obligatory in Ngolu and may always be left up to context. For our purposes here, we shall not distinguish between actions (e.g. ''kill'') and states (e.g. ''want'', ''be a house'') as temporal marking is identical for both. The word ''action'' will be used henceforth and should be understood to mean &quot;action or state&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Relative tenses====<br /> When time needs to be indicated, it is most often done by means of a verbal indicating a &quot;relative tense&quot; (aspect). These are relative to a contextually understood time in question, the &quot;reference time&quot;. The three basic &quot;relative tense&quot; markers are ... <br /> <br /> <br /> *'''ti''' &quot;perfect&quot; (PRF), indicating an action that occurred before the reference time<br /> *'''zo''' &quot;progressive&quot; (PROG), indicating an action underway at the reference time<br /> *'''ka''' &quot;prospective (PROS), indicating an action occurring after the reference time<br /> <br /> <br /> By default, the reference is the present, the time in which the utterance is made. However, if another time is contextually understood, any of these may refer to events in the past, present or future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|zo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROG || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be underway&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Absolute tenses====<br /> The prefix '''e-''' attached to the beginning of any of these aspect markers creates an absolute tense marker. The '''e-''' sets the reference time to the current moment in which the utterance is made. This is usually only used to disambiguate or to emphasise a time frame.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''eti''' &quot;past&quot; (PST), indicating an action that occurred in the past<br /> *'''ezo''' &quot;present&quot; (PRES), indicating an action underway in the present<br /> *'''eka''' &quot;future (FUT), indicating an action that will occur in the future<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be earlier&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRES || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Continuation====<br /> There are also compounds formed from two time words that indicate continuation from one time frame to another using a linking ''-e-''. This linking ''-e-'' is probably not related to the ''e-'' of absolute temporal reference, but to the ''e-'' prefix of dative case nominals and the derivation prefix ''e-'' that can be added to verbals indicating motion towards something.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''tiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that starting before the reference time and continuing up to it<br /> *'''zueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action continuing from the reference time and extending to a later time<br /> *'''etiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that started in the past and continues to the present<br /> *'''ezueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action that starts in the present and will continue into the future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezos}}''' || '''oila''' || '''na''' || '''xiies''' || '''oge'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF.PROG|| read || NOM.1S.ACS || ACC.3S.DEF.INAN.PROX || be.book<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have been doing&quot; || &quot;read&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;this thing which&quot; || &quot;is a book&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|have been}} read{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} this book.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Perfective and imperfective====<br /> In addition, the word '''bie''' contrasts with '''zo'''. Whereas '''zo''' specifies that an action is underway at the reference time, essentially taking a &quot;snapshot&quot; of the interior of an action, after its beginning and before its completion, '''bie''' specifies perfectivity, metaphorically painting a picture of the whole completed action without permitting a look inside. On its own, it does not specify whether the completed action occurs before or after the reference time, but it does explicitly specify that the action is ''not'' underway at the reference time. <br /> <br /> Both ''bie'' and ''zo'' may be suffixed to other verbals indicating time in order to explicitly distinguish the imperfective (progressive) aspect from the perfective aspect, while also specifying time.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfectivity:<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | imperfective (progressive)<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfective<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | bie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | relative time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kabie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | absolute time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekabie<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Note that '''zo''' appears twice in the table although it really only has one function; it specifies an action underway at the reference time (i.e. concurrent with it), which itself may be unspecified.<br /> <br /> The reduplicated forms '''zozo''' ('these days', 'in those days') and '''ezozo''' ('these days') do not appear in the above table as they indicate a loosening of the bounds of the reference time or current time. The reference or current time can be tightened or emphasised with '''bazo''' ('right now', 'right then', 'at that/this very moment') or '''ebazo''' ('right now', 'at this very moment').<br /> <br /> ====Resultative perfect====<br /> The word '''bue''' indicates a ''resultative perfect'', functioning similarly to '''ti''' in that it describes an action occurring prior to the reference time, however the focus of '''bue''' is not on the action itself, but on the resulting post-action state at the reference time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|bue}}''' || '''kaxa''' || '''xu''' || '''giloxuo'''<br /> |-<br /> | RES.PRF|| break(INTR) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || window.pane<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is in the resulting state&quot; || &quot;break&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a window pane&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''The window {{color|MediumBlue|is}} br{{color|MediumBlue|o}}k{{color|MediumBlue|en}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bue''' is frequently prefixed to the following word (for example ''buekaxa'' instead of ''bue kaxa''). Its passive equivalent '''hi-''' is always prefixed.<br /> <br /> ====Time word stacking====<br /> More than one time word can be used together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT|| be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will&quot; || &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST|| be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;will&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> These are usually compounded together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekati}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|etika}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST-PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Distance from reference time====<br /> The precise distance from the reference time can be indicated using adverbial clauses with '''lo''' followed by the unit of time, '''(e)ti''' or '''(e)ka''' and an ordinal number, which begins with ''t-''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''zaxa''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teuo}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.ill || ADV || be.year || be.PRF || be.second<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;becomes&quot; || &quot;is ill&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;is earlier&quot; || &quot;is second&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he fell ill {{color|MediumBlue|two years before/ago}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> This sentence could be translated somewhat more literally as &quot;S/he fell ill while there was the second previous year.&quot; Note that replacing '''ti''' with '''eti''' would force the interpretation with &quot;ago&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || Bie || bilo || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tahu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PFV || die || ADV || be.month || be.PROS || be.first<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is completed&quot; || &quot;dies&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;is about to&quot; || &quot;is first&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he died {{color|MediumBlue|one month later}}. / S/he will die {{color|MediumBlue|in one month}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A more literally translation could be &quot;S/he died while there was the second coming year.&quot; Note again that replacing '''ka''' with '''eka''' would force the interpretation with &quot;in one month&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment. <br /> <br /> In the following example, in which a duration is specified rather than a specific time, the adverbial clause contains only the length of time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS || ADV || be.five || be.year<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another means of conveying the same information is to place the time specifiers after the tense or aspect marker and then introducing the rest of the sentence with '''to'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''li''' || '''zaxa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || be.two || be.year || thus || begin || be.ill<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become&quot; || &quot;be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Two years ago,}} s/he fell ill.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || ... || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''bilo'''<br /> |-<br /> | || be.going.to || be.one || be.month || thus || die<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;is going to&quot; || &quot;is one&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;die&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|One month later,}} s/he died.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.five || be.year || thus || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Miscellaneous time words====<br /> There are a range of other verbals which indicate time in a similar way. Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> ''Days''<br /> * '''ariu''' &quot;yesterday&quot;<br /> * '''aku''' &quot;today&quot;<br /> * '''anu''' &quot;tomorrow&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Lighting''<br /> * '''auo''' &quot;by day&quot;<br /> * '''eio''' &quot;by night&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Distance in time''<br /> * '''ttie''' / '''ettie''' &quot;just&quot; (similar to '''ti''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''tieka''' / '''etieka''' &quot;about to&quot; (similar to '''ka''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''ti ti''' / '''eti ti''' &quot;a long time ago&quot; (reduplication for distance into the past)<br /> * '''ka ka''' / '''eka ka''' &quot;eventually&quot; (reduplication for distance into the future)<br /> <br /> ''Other aspectual differences''<br /> * '''hua''' &quot;always&quot;, &quot;permanently&quot; [gnomic]<br /> * '''niu''' &quot;habitually&quot; [habitual]<br /> * '''guegue''' &quot;repeatedly&quot;, &quot;again and again&quot; [iterative]<br /> * '''egue''' &quot;again&quot;<br /> * '''tara''' &quot;suddenly&quot;<br /> * '''li''' &quot;starts&quot;, &quot;begins&quot;, &quot;commences&quot;<br /> * '''bi''' &quot;stops&quot;, &quot;ceases&quot;<br /> * '''ligue''' &quot;resumes&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Demonstratives===<br /> <br /> Demonstratives distinguish three degrees of distance associated with the three grammatical persons.<br /> <br /> * '''''tie''''' 'this' or 'these' near the speaker [1st person - proximal]<br /> * '''''tia''''' 'that' or 'those' near the listener [2nd person - medial]<br /> * '''''tio''''' 'that' or 'those' away from both speaker and listener [3rd person - distal]<br /> <br /> When speaking to someone of the same or higher rank and referring to the something that is close to both speaker and listener (such as a house that both are inside), the 2nd person '''''tia''''' 'that' is used. Only persons of higher rank may use the first person form '''''tie''''' in such situations.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.MED || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.PROX || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The association between the grammatical persons and the demonstratives is strong, with words, statements and actions made by a person frequently being referred to using the appropriate demonstrative. For example, a commonly used phrase for &quot;therefore&quot; is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}'' (literally 'because of this (by me)') when the reasoning is based on what the speaker just said, but when the reasoning is based on what their interlocutor just said, this phrase is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}'' (literally 'because of that (by you)').<br /> <br /> ====Contractions====<br /> <br /> The demonstrative verbals '''''tie''''', '''''tia''''' and '''''tio''''' form very common contractions with third person definite nominals, transforming the above examples as follows:<br /> <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tia}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}} mala''''' 'this house' / 'that house' (by you) <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tie}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}} mala''''' 'this house' (by me)<br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what I said' <br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what you said' <br /> <br /> Here is a table of forms:<br /> <br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Proximal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Medial || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Distal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Proximal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''|| '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Medial || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Distal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Proximal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Medial || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Distal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Proximal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Medial || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Distal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Proximal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Medial || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Distal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Proximal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Medial || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Distal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Proximal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Medial || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Distal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Proximal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Medial || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Distal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Proximal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Medial || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Distal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Proximal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Medial || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Distal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Proximal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Medial || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Distal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Proximal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Medial || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Distal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Proximal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Medial || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Distal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Essive Proximal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Medial || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Distal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Location===<br /> <br /> ===Movement===<br /> <br /> Movement is expressed in a variety of ways in Ngolu. <br /> <br /> One of the most common methods for talking about movement is using the words '''hu''' and '''mia'''. There is no distinction between coming and going but rather a distinction between the perfective '''hu''', meaning 'come' or 'go', and the imperfective '''mia''', 'be one one's way', 'be coming', 'be going'. The destination may be indicated by a subsequent modifying verbal or by a dative argument. The origin is indicated by an ablative argument.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nu''' || '''exi''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || NOM.1s.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|mia}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.IPFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be on the way&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|'m going / on my way}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || move.PFV || ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Please {{color|MediumBlue|get}} away from me.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another method for expressing movement is to affix the copula prefix '''g-''', '''m-''', '''n-''' to a dative or ablative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-exi}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to you&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'll {{color|MediumBlue|come to you}}.'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Get away from me}}!'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The third way to express movement is to use an inceptive (inchoative) morpheme in conjunction with a word indicating location. For example, the verbal '''xa''' means 'to be inside' and the verbal '''atio''' means 'to be there (away from us)' - adding the infix '''-in-''' (perfective inceptive) or '''-ij-''' (imperfective inceptive) gives '''xina''' ('to go in', 'to enter') and '''xija''' ('to be on the way in'), '''atinio''' ('to go there') and '''atijo''' ('to be on the way there'). The free standing verbal '''li''' ('to begin, start, commence') may also be used, with '''li xa''' and '''li atio''' being equivalent to '''xina''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xina}}''' || '''iju''' || '''i-oba''' || '''loe'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || enter.PFV || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || PRED-be.room || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;enter&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible ones&quot; || &quot;be room&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''They {{color|MediumBlue|went into}} the bedroom.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bios''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|atinio}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || go.there.3 || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''S/He wants {{color|MediumBlue|to go there}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The inceptive infixes are frequently used with the verbals denoting location in the four cardinal directions: '''la''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' ('to be in the east', 'to be in the west', 'to be in the north', 'to be in the south' respectively) creating the perfective forms '''lina''', '''tina''', '''ginio''' and '''vino''' and the imperfective forms '''lija''', '''tija''', '''gijo''' and '''vijo'''. Direction within Qu, with its noticeable tube shape (with 'east/west' pointing along the tube and 'north/south' going around the circumference), is a much more salient feature than on Earth and referencing direction with motion is common. In certain circumstances, describing movement without reference to direction is regarded as too imprecise, such as when men are discussing hunting in the forest where there may be no obvious landmarks to identify as the destination of a movement.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''La''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' may be used to modify another verb of motion with or without taking an inceptive infix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|lina}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|gio}}''' || '''inais''' || '''ixi''' || '''vaku'''<br /> |-<br /> | go.east.PFV || be.in.the.north || ABL.1p.ACS || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.babirusa<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go east&quot; || &quot;be in the north&quot; || &quot;from us&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be babirusa&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''The babirusas {{color|MediumBlue|moved (east)-northeast}} away from us.'' — '''muja''' [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Additionally, there is yet another prefix '''e-''' which may be related to the '''e-''' prefix at the beginning of nominals in the dative case. Words with this prefix indicate perfective movement and include '''etie''' ('to come here') '''etia''' ('to go/come there/here by you') and '''etio''' ('to go there'). These words are slightly more commonly used than their equivalents '''atinie''', '''atinia''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> ===Causes===<br /> <br /> ===Goals===<br /> <br /> ===Conditionals===<br /> <br /> Conditional sentences in Ngolu use particles to indicate the condition clause (protasis) and the result clause (apodosis). These particles differ depending on whether the condition is possible (realis) or hypothetical (irrealis).<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''PROTASIS'' || ''APODOSIS''<br /> |-<br /> | ''REALIS'' || '''ha''' || '''to'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''IRREALIS'' || '''hai''' &lt;br&gt; '''haizuo''' (emphatic) || '''toi''' &lt;br&gt; '''to''' (possible only when apodosis clause appears second)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Realis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''anu''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''kka''' || '''vuja''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | if || be.tomorrow || rain || then || be.not || hunt.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if&quot; || &quot;be tomorrow&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} it rains tomorrow, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} he won't hunt.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ('''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''') || '''ttio''' || '''nu''' || '''ue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''vai''' || '''tiaia'''<br /> |-<br /> | (then) || hit || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.2s.ACS || if || stay || do.that.2<br /> |-<br /> | (&quot;then&quot;) || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;if&quot; || &quot;keep&quot; || &quot;do that which you are doing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I'll hit you {{color|MediumBlue|if}} you keep doing that.'' — '''muja''' [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Irrealis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''g-ua''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(i)}}''' || '''hales''' || '''eji''' || '''jo''' || '''nio'''|| '''mo'''<br /> |-<br /> | if.IRR || be-NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ACS || then.(would) || ask || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.C || happen || be.what<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;imagine if&quot; || &quot;be you&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then (would)&quot; || &quot;ask&quot; || &quot;(to) the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;happen&quot; || &quot;be what&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} you, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} I{{color|MediumBlue|'d}} ask him/her what happened.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || '''obani'''<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;stop&quot; || &quot;work&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || &quot;be more&quot; || &quot;be rich&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|would}} stop working, {{color|MediumBlue|if}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} richer.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''ti''' || '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''leui''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || ('''ti''') || '''mahu''' || ('''xu''') || ('''ene''')<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || be.PRF || move || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ICS || if.IRR || (be.PRF) || be.known || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN) || (DAT.1s.ACS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;move&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || (&quot;be finished&quot;) || &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''I would have come with you if I had known that.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Numbers===<br /> <br /> ===Quantity===<br /> <br /> ===Degree===<br /> <br /> ===Comparison===<br /> <br /> ==Pragmatics==<br /> <br /> ===Social Stratification and Language Use===<br /> <br /> Ngolu society is heavily stratified into five social divisions. These social divisions, or strata, are hierarchical and from highest to lowest are as follows.<br /> <br /> * 5. ''ju '''taqu''''' - the king<br /> * 4. ''iju '''balu''''' - the king's men<br /> * 3. ''iju '''muja''''' - initiated men<br /> * 2. ''iju '''kali''''' - free citizens<br /> * 1. ''iju '''tuva''''' - slaves and prisoners (''ixu tuva'' in the speech of '''muja''', '''balu''' and '''taqu''')<br /> <br /> Language use is, to a large extent, determined by the strata of the speaker, addressee and third person referents.<br /> <br /> ===Speech Crime===<br /> <br /> [[Category:Languages]]<br /> [[Category:Conlangs]]</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Iliaqu&diff=295772 2023-01-26T02:09:59Z

<p>Imralu: /* Vocative */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Iliaqu<br /> |nativename = iliaqu<br /> |pronunciation = [ìʎàʔú]<br /> |region = Qu<br /> |ethnicity = Ngolu / Ilaqu<br /> |speakers = {{formatnum:100,000}}<br /> |setting = [[Verse:Qu|Qu]]<br /> |fam1 = Language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2013-2020<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> {{infobox|bg=#F2DC77|native=iliaqu|in=Qu|no=100,000 (approx.)|tree=Isolate (as far as known)|wo=VSO|morph=Isolating/futional|ms=Nominative-Accusative|creator=[[User:Imralu|Imralu]]|date=2013-2014}}<br /> <br /> '''Iliaqu''' (IPA: /ˌɪljəˈʔuː/), also known as '''Ngolu''' or sometimes '''Qu''' (endonym: ''iliaqu'' IPA: [ìʎàʔú]) is a language isolate spoken throughout the known regions of the space habitat [[Verse:Qu|Qu]] by the Ngolu people, whose number is estimated to be around 100,000. As the Ngolu are almost entirely monolingual, and while voluntary travel to and from Qu remains impossible, the language is not in any danger of extinction. At this stage, little is known of dialect differences within Qu. There are estimated to be somewhere between 50 and 100 Iliaqu speakers on Earth who have simply mysteriously appeared in various locations. Small communities of Ngolu speakers been brought or have found their way together, the most well-known and well-studied of which is a group of about 15 living in and around Berlin, Germany.<br /> <br /> Iliaqu is an isolating/fusional, head-initial (right-branching) language with VSO word order and nominative-accusative alignment. Verbs (verbals) make up the only open class of word, with nouns (nominals) constituting a closed class of heavily fusional words that fill the roll of pronouns and articles in other languages, marking grammatical person, number, definiteness and specificity, gender, accessibility, and case.<br /> <br /> ==Terminology==<br /> There appear to have been fewer than ten isolated instances of non-Ngolu people arriving in Qu and there are no other cultures or languages known to exist in Qu. In such a linguistically and culturally homogenous environment, the Ngolu have had no need for endonyms for their culture, people or language. Traditionally, they have described their language simply as '''ilia''' [ìʎá] 'speech', themselves as '''golu''' [ŋòlú] 'people', and their world as '''qu''' [ʔú] 'world'. <br /> <br /> With the new knowledge of other cultures and the entire universe outside of Qu, neologisms have arisen to distinguish their language and their people from those of the outsiders. For the Ngolu arrivals Earth, contact with other cultures has forced them to acknowledge that the other languages they hear must have the ability to convey information just as their language. Consequently, on Earth, the word '''ilia''' generally refers to any language. To disambiguate their own language, they may call it '''ilia qu''' [ìʎáʔú] or '''iliaqu''' [ìʎàʔú] 'Qu speech'. Non-Ngolu are still referred to as '''taia''' ('ghost', 'demon') and Earth maybe referred to as '''utaia''' [ùtàjá] 'ghost world' or a loan word such as '''hiia''', which was common among the Berlin group (from German ''hier'') although it now seems to be dying out in favour of '''utaia'''. With the acknowledgement that non-Ngolu people are also people and the consequent expansion of the term '''golu''' to include non-Ngolu, the term '''goqu''' [ŋòʔú] ('Qu people', formed by adding the human prefix '''go-''' to the word '''qu''') is gaining ground and may be contrasted with '''taia''' or '''goutaia''' [ŋòu̯tàjá].<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !VOWELS<br /> !Front<br /> !Central<br /> !Back<br /> |-<br /> !High<br /> |'''i''' ‹i›<br /> |<br /> |'''u''' ‹u›<br /> |-<br /> !Mid<br /> |'''e''' ‹e›<br /> |<br /> |'''o''' ‹o›<br /> |-<br /> !Low<br /> |<br /> |'''a''' ‹a›<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Each vowel may be 'strong' or 'weak'. These are essentially stressed and unstressed. There is only ever one 'strong' vowel per word and it is nearly always the final vowel. Where it is not, it is always the penultimate vowel and the in that case the final vowel is always /i/ or /u/. Non-final strong vowels are indicated in the romanisation using an acute accent, ‹áéíóú›.<br /> <br /> The realisation of strong vowels varies across accents. There appears to be a cline ranging from a pitch-based pronunciation to a weight-based pronunciation (used chiefly by men). At the pitch-based end of the spectrum, 'strong' vowels are pronounced with a high tone and 'weak' vowels with a low-tone. At the end of a non-interrogative utterance, a high-tone becomes a falling tone. At the end of a question, a high tone may be lengthened and/or undergo an additional rise. At the weight-based extreme, strong vowels cause gemination of the following consonant but are pronounced as long themselves when the following sound is (1) a vowel, (2) a consonant cluster or (3) an already geminated consonant. Utterance finally, strong vowels are generally neither pronounced with a high tone nor lengthened but are usually pronounced slightly louder. <br /> <br /> The high vowels, /i/ and /u/, when 'weak' and adjacent to another vowel are pronounced non-syllabically as [i̯~j] and [u̯~w]). Non-syllabic /i/ merges with and palatalises any preceding dental/alveolar consonant.<br /> <br /> In these two word examples, the pitch-based pronunciation is given before the weight-based pronunciation.<br /> <br /> :*'''ju muja''' [ʒúmùʒâ] ~ [ʒumːuˈʒa]<br /> :*'''ju aio''' [ʒúàjô] ~ [ʒuːaˈjo]<br /> :*'''ju uaia''' [ʒúwàjâ] [ʒuːwaˈja]<br /> :*'''ju ntu''' [ʒúntû] ~ [ʒu:nˈtu]<br /> :*'''ju lleue''' [ʒúlːèwê] ~ [ʒuːlːeˈwe]<br /> <br /> ===Consonants===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !CONSONANTS<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Dental/Alveolar<br /> !Post-alveolar<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> | '''m''' ‹m›<br /> | <br /> | '''n''' ‹n›<br /> |<br /> | '''ŋ''' ‹g›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> | '''b''' ‹b›<br /> |<br /> | '''t''' ‹t›<br /> |<br /> | '''k''' ‹k›<br /> | '''ʔ''' ‹q›<br /> |-<br /> !Ejective<br /> |<br /> | <br /> | '''tʼ''' ‹tt›<br /> |<br /> | '''kʼ''' ‹kk›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiced Fricative<br /> | <br /> | '''v''' ‹v›<br /> | '''z''' ‹z›<br /> | '''ʒ''' ‹j›<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiceless Fricative<br /> | <br /> | <br /> | '''s''' ‹s›<br /> | '''ʃ''' ‹x›<br /> | <br /> | '''h''' ‹h›<br /> |-<br /> !Tap<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''ɾ''' ‹r› <br /> |<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''l''' ‹l› <br /> |<br /> |<br /> | <br /> |}<br /> <br /> * The nasal consonants /m n ŋ/, unlike other consonants, may occur before another consonant and then assimilate in place of articulation to that consonant. For this reason, many authors posit the archiphoneme /N/. /N/ may be syllabic post pausa, carrying a low tone. Before /l/, /N/ assimilates to [l̪] or [l̪̩]. Before /v/, it is pronounced as [ɱ] or [ɱ̩].<br /> * The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental [n̪ t̪ t̪ʼ ɾ̪ l̪]. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears. Some speakers palatalise /t/ and /d/ to [t͡ʃ] and [d͡ʒ] respectively. The ejective /tʼ/, however, is rarely or never palatalised as [t͡ʃʼ].<br /> * /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive [d̪].<br /> * Geminate /m/, /n/ and /l/ (resulting from /Nm/, /Nn/ and /Nl/) may be pronounced as [m̩b], [n̪̩d̪] and [l̪̩d̪] respectively, particularly by men and particularly post pausa.<br /> * /s/ and /z/ are normally alveolar. When followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are not distinguished from /ʃ ʒ/. <br /> * /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ cannot be followed by non-syllabic /i/.<br /> * The phonemes /s/ and /ɾ/ do not occur at the beginning of a word.<br /> * The glottal stop /ʔ/ and the ejective consonants /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ are restricted to positions immediately before a 'strong' vowel, although there may be an intervening non-syllabic 'weak' /i/ or /u/ after the ejectives. At the beginning of a 'weak' syllable, ejective consonants become pronounced as their equivalent plain plosive and the glottal stop disappears. For example, ''kka'' [kʼá] and ''kkue'' [kʷʼé] are allowed while expected ''*kkina'' (derived from ''kka'' plus the infix ''-in-'') is instead present as ''kina'' [kì.ná]. In connected speech, /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ may be pronounced as [t̚ʔ k̚ʔ] or even [tː kː]. However, a strong ejective pronunciation is always heard post pausa.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> Phonemically, a syllable may be '''((N)C)V''', where '''V''' is a vowel '''(C)''' an optional consonant and '''(N)''' an optional nasal which assimilates to its following consonant in its point of articulation. <br /> <br /> Phonetically, syllables may be more complex. '''(N)''' is pronounced syllabically post pausa and otherwise is pronounced in the coda of the preceding syllable. The non-syllabic pronunciations of /i/ and /u/ mean that a syllable can be (C)(S)V(S)(N), where '''(S)''' is a semivowel.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::'''nxua intaneti'''<br /> ::/Nʃu.á.i.Nta.ne.tí/<br /> ::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí]<br /> ::''is on the internet''<br /> <br /> ===Epenthetic /s/===<br /> <br /> An epenthetic /s/ sometimes appears between words when the second word begins with a vowel. In the romanisation used here, the /s/ is written on the end of the preceding word. The rules are somewhat complex and are best shown as a table. The final vowels of preceding words are shown vertically on the left. Initial vowels of the following word are shown along the top. An epenthetic /s/ doesn't appear before '''i''' and '''u''' when a syllabic vowel (V) immediately follows within the same word. In the table, the word borders are shown with an '''s''' indicating where the epenthetic /s/ always appears. In other positions in the table, the epenthetic /s/ can still appear in very clear emphatic speech.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''i(V)-'' || ''u(V)-'' || ''i-'' || ''u-'' || ''e-'' || ''o-'' || ''a-''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-i'' || '''-i i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i e-''' || '''-i o-''' || '''-i a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-u'' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u u-''' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} u-''' || '''-u e-''' || '''-u o-''' || '''-u a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-e'' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-o'' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-a'' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ua''' || [è.né.wá] || '''u''' followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} u''' || [è.né.sú] || '''u''' not followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ima''' || [è.néj.má] || '''i''' is weak and can become non-syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} eme''' || [è.né.sè.mé] || '''e''' is always syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni ua''' || [è.ní.wá] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni u''' || [è.ní.ú] || final '''i''' before syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni iu''' || [è.ní.jú] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni{{color|MediumBlue|s}} iui''' || [è.ní.sì.wí] || final '''i''' before initial syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene iui''' || [è.néj.wí] || final '''e''' followed by 'weak' '''i''' which becomes non-syllabic<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> There are four classes of words in Ngolu. Ngolu is a very verb-heavy language, with verbals making up the only truly open word class.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''Nominals''': closed<br /> :* '''Verbals''': open<br /> :* '''Particles''': closed<br /> :* '''Interjections''': closed (mostly)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Nominals===<br /> Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of nominals, the &lt;u&gt;pronominals&lt;/u&gt;, are essentially the equivalent of pronouns and articles in other languages, inflecting for number, grammatical person, definiteness, specificity, gender, case and an inflectional dimension unique to Iliaqu, ''accessibility''. Pronominals can appear on their own or can be followed by a verbal or verbal phrase. When followed by a verbal, they can be regarded as the head of an underlying relative clause which nominalises the verbal and allows it to function as an argument in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> :As a pronoun:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|it}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :As an article:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|the}} house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In addition to the pronominals, there are two &lt;u&gt;complementisers&lt;/u&gt; which are essentially subordinating conjunctions which inflect for case. '''Zuo''' can be thought of as roughly equivalent to the English subordinating conjunction 'that' and '''kuo''' can be thought of as 'the time when'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''olos''' || '''ene''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''g-ixi''' || '''ja''' || '''nana''' || '''g-uje''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.strange || DAT.1s.ACS || NOM.C || be.not || COP-DAT.3s.INAN.DEF || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.father || COP-GEN.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is strange&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;is not&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the one who&quot; || &quot;is father&quot; || &quot;is hers/his&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I think it's strange {{color|MediumBlue|that}} his / her father didn't go / wasn't there.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Number====<br /> Pronominals indicate two numbers, singular and plural. Plural is marked by the prefix '''i-''', which occurs before some case prefixes and after others (see [[Ngolu#Case|Case]] below for more information).<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The singular is used before quantifiers indicating a specific plural quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a group of two&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|two}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> When the plural is used, this indicates multiples of the indicated quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are groups of two&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|pairs of}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Many words denoting powders and granular substances are used in the plural with the singular referring to an individual grain.<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a grain of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the grain of sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are grains of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the (grain{{color|MediumBlue|s}} of) sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Water referred to as '''hunia''', potable water, is indicated in the plural as well when it is a quantity larger than what one person can drink in one sitting. <br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (large quantity of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (serving of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Gender====<br /> In the third person, nominals distinguish between animate and inanimate referents. When it comes to animals, the use of the genders depends on the speaker's [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]]. ''Kali'' (women, children and uninitiated men) and ''tuva'' (slaves) refer to all motile animals in the animate gender, generally as inaccessible although pets may be accessible. ''Muja'' (initiated men) refer to animals other than pets in the inanimate gender. The Ngolu believe this allows ''muja'' to hunt without remorse.<br /> <br /> The following examples illustrate the difference. Examples which are specific to the rank of the speaker or the listener will be marked as such after the translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The interplay between a speaker and listener's rank is complex and may result in unexpected gender choices. For example, a slave must refer to him- or herself in the third person inanimate gender when speaking to ''balu'' and above unless specifically given permission otherwise. To read more about this, see [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|Social Stratification and Language Use]].<br /> <br /> ====Person====<br /> Three grammatical persons are marked by pronominals. The first person pronominals contain '''n'''. The second person pronominals contain a non-syllabic '''u''' (realised as '''v''' before '''u'''). In the third person, '''j''', '''x''', '''m''', '''z''', '''k''' and Ø appear depending on gender, definiteness and specificity.<br /> <br /> =====Clusivity=====<br /> The plural forms of all the basic pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness. <br /> <br /> The first person inclusive (second plus first persons) may be indicated by compound pronominals, the dual forms (&quot;you, one person, and I&quot;) being '''uana''', '''uanu''', '''vuna''', '''vunu''' and the plural forms being '''iuana''', '''iuanu''', '''ivuna''', '''ivunu'''. Which of the four options is used depends on [[#accessibility|accessibility]]. These compound forms are not used universally and many speakers use juxtaposition of pronouns, such as '''vu nu''' instead of '''vunu''' or '''iua na''' or '''iua ina''' instead of '''iuana'''.<br /> <br /> Even addressing people in the second person, should the group include third persons who are not being addressed, many speakers will make note of these separately, for example '''ju vu''' (gloss: NOM.3s.ICS.DEF NOM.2s.ICS) and this is somewhat prescriptively enforced. The nominal '''ivu''' (gloss: NOM.2p.ICS), for example, is recommended only for use to address two or more people when all are present or when the message is at the very least expected to be passed onto those who are not present. <br /> <br /> The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person. The compound 2nd+1st person pronouns are not subject to this ordering rule.<br /> <br /> Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive.<br /> <br /> ====Definiteness and Specificity====<br /> <br /> In the third person, pronominals indicate definiteness (whether the listener knows which individual) and specificity (whether the speaker knows which individual).<br /> <br /> =====Definite=====<br /> The Definite (+specific, +definite) is used when the listener is assumed to know which specific individual or individuals the speaker is referring to. In the following examples, '''ji ala''' (or just '''ji''') refers to a specific bird which the listener is assumed to be already aware of, possibly because it is already been mentioned.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|the bird}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|it}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Specific=====<br /> The Specific (+specific, -definite) is used when the speaker has a specific individual or individuals in mind but the listener is not assumed to know which one(s). In the following examples, '''mi ala''' (or '''mi''') refers to a specific bird but not one which the speaker expects the listener to know of.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a (particular) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|one (in particular)}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Non-Specific=====<br /> The Non-Specific (or General) does not refer to any specific individual(s) but to the abstract idea of a member or members of a particular class, any individual of which could be described. It often used when talking about desires or in negative sentences. In the examples below, '''i ala''' refers to any bird.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a(ny) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|anyone}}.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Accessibility====<br /> Accessibility is a concept integral to Ngolu culture. Outside of the third person non-specific, all animate nominals have two forms, one ''accessible'' (gloss: ACS) and one ''inaccessible'' (gloss: ICS). Accessible nominals have a low vowel,'''a''' in the nominative stem, '''e''' in the accusative stem, and these correspond to the high vowels '''u''' and '''i''' respectively in inaccessible nominals. Accessibility is typically explained as an indication of whether physical contact is permitted or not, however it is more generally a means of conveying social closeness or distance even when no actual touching is involved.<br /> <br /> In the first person, the English word ''I'' can be translated as either '''na''' (NOM.1s.ACS) or '''nu''' (NOM.1s.ICS). Using '''na''' signals to the listener &quot;I am accessible to you.&quot; This means the speaker feels close and emotionally open to the listener and physical contact is permitted or even welcome. Using '''nu''' informs the listener that physical contact is not welcome at the current time. This is typically because of emotional distance, such as when talking to strangers, casual acquaintances or people whom the speaker does not like, but it may also signal an unwillingness to be touched for other, often fleeting reasons, such as illness, pain or emotional tension. Between close friends and lovers, suddenly switching to '''nu''' may indicate that the speaker has taken offence at something.<br /> <br /> In the second and third persons, accessibility indicates the the referent's ''perceived'' accessibility ''to the speaker''. Using '''ua''' (NOM.2s.ACS) indicates that the speaker assumes he or she may touch the listener. Using '''vu''' (NOM.2s.ICS) indicates either a more respectful or colder social distance (cf. French &quot;vous&quot;, which, coincidentally, sounds identical). In the third person, '''ja''' (NOM.3s.ACS.DEF) and '''ju''' (NOM.3s.ICS.DEF) indicate the speaker's relationship to the referent. In plural, accessible indicates that ''all'' members of the group are accessible. Even one individual who the speaker regards as inaccessible, will cause the group to be marked as inaccessible. Inaccessibility is thus the 'default' and when speaking of generic or unknown individuals, these will be indicated with inaccessible nominals.<br /> <br /> Accessibility produces four speech modes or 'stances'. In situations between peers of equal rank, generally the speech mode with either be accessible (using accessible nominals in both first and second persons) or inaccessible (using inaccessible nominals in both). In situations of unequal dominance, which generally, but do not always, run along lines of rank, the dominant party speaks in the dominant mode, using inaccessible first person nominals and accessible second person nominals. The subordinate party speaks in the subordinate or submissive mode, using the reverse.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | speech mode || first person || second person || meaning<br /> |-<br /> | accessible mode (ACS) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may touch me. I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | inaccessible mode (ICS) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may not touch me. I may not touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | dominant mode (DOM) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may not touch me but I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | submissive mode (SUB) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may touch me but I may not touch you.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The speech mode used depends not only on who the speaker and listener are to one another, but how they feel about each other in that moment. A friend or lover who is deeply offended may suddenly switch to the inaccessible or dominant mode to indicate that they are now not happy and had better not be touched until the offence is resolved. The submissive mode may be used in order to flirt with an acquaintance. Flirting may be met with the accessible or inaccessible modes, which essentially give an answer. No answer (yet) is signalled by the adoption of the dominant mode. Smooth social interactions are ensured by the concordance of speech modes, ACS↔ACS, ICS↔ICS, DOM↔SUB. Conflict is often caused by the refusal to agree or by physical contact with someone marked in speech as inaccessible.<br /> <br /> Examples of the four speech modes in use.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ICS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Case====<br /> Ngolu possesses 14 grammatical cases. The nominative and accusative case appear to be the oldest and all other forms appear to derive from the agglomeration of adpositions onto them. The first group (accusative, dative, ablative, locative, genitive and possessive) appear to be relatively old. At some point after these adpositions fused onto the nominals, the plural marker '''i-''' also became a prefix. For example '''''i-e-ji''''' 'to them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;PL-DAT-ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;. The second group of derived cases (vocative, causal, benefactive, instrumental, comitative, topical, essive) appear to have developed more recently from prepositions added to either the nominative or the accusative case as the plural marker '''i-''' is sandwiched in the middle. For example '''''te-i-ji''''' 'about them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;because.of-PL.ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;.<br /> <br /> =====Nominative=====<br /> The nominative case indicates the grammatical subject of a verb. The nominative case is always formed with a back vowel, '''u''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''a''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''u''' shows animate and '''a''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''muja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|na}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.initiated.man || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be an initiated man&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} am an initiated man.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''loe''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || sleep || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} is not sleeping. / {{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} didn't sleep.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|He}} killed / murdered something / someone''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good || NOM.C || be.not || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It's good {{color|MediumBlue|that}} it's not raining.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zoua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuo}}''' || '''tavi''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ja}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.difficult || NOM.TEMP.C || be.child || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;the time when&quot; || &quot;be child&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He had a difficult childhood.<br /> (≈ {{color|MediumBlue|The time when}} {{color|MediumBlue|s/he}} was a child was difficult.)''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Accusative=====<br /> The accusative case indicates the grammatical object of a verb. The accusative case is formed with a front vowel, '''i''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''e''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''i''' represents animate and '''e''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''. The complementisers are '''jo''' and '''kio'''<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''ti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.PRF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;have finished&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Someone murdered {{color|MediumBlue|him}} / {{color|MediumBlue|He}} was murdered.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jave''' || '''ja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kivo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | throw || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF || ACC.3s.INAN.DEF || be.rock<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;throw&quot; || &quot;the being&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be rock&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''He threw {{color|MediumBlue|the rock}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jo}}''' || '''vai''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.C || stay || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; |''I want you {{color|MediumBlue|to}} stay. (≈ I want {{color|MediumBlue|that}} you stay.)'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In informal speech, the accusative case may replace the dative case when it indicates an experiencer. This does not occur with verbs that also have an accusative role and use the dative case to indicate a recipient.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ine}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || ACC.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Dative=====<br /> The dative case indicates an indirect object of the verb, a destination or goal of a movement or an experiencer. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'to' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''e(r)-''' ('''ie(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volos''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ene}}''' || '''izi''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || DAT.1s.ACS || ACC.3p.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;some things that&quot; || &quot;be water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} was given water. / Someone gave {{color|MediumBlue|me}} water.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|iene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || '''uana'''<br /> |-<br /> | JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM.1+2DU.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go - to them&quot; || &quot;you and I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''vais''' || '''inu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekio}}''' || '''loe''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF || stay || NOM.1p.ICS || DAT.TEMP.C || sleep || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;we&quot; || &quot;until&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''We stayed {{color|MediumBlue|until}} they slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Ablative=====<br /> The ablative case is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'from' in English. It is formed by suffixing '''-i''' to a nominative nominal. The complementisers are '''zuio''' and '''kuio''' in the ablative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Kuaqa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mala}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-uni}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.distant || NOM.1s.ICS || ABL.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || COP-GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be far&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;from the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm far away {{color|MediumBlue|from my home}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go - from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Get away {{color|MediumBlue|from me}}!'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || '''xuua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuio}}''' || '''iti''' || ('''ju''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;to her/him&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;since&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || (&quot;s/he&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Locative=====<br /> The locative case indicates a location. It is more or less equivalent to the prepositions 'in', 'on' and 'at' in English. It is also used to replace the verb &quot;have&quot; when indicating immediate possession as in &quot;to have something on one's person&quot;. It is formed by suffixing '''-a''' to a nominative nominal in the inaccessible and inanimate and prefixing '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ia(r)-''') to an accessible nominative nominal. The prefixed form is also used for the non-specific animate and inanimate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''bani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ana}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.money || LOC.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be money&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I don't have any money (with me). (≈ There is no money {{color|MediumBlue|at me}}.)'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|xua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mo}}''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.what || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be what&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Where are you?'' (≈ You are {{color|MediumBlue|at the what}}?) — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''iio''' || '''jas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azuo}}''' || '''muana''' || '''iti''' || '''exi''' || '''muana''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.fish || NOM.3s.ACS || LOC.C || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.small || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; || &quot;he&quot; || &quot;where&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || &quot;to the thing that&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be big&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''He's fishing {{color|MediumBlue|where}} the stream flows into the river.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || '''xuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;begin&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be yours&quot; || &quot;when&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || (&quot;to the inaccessible one&quot;) || &quot;that thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Genitive=====<br /> The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''egio''' || '''tani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|une}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.threesome || be.sibling || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a group of three&quot; || &quot;be siblings&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I have three siblings.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tta''' || '''xu''' || '''gula''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|uji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tio}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.large || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.pair.of.arms || COP-GEN.3s.DEF.ICS || be.that.3<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be large&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of arms&quot; || &quot;be of the person who&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|That person over there}} has big arms. / The arms {{color|MediumBlue|of that person over there}} are big.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Possessive=====<br /> The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) but to a nominative nominal rather than an accusative one.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || POS.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;owned by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} have / own a house.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It should be noted that, although in many languages, the genitive or possessive case is usually adnominal, referring to an immediately adjacent noun phrase, in Iliaqu, all nominals, regardless of case, refer to the predicate in their clause unless verbalised with the [[#Nominal_to_Verbal|copular prefix]]. Compare the following sentences.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || COP-POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in {{color|MediumBlue|my}} boot.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in the boot {{color|MediumBlue| and it's mine}}.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|I own}} a snake which is in the boot. — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the second sentence, the lack of the copula on '''une''' indicates that it represents an argument of the predicate ('''masa''' 'there is a snake'), meaning that it is the snake which belongs to the speaker, not the boot. The word order, placing the unadorned possessive argument ('''une''') after the much heavier locative argument ('''xua xa buja''') is heavily marked, placing focus on the fact that the snake is the speaker's legal possession.<br /> <br /> Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, ''ataiva'', the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for ''ataiva'' to avoid the possessive case entirely in favour of the genitive case.<br /> <br /> =====Vocative=====<br /> The vocative case is used to address someone or attract their attention. It is formed by adding '''e(r)-''' ('''ei-''' in plural) to a nominative nominal. <br /> <br /> The most common greeting words for most uses are simply vocative nominals. They must reflect the number and accessibility of the addressee(s). <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is common for inaccessibles to be greeted in the third person, with '''eju''' frequently replacing '''evu'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Third person definite forms, however, may also be used with accessibles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eja}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh he who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Among accessibles, the '''e-''' prefix may be added directly to a personal name. This and the predicate prefix '''i-''' are the only example of verbals (as all names are verbals) taking a non-derivational affix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|e}}-xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | hey-be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey - be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hey}} Xagu!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the indefinite, the vocative can be used to summon help from non-specific people.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eru}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when one person's assistance is enough.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3p.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when more than one person's assistance is required.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative complementiser '''ezuo''' is used to mean 'if only' or 'I wish'. It is also used for making polite requests. Literally, it's something like 'o that'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezuo}}''' || '''hunia''' || '''nua'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.C || be.potable || LOC.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if only&quot; || &quot;be beverage&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''May I have some water please? ({{color|MediumBlue|If only}} I had some water.)'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative temporal complementiser '''ekuo''' is used to express nostalgia about a past time or anticipation for a future time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || '''ata''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh for the time when&quot; || &quot;be adult&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I can't wait till}} I'm grown up.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Causal=====<br /> The causal case describes a cause. It is equivalent to the English &quot;because of&quot;. It is formed by prefixing '''te(r)-''' (plural: '''tei-''') to the accusative nominals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zaxa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.sick || NOM.1s.ICS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am sick&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm ill {{color|MediumBlue|because of you}}. / You made me ill.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ezo''' || '''zouas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tejo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''mala''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.now || be.difficult || DAT.1s.ICS || CAU.C || be.not || be.house || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;because&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''Things are tough for me at the moment {{color|MediumBlue|because}} I don't have a house..'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Benefactive=====<br /> The benefactive case indicates either a beneficiary or benefactor of an action or situation or a goal. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'for'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''kua(r)-''' (plural: '''kuai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.this.1 || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;there is this, by me&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''This is {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}. (≈ There's this {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.)'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bioi''' || '''vaia''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.willing || do.everything || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;would&quot; || &quot;do everything&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I would do anything {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''etie''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''leu''' || '''ue''' || '''veji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || move.to.here.1 || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.C || rescue || ACC.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;finish&quot; || &quot;come here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;rescue&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;about the person&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; |''I came here {{color|MediumBlue|(in order) to}} save you from him/her.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''naxe''' || '''molu''' || '''iu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''mue''' || '''lau''' || '''iu''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | must || be.dead || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || BEN.C || be.able || be.alive || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;must&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;can&quot; || &quot;live&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates that&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; |''Some must die {{color|MediumBlue|so that}} others may live.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kuas''' || '''enies''' || '''e''' || '''kueta''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuakio}}''' || '''gehuo''' || '''ua''' || '''ji''' || '''uako'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || carry || ACC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.hunting.knife || BEN.TEMP.C || encounter || NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.enemy<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;carry&quot; || &quot;a non-specific thing which&quot; || &quot;be a hunting knife&quot; || &quot;in case&quot; || &quot;encounter&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''Carry a knife {{color|MediumBlue|in case}} you cross paths with enemies.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Instrumental=====<br /> The instrumental case describes the means or method by which something is done. It is equivalent to the English preposition &quot;with&quot; when it means &quot;using&quot;. It is formed by adding the prefix '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''vuja''' || '''zi''' || '''vaku''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kueta}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || hunt || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.babirusa || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.hunting.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;deliberately killed&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;hunts&quot; || &quot;a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a babirusa&quot; || &quot;using a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a hunting knife&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''The hunter killed the babirusa {{color|MediumBlue|with a hunting knife}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g-iara''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC.3p.NSPC.INAN || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;certain people&quot; || &quot;by&quot; || &quot;wait&quot; || &quot;at anything which&quot; || &quot;is bushes&quot; || &quot;be-at any things which&quot; || &quot;be drinking water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Comitative=====<br /> The comitative case indicates an accompanying person or thing. It is equivalent to 'with' in English when it means 'along with' or 'accompanied by'. It is formed by prefixing '''le(r)-''' (plural: '''lei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''ja''' || '''meha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|leje}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jalu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Meha || COM.3s.DEF.ACS || Jalu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is hunting&quot; || &quot;the person who&quot; || &quot;is Meha&quot; || &quot;with the person who&quot; || &quot;is Jalu&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''Meha is hunting {{color|MediumBlue|with Jalu}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''hu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || move.PFV || COM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come/go&quot; || &quot;with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Come {{color|MediumBlue|with me}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bata''' || '''ja''' || '''umatu''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lejo'''}} || '''buga''' || '''taba''' || '''iju''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | dance || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Umatu || COM.C || hit || be.drum || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;dance&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be Umatu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;be drum&quot; || &quot;the beings who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Umatu danced {{color|MediumBlue|while}} the others played the drums.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Topical=====<br /> The topical case indicates the topic or theme of an act of communication and in many instances also something which is kept in mind when a particular action is performed. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'about'. It is formed by prefixing '''ve(r)-''' (plural '''vei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''ila''' || '''na''' || '''leue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vezi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|valo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || speak || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.interesting<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;speak&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;about something that&quot; || &quot;is interesting&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to talk to you {{color|MediumBlue|about something interesting}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''teuas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vexi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiau}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | thank || DAT.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.food<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;thank&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;about the thing that&quot; || &quot;is food&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Thanks {{color|MediumBlue|for the food}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''malemale''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''moio''' || '''iu''' || '''azo''' || '''lo''' || '''zola''' || '''iu''' || '''babo'''<br /> |-<br /> | gossip || TOP.C || do.what || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other || ADV || be.solely || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;gossip&quot; || &quot;about the fact that&quot; || &quot;do what&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be only&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Only unintelligent people gossip {{color|MediumBlue|about}} what other people do.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Essive=====<br /> The essive case indicates the role of something in the sentence. It is roughly equivalent to the English words 'as' or 'like'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''o(r)-''' (plural: '''oi-''') to the nominative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''atia''' || '''nas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|omas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ali}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.there.2 || NOM.1s.ACS || ESS.3s.SPEC.ACS || be.same.rank.friend || COP-DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;as a person who&quot; || &quot;be a friend of the same rank&quot; || &quot;be to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm here {{color|MediumBlue|as your friend}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ozuo}}''' || '''ka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.visible || ESS.C || be.going.to || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;appear&quot; || &quot;as if&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It looks {{color|MediumBlue|like}} it's going to rain.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Tables====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Simple pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | na<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | nu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ina<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | inu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate specific<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ma<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | mu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ima<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | imu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate definite<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate specific<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | izu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | a<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ia<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> animate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> inanimate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Compound pronominals<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dominant<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dual<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Complimentisers<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | temporal<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====First Person=====<br /> First person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''nu''' || '''inu''' || '''na''' || '''ina'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ni''' || '''ini''' || '''ne''' || '''ine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''nua''' || '''inua''' || '''ana''' || '''iana''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uni''' || '''iuni''' || '''une''' || '''iune'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''unu''' || '''iunu''' || '''una''' || '''iuna'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''enu''' || '''einu''' || '''ena''' || '''eina''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teni''' || '''teini''' || '''tene''' || '''teine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuani''' || '''kuaini''' || '''kuane''' || '''kuaine''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ani''' || '''aini''' || '''ane''' || '''aine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leni''' || '''leini''' || '''lene''' || '''leine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veni''' || '''veini''' || '''vene''' || '''veine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''onu''' || '''oinu''' || '''ona''' || '''oina''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS.SG || ICS:PL || ACS.SG || ACS.PL<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ue''' || '''iue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eui''' || '''ieui''' || '''eue''' || '''ieue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''vui''' || '''ivui''' || '''uai''' || '''iuai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''vua''' || '''ivua''' || '''aua''' || '''iaua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uui''' || '''iuui''' || '''uue''' || '''iuue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uvu''' || '''iuvu''' || '''uua''' || '''iuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''evu''' || '''eivu''' || '''eua''' || '''eiua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teui''' || '''teiui''' || '''teue''' || '''teiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiui''' || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaiue''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aui''' || '''aiui''' || '''aue''' || '''aiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leui''' || '''leiui''' || '''leue''' || '''leiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veui''' || '''veiui''' || '''veue''' || '''veiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ovu''' || '''oivu''' || '''oua''' || '''oiua''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || ICS.DU<br /> || ACS.DU<br /> || DOM.DU<br /> || SUB.DU<br /> || ICS.PL<br /> || ACS.PL<br /> || DOM.PL<br /> || SUB.PL<br /> |-<br /> || Nominative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Accusative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Dative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvuna<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''ju''' || '''iju''' || '''ja''' || '''ija''' || '''xu''' || '''ixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ji''' || '''iji''' || '''je''' || '''ije''' || '''xi''' || '''ixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jui''' || '''ijui''' || '''jai''' || '''ijai''' || '''xui''' || '''ixui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''jua''' || '''ijua''' || '''aja''' || '''iaja''' || '''xua''' || '''ixua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uji''' || '''iuji''' || '''uje''' || '''iuje''' || '''uxi''' || '''iuxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uju''' || '''iuju''' || '''uja''' || '''iuja''' || '''*uxu''' || '''*iuxu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eju''' || '''eiju''' || '''eja''' || '''eija''' || '''exu''' || '''eixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teji''' || '''teiji''' || '''teje''' || '''teije''' || '''texi''' || '''teixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaiji''' || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuaixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aji''' || '''aiji''' || '''aje''' || '''aije''' || '''axi''' || '''aixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leji''' || '''leiji''' || '''leje''' || '''leije''' || '''lexi''' || '''leixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veji''' || '''veiji''' || '''veje''' || '''veije''' || '''vexi''' || '''veixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oju''' || '''oiju''' || '''oja''' || '''oija''' || '''oxu''' || '''oixu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''mu''' || '''imu''' || '''ma''' || '''ima''' || '''zu''' || '''izu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''mi''' || '''imi''' || '''me''' || '''ime''' || '''zi''' || '''izi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''emi''' || '''iemi''' || '''eme''' || '''ieme''' || '''ezi''' || '''iezi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mui''' || '''imui''' || '''mai''' || '''imai''' || '''zui''' || '''izui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''mua''' || '''imua''' || '''ama''' || '''iama''' || '''zua''' || '''izua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''umi''' || '''iumi''' || '''ume''' || '''iume''' || '''uzi''' || '''iuzi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''umu''' || '''iumu''' || '''uma''' || '''iuma''' || '''*uzu''' || '''*iuzu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''emu''' || '''eimu''' || '''ema''' || '''eima''' || '''ezu''' || '''eizu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''temi''' || '''teimi''' || '''teme''' || '''teime''' || '''tezi''' || '''teizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuami''' || '''kuaimi''' || '''kuame''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuazi''' || '''kuaizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ami''' || '''aimi''' || '''ame''' || '''aime''' || '''azi''' || '''aizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lemi''' || '''leimi''' || '''leme''' || '''leime''' || '''lezi''' || '''leizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vemi''' || '''veimi''' || '''veme''' || '''veime''' || '''vezi''' || '''veizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''omu''' || '''oimu''' || '''oma''' || '''oima''' || '''ozu''' || '''oizu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ANIM Sg. || ANIM Pl. || INAN Sg. || INAN Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''u''' || '''iu''' || '''a''' || '''ia'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''i''' || '''iri''' || '''e''' || '''ie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eri''' || '''ieri''' || '''ere''' || '''iere'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ai''' || '''iai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''iaru''' || '''ara''' || '''iara'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''iuri''' || '''ure''' || '''iure'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''iuru''' || '''ura'''* || '''iura'''*<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu''' || '''era''' || '''eia''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' || '''tere''' || '''teie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' || '''kuare''' || '''kuaie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' || '''are''' || '''aie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' || '''lere''' || '''leie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veri''' || '''veiri''' || '''vere''' || '''veie''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu''' || '''ora''' || '''oia'''<br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> =====Complementisers=====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''jo''' || 'that' || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''ejo''' || 'to the place where' || '''ekio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || *'''uzuo''' || || *'''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vejo''' || 'about V-ing' || '''vekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |}<br /> ::&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Verbals===<br /> <br /> Verbals constitute the only open class of words in Ngolu. They are essentially content words, equivalent to what in other languages are verbs ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''loe''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to sleep' || [NOM] sleeps<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kau''' || 'to eat' || [NOM] eats [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to hunt' (= 'to be a hunter') || [NOM] hunts [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''volo''' || 'to give' || [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mahu''' || 'to know' || [DAT] knows [NOM] = [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ila''' || 'to speak/talk' || [NOM] speaks [ACC]/[INS] (= language) to [DAT]/[COM] about [TOP]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mue''' || 'to be able to' || [NOM] can / is able to […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... nouns ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''iio''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be a fish' || [NOM] is a fish of [GEN] belonging to [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to be a hunter' (= 'to hunt') || [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person<br /> |-<br /> |• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of a different rank)' || [NOM] is a friend of [DAT], lover of [GEN] and concubine of [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ilia''' || 'to be speech/language' || [NOM] is the speech/language of [GEN]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... adjectives ... <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''tta''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be large' || [NOM] is large<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kaiu''' || 'to be edible' ('to be food') || [NOM] is edible to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kuaqa''' || 'to be far/distant' || [NOM] is far from [ABL]/[DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''xeva''' || 'to be visible' (= 'to see') || [NOM is visible to [DAT]; [DAT] sees [NOM]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lau''' || 'to be alive' (= 'to live', 'to be a living being') || [NOM] is alive<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lubi''' || 'to be closed/shut' || [NOM] is closed/shut to [DAT]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... and adverbs.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''jau''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to intentionally ...' || [NOM] is intentionally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mola''' || 'to be merely ...' (= 'to be insignificant') || [NOM] is just/only/merely […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> They are generally thought of as 'content words' but even many grammatical functions are expressed by verbals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''kka''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be not ...' || [NEGATIVE] || [NOM] is not […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hua''' || 'to be always ...', 'to be eternally ...' || [GNOMIC] || [NOM] is eternally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hau''' || 'to be defined by being ...' || [ESSENTIAL] || [NOM] is essentially […] by definition<br /> |-<br /> |• '''he''' || 'to undergo' || [PASSIVE] || [NOM] undergoes […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''eti''' || 'to have previously done ...' || [PAST] || [NOM] did […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Regardless of the verbal's semantic meaning and which part of speech carries the bulk of the meaning when translated into another language, each verbal can be used in the same syntactic positions as any other verbal. All verbals can appear as a predicate, an argument (when preceded by a nominal) or as a modifier to another, preceding verbal. Compare the following two sentences which show how a semantically verb-like verbal, '''gahu''' ('to howl'), and a semantically more noun-like verbal, '''zagua''' ('to be a gibbon') can simply be swapped. Both can appear in the predicate, both can appear in an argument and neither needs to be inflected to take on either role.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{|<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || scope=&quot;col&quot; width=&quot;10&quot; | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''gahu''' || || '''ju''' || '''zagua'''<br /> |-<br /> | howl || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.gibbon<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;howls&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a gibbon&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''The gibbon howls.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |- style=&quot;height: 2em;&quot;<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''zagua''' || || '''ju''' || '''gahu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.gibbon || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is a gibbon&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;howls&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''What howls is a gibbon.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Argument Structure====<br /> <br /> Verbals each have an inherent argument structure, controlling which case are used for which role. Dictionaries, and the examples above, mark the meanings of each relevant case when used with each verbal.<br /> <br /> Many argument structures are as would be expected.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''volo''' = [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> :* '''vuja''' = [NOM] hunts [ACC]; [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]<br /> :* '''akku''' = [NOM] is blood; [NOM] is the blood of [GEN]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volo''' || '''na''' || '''xi''' || '''eje'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to him&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I give it to him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is a tendency for experiencers to be in the dative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''hualo''' = [DAT] loves/cares about [NOM]; [NOM] is loved by [DAT]<br /> :* '''xeva''' = [DAT] sees [NOM]; [NOM] is seen by [DAT]<br /> :* '''zoua''' = [NOM] is difficult for [DAT]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''eni''' || '''ju''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was seen&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I saw the king.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Although that is not always the case, as this pair of opposites shows.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''mahu''' = [DAT] knows [NOM]; [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> :* '''zau''' = [NOM] doesn't know about [TOP]; [NOM] is ignorant of [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mahu''' || '''eni''' || ('''xu''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.1s.ICS || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || (&quot;it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zau''' || '''nu''' || ('''vexi''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || (TOP.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || (&quot;about it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I don't know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also an unusual class of verbals where the nominative role usually refers to a body part, the genitive refers to the possessor and when there is an accusative argument, the whole thing refers to an action performed (with the body part) by the possessor.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bale''' = [NOM] is a fist of [GEN]; [GEN] punches [ACC]<br /> :* '''bane''' = [NOM] is a hand of [GEN]; [GEN] holds, grasps, clutches [ACC]<br /> :* '''buja''' = [NOM] is a heavy boot of [GEN]; [GEN] crushes [ACC] under his boot<br /> :* '''gula''' = [NOM] is the pair of arms of [GEN]; [GEN] hugs [ACC]<br /> :* '''juaza''' = [NOM] is the penis of [GEN]; [GEN] fucks [ACC] (vulgar!)<br /> :* '''kanu''' = [NOM] is the nose of [GEN]; [GEN] sniffs [ACC]<br /> :* '''kula''' = [NOM] is the pair of ears of [GEN]; [GEN] listens to [ACC]<br /> :* '''mama''' = [NOM] is the pair of breasts of [GEN]; [GEN] breast-feeds [ACC]<br /> :* '''miva''' = [NOM] is a finger of [GEN]; [GEN] touches, feels [ACC]<br /> :* '''musari''' = [NOM] is a molar of [GEN]; [GEN] chews [ACC]<br /> :* '''omo''' = [NOM] is the pair of eyes of [GEN]; [GEN] looks at [ACC]<br /> :* '''umakka''' = [NOM] is a tooth (incisor, canine) of [GEN]; [GEN] bites [ACC]<br /> :* '''zuru''' = [NOM] is a war against [ACC]; [GEN] wages war on [ACC]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I have eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xu''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || be.this.1<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is this, here by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''These are my eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xi''' || '''masa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || be.snake<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a snake&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking at the snake'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The verbal '''lama''' is somewhat similar, although it may simply be understood through an idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''lama''' = [NOM] is a tear of [GEN]/[LOC]; [GEN]/[LOC] weeps (silently) about [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lama''' || '''ana''' || '''teui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is (a) tear(s)&quot; || &quot;at him/her&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The above sentence may also be translated as &quot;There are tears on him/her because of you,&quot; or &quot;S/He has tears because of you,&quot; making it less clear as to whether this is a good example of an apparent non-nominative subject.<br /> <br /> There is a proposed additional place within the argument structure of many verbals, that of a following modifier. A following modifier may mark a specific role which may either be marked by another case or may only be filled by a following modifier. The notation used here indicates a following modifier with […].<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''maue''' = [NOM] is a group of seven […]<br /> :* '''kka''' = [NOM] is not […]<br /> :* '''mia''' = [NOM] approaches [DAT]/[…]<br /> :* '''tehi''' = [NOM] is possibly […]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''mala''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | approach || be.house || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''iju''' || '''exi''' || '''mala''' <br /> |-<br /> | approach || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN || be.house <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;they&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Derivation of Verbals====<br /> <br /> There are two kinds of derivational affixes, one which converts a nominal into a verbal and many others which convert a verbal into another verbal with a different meaning.<br /> <br /> =====Nominal to Verbal=====<br /> All nominals can be converted into a verbal by adding a copula prefix. The copula prefix is '''g-''' before a vowel, '''k''' or '''g''', '''m-''' before '''m''', '''b''' and '''v''', '''l-''' before '''l''' and '''n-''' before all other consonants. The copula prefix essentially prevents a nominal from signalling the start of an argument. Used with the dative or ablative case, the meaning may be interpreted as a verb of motion.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nu''' 'I' [NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}nu''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} me' [COP-NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''eni''' 'to me' [DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}eni''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} to me', '{{color|MediumBlue|to come}} to me' [COP-DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''xu mala''' 'the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xu mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} the house'<br /> :* '''xua mala''' 'at the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xua mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} at the house'<br /> :* '''kuaini''' 'for us' [BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}kuaini''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} for us' [COP-BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> <br /> <br /> Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}nu''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-NOM.1s.ICS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be I&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I{{color|MediumBlue|'m}} me.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}xuas''' || '''azikuo''' || '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.≈school || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a school for adolescent boys&quot; || &quot;s/he&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} not at school.'' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} to me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|l-}}lene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;be with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} with me. / {{color|MediumBlue|Be}} with me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''nini''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}une''' || '''ja''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.mother || COP-GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.this<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be this&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''This is my mother.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Verbal to Verbal=====<br /> <br /> A far more common means of derivation is from verbal to verbal. This is chiefly done by means of infixing although prefixes and suffixes also exist.<br /> <br /> ======Collective======<br /> <br /> The collective infix '''-ig-''' indicates a group of the named entity.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''ala''' 'to be a bird'<br /> ::→ '''al{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}a''' 'to be {{color|MediumBlue|a flock}} of bird{{color|MediumBlue|s}}'<br /> :* '''balu''' 'to be a royal guardsman'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to be the royal guard'<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to eat {{color|MediumBlue|together}}'<br /> :* '''uttia''' 'to be a tree'<br /> ::→ '''ut{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}ia''' 'to be a forest'<br /> <br /> <br /> ======Gerundive======<br /> <br /> The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something. The accusative role is promoted to the nominative role, as with the passive construction with '''he''', but in addition the assertion is made that this is a good or customary use for the referent in question.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''huna''' 'to drink'<br /> ::→ '''hun{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a''' 'to be (fresh) water', 'to be potable', 'to be drinkable' (to be something to be drunk)<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular)<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular)<br /> :* '''jalo''' 'to welcome', 'to receive', 'to accept (into a place)'<br /> ::→ '''jal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a guest' (one who is to be welcomed)<br /> :* '''asu''' 'to be seated', 'to be sitting'<br /> ::→ '''a{{color|MediumBlue|x}}u''' 'to be a chair', 'to be a seat' (to be something to be sat on) [''*asiu'' → ''axu'']<br /> :* '''ila''' 'to speak', 'to talk'<br /> ::→ '''il{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a'''' 'to be language' (to be something to be spoken)<br /> :* '''zoi''' 'to say', 'to tell'<br /> ::→ '''zo{{color|MediumBlue|j}}i''' 'to be worth saying', 'to be fitting/appropriate' (to be something to be said) [''*zoii'' → ''zoji'']<br /> :* '''go''' 'to do something', 'to act'<br /> ::→ '''g{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a duty', 'to be an obligation', 'to be a good idea' (to be something to be done)<br /> :* '''mue''' 'to be able', 'to be capable'<br /> ::→ '''m{{color|MediumBlue|i}}ue''' 'to be a required skill' (to be something that someone should be able to do)<br /> :* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes'; (with genitive subject) 'to look at'<br /> ::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at)<br /> :* '''bale''' 'to be a fist'; (with genitive subject) 'to punch'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}e''' 'to be punchable', 'to have a punchable face' (to be one who ought to be punched, a common pejorative word)<br /> :* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', (with genitive subject) 'to crush under a boot'<br /> ::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot) [''*bujia'' → ''buji'']<br /> :* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter'<br /> ::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted) [''*vujia'' → ''vuji'']<br /> <br /> ======Locative======<br /> <br /> The prefix '''a-''' indicates being at a particular place.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''tio''' 'to be that'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}tio''' 'to be there' (≈ 'to be at that')<br /> :* '''mala''' 'to be a house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}mala''' 'to be at home' (≈ 'to be at house')<br /> <br /> ======Ornative======<br /> <br /> The ornative prefix '''o-''' indicates having or being equipped with something.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bani''' 'to be money'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money')<br /> :* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with room(s)')<br /> :* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair')<br /> :* '''ulu''' 'to be muscle'<br /> ::→ '''u{{color|MediumBlue|o}}lu''' 'to be muscular' (≈ 'to be with muscle', with metathesis turning /ou/ into /uo/)<br /> <br /> ====Verbals with inherent gender / rank distinctions====<br /> <br /> Many verbals semantically encode gender within their meaning. In some cases, there are pairs of words, such as the following.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nini''' 'to be a mother / aunt'<br /> :* '''nana''' 'to be a father / uncle'<br /> <br /> <br /> In this instance, the divide along genders is easy for non-Ngolu to conceptualise. However many other concepts are also divided by gender, or, more accurately, rank, and this frequently has to do with the Ngolu's strict cultural taboos around gender and rank. For example, Ngolu men and women are expected to sing, dance, dress and urinate differently.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''laha''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''kali'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''lasa''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''kali'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''miia''' 'to wear' (of a ''kali'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''kele''' 'to urinate' (of a ''kali'', to urinate while sitting or squatting)<br /> <br /> :* '''uaie''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''muja'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''bata''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''muja'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''uara''' 'to wear' (of a ''muja'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''zatu''' 'to urinate' (of a ''muja'', to urinate while standing)<br /> <br /> <br /> In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank.<br /> <br /> Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha''' ('to fight physically'), '''aiuo''' ('to shoot').<br /> <br /> Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word.<br /> <br /> Verbals may also specify the gender/rank of an argument other than the nominal. For example, the word ''bale'' means 'to be a fist', specifying a ''muja'' in the role of the genitive possessor. Similarly, items of clothing specific to one gender can only appear with possessors in the corresponding gender.<br /> <br /> When a subject (or another argument) does not match the gender/rank specified in the verbal, there must be paraphrasing. There are generally two ways this is done, with '''ko''' and with '''hui'''.<br /> <br /> =====Ko=====<br /> <br /> '''Ko''' is a verbal meaning 'to be similar'. It can be placed before a gendered verbal when the subject (or other relevant argument) does not match. For example, the word for ''enemy'' is '''uako'''. It is a ''muja'' verb, perhaps best translated as 'to be a ''muja'' enemy'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.enemy || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is no direct equivalent for a ''kali'' who is an enemy. To express the idea of a ''kali'' being an enemy, what is essentially said is &quot;S/he is ''like'' an enemy.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.similar || be.enemy.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be.like&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The closest analogue in English would be with words such as 'midwife', which has no easy male equivalent. In Ngolu, it is as though one simply says 'He's like a midwife.' Similarly, in the following example, there is no word equivalent to a woman's fist, only a man's fist. Therefore, she made something ''like'' a man's fist.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''li''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|bale}}''' || '''uji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || begin || be.similar || be.MUJA.fist || GEN.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;start&quot; || &quot;be like&quot; || &quot;be a (man's) fist&quot; || &quot;of the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She made {{color|MediumBlue|a fist}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Hui=====<br /> <br /> '''Hui''' is similar to '''ko''' except it is filled with contempt and criticism. It is a verbal which could be translated as 'to shamefully break gender taboos by approximating |…|'. There is essentially no grammatical difference between '''ko''' and '''hui''' - the former is simply neutral and the later conveys strong condemnation of breaking taboos.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || sing.KALI<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;sing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|There's a man (shamefully) trying to sing like a woman}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ttio}}''' || '''ju''' || '''je'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || strike || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him/her.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Particles and Grammatical Affixes===<br /> <br /> Particles are words which cannot be classified as either nominals or verbals. Most of them are equivalent to conjunctions, introducing clauses. In many cases, the line between verb and particle is a little blurred and difficult to find and research is still ongoing.<br /> <br /> ====''Au''====<br /> <br /> ====''Au'' and ''teu''====<br /> <br /> '''Au''' and '''teu''' are used to order the events multiple clause sentence. '''Au''' introduces the clause in which the first action took place and is thus roughly equivalent to 'first' or 'after' whereas '''teu''' introduces a later action and is thus equivalent to 'then' or 'before'. They are usually used as correlative conjunctions, with both present in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | first;after|| eat || NOM.1s.ICS || second;before || sleep || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|First}} I ate, {{color|MediumBlue|then}} I slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I ate {{color|MediumBlue|before}} I slept.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|After}} I ate, I slept.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The order of the clauses can be reversed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | second/before || sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Before}} I slept, I ate.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Sometimes the first of the two conjunctions is omitted.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''— [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept, {{color|MediumBlue|but first}}, I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> '''Au''' is also a verbal occasionally used to mean &quot;to be first&quot;, however in this usage it has mostly been replaced by the regular '''tahu'''.<br /> <br /> ====''Ha''====<br /> <br /> '''Ha''' forms polar (yes/no) questions. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Polar_Questions|Polar Questions]]<br /> <br /> It also introduces the protasis of realis conditional sentences, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Hai''====<br /> <br /> '''Hai''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Haizuo''====<br /> <br /> '''Haizuo''' is an emphatic form of '''hai'''. It introduces the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''I-''====<br /> <br /> The clitic particle '''i-''' appears on the beginning of any part of the predicate when it is preceded in a sentence by any non-predicate element. For example, in the following sentence, '''hu mala''' is the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''mala''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || be.house || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Topicalised arguments can be brought forward in the sentence to before the verb phrase. The verb phrase must now be marked with '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;As for me&lt;/u&gt;, I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The predicate phrase can even be split, with arguments appearing inside it.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;I&lt;/u&gt;'m going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In extreme cases, there can even be more than one split in a predicate phrase, with '''i-''' necessary each time the predicate is resumed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''leuis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || COM.2s.ICS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I want to go home with you.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Of that last example, the normal word order would be '''bio hu mala na leui'''.<br /> <br /> When added to words beginning with a syllabic '''i''', the prefix '''i-''' becomes '''j-''' ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|j}}-iio'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.this.1 || PRED-be.fish<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be this&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''This, well, this is a fish!'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... but before a non-syllabic '''i''', it remains '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''omo''' || '''g-unis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}iaha'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3S.DEF.INAN || be.pair.of.eyes || COP-GEN.1s.ICS || PRED-be.painful<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;hurt&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''As for my eyes, they're sore.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Lo''====<br /> <br /> '''Lo''' appears to be a short form of the comitative complementiser '''lejo'''. It introduces an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> ====''Mie''====<br /> <br /> ====''Teuo''====<br /> <br /> ====''To''====<br /> <br /> ''To'' generally introduces consequences. It often roughly means 'so' or 'therefore'. In these cases, it may replaced by the more emphatic '''toua'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ba''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(ua)}}''' || '''ka''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''muanaiti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || rain || therefore || be.PROS || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.stream<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;so&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be stream&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''It's raining hard, so the streams are going to swell.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is used in conjunction with '''ha''' (and sometimes '''hai''' or '''haizuo''') to form conditional clauses where it introduces the apodosis. See [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]] for examples.<br /> <br /> It is also frequently used to replace '''i-''' in introducing a main clause after a subordinate clause other than a conditional clause.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''enio'''<br /> |-<br /> | LOC.TEMP.C || rain || then || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.plant<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;when&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be plant&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|When}} it rains{{color|MediumBlue|, (then)}} the plants grow.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Toi''====<br /> <br /> '''Toi''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Toua''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xe''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xue''====<br /> <br /> ===Interjections===<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> <br /> ===Phrase Structure===<br /> <br /> ====Verbal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A verbal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL ...]]]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> When multiple verbals are stacked one after the other, the head is on the left and modifiers on the right.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a large house / are large houses''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jiio''' || '''ttiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | run || be.quick<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;run&quot; || &quot;be fast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''runs quickly / run quickly''<br /> ''is a fast runner / are fast runners''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''hunts birds / hunt birds''<br /> ''is a bird hunter / are bird hunters''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In many cases, verbals with more grammatical than semantic content are followed by much more semantically rich modifying verbals. In these cases, the preceding words are nevertheless heads and the following words modifiers.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bas''' || '''ali''' || '''g-eji''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || be.friend.(of.the.same.sex) || COP-DAT.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;be friend&quot; || &quot;be to inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;be the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a good friend / are good friends of the king''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''huna'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || drink<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;drink&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''drank / has drunk / have drunk''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''toto''' || '''kas''' || '''euo''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.really || be.PROS || be.pair || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be in fact&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''are actually going to be two big ones''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''buua''' || '''tio''' || '''vaxu''' || '''zara'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.on.top.of || be.that.3 || be.table || write<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be one top of&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot; || &quot;be a table&quot; || &quot;write&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''is / are on top of that desk over there''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Each complex verbal phrase comprised of more than one verbal has its own case structure which defines how the cases are used in a sentence. The case structure is determined by the rightmost verbal which shares the same nominative argument as the leftmost verbal in the phrase.<br /> <br /> $$$$$$$ [examples to come]<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A nominal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''NOMINAL [VERBAL PHRASE]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> An unadorned nominal on its own functions as a pronoun.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''he'', ''she''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''its''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> Adorned nominal phrases consist of a nominal followed by a verbal phrase. In this case, the nominal acts as the head of a relative clause in which the verbal phrase sits.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju''' || '''xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || execute<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;execute&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the executioner''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi''' || '''tukaue'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.collar.indicating.the.owner.of.a.slave<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a slave's collar&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''of the slave's collar''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Structure===<br /> <br /> With unmarked word order, a clause generally has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''[PARTICLE] PREDICATE [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] ...'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> A &lt;tt&gt;'''PREDICATE'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a verbal phrase and an &lt;tt&gt;'''ARGUMENT'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a nominal phrase or a subordinate clause.<br /> <br /> In many cases, one or more arguments may precede the predicate or may even appear in the middle of the predicate, dividing it into two or more pieces.<br /> <br /> Unmarked word order:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental)<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau''' || '''azi''' || '''akuala''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; || &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''I ate food with a knife.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted, nominal argument partially fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || Pred... || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || ...icate || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''nu''' || '''i-kau''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || NOM.1s.ICS || eat || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Predicate-Only Clauses====<br /> <br /> The simplest clauses in Ngolu consist of nothing but a verbal or a verbal phrase used as the predicate. There are no obligatory arguments in Ngolu and all may be omitted from the clause and left to context, even the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's raining. / It rains.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's good.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> A verbal with no arguments indicates an activity or state without specifying the identity of any participants. Essentially, Ngolu is a pro-drop language. With prior context, omitted arguments can be understood as referring to someone or something already discussed. With no prior context, however, verbal-only sentences are simply understood with a &quot;someone or something&quot; as the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kau'''<br /> |-<br /> | eat<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;eats&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He, she or it is eating. (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Something or someone is eating.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He or it is hunting. / He or it is a hunter.'' (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''Something or someone is hunting. / There's a hunter.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Simple declarative or existential statements are frequently verbal-only.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.fire<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a fire&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's a fire. / There's a fire. / Fire!''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====One-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Multi-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Subordinate Clauses====<br /> <br /> =====Complementiser Clauses=====<br /> <br /> =====Adverbial Clauses=====<br /> <br /> Adverbial clauses are introduced by the particle '''lo''', which may be derived from '''lejo''', the comitative case of the copula 'zuo'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''lo''' || '''juo''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | want || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ADV || be.outside || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be outside&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to eat outside.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Relative Clauses=====<br /> <br /> ===Topic and Focus===<br /> <br /> ===Affirmation and Negation===<br /> <br /> The verbals '''ahe''' and '''kka''' indicate polarity, being positive and negative respectively. On their own, they are roughly equivalent to 'yes' and 'no'. <br /> <br /> Positive sentences are generally unmarked and '''ahe''' generally appears only for emphasis.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || '''bo''' || '''xu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.indeed || be.wanted || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;be wanted&quot; || &quot;the thing&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|do}} want it.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation is performed by means of '''kka'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xua''' || '''uttia'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be tree&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''S/He{{color|MediumBlue|'s not}} at the tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''mula''' || '''ju''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.liked || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be liked&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|don't}} like him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> After a negative question or statement, '''ahe''' indicates a contradictory, positive answer whereas '''kka''' indicates a negative answer in agreement.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.not || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be.not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Is{{color|MediumBlue|n't}} it raining?''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.indeed || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be indeed&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Yes, it is}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.not || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be not&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No, it's not}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation (as well as affirmation) is generally performed in the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''xeva''' || '''ju''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|eri}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.seen || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;to anyone who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No one else}} saw her.'' (Literally: ''{{color|MediumBlue|Anyone else didn't}} see her.'')<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> To negate or affirm an argument, it is placed within an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || '''los''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''ahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV || be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV || be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Both '''kka''' and '''ahe''' have equivalent adverbial forms, '''kku''' and '''lahe''' respectively, which do not require the use of '''lo''' when negating or affirming an argument. The previous sentence may be expressed as follows.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kku}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV.be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV.be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Interrogation===<br /> <br /> ====Polar Questions====<br /> <br /> Polar questions are indicated with '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} raining{{color|MediumBlue|?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Do}} you love me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Ha''' can occur at the end of a sentence, where it functions as a question tag.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | rain || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot; || Q<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''It's raining, {{color|MediumBlue|isn't it?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;?&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''You love me, {{color|MediumBlue|don't you?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Individual arguments in a sentence may be called into question by placing them inside an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]] introduced by '''lo'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} me who you love{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''na''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || ADV || Q || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} you who loves me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Alternative Questions====<br /> <br /> Alternative questions use two or more instances of '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Bio''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''kau''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''huna''' || '''vu'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || Q || eat || Q || drink || NOM.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;or&quot; || &quot;drink&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''Would you like anything to {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} eat {{color|MediumBlue|or}} drink{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Xevu''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ja''' || '''mahu''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ju''' || '''laiuiie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mahu || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Laiuiie<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Mahu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Laiuiie&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''Have you seen {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} Mahu {{color|MediumBlue|or}} Laiuiie{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Content Questions====<br /> <br /> ====Embedded Questions====<br /> <br /> Any type of question may be embedded inside a complementiser phrase.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Zau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ti''' || '''uaizue''' || '''ji''' || '''tavi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || TOP.C || Q || be.PRF || find || ACC.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.child<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;about that&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || be.PRF || &quot;find&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I don't know {{color|MediumBlue|if}} the child has been found.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Voice===<br /> <br /> ===Time===<br /> <br /> Marking of time (tense and aspect) is not obligatory in Ngolu and may always be left up to context. For our purposes here, we shall not distinguish between actions (e.g. ''kill'') and states (e.g. ''want'', ''be a house'') as temporal marking is identical for both. The word ''action'' will be used henceforth and should be understood to mean &quot;action or state&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Relative tenses====<br /> When time needs to be indicated, it is most often done by means of a verbal indicating a &quot;relative tense&quot; (aspect). These are relative to a contextually understood time in question, the &quot;reference time&quot;. The three basic &quot;relative tense&quot; markers are ... <br /> <br /> <br /> *'''ti''' &quot;perfect&quot; (PRF), indicating an action that occurred before the reference time<br /> *'''zo''' &quot;progressive&quot; (PROG), indicating an action underway at the reference time<br /> *'''ka''' &quot;prospective (PROS), indicating an action occurring after the reference time<br /> <br /> <br /> By default, the reference is the present, the time in which the utterance is made. However, if another time is contextually understood, any of these may refer to events in the past, present or future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|zo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROG || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be underway&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Absolute tenses====<br /> The prefix '''e-''' attached to the beginning of any of these aspect markers creates an absolute tense marker. The '''e-''' sets the reference time to the current moment in which the utterance is made. This is usually only used to disambiguate or to emphasise a time frame.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''eti''' &quot;past&quot; (PST), indicating an action that occurred in the past<br /> *'''ezo''' &quot;present&quot; (PRES), indicating an action underway in the present<br /> *'''eka''' &quot;future (FUT), indicating an action that will occur in the future<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be earlier&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRES || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Continuation====<br /> There are also compounds formed from two time words that indicate continuation from one time frame to another using a linking ''-e-''. This linking ''-e-'' is probably not related to the ''e-'' of absolute temporal reference, but to the ''e-'' prefix of dative case nominals and the derivation prefix ''e-'' that can be added to verbals indicating motion towards something.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''tiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that starting before the reference time and continuing up to it<br /> *'''zueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action continuing from the reference time and extending to a later time<br /> *'''etiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that started in the past and continues to the present<br /> *'''ezueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action that starts in the present and will continue into the future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezos}}''' || '''oila''' || '''na''' || '''xiies''' || '''oge'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF.PROG|| read || NOM.1S.ACS || ACC.3S.DEF.INAN.PROX || be.book<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have been doing&quot; || &quot;read&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;this thing which&quot; || &quot;is a book&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|have been}} read{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} this book.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Perfective and imperfective====<br /> In addition, the word '''bie''' contrasts with '''zo'''. Whereas '''zo''' specifies that an action is underway at the reference time, essentially taking a &quot;snapshot&quot; of the interior of an action, after its beginning and before its completion, '''bie''' specifies perfectivity, metaphorically painting a picture of the whole completed action without permitting a look inside. On its own, it does not specify whether the completed action occurs before or after the reference time, but it does explicitly specify that the action is ''not'' underway at the reference time. <br /> <br /> Both ''bie'' and ''zo'' may be suffixed to other verbals indicating time in order to explicitly distinguish the imperfective (progressive) aspect from the perfective aspect, while also specifying time.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfectivity:<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | imperfective (progressive)<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfective<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | bie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | relative time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kabie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | absolute time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekabie<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Note that '''zo''' appears twice in the table although it really only has one function; it specifies an action underway at the reference time (i.e. concurrent with it), which itself may be unspecified.<br /> <br /> The reduplicated forms '''zozo''' ('these days', 'in those days') and '''ezozo''' ('these days') do not appear in the above table as they indicate a loosening of the bounds of the reference time or current time. The reference or current time can be tightened or emphasised with '''bazo''' ('right now', 'right then', 'at that/this very moment') or '''ebazo''' ('right now', 'at this very moment').<br /> <br /> ====Resultative perfect====<br /> The word '''bue''' indicates a ''resultative perfect'', functioning similarly to '''ti''' in that it describes an action occurring prior to the reference time, however the focus of '''bue''' is not on the action itself, but on the resulting post-action state at the reference time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|bue}}''' || '''kaxa''' || '''xu''' || '''giloxuo'''<br /> |-<br /> | RES.PRF|| break(INTR) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || window.pane<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is in the resulting state&quot; || &quot;break&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a window pane&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''The window {{color|MediumBlue|is}} br{{color|MediumBlue|o}}k{{color|MediumBlue|en}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bue''' is frequently prefixed to the following word (for example ''buekaxa'' instead of ''bue kaxa''). Its passive equivalent '''hi-''' is always prefixed.<br /> <br /> ====Time word stacking====<br /> More than one time word can be used together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT|| be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will&quot; || &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST|| be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;will&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> These are usually compounded together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekati}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|etika}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST-PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Distance from reference time====<br /> The precise distance from the reference time can be indicated using adverbial clauses with '''lo''' followed by the unit of time, '''(e)ti''' or '''(e)ka''' and an ordinal number, which begins with ''t-''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''zaxa''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teuo}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.ill || ADV || be.year || be.PRF || be.second<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;becomes&quot; || &quot;is ill&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;is earlier&quot; || &quot;is second&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he fell ill {{color|MediumBlue|two years before/ago}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> This sentence could be translated somewhat more literally as &quot;S/he fell ill while there was the second previous year.&quot; Note that replacing '''ti''' with '''eti''' would force the interpretation with &quot;ago&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || Bie || bilo || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tahu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PFV || die || ADV || be.month || be.PROS || be.first<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is completed&quot; || &quot;dies&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;is about to&quot; || &quot;is first&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he died {{color|MediumBlue|one month later}}. / S/he will die {{color|MediumBlue|in one month}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A more literally translation could be &quot;S/he died while there was the second coming year.&quot; Note again that replacing '''ka''' with '''eka''' would force the interpretation with &quot;in one month&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment. <br /> <br /> In the following example, in which a duration is specified rather than a specific time, the adverbial clause contains only the length of time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS || ADV || be.five || be.year<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another means of conveying the same information is to place the time specifiers after the tense or aspect marker and then introducing the rest of the sentence with '''to'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''li''' || '''zaxa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || be.two || be.year || thus || begin || be.ill<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become&quot; || &quot;be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Two years ago,}} s/he fell ill.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || ... || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''bilo'''<br /> |-<br /> | || be.going.to || be.one || be.month || thus || die<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;is going to&quot; || &quot;is one&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;die&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|One month later,}} s/he died.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.five || be.year || thus || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Miscellaneous time words====<br /> There are a range of other verbals which indicate time in a similar way. Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> ''Days''<br /> * '''ariu''' &quot;yesterday&quot;<br /> * '''aku''' &quot;today&quot;<br /> * '''anu''' &quot;tomorrow&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Lighting''<br /> * '''auo''' &quot;by day&quot;<br /> * '''eio''' &quot;by night&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Distance in time''<br /> * '''ttie''' / '''ettie''' &quot;just&quot; (similar to '''ti''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''tieka''' / '''etieka''' &quot;about to&quot; (similar to '''ka''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''ti ti''' / '''eti ti''' &quot;a long time ago&quot; (reduplication for distance into the past)<br /> * '''ka ka''' / '''eka ka''' &quot;eventually&quot; (reduplication for distance into the future)<br /> <br /> ''Other aspectual differences''<br /> * '''hua''' &quot;always&quot;, &quot;permanently&quot; [gnomic]<br /> * '''niu''' &quot;habitually&quot; [habitual]<br /> * '''guegue''' &quot;repeatedly&quot;, &quot;again and again&quot; [iterative]<br /> * '''egue''' &quot;again&quot;<br /> * '''tara''' &quot;suddenly&quot;<br /> * '''li''' &quot;starts&quot;, &quot;begins&quot;, &quot;commences&quot;<br /> * '''bi''' &quot;stops&quot;, &quot;ceases&quot;<br /> * '''ligue''' &quot;resumes&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Demonstratives===<br /> <br /> Demonstratives distinguish three degrees of distance associated with the three grammatical persons.<br /> <br /> * '''''tie''''' 'this' or 'these' near the speaker [1st person - proximal]<br /> * '''''tia''''' 'that' or 'those' near the listener [2nd person - medial]<br /> * '''''tio''''' 'that' or 'those' away from both speaker and listener [3rd person - distal]<br /> <br /> When speaking to someone of the same or higher rank and referring to the something that is close to both speaker and listener (such as a house that both are inside), the 2nd person '''''tia''''' 'that' is used. Only persons of higher rank may use the first person form '''''tie''''' in such situations.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.MED || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.PROX || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The association between the grammatical persons and the demonstratives is strong, with words, statements and actions made by a person frequently being referred to using the appropriate demonstrative. For example, a commonly used phrase for &quot;therefore&quot; is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}'' (literally 'because of this (by me)') when the reasoning is based on what the speaker just said, but when the reasoning is based on what their interlocutor just said, this phrase is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}'' (literally 'because of that (by you)').<br /> <br /> ====Contractions====<br /> <br /> The demonstrative verbals '''''tie''''', '''''tia''''' and '''''tio''''' form very common contractions with third person definite nominals, transforming the above examples as follows:<br /> <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tia}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}} mala''''' 'this house' / 'that house' (by you) <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tie}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}} mala''''' 'this house' (by me)<br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what I said' <br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what you said' <br /> <br /> Here is a table of forms:<br /> <br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Proximal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Medial || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Distal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Proximal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''|| '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Medial || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Distal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Proximal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Medial || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Distal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Proximal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Medial || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Distal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Proximal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Medial || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Distal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Proximal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Medial || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Distal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Proximal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Medial || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Distal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Proximal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Medial || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Distal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Proximal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Medial || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Distal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Proximal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Medial || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Distal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Proximal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Medial || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Distal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Proximal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Medial || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Distal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Proximal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Medial || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Distal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Essive Proximal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Medial || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Distal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Location===<br /> <br /> ===Movement===<br /> <br /> Movement is expressed in a variety of ways in Ngolu. <br /> <br /> One of the most common methods for talking about movement is using the words '''hu''' and '''mia'''. There is no distinction between coming and going but rather a distinction between the perfective '''hu''', meaning 'come' or 'go', and the imperfective '''mia''', 'be one one's way', 'be coming', 'be going'. The destination may be indicated by a subsequent modifying verbal or by a dative argument. The origin is indicated by an ablative argument.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nu''' || '''exi''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || NOM.1s.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|mia}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.IPFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be on the way&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|'m going / on my way}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || move.PFV || ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Please {{color|MediumBlue|get}} away from me.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another method for expressing movement is to affix the copula prefix '''g-''', '''m-''', '''n-''' to a dative or ablative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-exi}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to you&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'll {{color|MediumBlue|come to you}}.'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Get away from me}}!'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The third way to express movement is to use an inceptive (inchoative) morpheme in conjunction with a word indicating location. For example, the verbal '''xa''' means 'to be inside' and the verbal '''atio''' means 'to be there (away from us)' - adding the infix '''-in-''' (perfective inceptive) or '''-ij-''' (imperfective inceptive) gives '''xina''' ('to go in', 'to enter') and '''xija''' ('to be on the way in'), '''atinio''' ('to go there') and '''atijo''' ('to be on the way there'). The free standing verbal '''li''' ('to begin, start, commence') may also be used, with '''li xa''' and '''li atio''' being equivalent to '''xina''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xina}}''' || '''iju''' || '''i-oba''' || '''loe'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || enter.PFV || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || PRED-be.room || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;enter&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible ones&quot; || &quot;be room&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''They {{color|MediumBlue|went into}} the bedroom.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bios''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|atinio}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || go.there.3 || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''S/He wants {{color|MediumBlue|to go there}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The inceptive infixes are frequently used with the verbals denoting location in the four cardinal directions: '''la''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' ('to be in the east', 'to be in the west', 'to be in the north', 'to be in the south' respectively) creating the perfective forms '''lina''', '''tina''', '''ginio''' and '''vino''' and the imperfective forms '''lija''', '''tija''', '''gijo''' and '''vijo'''. Direction within Qu, with its noticeable tube shape (with 'east/west' pointing along the tube and 'north/south' going around the circumference), is a much more salient feature than on Earth and referencing direction with motion is common. In certain circumstances, describing movement without reference to direction is regarded as too imprecise, such as when men are discussing hunting in the forest where there may be no obvious landmarks to identify as the destination of a movement.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''La''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' may be used to modify another verb of motion with or without taking an inceptive infix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|lina}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|gio}}''' || '''inais''' || '''ixi''' || '''vaku'''<br /> |-<br /> | go.east.PFV || be.in.the.north || ABL.1p.ACS || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.babirusa<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go east&quot; || &quot;be in the north&quot; || &quot;from us&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be babirusa&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''The babirusas {{color|MediumBlue|moved (east)-northeast}} away from us.'' — '''muja''' [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Additionally, there is yet another prefix '''e-''' which may be related to the '''e-''' prefix at the beginning of nominals in the dative case. Words with this prefix indicate perfective movement and include '''etie''' ('to come here') '''etia''' ('to go/come there/here by you') and '''etio''' ('to go there'). These words are slightly more commonly used than their equivalents '''atinie''', '''atinia''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> ===Causes===<br /> <br /> ===Goals===<br /> <br /> ===Conditionals===<br /> <br /> Conditional sentences in Ngolu use particles to indicate the condition clause (protasis) and the result clause (apodosis). These particles differ depending on whether the condition is possible (realis) or hypothetical (irrealis).<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''PROTASIS'' || ''APODOSIS''<br /> |-<br /> | ''REALIS'' || '''ha''' || '''to'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''IRREALIS'' || '''hai''' &lt;br&gt; '''haizuo''' (emphatic) || '''toi''' &lt;br&gt; '''to''' (possible only when apodosis clause appears second)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Realis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''anu''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''kka''' || '''vuja''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | if || be.tomorrow || rain || then || be.not || hunt.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if&quot; || &quot;be tomorrow&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} it rains tomorrow, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} he won't hunt.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ('''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''') || '''ttio''' || '''nu''' || '''ue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''vai''' || '''tiaia'''<br /> |-<br /> | (then) || hit || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.2s.ACS || if || stay || do.that.2<br /> |-<br /> | (&quot;then&quot;) || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;if&quot; || &quot;keep&quot; || &quot;do that which you are doing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I'll hit you {{color|MediumBlue|if}} you keep doing that.'' — '''muja''' [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Irrealis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''g-ua''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(i)}}''' || '''hales''' || '''eji''' || '''jo''' || '''nio'''|| '''mo'''<br /> |-<br /> | if.IRR || be-NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ACS || then.(would) || ask || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.C || happen || be.what<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;imagine if&quot; || &quot;be you&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then (would)&quot; || &quot;ask&quot; || &quot;(to) the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;happen&quot; || &quot;be what&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} you, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} I{{color|MediumBlue|'d}} ask him/her what happened.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || '''obani'''<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;stop&quot; || &quot;work&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || &quot;be more&quot; || &quot;be rich&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|would}} stop working, {{color|MediumBlue|if}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} richer.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''ti''' || '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''leui''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || ('''ti''') || '''mahu''' || ('''xu''') || ('''ene''')<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || be.PRF || move || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ICS || if.IRR || (be.PRF) || be.known || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN) || (DAT.1s.ACS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;move&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || (&quot;be finished&quot;) || &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''I would have come with you if I had known that.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Numbers===<br /> <br /> ===Quantity===<br /> <br /> ===Degree===<br /> <br /> ===Comparison===<br /> <br /> ==Pragmatics==<br /> <br /> ===Social Stratification and Language Use===<br /> <br /> Ngolu society is heavily stratified into five social divisions. These social divisions, or strata, are hierarchical and from highest to lowest are as follows.<br /> <br /> * 5. ''ju '''taqu''''' - the king<br /> * 4. ''iju '''balu''''' - the king's men<br /> * 3. ''iju '''muja''''' - initiated men<br /> * 2. ''iju '''kali''''' - free citizens<br /> * 1. ''iju '''tuva''''' - slaves and prisoners (''ixu tuva'' in the speech of '''muja''', '''balu''' and '''taqu''')<br /> <br /> Language use is, to a large extent, determined by the strata of the speaker, addressee and third person referents.<br /> <br /> ===Speech Crime===<br /> <br /> [[Category:Languages]]<br /> [[Category:Conlangs]]</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Jualio&diff=264151 2022-03-18T18:49:17Z

<p>Imralu: /* Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive) */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Jualio<br /> |nativename = jualio<br /> |pronunciation = ʒwàʎó<br /> |region = <br /> |ethnicity = <br /> |speakers = unknown<br /> |setting = <br /> |fam1 = Presumed language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2022<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''Jualio''' (English: /ʒwɑːlˈjɔː/; Jualio: [ʒwàʎó]) is the language of the ...<br /> <br /> ====Overview of Nominals====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the subjective case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; <br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Simple pronominals:<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Animate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; &quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | 1st person<br /> | definite<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | na<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | nu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ina<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | inu<br /> |-<br /> | 2nd person<br /> | definite<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | vu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | definite<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju<br /> |-<br /> | specific<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ma<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | mu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ima<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | imu<br /> |-<br /> | generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iu<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Inanimate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | definite<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | specific<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | zu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | tu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | izu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | itu<br /> |-<br /> | inanimate generic<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | a<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | au<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ia<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iau<br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals:<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Animate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; &quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd person&lt;br /&gt;definite<br /> | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | medial<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | distal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Inanimate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd person&lt;br /&gt;definite<br /> | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | medial<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | distal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Compound pronominals:<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Animate:<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dominant<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | dual<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | plural<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Complementisers:<br /> |- style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | temporal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Simple Nominals====<br /> =====First Person=====<br /> First person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''na''' || '''nu''' || '''ina''' || '''inu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''ne''' || '''ni''' || '''ine''' || '''ini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''ene''' || '''eni''' || '''eine''' || '''eini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''une''' || '''uni''' || '''uine''' || '''uini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''una''' || '''unu''' || '''uina''' || '''uinu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hune''' || '''huni''' || '''huine''' || '''huini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nai''' || '''nui''' || '''inai''' || '''inui''' <br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''ana''' || '''nua''' || '''aina''' || '''inua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ena''' || '''enu''' || '''eina''' || '''einu''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tene''' || '''teni''' || '''teine''' || '''teini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuane''' || '''kuani''' || '''kuaine''' || '''kuaini''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ane''' || '''ani''' || '''aine''' || '''aini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lene''' || '''leni''' || '''leine''' || '''leini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ona''' || '''onu''' || '''oina''' || '''oinu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuane''' || '''xuani''' || '''xuaine''' || '''xuaini''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''ua''' || '''vu''' || '''iua''' || '''ivu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''ue''' || '''ui''' || '''iue''' || '''iui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''eue''' || '''eui''' || '''eiue''' || '''eiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uue''' || '''uue''' || '''uiue''' || '''uiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uua''' || '''uvu''' || '''uiua''' || '''uivu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''huue''' || '''huui''' || '''huiue''' || '''huiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''uai''' || '''vui''' || '''iuai''' || '''ivui''' <br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aua''' || '''vua''' || '''aiua''' || '''ivua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eua''' || '''evu''' || '''eiua''' || '''eivu''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teue''' || '''teui''' || '''teiue''' || '''teiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiue''' || '''kuaiui''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aue''' || '''aui''' || '''aiue''' || '''aiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leue''' || '''leui''' || '''leiue''' || '''leiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oua''' || '''ovu''' || '''oiua''' || '''oivu''' <br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuaue''' || '''xuaui''' || '''xuaiue''' || '''xuaiui''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person Animate=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''ja''' || '''ju''' || '''ija''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''je''' || '''ji''' || '''ije''' || '''iji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''eje''' || '''eji''' || '''eije''' || '''eiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uje''' || '''uji''' || '''uije''' || '''uiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uja''' || '''uju''' || '''uija''' || '''uiju'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''huje''' || '''huji''' || '''huije''' || '''huiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jai''' || '''jui''' || '''ijai''' || '''ijui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aja''' || '''jua''' || '''aija''' || '''ijua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eja''' || '''eju''' || '''eija''' || '''eiju'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teje''' || '''teji''' || '''teije''' || '''teiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aje''' || '''aji''' || '''aije''' || '''aiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leje''' || '''leji''' || '''leije''' || '''leiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oja''' || '''oju''' || '''oija''' || '''oiju'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuaje''' || '''xuaji''' || '''xuaije''' || '''xuaiji'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''ma''' || '''mu''' || '''ima''' || '''imu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''me''' || '''mi''' || '''ime''' || '''imi''' <br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''eme''' || '''emi''' || '''eime''' || '''eimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ume''' || '''umi''' || '''uime''' || '''uimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uma''' || '''umu''' || '''uima''' || '''uimu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hume''' || '''humi''' || '''huime''' || '''huimi''' <br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mai''' || '''mui''' || '''imai''' || '''imui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''ama''' || '''mua''' || '''aima''' || '''imua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ema''' || '''emu''' || '''eima''' || '''eimu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teme''' || '''temi''' || '''teime''' || '''teimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuame''' || '''kuami''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuaimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ame''' || '''ami''' || '''aime''' || '''aimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leme''' || '''lemi''' || '''leime''' || '''leimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oma''' || '''omu''' || '''oima''' || '''oimu''' <br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuame''' || '''xuami''' || '''xuaime''' || '''xuaimi'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular || Plural<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''u''' || '''iu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''i''' || '''iri'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''eri''' || '''eiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''uiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''uiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hui''' || '''huiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' <br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''aiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' <br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuari''' || '''xuairi''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person Inanimate=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''xu''' || '''bu''' || '''ixu''' || '''ibu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''xi''' || '''biu''' || '''ixi''' || '''ibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''exi''' || '''ebiu''' || '''eixi''' || '''eibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uxi''' || '''ubiu''' || '''uixi''' || '''uibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uxu''' || '''ubu''' || '''uixu''' || '''uibu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''huxi''' || '''hubiu''' || '''huixi''' || '''huibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''xui''' || '''bui''' || '''ixui''' || '''ibui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''xua''' || '''bua''' || '''ixua''' || '''ibua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''exu''' || '''ebu''' || '''eixu''' || '''eibu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''texi''' || '''tebiu''' || '''teixi''' || '''teibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuabiu''' || '''kuaixi''' || '''kuaibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''axi''' || '''abiu''' || '''aixi''' || '''aibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lexi''' || '''lebiu''' || '''leixi''' || '''leibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oxu''' || '''obu''' || '''oixu''' || '''oibu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuaxi''' || '''xuabiu''' || '''xuaixi''' || '''xuaibiu'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''zu''' || '''tu''' || '''izu''' || '''itu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''zi''' || '''tiu''' || '''izi''' || '''itiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''ezi''' || '''etiu''' || '''eizi''' || '''eitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uzi''' || '''utiu''' || '''uizi''' || '''uitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uzu''' || '''utu''' || '''uizu''' || '''uitu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''huzi''' || '''hutiu''' || '''huizi''' || '''huitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zui''' || '''tui''' || '''izui''' || '''itui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''zua''' || '''tua''' || '''izua''' || '''itua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezu''' || '''etu''' || '''eizu''' || '''eitu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tezi''' || '''tetiu''' || '''teizi''' || '''teitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuazi''' || '''kuatiu''' || '''kuaizi''' || '''kuaitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''azi''' || '''atiu''' || '''aizi''' || '''aitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lezi''' || '''letiu''' || '''leizi''' || '''leitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozu''' || '''otu''' || '''oizu''' || '''oitu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuazi''' || '''xuatiu''' || '''xuaizi''' || '''xuaitiu'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''a''' || '''au''' || '''ia''' || '''iau'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''e''' || '''eu''' || '''ie''' || '''ieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''ere''' || '''ereu''' || '''eie''' || '''eieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ure''' || '''ureu''' || '''uie''' || '''uieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''ura''' || '''urau''' || '''uia''' || '''uiau''' <br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hue''' || '''hueu''' || '''huie''' || '''huieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ai''' || '''aui''' || '''iai''' || '''iaui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''ara''' || '''arau''' || '''aia''' || '''aiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''era''' || '''erau''' || '''eia''' || '''eiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tere''' || '''tereu''' || '''teie''' || '''teieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuare''' || '''kuareu''' || '''kuaie''' || '''kuaieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''are''' || '''areu''' || '''aie''' || '''aieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lere''' || '''lereu''' || '''leie''' || '''leieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ora''' || '''orau''' || '''oia''' || '''oiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuare''' || '''xuareu''' || '''xuaie''' || '''xuaieu''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Compound Nominals====<br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || Dual&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> || Dual&lt;br /&gt;Accessible<br /> || Dual&lt;br /&gt;Dominant<br /> || Dual&lt;br /&gt;Subordinate<br /> || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible<br /> || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Dominant<br /> || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Subordinate<br /> |-<br /> || Subjective<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Objective<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Allative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Abessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | xuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | xuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | xuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | xuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | xuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | xuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | xuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | xuaiuine<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Complementisers====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''jo''' || 'that'; || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''ejo''' || 'about the fact that' || '''ekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uzuo''' || || '''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hujo''' || 'to the place where' || '''hukio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuajo''' || 'without V-ing' || '''xuakio''' ||<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Jualio&diff=262499 2022-02-26T01:49:03Z

<p>Imralu: /* Third Person Inanimate */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Jualio<br /> |nativename = jualio<br /> |pronunciation = ʒwàʎó<br /> |region = <br /> |ethnicity = <br /> |speakers = unknown<br /> |setting = <br /> |fam1 = Presumed language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2022<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''Jualio''' (English: /ʒwɑːlˈjɔː/; Jualio: [ʒwàʎó]) is the language of the ...<br /> <br /> ====Overview of Nominals====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the subjective case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; <br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Simple pronominals:<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Animate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; &quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | 1st person<br /> | definite<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | na<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | nu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ina<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | inu<br /> |-<br /> | 2nd person<br /> | definite<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | vu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | definite<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju<br /> |-<br /> | specific<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ma<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | mu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ima<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | imu<br /> |-<br /> | generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iu<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Inanimate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | definite<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | specific<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | zu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | tu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | izu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | itu<br /> |-<br /> | inanimate generic<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | a<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | au<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ia<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iau<br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals:<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Animate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; &quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd person&lt;br /&gt;definite<br /> | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | medial<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | distal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Inanimate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd person&lt;br /&gt;definite<br /> | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | medial<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | distal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Compound pronominals:<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Animate:<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dominant<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | dual<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | plural<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Complementisers:<br /> |- style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | temporal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Simple Nominals====<br /> =====First Person=====<br /> First person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''na''' || '''nu''' || '''ina''' || '''inu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''ne''' || '''ni''' || '''ine''' || '''ini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''ene''' || '''eni''' || '''eine''' || '''eini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''une''' || '''uni''' || '''uine''' || '''uini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''una''' || '''unu''' || '''uina''' || '''uinu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hune''' || '''huni''' || '''huine''' || '''huini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nai''' || '''nui''' || '''inai''' || '''inui''' <br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''ana''' || '''nua''' || '''aina''' || '''inua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ena''' || '''enu''' || '''eina''' || '''einu''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tene''' || '''teni''' || '''teine''' || '''teini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuane''' || '''kuani''' || '''kuaine''' || '''kuaini''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ane''' || '''ani''' || '''aine''' || '''aini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lene''' || '''leni''' || '''leine''' || '''leini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ona''' || '''onu''' || '''oina''' || '''oinu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuane''' || '''xuani''' || '''xuaine''' || '''xuaini''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''ua''' || '''vu''' || '''iua''' || '''ivu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''ue''' || '''ui''' || '''iue''' || '''iui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''eue''' || '''eui''' || '''eiue''' || '''eiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uue''' || '''uue''' || '''uiue''' || '''uiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uua''' || '''uvu''' || '''uiua''' || '''uivu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''huue''' || '''huui''' || '''huiue''' || '''huiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''uai''' || '''vui''' || '''iuai''' || '''ivui''' <br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aua''' || '''vua''' || '''aiua''' || '''ivua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eua''' || '''evu''' || '''eiua''' || '''eivu''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teue''' || '''teui''' || '''teiue''' || '''teiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiue''' || '''kuaiui''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aue''' || '''aui''' || '''aiue''' || '''aiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leue''' || '''leui''' || '''leiue''' || '''leiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oua''' || '''ovu''' || '''oiua''' || '''oivu''' <br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuaue''' || '''xuaui''' || '''xuaiue''' || '''xuaiui''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person Animate=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''ja''' || '''ju''' || '''ija''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''je''' || '''ji''' || '''ije''' || '''iji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''eje''' || '''eji''' || '''eije''' || '''eiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uje''' || '''uji''' || '''uije''' || '''uiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uja''' || '''uju''' || '''uija''' || '''uiju'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''huje''' || '''huji''' || '''huije''' || '''huiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jai''' || '''jui''' || '''ijai''' || '''ijui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aja''' || '''jua''' || '''aija''' || '''ijua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eja''' || '''eju''' || '''eija''' || '''eiju'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teje''' || '''teji''' || '''teije''' || '''teiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aje''' || '''aji''' || '''aije''' || '''aiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leje''' || '''leji''' || '''leije''' || '''leiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oja''' || '''oju''' || '''oija''' || '''oiju'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuaje''' || '''xuaji''' || '''xuaije''' || '''xuaiji'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''ma''' || '''mu''' || '''ima''' || '''imu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''me''' || '''mi''' || '''ime''' || '''imi''' <br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''eme''' || '''emi''' || '''eime''' || '''eimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ume''' || '''umi''' || '''uime''' || '''uimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uma''' || '''umu''' || '''uima''' || '''uimu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hume''' || '''humi''' || '''huime''' || '''huimi''' <br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mai''' || '''mui''' || '''imai''' || '''imui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''ama''' || '''mua''' || '''aima''' || '''imua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ema''' || '''emu''' || '''eima''' || '''eimu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teme''' || '''temi''' || '''teime''' || '''teimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuame''' || '''kuami''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuaimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ame''' || '''ami''' || '''aime''' || '''aimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leme''' || '''lemi''' || '''leime''' || '''leimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oma''' || '''omu''' || '''oima''' || '''oimu''' <br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuame''' || '''xuami''' || '''xuaime''' || '''xuaimi'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular || Plural<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''u''' || '''iu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''i''' || '''iri'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''eri''' || '''eiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''uiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''uiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hui''' || '''huiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' <br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''aiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' <br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuari''' || '''xuairi''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person Inanimate=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''xu''' || '''bu''' || '''ixu''' || '''ibu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''xi''' || '''biu''' || '''ixi''' || '''ibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''exi''' || '''ebiu''' || '''eixi''' || '''eibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uxi''' || '''ubiu''' || '''uixi''' || '''uibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uxu''' || '''ubu''' || '''uixu''' || '''uibu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''huxi''' || '''hubiu''' || '''huixi''' || '''huibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''xui''' || '''bui''' || '''ixui''' || '''ibui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''xua''' || '''bua''' || '''ixua''' || '''ibua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''exu''' || '''ebu''' || '''eixu''' || '''eibu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''texi''' || '''tebiu''' || '''teixi''' || '''teibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuabiu''' || '''kuaixi''' || '''kuaibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''axi''' || '''abiu''' || '''aixi''' || '''aibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lexi''' || '''lebiu''' || '''leixi''' || '''leibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oxu''' || '''obu''' || '''oixu''' || '''oibu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuaxi''' || '''xuabiu''' || '''xuaixi''' || '''xuaibiu'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''zu''' || '''tu''' || '''izu''' || '''itu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''zi''' || '''tiu''' || '''izi''' || '''itiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''ezi''' || '''etiu''' || '''eizi''' || '''eitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uzi''' || '''utiu''' || '''uizi''' || '''uitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uzu''' || '''utu''' || '''uizu''' || '''uitu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''huzi''' || '''hutiu''' || '''huizi''' || '''huitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zui''' || '''tui''' || '''izui''' || '''itui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''zua''' || '''tua''' || '''izua''' || '''itua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezu''' || '''etu''' || '''eizu''' || '''eitu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tezi''' || '''tetiu''' || '''teizi''' || '''teitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuazi''' || '''kuatiu''' || '''kuaizi''' || '''kuaitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''azi''' || '''atiu''' || '''aizi''' || '''aitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lezi''' || '''letiu''' || '''leizi''' || '''leitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozu''' || '''otu''' || '''oizu''' || '''oitu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuazi''' || '''xuatiu''' || '''xuaizi''' || '''xuaitiu'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''a''' || '''au''' || '''ia''' || '''iau'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''e''' || '''eu''' || '''ie''' || '''ieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''ere''' || '''ereu''' || '''eie''' || '''eieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ure''' || '''ureu''' || '''uie''' || '''uieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''ura''' || '''urau''' || '''uia''' || '''uiau''' <br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hue''' || '''hueu''' || '''huie''' || '''huieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ai''' || '''aui''' || '''iai''' || '''iaui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''ara''' || '''arau''' || '''aia''' || '''aiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''era''' || '''erau''' || '''eia''' || '''eiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tere''' || '''tereu''' || '''teie''' || '''teieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuare''' || '''kuareu''' || '''kuaie''' || '''kuaieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''are''' || '''areu''' || '''aie''' || '''aieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lere''' || '''lereu''' || '''leie''' || '''leieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ora''' || '''orau''' || '''oia''' || '''oiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuare''' || '''xuareu''' || '''xuaie''' || '''xuaieu''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Compound Nominals====<br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || Dual&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> || Dual&lt;br /&gt;Accessible<br /> || Dual&lt;br /&gt;Dominant<br /> || Dual&lt;br /&gt;Subordinant<br /> || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible<br /> || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Dominant<br /> || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Subordinant<br /> |-<br /> || Subjective<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Objective<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Allative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Abessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuine<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Complementisers====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''jo''' || 'that'; || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''ejo''' || 'about the fact that' || '''ekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uzuo''' || || '''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hujo''' || 'to the place where' || '''hukio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuajo''' || 'without V-ing' || '''xuakio''' ||<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Jualio&diff=262498 2022-02-26T00:08:49Z

<p>Imralu: </p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Jualio<br /> |nativename = jualio<br /> |pronunciation = ʒwàʎó<br /> |region = <br /> |ethnicity = <br /> |speakers = unknown<br /> |setting = <br /> |fam1 = Presumed language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2022<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''Jualio''' (English: /ʒwɑːlˈjɔː/; Jualio: [ʒwàʎó]) is the language of the ...<br /> <br /> ====Overview of Nominals====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the subjective case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; <br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Simple pronominals:<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Animate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; &quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | 1st person<br /> | definite<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | na<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | nu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ina<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | inu<br /> |-<br /> | 2nd person<br /> | definite<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | vu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | definite<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju<br /> |-<br /> | specific<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ma<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | mu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ima<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | imu<br /> |-<br /> | generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iu<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Inanimate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | definite<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | specific<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | zu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | tu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | izu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | itu<br /> |-<br /> | inanimate generic<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | a<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | au<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ia<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iau<br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals:<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Animate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; &quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd person&lt;br /&gt;definite<br /> | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | medial<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | distal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Inanimate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd person&lt;br /&gt;definite<br /> | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | medial<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | distal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Compound pronominals:<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Animate:<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dominant<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | dual<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | plural<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Complementisers:<br /> |- style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | temporal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Simple Nominals====<br /> =====First Person=====<br /> First person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''na''' || '''nu''' || '''ina''' || '''inu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''ne''' || '''ni''' || '''ine''' || '''ini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''ene''' || '''eni''' || '''eine''' || '''eini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''une''' || '''uni''' || '''uine''' || '''uini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''una''' || '''unu''' || '''uina''' || '''uinu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hune''' || '''huni''' || '''huine''' || '''huini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nai''' || '''nui''' || '''inai''' || '''inui''' <br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''ana''' || '''nua''' || '''aina''' || '''inua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ena''' || '''enu''' || '''eina''' || '''einu''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tene''' || '''teni''' || '''teine''' || '''teini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuane''' || '''kuani''' || '''kuaine''' || '''kuaini''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ane''' || '''ani''' || '''aine''' || '''aini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lene''' || '''leni''' || '''leine''' || '''leini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ona''' || '''onu''' || '''oina''' || '''oinu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuane''' || '''xuani''' || '''xuaine''' || '''xuaini''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''ua''' || '''vu''' || '''iua''' || '''ivu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''ue''' || '''ui''' || '''iue''' || '''iui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''eue''' || '''eui''' || '''eiue''' || '''eiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uue''' || '''uue''' || '''uiue''' || '''uiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uua''' || '''uvu''' || '''uiua''' || '''uivu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''huue''' || '''huui''' || '''huiue''' || '''huiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''uai''' || '''vui''' || '''iuai''' || '''ivui''' <br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aua''' || '''vua''' || '''aiua''' || '''ivua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eua''' || '''evu''' || '''eiua''' || '''eivu''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teue''' || '''teui''' || '''teiue''' || '''teiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiue''' || '''kuaiui''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aue''' || '''aui''' || '''aiue''' || '''aiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leue''' || '''leui''' || '''leiue''' || '''leiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oua''' || '''ovu''' || '''oiua''' || '''oivu''' <br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuaue''' || '''xuaui''' || '''xuaiue''' || '''xuaiui''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person Animate=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''ja''' || '''ju''' || '''ija''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''je''' || '''ji''' || '''ije''' || '''iji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''eje''' || '''eji''' || '''eije''' || '''eiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uje''' || '''uji''' || '''uije''' || '''uiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uja''' || '''uju''' || '''uija''' || '''uiju'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''huje''' || '''huji''' || '''huije''' || '''huiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jai''' || '''jui''' || '''ijai''' || '''ijui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aja''' || '''jua''' || '''aija''' || '''ijua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eja''' || '''eju''' || '''eija''' || '''eiju'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teje''' || '''teji''' || '''teije''' || '''teiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aje''' || '''aji''' || '''aije''' || '''aiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leje''' || '''leji''' || '''leije''' || '''leiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oja''' || '''oju''' || '''oija''' || '''oiju'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuaje''' || '''xuaji''' || '''xuaije''' || '''xuaiji'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''ma''' || '''mu''' || '''ima''' || '''imu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''me''' || '''mi''' || '''ime''' || '''imi''' <br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''eme''' || '''emi''' || '''eime''' || '''eimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ume''' || '''umi''' || '''uime''' || '''uimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uma''' || '''umu''' || '''uima''' || '''uimu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hume''' || '''humi''' || '''huime''' || '''huimi''' <br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mai''' || '''mui''' || '''imai''' || '''imui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''ama''' || '''mua''' || '''aima''' || '''imua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ema''' || '''emu''' || '''eima''' || '''eimu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teme''' || '''temi''' || '''teime''' || '''teimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuame''' || '''kuami''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuaimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ame''' || '''ami''' || '''aime''' || '''aimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leme''' || '''lemi''' || '''leime''' || '''leimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oma''' || '''omu''' || '''oima''' || '''oimu''' <br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuame''' || '''xuami''' || '''xuaime''' || '''xuaimi'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular || Plural<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''u''' || '''iu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''i''' || '''iri'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''eri''' || '''eiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''uiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''uiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hui''' || '''huiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' <br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''aiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' <br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuari''' || '''xuairi''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person Inanimate=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''xu''' || '''bu''' || '''ixu''' || '''ibu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''xi''' || '''biu''' || '''ixi''' || '''ibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''exi''' || '''ebiu''' || '''eixi''' || '''eibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uxi''' || '''ubiu''' || '''uixi''' || '''uibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uxu''' || '''ubu''' || '''uixu''' || '''uibu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''huxi''' || '''hubiu''' || '''huixi''' || '''huibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''xui''' || '''bui''' || '''ixui''' || '''ibui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''xua''' || '''bua''' || '''ixua''' || '''ibua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''exu''' || '''ebu''' || '''eixu''' || '''eibu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''texi''' || '''tebiu''' || '''teixi''' || '''teibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuabiu''' || '''kuaixi''' || '''kuaibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''axi''' || '''abiu''' || '''aixi''' || '''aibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lexi''' || '''lebiu''' || '''leixi''' || '''leibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oxu''' || '''obu''' || '''oixu''' || '''oibu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuaxi''' || '''xuabiu''' || '''xuaixi''' || '''xuaibiu'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''zu''' || '''tu''' || '''izu''' || '''itu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''zi''' || '''tiu''' || '''izi''' || '''itiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''ezi''' || '''etiu''' || '''eizi''' || '''eitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uzi''' || '''utiu''' || '''uizi''' || '''uitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uzu''' || '''utu''' || '''uizu''' || '''uitu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''huzi''' || '''hutiu''' || '''huizi''' || '''huitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zui''' || '''tui''' || '''izui''' || '''itui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''zua''' || '''tua''' || '''izua''' || '''itua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezu''' || '''etu''' || '''eizu''' || '''eitu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tezi''' || '''tetiu''' || '''teizi''' || '''teitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuazi''' || '''kuatiu''' || '''kuaizi''' || '''kuaitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''azi''' || '''atiu''' || '''aizi''' || '''aitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lezi''' || '''letiu''' || '''leizi''' || '''leitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozu''' || '''otu''' || '''oizu''' || '''oitu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuazi''' || '''xuatiu''' || '''xuaizi''' || '''xuaitiu'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''a''' || '''au''' || '''ia''' || '''iau'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''e''' || '''eu''' || '''ie''' || '''ieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''ere''' || '''eu''' || '''eie''' || '''eieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ure''' || '''ureu''' || '''uie''' || '''uieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''ura''' || '''urau''' || '''uia''' || '''uiau''' <br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hue''' || '''hueu''' || '''huie''' || '''huieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ai''' || '''aui''' || '''iai''' || '''iaui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''ara''' || '''arau''' || '''aia''' || '''aiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''era''' || '''erau''' || '''eia''' || '''eiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tere''' || '''tereu''' || '''teie''' || '''teieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuare''' || '''kuareu''' || '''kuaie''' || '''kuaieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''are''' || '''areu''' || '''aie''' || '''aieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lere''' || '''lereu''' || '''leie''' || '''leieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ora''' || '''orau''' || '''oia''' || '''oiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuare''' || '''xuareu''' || '''xuaie''' || '''xuaieu''' <br /> |}<br /> ====Compound Nominals====<br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || Dual&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> || Dual&lt;br /&gt;Accessible<br /> || Dual&lt;br /&gt;Dominant<br /> || Dual&lt;br /&gt;Subordinant<br /> || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible<br /> || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Dominant<br /> || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Subordinant<br /> |-<br /> || Subjective<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Objective<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Allative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Abessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuine<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Complementisers====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''jo''' || 'that'; || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''ejo''' || 'about the fact that' || '''ekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uzuo''' || || '''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hujo''' || 'to the place where' || '''hukio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuajo''' || 'without V-ing' || '''xuakio''' ||<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Jualio&diff=262497 2022-02-25T23:59:40Z

<p>Imralu: /* First Person */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Jualio<br /> |nativename = jualio<br /> |pronunciation = ʒwàʎó<br /> |region = <br /> |ethnicity = <br /> |speakers = unknown<br /> |setting = <br /> |fam1 = Presumed language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2022<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Tables====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; <br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Simple pronominals:<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Animate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; &quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | 1st person<br /> | definite<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | na<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | nu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ina<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | inu<br /> |-<br /> | 2nd person<br /> | definite<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | vu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | definite<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju<br /> |-<br /> | specific<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ma<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | mu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ima<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | imu<br /> |-<br /> | generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iu<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; &quot;rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Inanimate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | definite<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | specific<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | zu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | tu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | izu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | itu<br /> |-<br /> | inanimate generic<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | a<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | au<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ia<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iau<br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals:<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Animate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; &quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd person&lt;br /&gt;definite<br /> | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | medial<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | distal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Inanimate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd person&lt;br /&gt;definite<br /> | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | medial<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | distal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Compound pronominals:<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Animate:<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dominant<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | dual<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | plural<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Complementisers:<br /> |- style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | temporal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Simple Nominals====<br /> =====First Person=====<br /> First person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''na''' || '''nu''' || '''ina''' || '''inu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''ne''' || '''ni''' || '''ine''' || '''ini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''ene''' || '''eni''' || '''eine''' || '''eini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''une''' || '''uni''' || '''uine''' || '''uini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''una''' || '''unu''' || '''uina''' || '''uinu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hune''' || '''huni''' || '''huine''' || '''huini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nai''' || '''nui''' || '''inai''' || '''inui''' <br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''ana''' || '''nua''' || '''aina''' || '''inua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ena''' || '''enu''' || '''eina''' || '''einu''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tene''' || '''teni''' || '''teine''' || '''teini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuane''' || '''kuani''' || '''kuaine''' || '''kuaini''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ane''' || '''ani''' || '''aine''' || '''aini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lene''' || '''leni''' || '''leine''' || '''leini'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ona''' || '''onu''' || '''oina''' || '''oinu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuane''' || '''xuani''' || '''xuaine''' || '''xuaini''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''ua''' || '''vu''' || '''iua''' || '''ivu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''ue''' || '''ui''' || '''iue''' || '''iui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''eue''' || '''eui''' || '''eiue''' || '''eiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uue''' || '''uue''' || '''uiue''' || '''uiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uua''' || '''uvu''' || '''uiua''' || '''uivu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''huue''' || '''huui''' || '''huiue''' || '''huiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''uai''' || '''vui''' || '''iuai''' || '''ivui''' <br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aua''' || '''vua''' || '''aiua''' || '''ivua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eua''' || '''evu''' || '''eiua''' || '''eivu''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teue''' || '''teui''' || '''teiue''' || '''teiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiue''' || '''kuaiui''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aue''' || '''aui''' || '''aiue''' || '''aiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leue''' || '''leui''' || '''leiue''' || '''leiui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oua''' || '''ovu''' || '''oiua''' || '''oivu''' <br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuaue''' || '''xuaui''' || '''xuaiue''' || '''xuaiui''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person Animate=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''ja''' || '''ju''' || '''ija''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''je''' || '''ji''' || '''ije''' || '''iji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''eje''' || '''eji''' || '''eije''' || '''eiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uje''' || '''uji''' || '''uije''' || '''uiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uja''' || '''uju''' || '''uija''' || '''uiju'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''huje''' || '''huji''' || '''huije''' || '''huiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jai''' || '''jui''' || '''ijai''' || '''ijui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aja''' || '''jua''' || '''aija''' || '''ijua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eja''' || '''eju''' || '''eija''' || '''eiju'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teje''' || '''teji''' || '''teije''' || '''teiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aje''' || '''aji''' || '''aije''' || '''aiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leje''' || '''leji''' || '''leije''' || '''leiji'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oja''' || '''oju''' || '''oija''' || '''oiju'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuaje''' || '''xuaji''' || '''xuaije''' || '''xuaiji'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''ma''' || '''mu''' || '''ima''' || '''imu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''me''' || '''mi''' || '''ime''' || '''imi''' <br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''eme''' || '''emi''' || '''eime''' || '''eimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ume''' || '''umi''' || '''uime''' || '''uimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uma''' || '''umu''' || '''uima''' || '''uimu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hume''' || '''humi''' || '''huime''' || '''huimi''' <br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mai''' || '''mui''' || '''imai''' || '''imui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''ama''' || '''mua''' || '''aima''' || '''imua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ema''' || '''emu''' || '''eima''' || '''eimu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teme''' || '''temi''' || '''teime''' || '''teimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuame''' || '''kuami''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuaimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ame''' || '''ami''' || '''aime''' || '''aimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leme''' || '''lemi''' || '''leime''' || '''leimi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oma''' || '''omu''' || '''oima''' || '''oimu''' <br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuame''' || '''xuami''' || '''xuaime''' || '''xuaimi'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular || Plural<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''u''' || '''iu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''i''' || '''iri'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''eri''' || '''eiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''uiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''uiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hui''' || '''huiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' <br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''aiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' <br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuari''' || '''xuairi''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person Inanimate=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''xu''' || '''bu''' || '''ixu''' || '''ibu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''xi''' || '''biu''' || '''ixi''' || '''ibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''exi''' || '''ebiu''' || '''eixi''' || '''eibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uxi''' || '''ubiu''' || '''uixi''' || '''uibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uxu''' || '''ubu''' || '''uixu''' || '''uibu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''huxi''' || '''hubiu''' || '''huixi''' || '''huibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''xui''' || '''bui''' || '''ixui''' || '''ibui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''xua''' || '''bua''' || '''ixua''' || '''ibua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''exu''' || '''ebu''' || '''eixu''' || '''eibu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''texi''' || '''tebiu''' || '''teixi''' || '''teibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuabiu''' || '''kuaixi''' || '''kuaibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''axi''' || '''abiu''' || '''aixi''' || '''aibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lexi''' || '''lebiu''' || '''leixi''' || '''leibiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oxu''' || '''obu''' || '''oixu''' || '''oibu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuaxi''' || '''xuabiu''' || '''xuaixi''' || '''xuaibiu'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''zu''' || '''tu''' || '''izu''' || '''itu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''zi''' || '''tiu''' || '''izi''' || '''itiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''ezi''' || '''etiu''' || '''eizi''' || '''eitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uzi''' || '''utiu''' || '''uizi''' || '''uitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uzu''' || '''utu''' || '''uizu''' || '''uitu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''huzi''' || '''hutiu''' || '''huizi''' || '''huitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zui''' || '''tui''' || '''izui''' || '''itui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''zua''' || '''tua''' || '''izua''' || '''itua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezu''' || '''etu''' || '''eizu''' || '''eitu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tezi''' || '''tetiu''' || '''teizi''' || '''teitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuazi''' || '''kuatiu''' || '''kuaizi''' || '''kuaitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''azi''' || '''atiu''' || '''aizi''' || '''aitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lezi''' || '''letiu''' || '''leizi''' || '''leitiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozu''' || '''otu''' || '''oizu''' || '''oitu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuazi''' || '''xuatiu''' || '''xuaizi''' || '''xuaitiu'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Singular&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Unmarked || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''a''' || '''au''' || '''ia''' || '''iau'''<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''e''' || '''eu''' || '''ie''' || '''ieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''ere''' || '''eu''' || '''eie''' || '''eieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ure''' || '''ureu''' || '''uie''' || '''uieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''ura''' || '''urau''' || '''uia''' || '''uiau''' <br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hue''' || '''hueu''' || '''huie''' || '''huieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ai''' || '''aui''' || '''iai''' || '''iaui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''ara''' || '''arau''' || '''aia''' || '''aiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''era''' || '''erau''' || '''eia''' || '''eiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tere''' || '''tereu''' || '''teie''' || '''teieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuare''' || '''kuareu''' || '''kuaie''' || '''kuaieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''are''' || '''areu''' || '''aie''' || '''aieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lere''' || '''lereu''' || '''leie''' || '''leieu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ora''' || '''orau''' || '''oia''' || '''oiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuare''' || '''xuareu''' || '''xuaie''' || '''xuaieu''' <br /> |}<br /> ====Compound Nominals====<br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || Dual&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> || Dual&lt;br /&gt;Accessible<br /> || Dual&lt;br /&gt;Dominant<br /> || Dual&lt;br /&gt;Subordinant<br /> || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Inaccessible<br /> || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Accessible<br /> || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Dominant<br /> || Plural&lt;br /&gt;Subordinant<br /> |-<br /> || Subjective<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Objective<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Allative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | huiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Abessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuine<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Complementisers====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Subjective || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Objective || '''jo''' || 'that'; || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''ejo''' || 'about the fact that' || '''ekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uzuo''' || || '''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Allative || '''hujo''' || 'to the place where' || '''hukio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Abessive || '''xuajo''' || 'without V-ing' || '''xuakio''' ||<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Jualio&diff=262483 2022-02-25T16:15:14Z

<p>Imralu: /* Nominal Tables */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Jualio<br /> |nativename = jualio<br /> |pronunciation = ʒwàʎó<br /> |region = <br /> |ethnicity = <br /> |speakers = unknown<br /> |setting = <br /> |fam1 = Presumed language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2022<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Tables====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; <br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Simple pronominals:<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Animate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; &quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | 1st person<br /> | definite<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | na<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | nu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ina<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | inu<br /> |-<br /> | 2nd person<br /> | definite<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | vu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | definite<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju<br /> |-<br /> | specific<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ma<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | mu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ima<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | imu<br /> |-<br /> | generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iu<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; &quot;rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Inanimate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | definite<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | specific<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | zu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | tu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | izu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | itu<br /> |-<br /> | inanimate generic<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | a<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | au<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ia<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iau<br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals:<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Animate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; &quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd person&lt;br /&gt;definite<br /> | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | medial<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | distal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Inanimate:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | plural<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd person&lt;br /&gt;definite<br /> | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | medial<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | distal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Compound pronominals:<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Animate:<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dominant<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | dual<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | plural<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |- style=&quot;text-align:center; text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Complementisers:<br /> |- style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | temporal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====First Person====<br /> First person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''nu''' || '''inu''' || '''na''' || '''ina'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ni''' || '''ini''' || '''ne''' || '''ine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''nua''' || '''inua''' || '''ana''' || '''iana''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uni''' || '''iuni''' || '''une''' || '''iune'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''unu''' || '''iunu''' || '''una''' || '''iuna'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''enu''' || '''einu''' || '''ena''' || '''eina''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teni''' || '''teini''' || '''tene''' || '''teine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuani''' || '''kuaini''' || '''kuane''' || '''kuaine''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ani''' || '''aini''' || '''ane''' || '''aine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leni''' || '''leini''' || '''lene''' || '''leine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veni''' || '''veini''' || '''vene''' || '''veine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''onu''' || '''oinu''' || '''ona''' || '''oina''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS.SG || ICS:PL || ACS.SG || ACS.PL<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ue''' || '''iue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eui''' || '''ieui''' || '''eue''' || '''ieue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''vui''' || '''ivui''' || '''uai''' || '''iuai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''vua''' || '''ivua''' || '''aua''' || '''iaua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uui''' || '''iuui''' || '''uue''' || '''iuue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uvu''' || '''iuvu''' || '''uua''' || '''iuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''evu''' || '''eivu''' || '''eua''' || '''eiua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teui''' || '''teiui''' || '''teue''' || '''teiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiui''' || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaiue''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aui''' || '''aiui''' || '''aue''' || '''aiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leui''' || '''leiui''' || '''leue''' || '''leiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veui''' || '''veiui''' || '''veue''' || '''veiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ovu''' || '''oivu''' || '''oua''' || '''oiua''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || ICS.DU<br /> || ACS.DU<br /> || DOM.DU<br /> || SUB.DU<br /> || ICS.PL<br /> || ACS.PL<br /> || DOM.PL<br /> || SUB.PL<br /> |-<br /> || Nominative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Accusative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Dative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvuna<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''ju''' || '''iju''' || '''ja''' || '''ija''' || '''xu''' || '''ixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ji''' || '''iji''' || '''je''' || '''ije''' || '''xi''' || '''ixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jui''' || '''ijui''' || '''jai''' || '''ijai''' || '''xui''' || '''ixui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''jua''' || '''ijua''' || '''aja''' || '''iaja''' || '''xua''' || '''ixua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uji''' || '''iuji''' || '''uje''' || '''iuje''' || '''uxi''' || '''iuxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uju''' || '''iuju''' || '''uja''' || '''iuja''' || '''*uxu''' || '''*iuxu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eju''' || '''eiju''' || '''eja''' || '''eija''' || '''exu''' || '''eixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teji''' || '''teiji''' || '''teje''' || '''teije''' || '''texi''' || '''teixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaiji''' || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuaixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aji''' || '''aiji''' || '''aje''' || '''aije''' || '''axi''' || '''aixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leji''' || '''leiji''' || '''leje''' || '''leije''' || '''lexi''' || '''leixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veji''' || '''veiji''' || '''veje''' || '''veije''' || '''vexi''' || '''veixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oju''' || '''oiju''' || '''oja''' || '''oija''' || '''oxu''' || '''oixu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''mu''' || '''imu''' || '''ma''' || '''ima''' || '''zu''' || '''izu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''mi''' || '''imi''' || '''me''' || '''ime''' || '''zi''' || '''izi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''emi''' || '''iemi''' || '''eme''' || '''ieme''' || '''ezi''' || '''iezi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mui''' || '''imui''' || '''mai''' || '''imai''' || '''zui''' || '''izui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''mua''' || '''imua''' || '''ama''' || '''iama''' || '''zua''' || '''izua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''umi''' || '''iumi''' || '''ume''' || '''iume''' || '''uzi''' || '''iuzi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''umu''' || '''iumu''' || '''uma''' || '''iuma''' || '''*uzu''' || '''*iuzu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''emu''' || '''eimu''' || '''ema''' || '''eima''' || '''ezu''' || '''eizu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''temi''' || '''teimi''' || '''teme''' || '''teime''' || '''tezi''' || '''teizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuami''' || '''kuaimi''' || '''kuame''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuazi''' || '''kuaizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ami''' || '''aimi''' || '''ame''' || '''aime''' || '''azi''' || '''aizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lemi''' || '''leimi''' || '''leme''' || '''leime''' || '''lezi''' || '''leizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vemi''' || '''veimi''' || '''veme''' || '''veime''' || '''vezi''' || '''veizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''omu''' || '''oimu''' || '''oma''' || '''oima''' || '''ozu''' || '''oizu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ANIM Sg. || ANIM Pl. || INAN Sg. || INAN Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''u''' || '''iu''' || '''a''' || '''ia'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''i''' || '''iri''' || '''e''' || '''ie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eri''' || '''ieri''' || '''ere''' || '''iere'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ai''' || '''iai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''iaru''' || '''ara''' || '''iara'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''iuri''' || '''ure''' || '''iure'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''iuru''' || '''ura'''* || '''iura'''*<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu''' || '''era''' || '''eia''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' || '''tere''' || '''teie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' || '''kuare''' || '''kuaie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' || '''are''' || '''aie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' || '''lere''' || '''leie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veri''' || '''veiri''' || '''vere''' || '''veie''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu''' || '''ora''' || '''oia'''<br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> =====Complementisers=====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''jo''' || 'that' || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''ejo''' || 'to the place where' || '''ekio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || *'''uzuo''' || || *'''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vejo''' || 'about V-ing' || '''vekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |}<br /> ::&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; theoretical</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Jualio&diff=262466 2022-02-25T15:31:19Z

<p>Imralu: Created page with &quot;{{privatelang}}{{construction}} {{Infobox language |name = Jualio |nativename = jualio |pronunciation = ʒwàʎó |region = |ethnicity = |speakers...&quot;</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Jualio<br /> |nativename = jualio<br /> |pronunciation = ʒwàʎó<br /> |region = <br /> |ethnicity = <br /> |speakers = unknown<br /> |setting = <br /> |fam1 = Presumed language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2022<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Tables====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; <br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Simple pronominals:<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Animate:<br /> | accessible<br /> | inaccessible<br /> | accessible<br /> | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | 1st person<br /> | definite<br /> | na<br /> | nu<br /> | ina<br /> | inu<br /> |-<br /> | 2nd person<br /> | definite<br /> | ua<br /> | vu<br /> | iua<br /> | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | definite<br /> | ja<br /> | ju<br /> | ija<br /> | iju<br /> |-<br /> | specific<br /> | ma<br /> | mu<br /> | ima<br /> | imu<br /> |-<br /> | generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | iu<br /> |- style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Simple pronominals:<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Inanimate:<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | definite<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | specific<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | zu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | tu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | izu<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | itu<br /> |-<br /> | inanimate generic<br /> | a<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | au<br /> | ia<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | iau<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline;&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Animate:<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | accessible<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd person&lt;br /&gt;definite<br /> | proximate<br /> | jaie<br /> | juue<br /> | ijaie<br /> | ijuue<br /> |-<br /> | medial<br /> | jaia<br /> | juua<br /> | ijaia<br /> | ijuua<br /> |-<br /> | distal<br /> | jaio<br /> | juuo<br /> | ijaio<br /> | ijuuo<br /> |- style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | singular<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | Animate:<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | neutral<br /> | style=&quot;text-decoration:underline;&quot; | dangerous<br /> |-<br /> | 3rd person&lt;br /&gt;inanimate&lt;br /&gt;definite<br /> | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | <br /> | medial<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | <br /> | distal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | bu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#FFF; color:#00009B;&quot; | ibu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Compound pronominals<br /> | accessible<br /> | inaccessible<br /> | dominant<br /> | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | dual<br /> | uana<br /> | vunu<br /> | uanu<br /> | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | plural<br /> | iuana<br /> | ivunu<br /> | iuanu<br /> | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Complimentisers<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | temporal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====First Person====<br /> First person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''nu''' || '''inu''' || '''na''' || '''ina'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ni''' || '''ini''' || '''ne''' || '''ine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''nua''' || '''inua''' || '''ana''' || '''iana''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uni''' || '''iuni''' || '''une''' || '''iune'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''unu''' || '''iunu''' || '''una''' || '''iuna'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''enu''' || '''einu''' || '''ena''' || '''eina''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teni''' || '''teini''' || '''tene''' || '''teine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuani''' || '''kuaini''' || '''kuane''' || '''kuaine''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ani''' || '''aini''' || '''ane''' || '''aine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leni''' || '''leini''' || '''lene''' || '''leine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veni''' || '''veini''' || '''vene''' || '''veine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''onu''' || '''oinu''' || '''ona''' || '''oina''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS.SG || ICS:PL || ACS.SG || ACS.PL<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ue''' || '''iue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eui''' || '''ieui''' || '''eue''' || '''ieue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''vui''' || '''ivui''' || '''uai''' || '''iuai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''vua''' || '''ivua''' || '''aua''' || '''iaua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uui''' || '''iuui''' || '''uue''' || '''iuue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uvu''' || '''iuvu''' || '''uua''' || '''iuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''evu''' || '''eivu''' || '''eua''' || '''eiua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teui''' || '''teiui''' || '''teue''' || '''teiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiui''' || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaiue''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aui''' || '''aiui''' || '''aue''' || '''aiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leui''' || '''leiui''' || '''leue''' || '''leiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veui''' || '''veiui''' || '''veue''' || '''veiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ovu''' || '''oivu''' || '''oua''' || '''oiua''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || ICS.DU<br /> || ACS.DU<br /> || DOM.DU<br /> || SUB.DU<br /> || ICS.PL<br /> || ACS.PL<br /> || DOM.PL<br /> || SUB.PL<br /> |-<br /> || Nominative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Accusative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Dative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvuna<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''ju''' || '''iju''' || '''ja''' || '''ija''' || '''xu''' || '''ixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ji''' || '''iji''' || '''je''' || '''ije''' || '''xi''' || '''ixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jui''' || '''ijui''' || '''jai''' || '''ijai''' || '''xui''' || '''ixui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''jua''' || '''ijua''' || '''aja''' || '''iaja''' || '''xua''' || '''ixua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uji''' || '''iuji''' || '''uje''' || '''iuje''' || '''uxi''' || '''iuxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uju''' || '''iuju''' || '''uja''' || '''iuja''' || '''*uxu''' || '''*iuxu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eju''' || '''eiju''' || '''eja''' || '''eija''' || '''exu''' || '''eixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teji''' || '''teiji''' || '''teje''' || '''teije''' || '''texi''' || '''teixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaiji''' || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuaixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aji''' || '''aiji''' || '''aje''' || '''aije''' || '''axi''' || '''aixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leji''' || '''leiji''' || '''leje''' || '''leije''' || '''lexi''' || '''leixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veji''' || '''veiji''' || '''veje''' || '''veije''' || '''vexi''' || '''veixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oju''' || '''oiju''' || '''oja''' || '''oija''' || '''oxu''' || '''oixu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''mu''' || '''imu''' || '''ma''' || '''ima''' || '''zu''' || '''izu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''mi''' || '''imi''' || '''me''' || '''ime''' || '''zi''' || '''izi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''emi''' || '''iemi''' || '''eme''' || '''ieme''' || '''ezi''' || '''iezi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mui''' || '''imui''' || '''mai''' || '''imai''' || '''zui''' || '''izui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''mua''' || '''imua''' || '''ama''' || '''iama''' || '''zua''' || '''izua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''umi''' || '''iumi''' || '''ume''' || '''iume''' || '''uzi''' || '''iuzi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''umu''' || '''iumu''' || '''uma''' || '''iuma''' || '''*uzu''' || '''*iuzu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''emu''' || '''eimu''' || '''ema''' || '''eima''' || '''ezu''' || '''eizu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''temi''' || '''teimi''' || '''teme''' || '''teime''' || '''tezi''' || '''teizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuami''' || '''kuaimi''' || '''kuame''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuazi''' || '''kuaizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ami''' || '''aimi''' || '''ame''' || '''aime''' || '''azi''' || '''aizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lemi''' || '''leimi''' || '''leme''' || '''leime''' || '''lezi''' || '''leizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vemi''' || '''veimi''' || '''veme''' || '''veime''' || '''vezi''' || '''veizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''omu''' || '''oimu''' || '''oma''' || '''oima''' || '''ozu''' || '''oizu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ANIM Sg. || ANIM Pl. || INAN Sg. || INAN Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''u''' || '''iu''' || '''a''' || '''ia'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''i''' || '''iri''' || '''e''' || '''ie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eri''' || '''ieri''' || '''ere''' || '''iere'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ai''' || '''iai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''iaru''' || '''ara''' || '''iara'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''iuri''' || '''ure''' || '''iure'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''iuru''' || '''ura'''* || '''iura'''*<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu''' || '''era''' || '''eia''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' || '''tere''' || '''teie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' || '''kuare''' || '''kuaie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' || '''are''' || '''aie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' || '''lere''' || '''leie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veri''' || '''veiri''' || '''vere''' || '''veie''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu''' || '''ora''' || '''oia'''<br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> =====Complementisers=====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''jo''' || 'that' || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''ejo''' || 'to the place where' || '''ekio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || *'''uzuo''' || || *'''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vejo''' || 'about V-ing' || '''vekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |}<br /> ::&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; theoretical</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Nkwu&diff=259659 2022-02-06T19:33:32Z

<p>Imralu: /* Predicative Prefixes */</p> <hr /> <div>{{private}}<br /> '''{{PAGENAME}}''' (endonym: '''''tembadu yonkwu''''' [tɛˈmbɐɾʊ ˈjɔŋkwʊ]) is a language spoken by the Nkwu people of Bū. <br /> <br /> ==Name==<br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> The usual phonemic analysis of Nkwu consonants devised by Trang (1958) comprises many phonemes that, on surface analysis, would appear to be clusters. These are analysed as phonemes for reasons of parsimony in describing phonotactics and morphophonology.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! !! Labial/&lt;br /&gt;Labio-dental/&lt;br /&gt;Labio-velar || Dental/&lt;br /&gt;Alveolar !! Post-Alveolar/&lt;br /&gt;Palatal !! Velar !! Glottal !! Romanisation (Krauss)/&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:gray;&quot;&gt;Romanisation (Harlowe)&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! Nasal <br /> | m&lt;br /&gt;[m] || n&lt;br /&gt;[n] || ɲ&lt;br /&gt;[ɲ] || ŋ&lt;br /&gt;[ŋ] ||<br /> ! ⟨ m n ny ng ⟩&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:gray;&quot;&gt;⟨ m n ñ ŋ ⟩&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! Glottalised&lt;br /&gt;Prenasalised&lt;br /&gt;Nasal <br /> | ⁿˀm&lt;br /&gt;[m̆ʔm] || ⁿˀn&lt;br /&gt;[n̆ʔn] || ⁿˀɲ&lt;br /&gt;[ɲ̆ʔɲ] || ⁿˀŋ&lt;br /&gt;[ŋ̆ʔŋ] ||<br /> ! ⟨ mpm ntn ntny nkng ⟩&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:gray;&quot;&gt;⟨ mpm ntn ñcñ ŋkŋ ⟩&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! Plosive <br /> | p b&lt;br /&gt;[p] [b] || t d&lt;br /&gt;[t~t̪] [d~d̪] || || k ɡ&lt;br /&gt;[k] [ɡ] || ʔ&lt;br /&gt;[ʔ]<br /> ! ⟨ p b t d k g q ⟩&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:gray;&quot;&gt;⟨ p b t d k g q ⟩&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! Prenasalised&lt;br /&gt;Plosive <br /> | ⁿp ⁿb&lt;br /&gt;[mp] [mb] || ⁿt ⁿd&lt;br /&gt;[nt] [nd] || || ⁿk ⁿɡ&lt;br /&gt;[ŋk] [ŋɡ] ||<br /> ! ⟨ mp mb nt nd nk ngg ⟩&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:gray;&quot;&gt;⟨ mp mb nt nd ŋk ŋg ⟩&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! Glottalised&lt;br /&gt;Prenasalised&lt;br /&gt;Plosive <br /> | ⁿˀb&lt;br /&gt;[m̆ʔb] || ⁿˀd&lt;br /&gt;[n̆ʔd] || || ⁿˀɡ&lt;br /&gt;[ŋ̆ʔɡ] ||<br /> ! ⟨ mpb ntd nkg ⟩&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:gray;&quot;&gt;⟨ mpb ntd ŋkg ⟩&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! Affricate <br /> | || ts dz&lt;br /&gt;[t͡s] [d͡z] || tʃ dʒ&lt;br /&gt;[t͡ʃ] [d͡ʒ] || || <br /> ! ⟨ ts dz tx dj ⟩&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:gray;&quot;&gt;⟨ ts dz tš dž ⟩&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! Prenasalised&lt;br /&gt;Affricate <br /> | || ⁿts ⁿdz&lt;br /&gt;[nt͡s] [nd͡z] || ⁿtʃ ⁿdʒ&lt;br /&gt;[nt͡ʃ] [nd͡ʒ] || || <br /> ! ⟨ nts ndz ntx ndj ⟩&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:gray;&quot;&gt;⟨ nts ndz ntš ndž ⟩&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! Glottalised&lt;br /&gt;Prenasalised&lt;br /&gt;Affricate <br /> | || ⁿˀdz&lt;br /&gt;[n̆ʔd͡z] || ⁿˀdʒ&lt;br /&gt;[n̆ʔd͡ʒ] || || <br /> ! ⟨ ntdz ntdj ⟩&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:gray;&quot;&gt;⟨ ntdz ntdž ⟩&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! Fricative <br /> | f v&lt;br /&gt;[f] [v] || s z&lt;br /&gt;[s] [z] || ʃ ʒ&lt;br /&gt;[ʃ] [ʒ] || || h&lt;br /&gt;[h~ɦ] <br /> ! ⟨ f v s z x j h ⟩&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:gray;&quot;&gt;⟨ f v s z š ž h ⟩&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! Prenasalised&lt;br /&gt;Fricative <br /> | ⁿf ⁿv&lt;br /&gt;[ɱf] [ɱv] || ⁿs ⁿz&lt;br /&gt;[ns~nt͡s] [nz~nd͡z] || ⁿʃ ⁿʒ&lt;br /&gt;[nʃ~nt͡ʃ] [nʒ~nd͡ʒ] || || ⁿh&lt;br /&gt;[ŋh~ŋɦ] <br /> ! ⟨ mf mv ns nz nx nj ngh ⟩&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:gray;&quot;&gt;⟨ mf mv ns nz nš nž ŋh ⟩&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! Semivowel <br /> | w&lt;br /&gt;[w] || || j&lt;br /&gt;[j] || || <br /> ! ⟨ w y ⟩&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:gray;&quot;&gt;⟨ w y ⟩&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! Glottalised&lt;br /&gt;Prenasalised&lt;br /&gt;Semivowel <br /> | ⁿˀw&lt;br /&gt;[ŋkʷw] || || ⁿˀj&lt;br /&gt;[ŋkʲj~ɲcj] || || <br /> ! ⟨ nkw nky ⟩&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:gray;&quot;&gt;⟨ ŋkw ŋky ⟩&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! Lateral <br /> | || l&lt;br /&gt;[l~ɫ] || || ||<br /> ! ⟨ l ⟩&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:gray;&quot;&gt;⟨ l ⟩&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! Prenasalised&lt;br /&gt;Lateral <br /> | || ⁿl&lt;br /&gt;[nl~lː~l̃ː¨~ld~ɫd] || || ||<br /> ! ⟨ nl ⟩&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:gray;&quot;&gt;⟨ nl ⟩&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> <br /> {{PAGENAME}} has a simple system of five-vowels qualities as in Spanish and Swahili.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> |+ '''Single vowels'''<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! !! front !! central !! back<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! high<br /> | '''i''' || || '''u'''<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! mid<br /> | '''e''' || || '''o'''<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! low <br /> | || '''a''' || <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Some authors have described {{PAGENAME}} as also having phonemic long vowels as well, however long vowels behave prosodically in an identical way to vowel sequences, encouraging the analysis of them as sequences of two identical vowels. Such sequences of two identical vowels are, however, generally written with a macron for traditional reasons and to save space, however when it is impossible to type a macron, the vowel is doubled.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! Phonemic&lt;br /&gt;Analysis !! Romanised&lt;br /&gt;(macrons possible) !! Romanised&lt;br /&gt;(macrons impossible)<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! /a/ <br /> | ⟨ a ⟩ || ⟨ a ⟩<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! /aa/ <br /> | ⟨ ā ⟩ || ⟨ aa ⟩<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! /e/ <br /> | ⟨ e ⟩ || ⟨ e ⟩<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! /aa/ <br /> | ⟨ ē ⟩ || ⟨ ee ⟩<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! /i/ <br /> | ⟨ i ⟩ || ⟨ i ⟩<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! /ii/ <br /> | ⟨ ī ⟩ || ⟨ ii ⟩<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! /o/ <br /> | ⟨ o ⟩ || ⟨ o ⟩<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! /oo/ <br /> | ⟨ ō ⟩ || ⟨ oo ⟩<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! /u/ <br /> | ⟨ u ⟩ || ⟨ u ⟩<br /> |- align=center<br /> ! /uu/ <br /> | ⟨ ū ⟩ || ⟨ uu ⟩<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Unstressed vowels tend to be pronounced laxly as [ɪ ɛ ɐ ɔ ʊ] for /i e a o u/. Some speakers pronounce stressed vowels more tensely, closer to their cardinal pronunciations of [i e a o u].<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> ===Prosody===<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ==Morphology==<br /> The morphology of {{PAGENAME}} is agglutinative, with syntactic relationships within a sentence marked by prefixes and lexical derivation achieved by prefixes, infixes and suffixes on bases.<br /> <br /> Words are built on a stem called a ''base'', which may consist of a single root morpheme or many morphemes together. Bases are neither inherently nominal nor verbal and can be used freely with either kind of morphology with no change in meaning.<br /> <br /> ===Personal Prefixes===<br /> The first element added to both nominally and verbally inflected words is the personal prefix. These provide pronominal information about grammatical person, definiteness, specificity and rank, an inflectional dimension that will be further explained below. <br /> <br /> Personal prefixes may be divided up into simple and compound prefixes. Simple prefixes are only used for singular referents in the first and second persons. In the 3rd person, personal prefixes do not give information about number. This means that '''''n-''''' and '''''w-''''' explicitly mean &quot;I&quot; and singular &quot;you&quot; respectively and cannot be used for &quot;we&quot; or plural &quot;you&quot;, whereas '''''l-''''', a third person prefix, could be used for either a singular referent (&quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot; or &quot;it&quot;) or plural referents (&quot;they&quot;). <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> |+ '''Simple Personal Prefixes'''<br /> |- <br /> ! Prefix !! Person !! Rank !! Definiteness !! Specificity<br /> |- <br /> ! n- <br /> | 1st || - || definite || specific<br /> |- <br /> ! w- <br /> | 2nd || - || definite || specific<br /> |- <br /> ! dj- <br /> | 3rd || A: &quot;noble&quot; || definite || specific<br /> |- <br /> ! j- <br /> | 3rd || B: &quot;dominant&quot; || definite || specific<br /> |-<br /> ! d- <br /> | 3rd || C: &quot;intermediate&quot; || definite || specific<br /> |-<br /> ! l- <br /> | 3rd || D: &quot;subordinate&quot; || definite || specific<br /> |-<br /> ! t- <br /> | 3rd || E: &quot;inanimate&quot; || definite || specific<br /> |-<br /> ! ng- <br /> | 3rd || - || indefinite || specific<br /> |-<br /> ! h- <br /> | 3rd || - || indefinite || non-specific<br /> |}<br /> <br /> First and second person plurals are indicated essentially by combination of two simple prefixes. For example, the inclusive first person plural &quot;we (including you)&quot; is formed by combining the first person prefix '''''n-''''' with the second person prefix '''''w-''''', producing '''''nw-'''''. Exclusive first person plurals, &quot;we (not including you)&quot; are formed by combining the '''''n-''''' of the first person with the definite third person prefix of the appropriate rank, for example '''''nj-''''' means &quot;we&quot; in the sense of &quot;he/they (dominant) and I&quot;. Second person plurals are similarly formed, with the exclusive 2nd person prefix '''''vw-''''' used only for cases when every member of the group referred to is being addressed. Additional members of the group being referred to who are not being addressed will be indicated instead with a combination involving the appropriately ranked third person definite prefix, such as '''''dw-''''' &quot;you and he/they&quot;. Additionally, the prefix '''''ndjw-''''' combines both first and second persons with the third person, A-ranked prefix, thus referring to a large group of all grammatical persons and meaning roughly &quot;we all&quot;, &quot;people&quot;, &quot;everyone&quot; or &quot;one&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table shows all personal prefixes. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> |+ Simple and Compound Personal Prefixes<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Simple Person Prefixes:<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Compounded with 1:<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Compounded with 2:<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> | Prefix<br /> | Gloss<br /> | Translation<br /> | Prefix<br /> | Gloss<br /> | Translation<br /> | Prefix<br /> | Gloss<br /> | Translation<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color:#c0c0c0;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#fffc9e;&quot; | n-<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ffffc7;&quot; | 1<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ffffc7;&quot; | &quot;I&quot;<br /> | <br /> | <br /> | <br /> | <br /> | <br /> | <br /> |- style=&quot;background-color:#ffffc7;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#fffc9e;&quot; | w-<br /> | 2<br /> | &quot;you&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#dae8fc;&quot; | nw-<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ecf4ff;&quot; | 1+2<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ecf4ff;&quot; | &quot;we&quot;, &lt;br /&gt;&quot;you and I&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#9698ed;&quot; | vw-<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#cbcefb;&quot; | 2+2<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#cbcefb;&quot; | &quot;you &lt;br /&gt;(all)&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color:#ffffc7;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#fffc9e;&quot; | dj-<br /> | 3A<br /> | &quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;, &lt;br /&gt;&quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#dae8fc;&quot; | ndj-<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ecf4ff;&quot; | 1+3A<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ecf4ff;&quot; | &quot;we&quot;,&lt;br /&gt;&quot;they and I&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#9698ed;&quot; | djw-<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#cbcefb;&quot; | 3A+2<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#cbcefb;&quot; | &quot;you (and &lt;br /&gt;they)&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color:#ffffc7;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#fffc9e;&quot; | j-<br /> | 3B<br /> | &quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;, &lt;br /&gt;&quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#dae8fc;&quot; | nj-<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ecf4ff;&quot; | 1+3B<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ecf4ff;&quot; | &quot;we&quot;, &lt;br /&gt;&quot;they and I&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#9698ed;&quot; | jw-<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#cbcefb;&quot; | 3B+2<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#cbcefb;&quot; | &quot;you (and &lt;br /&gt;they)&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color:#ffffc7;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#fffc9e;&quot; | d-<br /> | 3C<br /> | &quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;, &lt;br /&gt;&quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#dae8fc;&quot; | nd-<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ecf4ff;&quot; | 1+3C<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ecf4ff;&quot; | &quot;we&quot;, &lt;br /&gt;&quot;they and I&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#9698ed;&quot; | dw-<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#cbcefb;&quot; | 3C+2<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#cbcefb;&quot; | &quot;you (and&lt;br /&gt;they)&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color:#ffffc7;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#fffc9e;&quot; | l-<br /> | 3D<br /> | &quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;, &lt;br /&gt;&quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#dae8fc;&quot; | nl-<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ecf4ff;&quot; | 1+3D<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ecf4ff;&quot; | &quot;we&quot;, &lt;br /&gt;&quot;they and I&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#9698ed;&quot; | lw-<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#cbcefb;&quot; | 3D+2<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#cbcefb;&quot; | &quot;you (and&lt;br /&gt;they)&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color:#ffffc7;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#fffc9e;&quot; | t-<br /> | 3E<br /> | &quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;, &lt;br /&gt;&quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#dae8fc;&quot; | nt-<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ecf4ff;&quot; | 1+3E<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ecf4ff;&quot; | &quot;we&quot;, &lt;br /&gt;&quot;they and I&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#9698ed;&quot; | tw-<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#cbcefb;&quot; | 3E+2<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#cbcefb;&quot; | &quot;you (and&lt;br /&gt;they)&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color:#c0c0c0;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#fffc9e;&quot; | ng-<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ffffc7;&quot; | SPEC<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ffffc7;&quot; | &quot;something&quot;,&lt;br /&gt;&quot;someone&quot;<br /> | <br /> | <br /> | <br /> | <br /> | <br /> | <br /> |- style=&quot;background-color:#c0c0c0;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#fffc9e;&quot; | h-<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ffffc7;&quot; | NSPC<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ffffc7;&quot; | &quot;anything&quot;,&lt;br /&gt;&quot;anyone&quot;<br /> | <br /> | <br /> | <br /> | <br /> | <br /> | <br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;9&quot; | Supercompound:<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#fd6864;&quot; | ndjw-<br /> | style=&quot;background-color:#ffccc9;&quot; | 1+3A+2<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffccc9;&quot; | &quot;we all&quot;, &quot;everyone&quot;, &quot;one&quot;, &quot;people&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Speakers who merge /ⁿdʒ/ with /ⁿʒ/, pronouncing both as [nd͡ʒ] do not distinguish between '''''ndj-''''' (1+3A-) and ''''''nj-''''' (1+3B-) in speech. Likewise, the small minority of speakers who pronounce /ⁿl/ as [nd] do not distinguish '''''nd-''''' (1+3C-) from '''''nl-''''' (1+3D). These distinctions are retained in writing and, where necessary, may also be carefully pronounced.<br /> <br /> =====Rank=====<br /> Third person definite referents are assigned a ''rank'' any time they are referred to. These ranks are not permanent attributes of the referents but are rather context-dependent assignments within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other third person referents. When a single 3rd person referent is mentioned, the rank depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, ranks may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and express their ranks ''relative to one another.''<br /> <br /> From highest to lowest, the ranks are as follows.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> ! Prefix !! Gloss !! Designation !! Default Use in Isolation<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dj-''''' || A / NOB || &quot;Noble&quot; || Referents of great social, financial or political standing who are likely to be able to bring about significant hardships on others due to means other than physical strength<br /> |-<br /> | '''''j-''''' || B / DOM || &quot;Dominant&quot; || Large, physically imposing animate referents who are likely to be able to beat most others in physical combat<br /> |-<br /> | '''''d-''''' || C / INT || &quot;Intermediate&quot; || Animate referents of perceived average abilities in physical combat<br /> |-<br /> | '''''l-''''' || D / SUB || &quot;Subordinate&quot; || Weaker animate referents with perceived low combat abilities<br /> |-<br /> | '''''t-''''' || E / INAN || &quot;Inanimate&quot; || Inanimate referents and, hyperbolically, animate referents regarded as physically ineffectual<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of ranks is with the question &quot;who would win in a physical fight&quot;? Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher rank. The highest rank, A, the &quot;noble&quot; rank, indicated with the prefix '''''dj-''''', is an exception, dependent not on physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''''dj-''''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an A-ranked individual could lead to more significant consequences for lower ranked referents than the physical prowess of the A-ranked referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may be referred to using '''''dj-''''' when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this rank.<br /> <br /> When groups are referenced under one prefix, the highest rank within the group is used by default.<br /> <br /> ===Nominal Morphology===<br /> Nouns are formed with the following structure: &lt;code&gt;[personal prefix]-[case prefix]-[base]&lt;/code&gt;. The presence of a case prefix instead of a predicative prefix distinguishes nouns from verbs. <br /> <br /> Other traditionally nominal categories such as number (plural and singular) are indicated by inflections of the base itself and thus apply equally to verbal morphology. These will be handled in the [[{{PAGENAME}}#bases|section on bases]].<br /> <br /> ====Case Prefixes====<br /> Nouns in {{PAGENAME}} can inflect into four cases grammatical cases.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot;<br /> ! Case<br /> ! Prefix<br /> ! Example<br /> ! Meaning<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | Absolutive<br /> | -e-<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:italic;&quot; | tembuda<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | &quot;the house(s)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | Ergative<br /> | -a-<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:italic;&quot; | tambuda<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | &quot;by the house(s)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | Dative<br /> | -ua-<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:italic;&quot; | tuambuda<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | &quot;to the house(s)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | Genitive<br /> | -o-<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:italic;&quot; | tombuda<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot; | &quot;of the house(s)&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Verbal Morphology===<br /> Finite verbs are formed with the following structure: &lt;code&gt;[personal prefix]-[predicative prefix]-[base]&lt;/code&gt;. The presence of a predicative prefix instead of a case prefix distinguishes nouns from verbs. <br /> <br /> Other traditionally verbal categories such as tense, aspect and mood are indicated by inflections of the base itself and thus apply equally to nominal morphology. These will be handled in the [[{{PAGENAME}}#bases|section on bases]].<br /> <br /> ====Predicative Prefixes====<br /> Finite verbs in {{PAGENAME}} can carry one of four predicative prefixes as show in the table below.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! <br /> ! Independent<br /> ! Adverbial<br /> |-<br /> ! Absolutive<br /> | '''-i-'''<br /> | '''-u-'''<br /> |-<br /> ! Ergative<br /> | '''-ai-'''<br /> | '''-au-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The independent forms are used in independent clauses and dependent clauses introduced by a complementiser. The dependent forms are used in adverbial clauses. For examble, the independent verb form '''''timbuda''''' means &quot;it is a house&quot; whereas the adverbial '''''tumbuda''''' is more equivalent to &quot;(with) it being a house&quot;. <br /> <br /> The absolutive and ergative forms of of the predicative prefixes indicate the case of the preceding personal prefix. Compare the following examples <br /> <br /> :{| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | '''Nigu.'''<br /> |-<br /> | n- || i- || gu <br /> |-<br /> | 1- || PRED- || be.eaten<br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | &quot;I get/got/will get eaten.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | '''Naigu.'''<br /> |-<br /> | n- || a- || i- || gu <br /> |-<br /> | 1- || ERG- || PRED- || be.eaten<br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | &quot;I eat / ate / will eat.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The ability to indicate either the absolutive or the ergative argument on the verb allows either one to be emphasised.<br /> <br /> :{| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | '''Tigu tembu langeu'''<br /> |-<br /> | t- || i- || gu || t- || e- || mbu || l- || a- || ngeu<br /> |-<br /> | 3E- || PRED- || be.eaten || 3E- || ABS- || bug || 3D- || ERG- || cat<br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | &quot;The bug got eaten by the cat.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> :{| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | '''Laigu tembu langeu'''<br /> |-<br /> | l- || a- || i- || gu || t- || e- || mbu || l- || a- || ngeu<br /> |-<br /> | 3D- || ā- || PRED- || be.eaten || 3E- || ABS- || bug || 3D- || ERG- || cat<br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | &quot;The cat ate the bug.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Morphology of Modifiers===<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Category:Languages]]<br /> [[Category:Conlangs]]</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Balog&diff=259380 2022-02-06T00:24:42Z

<p>Imralu: /* Syntax */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}<br /> '''Balog''' [ˈbɐɫɔɡ̚] is the main language of the Balog people of Ub as well as the most widely used ''lingua franca'' on that planet.<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Manner !! Phonation !! Bilabial !! Dentolabial&lt;br&gt;Labiodental !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal<br /> |-<br /> ! Nasal !! voiced <br /> | /m/ &lt;sup&gt;1,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''m'''› || || /n/ &lt;sup&gt;2,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''n'''› || || || /ŋ/ &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ŋ''' / '''ng'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plosive <br /> ! voiced <br /> | /b/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''b'''› || || /d/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''d'''› || || || /ɡ/ &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''g'''› || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | /p/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''p'''› || || /t/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''t'''› || || || /k/ &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''k'''› || || /ʔ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''q'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /tʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tq'''› || || || /kʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''kq'''› || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Affricate <br /> ! voiced <br /> | || || /d͡z/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dz'''› || /d͡ʒ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''dž''' / '''dzh'''› || || || || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless<br /> | || || /t͡s/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ts'''› || /t͡ʃ/ &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tš''' / '''tsh'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! ejective<br /> | || || /t͡sʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tsq'''› || /t͡ʃʼ/ &lt;sup&gt;6,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''tšq''' / '''tshq'''› || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Fricative <br /> ! voiced <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /v/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''v'''› || /z/&lt;br&gt;‹'''z'''› || /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''ž''' / '''zh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /ɣ/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''ğ''' / '''gh'''› || <br /> |-<br /> ! voiceless <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /f/ &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''f'''› || /s/&lt;br&gt;‹'''s'''› || /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;‹'''š''' / '''sh'''› || <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | /x/ &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''x'''› || /h/&lt;br&gt;‹'''h'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Trill / Flap<br /> ! voiced<br /> | || || /r/ &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''r'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Lateral !! voiced<br /> | || || /l/ &lt;sup&gt;3,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''l'''› || || || || ||<br /> |-<br /> ! Semivowel !! voiced<br /> | || || || || /j/&lt;br&gt;‹'''y'''› || /w/ &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;‹'''w'''› || ||<br /> |}<br /> <br /> # /m/ assimilates to the articulation of a following /v/ or /f/, being pronounced bilabially [m] by speakers with bilabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([β] and [ɸ]), dentolabially [ɱ͆] by speakers with dentolabial pronunciations of /v/ and /f/ ([v͆] and [f͆]) and labiodentally by speakers with labiodental pronunciation of /v/ and /f/ ([v] and [f])<br /> # Nasal consonants may be pronounced syllabically when not adjacent to a vowel. Their syllabic pronunciations are always short and unstressed.<br /> # The alveolar/dental consonants /n d t tʼ l/ are pronounced with dental articulation by some speakers and alveolar articulation by others. This varies chiefly by region and/or native language.<br /> # The voiced plosives /b d g/ are frequently pronounced as implosives ''post pausa'': [ɓ ɗ~ɗ̪ ɠ]<br /> # The voiceless plosives /p t k/ are generally unaspirated although aspirated pronunciations may be found, especially by L2 speakers: [pʰ tʰ~t̪ʰ kʰ]. The glottal plosive /ʔ/ is never aspirated.<br /> # The ejective consonants /pʼ tʼ kʼ t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ/ are frequently pronounced irregularly by L2 speakers who lack ejective consonants in their native languages. As there are many minimal pairs that can result in dangerous misunderstandings if the ejective consonants are not pronounced, many L2 speakers who are unable to pronounce the ejectives substitute them with sequences of a plain plosive or affricate, a weakly articulated schwa and then a glottal stop: [pə͉ʔ tə͉ʔ kə͉ʔ t͡sə͉ʔ t͡ʃə͉ʔ].<br /> # The affricates are not distinguished phonetically from equivalent sequences of plosive and fricative that come together by compounding processes or even across word boundaries. They are ascribed phonemic status due to their phonotactic patterning.<br /> # The majority of Balog pronounce the fricatives /v/ and /f/ dentolabially: [v͆] and [f͆]. Due to anatomical differences, the majority of non-Balog pronounce these labiodentally as [v] and [f]. Speakers of certain regions, both Balog and non-Balog, may pronounce them bilabially as [β] and [ɸ]. <br /> # The fricatives /ɣ/ and /x/ may be pronounced either at the velum as [ɣ] and [x], or at the uvula as [ʁ] and [χ]. Speakers with uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ may frequently pronounce it as a trill [ʀ].<br /> # The consonant /r/ is generally pronounced as a tap or flap [ɾ] with trilled pronunciations generally restricted to emphatic speech. When geminate, the pronunciation is always as a trill.<br /> # The lateral /l/ may be, as discussed in point 3., either be dental or alveolar, however there is always a strong velar or pharyngeal coarticulation: [ɫ~ɫ̪]<br /> # The semivowel /w/ is generally pronounced unrounded by Balog speakers due to anatomical differences. It is, however, pronounced with lip compression that results in a similar auditory effect: [w͍]. Non-Balog who speak it as an L2 may pronounce it with rounding: [w].<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Header text !! Front !! Back<br /> |-<br /> ! High <br /> | /i/ [ɪ] ‹'''i'''› || /u/ [ʊ͍] ‹'''u'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Mid <br /> | /e/ [ɛ] ‹'''e'''› || /o/ [ɔ͍] ‹'''o'''›<br /> |-<br /> ! Low <br /> | /æ/ [æ] ‹'''ä'''› || /a/ [ɐ] ‹'''a'''›<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> ==Morphophonology==<br /> ===Gemination===<br /> ===Prenasalisation===<br /> ===Vowel Frontness===<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> ===Verbs===<br /> There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each content word exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates (&quot;verbally&quot;) or become nominalised by a subject marker in order to be used (&quot;nominally&quot;) as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as &quot;verbs&quot; due to the simple fact that they can appear unmodified in a predicate but must be modified by a nominaliser in order to appear in subjects.<br /> <br /> This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right.<br /> <br /> By contrast, the meaning of Balog verbs does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each verb may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply &quot;be [noun]&quot;. If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, &quot;entity that [verb]s&quot;, &quot;one who [verbs]&quot;, &quot;that which [verbs]&quot;, &quot;those that [verb]&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Balog Verb!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation<br /> |-<br /> | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree<br /> |-<br /> | '''ŋaž''' || be tall || tall one<br /> |-<br /> | '''magaz''' || fall over || one that falls over<br /> |-<br /> | '''dek''' || die without obvious cause || one that dies without obvious cause<br /> |-<br /> | '''vaŋ''' || hunt; be a hunter || one who hunts; hunter<br /> |}<br /> <br /> It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the verb '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''true verb'' as it describes &quot;an action/state&quot;, whereas the verb '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes &quot;an entity&quot;. This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A verb such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning &quot;(an) annoyance&quot; or &quot;nuisance&quot; or as a true verb meaning &quot;annoy&quot; or &quot;bother&quot;. The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with &quot;Both!&quot; '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the verb'''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning &quot;hunter&quot; (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the verb '''magaz''' &quot;fall over&quot;, which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a &quot;faller-over&quot;). Likewise, the verb '''dauz''' describes an entity, a &quot;tree&quot;, yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. <br /> <br /> In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as true verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' &quot;be a tree&quot; or '''ŋaž''' &quot;be tall&quot; are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as true verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically &quot;verb like&quot; and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by &quot;entity that&quot;, &quot;one who&quot; or &quot;that which&quot;.<br /> <br /> The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action &quot;be tree&quot; for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal &quot;growing&quot;, occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as &quot;be tree&quot;, &quot;be sapling&quot;, however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with &quot;be tree&quot;, in which changes of state are not in focus. <br /> <br /> &lt;pre&gt;Balog Verbal <br /> Verb: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; <br /> _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ <br /> dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx<br /> ŋurad | germinate | X<br /> biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx<br /> ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br /> näh | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X <br /> zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX<br /> magaz | fall down | X<br /> dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx<br /> däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx&lt;/pre&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Adverbs===<br /> Adverbs modify verbs to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of adverbs are very short, particle-like words. For example, adverbs indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a verb and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal verbs, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of <br /> <br /> In the following example, the imperfective particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus &quot;is dying&quot; (or according to context, &quot;was dying&quot; etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' &quot;be neighbour&quot; to indicate &quot;be one who was a neighbour&quot;, thus &quot;former neighbour&quot; in the translation. <br /> <br /> : {| <br /> |- <br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''Hi zowak aqaddo garag wenniiž.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [hɪ ˈzɔ͍w͍ɐk ɐʔɐdːɔ͍ ˈɡɐɾɐɡ wɛnːiːʒ]<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''hi'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;do&lt;/span&gt;''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž'''<br /> |-<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;IPFV&lt;/span&gt; || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;PST&lt;/span&gt; || neighbour || ESS- || GEN- || 1S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;A &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;former&lt;/span&gt; neighbour of mine &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;is&lt;/span&gt; dy&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;ing&lt;/span&gt; (of a protracted illness).&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Syntactic Clitics===<br /> ====Essive====<br /> ====Subject Clitics====<br /> Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''status''. <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Subject Clitics<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Status (Gloss) !! Definite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(DEF) !! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Specific&lt;br&gt;(SPEC)!! Indefinite&lt;br&gt;Non-Specific&lt;br&gt;(NSPC)<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Entities&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerful&quot; !! (A) <br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''u(u)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uqu(u)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''uhu(u)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Dominant&quot; !! (B)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''a(a)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aqa(a)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''aha(a)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Intermediate&quot; !! (C)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''o(o)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oqo(o)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''oho(o)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Subordinate&quot; !! (D)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''e(e)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''eqe(e)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ehe(e)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! &quot;Powerless&quot; !! (E)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''i(i)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''iqi(i)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ihi(i)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Propositions&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! Propositional !! (P)<br /> | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ä(ä)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''äqä(ä)-'''''&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''''ähä(ä)-'''''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The doubled final vowel of of the subject clitics only appears when attached to a verb consisting of a single consonant. In other cases, the subject clitics trigger the gemination of the following consonant.<br /> =====Status=====<br /> All referents are assigned a '''status''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Status is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the status used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, statuses may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse and rank them relative to one another.<br /> <br /> A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of status is to use the question &quot;Who would win in a physical fight?&quot; as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are assigned a higher status than smaller, weaker referents. The highest status, A, the &quot;powerful&quot; status, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is an exception, dependent not only physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the A-statused referent alone would afford them. &quot;Weighty&quot; abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the A-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this status.<br /> ======Pronouns======<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> ! <br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1st Person&lt;br /&gt;(Exclusive)<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 1st + 2nd&lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2nd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 3rd &lt;br /&gt;Person<br /> |- style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | Status<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Dual<br /> | Plural<br /> | Singular<br /> | Plural<br /> | Neutral<br /> | Singulative<br /> | Plurative<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | A &quot;Powerful&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuž&lt;br /&gt;(užžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuz &lt;br /&gt;(uzzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uuŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uul&lt;br /&gt;(ullan)&lt;br /&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uur&lt;br /&gt;(ullim,&lt;br /&gt;urrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uu<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uun<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | uum<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | B &quot;Dominant&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaž&lt;br /&gt;(ažžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaz&lt;br /&gt;(azzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aaŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aal&lt;br /&gt;(allan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aar&lt;br /&gt;(allim,&lt;br /&gt;arrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aa<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | aam<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | C &quot;Intermediate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oož&lt;br /&gt;(ožžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooz&lt;br /&gt;(ozzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ooŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ool&lt;br /&gt;(ollan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oor&lt;br /&gt;(ollim,&lt;br /&gt;orrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oo<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oon<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | oom<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | D &quot;Subordinate&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eež&lt;br /&gt;(ežžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eez&lt;br /&gt;(ezzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eeŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eel&lt;br /&gt;(ellan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(ellim,&lt;br /&gt;errim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ee<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | een<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eem<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | E &quot;Powerless&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiž&lt;br /&gt;(ižžan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiz&lt;br /&gt;(izzim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iiŋ<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋan<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iŋŋim<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iil&lt;br /&gt;(illan)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | eer&lt;br /&gt;(illim,&lt;br /&gt;irrim)<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ii<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iin<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | iim<br /> |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | P &quot;Propositional&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;&quot; | <br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | ää<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;color:#00009b;&quot; | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> One of the most unusual features of Balog is its complete lack of grammatical objects. Every verb is monovalent (intransitive), meaning it can refer to only one noun at a time. For this reason, it is essentially impossible to describe the morphosyntactic alignment of Balog. It can, however, be noted that there is a preponderance of unaccusative verbs to describe actions, with semantic agents generally appearing in clauses containing information about manner.<br /> ===Verb Phrases=== <br /> ===Clause Syntax===<br /> Clauses consist of a predicate followed by a subject. The predicate consists of a verb phrase. The subject consists of a verb phrase marked by a subject clitic.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |+ Structure of a Clause<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''C'''lause<br /> |-<br /> | '''P'''redicate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''S'''ubject<br /> |-<br /> | '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase|| '''S'''ubject '''C'''litic|| '''V'''erb '''P'''hrase<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Here are some examples showing this structure.<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Magaz iddauz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''magaz''''' || '''''i(i)-''''' || '''''dauz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | fall.over || DEF(E)- || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The tree fell over.''&lt;br&gt;''The tree falls over.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> : {|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Dauz immagaz'''.<br /> |-<br /> | '''''dauz''''' || '''''i(i)-''''' || '''''magaz'''''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tree || DEF(E)- || fall.over<br /> |-<br /> | VP|| SC|| VP<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''What fell over was a tree.''&lt;br&gt;''The thing that is falling over is a tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Apposition===<br /> ===Complementiser===<br /> The propositional subject markers '''''ä(ä)-''''', '''''äqä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' function as a complementiser akin to &quot;that&quot;, attaching to the beginning of the predicate of a clause and marking it as the subject of the matrix clause. '''''Ä(ä)-''''' and '''''ähä(ä)-''''' are frequently used with the former referring to definite facts and events and the latter referring to the generalised idea. The following examples should elucidate the difference.<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm ˈæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;DEF(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I'm glad you're happy.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&quot;I like that you're happy.&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :{|<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | '''M'oož nam ähämmelets eel.'''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | [ˈmɔ͍ːʒ ˈnɐm æˈhæmːɛɫɛt͡s ˈɛːɫ]<br /> |-<br /> | '''m''' || '''o(o)-''' || '''ž''' || '''nam''' || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''ähä(ä)-'''&lt;/span&gt; || '''melets''' || '''e(e)-''' || '''l'''<br /> |-<br /> | feel.emotionally || DEF(C)- || 1S || appeal || &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000FF&quot;&gt;NSPC(P)-&lt;/span&gt; || be.happy || DEF(D)- || 2S<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | &quot;I like the idea of you being happy.&quot;<br /> |}</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Iliaqu&diff=258025 2022-01-29T11:04:06Z

<p>Imralu: /* Conditionals */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Iliaqu<br /> |nativename = iliaqu<br /> |pronunciation = [ìʎàʔú]<br /> |region = Qu<br /> |ethnicity = Ngolu / Ilaqu<br /> |speakers = {{formatnum:100,000}}<br /> |setting = [[Verse:Qu|Qu]]<br /> |fam1 = Language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2013-2020<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> {{infobox|bg=#F2DC77|native=iliaqu|in=Qu|no=100,000 (approx.)|tree=Isolate (as far as known)|wo=VSO|morph=Isolating/futional|ms=Nominative-Accusative|creator=[[User:Imralu|Imralu]]|date=2013-2014}}<br /> <br /> '''Iliaqu''' (IPA: /ˌɪljəˈʔuː/), also known as '''Ngolu''' or sometimes '''Qu''' (endonym: ''iliaqu'' IPA: [ìʎàʔú]) is a language isolate spoken throughout the known regions of the space habitat [[Verse:Qu|Qu]] by the Ngolu people, whose number is estimated to be around 100,000. As the Ngolu are almost entirely monolingual, and while voluntary travel to and from Qu remains impossible, the language is not in any danger of extinction. At this stage, little is known of dialect differences within Qu. There are estimated to be somewhere between 50 and 100 Iliaqu speakers on Earth who have simply mysteriously appeared in various locations. Small communities of Ngolu speakers been brought or have found their way together, the most well-known and well-studied of which is a group of about 15 living in and around Berlin, Germany.<br /> <br /> Iliaqu is an isolating/fusional, head-initial (right-branching) language with VSO word order and nominative-accusative alignment. Verbs (verbals) make up the only open class of word, with nouns (nominals) constituting a closed class of heavily fusional words that fill the roll of pronouns and articles in other languages, marking grammatical person, number, definiteness and specificity, gender, accessibility, and case.<br /> <br /> ==Terminology==<br /> There appear to have been fewer than ten isolated instances of non-Ngolu people arriving in Qu and there are no other cultures or languages known to exist in Qu. In such a linguistically and culturally homogenous environment, the Ngolu have had no need for endonyms for their culture, people or language. Traditionally, they have described their language simply as '''ilia''' [ìʎá] 'speech', themselves as '''golu''' [ŋòlú] 'people', and their world as '''qu''' [ʔú] 'world'. <br /> <br /> With the new knowledge of other cultures and the entire universe outside of Qu, neologisms have arisen to distinguish their language and their people from those of the outsiders. For the Ngolu arrivals Earth, contact with other cultures has forced them to acknowledge that the other languages they hear must have the ability to convey information just as their language. Consequently, on Earth, the word '''ilia''' generally refers to any language. To disambiguate their own language, they may call it '''ilia qu''' [ìʎáʔú] or '''iliaqu''' [ìʎàʔú] 'Qu speech'. Non-Ngolu are still referred to as '''taia''' ('ghost', 'demon') and Earth maybe referred to as '''utaia''' [ùtàjá] 'ghost world' or a loan word such as '''hiia''', which was common among the Berlin group (from German ''hier'') although it now seems to be dying out in favour of '''utaia'''. With the acknowledgement that non-Ngolu people are also people and the consequent expansion of the term '''golu''' to include non-Ngolu, the term '''goqu''' [ŋòʔú] ('Qu people', formed by adding the human prefix '''go-''' to the word '''qu''') is gaining ground and may be contrasted with '''taia''' or '''goutaia''' [ŋòu̯tàjá].<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !VOWELS<br /> !Front<br /> !Central<br /> !Back<br /> |-<br /> !High<br /> |'''i''' ‹i›<br /> |<br /> |'''u''' ‹u›<br /> |-<br /> !Mid<br /> |'''e''' ‹e›<br /> |<br /> |'''o''' ‹o›<br /> |-<br /> !Low<br /> |<br /> |'''a''' ‹a›<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Each vowel may be 'strong' or 'weak'. These are essentially stressed and unstressed. There is only ever one 'strong' vowel per word and it is nearly always the final vowel. Where it is not, it is always the penultimate vowel and the in that case the final vowel is always /i/ or /u/. Non-final strong vowels are indicated in the romanisation using an acute accent, ‹áéíóú›.<br /> <br /> The realisation of strong vowels varies across accents. There appears to be a cline ranging from a pitch-based pronunciation to a weight-based pronunciation (used chiefly by men). At the pitch-based end of the spectrum, 'strong' vowels are pronounced with a high tone and 'weak' vowels with a low-tone. At the end of a non-interrogative utterance, a high-tone becomes a falling tone. At the end of a question, a high tone may be lengthened and/or undergo an additional rise. At the weight-based extreme, strong vowels cause gemination of the following consonant but are pronounced as long themselves when the following sound is (1) a vowel, (2) a consonant cluster or (3) an already geminated consonant. Utterance finally, strong vowels are generally neither pronounced with a high tone nor lengthened but are usually pronounced slightly louder. <br /> <br /> The high vowels, /i/ and /u/, when 'weak' and adjacent to another vowel are pronounced non-syllabically as [i̯~j] and [u̯~w]). Non-syllabic /i/ merges with and palatalises any preceding dental/alveolar consonant.<br /> <br /> In these two word examples, the pitch-based pronunciation is given before the weight-based pronunciation.<br /> <br /> :*'''ju muja''' [ʒúmùʒâ] ~ [ʒumːuˈʒa]<br /> :*'''ju aio''' [ʒúàjô] ~ [ʒuːaˈjo]<br /> :*'''ju uaia''' [ʒúwàjâ] [ʒuːwaˈja]<br /> :*'''ju ntu''' [ʒúntû] ~ [ʒu:nˈtu]<br /> :*'''ju lleue''' [ʒúlːèwê] ~ [ʒuːlːeˈwe]<br /> <br /> ===Consonants===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !CONSONANTS<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Dental/Alveolar<br /> !Post-alveolar<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> | '''m''' ‹m›<br /> | <br /> | '''n''' ‹n›<br /> |<br /> | '''ŋ''' ‹g›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> | '''b''' ‹b›<br /> |<br /> | '''t''' ‹t›<br /> |<br /> | '''k''' ‹k›<br /> | '''ʔ''' ‹q›<br /> |-<br /> !Ejective<br /> |<br /> | <br /> | '''tʼ''' ‹tt›<br /> |<br /> | '''kʼ''' ‹kk›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiced Fricative<br /> | <br /> | '''v''' ‹v›<br /> | '''z''' ‹z›<br /> | '''ʒ''' ‹j›<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiceless Fricative<br /> | <br /> | <br /> | '''s''' ‹s›<br /> | '''ʃ''' ‹x›<br /> | <br /> | '''h''' ‹h›<br /> |-<br /> !Tap<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''ɾ''' ‹r› <br /> |<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''l''' ‹l› <br /> |<br /> |<br /> | <br /> |}<br /> <br /> * The nasal consonants /m n ŋ/, unlike other consonants, may occur before another consonant and then assimilate in place of articulation to that consonant. For this reason, many authors posit the archiphoneme /N/. /N/ may be syllabic post pausa, carrying a low tone. Before /l/, /N/ assimilates to [l̪] or [l̪̩]. Before /v/, it is pronounced as [ɱ] or [ɱ̩].<br /> * The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental [n̪ t̪ t̪ʼ ɾ̪ l̪]. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears. Some speakers palatalise /t/ and /d/ to [t͡ʃ] and [d͡ʒ] respectively. The ejective /tʼ/, however, is rarely or never palatalised as [t͡ʃʼ].<br /> * /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive [d̪].<br /> * Geminate /m/, /n/ and /l/ (resulting from /Nm/, /Nn/ and /Nl/) may be pronounced as [m̩b], [n̪̩d̪] and [l̪̩d̪] respectively, particularly by men and particularly post pausa.<br /> * /s/ and /z/ are normally alveolar. When followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are not distinguished from /ʃ ʒ/. <br /> * /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ cannot be followed by non-syllabic /i/.<br /> * The phonemes /s/ and /ɾ/ do not occur at the beginning of a word.<br /> * The glottal stop /ʔ/ and the ejective consonants /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ are restricted to positions immediately before a 'strong' vowel, although there may be an intervening non-syllabic 'weak' /i/ or /u/ after the ejectives. At the beginning of a 'weak' syllable, ejective consonants become pronounced as their equivalent plain plosive and the glottal stop disappears. For example, ''kka'' [kʼá] and ''kkue'' [kʷʼé] are allowed while expected ''*kkina'' (derived from ''kka'' plus the infix ''-in-'') is instead present as ''kina'' [kì.ná]. In connected speech, /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ may be pronounced as [t̚ʔ k̚ʔ] or even [tː kː]. However, a strong ejective pronunciation is always heard post pausa.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> Phonemically, a syllable may be '''((N)C)V''', where '''V''' is a vowel '''(C)''' an optional consonant and '''(N)''' an optional nasal which assimilates to its following consonant in its point of articulation. <br /> <br /> Phonetically, syllables may be more complex. '''(N)''' is pronounced syllabically post pausa and otherwise is pronounced in the coda of the preceding syllable. The non-syllabic pronunciations of /i/ and /u/ mean that a syllable can be (C)(S)V(S)(N), where '''(S)''' is a semivowel.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::'''nxua intaneti'''<br /> ::/Nʃu.á.i.Nta.ne.tí/<br /> ::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí]<br /> ::''is on the internet''<br /> <br /> ===Epenthetic /s/===<br /> <br /> An epenthetic /s/ sometimes appears between words when the second word begins with a vowel. In the romanisation used here, the /s/ is written on the end of the preceding word. The rules are somewhat complex and are best shown as a table. The final vowels of preceding words are shown vertically on the left. Initial vowels of the following word are shown along the top. An epenthetic /s/ doesn't appear before '''i''' and '''u''' when a syllabic vowel (V) immediately follows within the same word. In the table, the word borders are shown with an '''s''' indicating where the epenthetic /s/ always appears. In other positions in the table, the epenthetic /s/ can still appear in very clear emphatic speech.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''i(V)-'' || ''u(V)-'' || ''i-'' || ''u-'' || ''e-'' || ''o-'' || ''a-''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-i'' || '''-i i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i e-''' || '''-i o-''' || '''-i a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-u'' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u u-''' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} u-''' || '''-u e-''' || '''-u o-''' || '''-u a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-e'' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-o'' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-a'' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ua''' || [è.né.wá] || '''u''' followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} u''' || [è.né.sú] || '''u''' not followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ima''' || [è.néj.má] || '''i''' is weak and can become non-syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} eme''' || [è.né.sè.mé] || '''e''' is always syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni ua''' || [è.ní.wá] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni u''' || [è.ní.ú] || final '''i''' before syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni iu''' || [è.ní.jú] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni{{color|MediumBlue|s}} iui''' || [è.ní.sì.wí] || final '''i''' before initial syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene iui''' || [è.néj.wí] || final '''e''' followed by 'weak' '''i''' which becomes non-syllabic<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> There are four classes of words in Ngolu. Ngolu is a very verb-heavy language, with verbals making up the only truly open word class.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''Nominals''': closed<br /> :* '''Verbals''': open<br /> :* '''Particles''': closed<br /> :* '''Interjections''': closed (mostly)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Nominals===<br /> Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of nominals, the &lt;u&gt;pronominals&lt;/u&gt;, are essentially the equivalent of pronouns and articles in other languages, inflecting for number, grammatical person, definiteness, specificity, gender, case and an inflectional dimension unique to Iliaqu, ''accessibility''. Pronominals can appear on their own or can be followed by a verbal or verbal phrase. When followed by a verbal, they can be regarded as the head of an underlying relative clause which nominalises the verbal and allows it to function as an argument in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> :As a pronoun:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|it}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :As an article:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|the}} house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In addition to the pronominals, there are two &lt;u&gt;complementisers&lt;/u&gt; which are essentially subordinating conjunctions which inflect for case. '''Zuo''' can be thought of as roughly equivalent to the English subordinating conjunction 'that' and '''kuo''' can be thought of as 'the time when'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''olos''' || '''ene''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''g-ixi''' || '''ja''' || '''nana''' || '''g-uje''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.strange || DAT.1s.ACS || NOM.C || be.not || COP-DAT.3s.INAN.DEF || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.father || COP-GEN.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is strange&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;is not&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the one who&quot; || &quot;is father&quot; || &quot;is hers/his&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I think it's strange {{color|MediumBlue|that}} his / her father didn't go / wasn't there.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Number====<br /> Pronominals indicate two numbers, singular and plural. Plural is marked by the prefix '''i-''', which occurs before some case prefixes and after others (see [[Ngolu#Case|Case]] below for more information).<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The singular is used before quantifiers indicating a specific plural quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a group of two&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|two}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> When the plural is used, this indicates multiples of the indicated quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are groups of two&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|pairs of}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Many words denoting powders and granular substances are used in the plural with the singular referring to an individual grain.<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a grain of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the grain of sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are grains of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the (grain{{color|MediumBlue|s}} of) sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Water referred to as '''hunia''', potable water, is indicated in the plural as well when it is a quantity larger than what one person can drink in one sitting. <br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (large quantity of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (serving of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Gender====<br /> In the third person, nominals distinguish between animate and inanimate referents. When it comes to animals, the use of the genders depends on the speaker's [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]]. ''Kali'' (women, children and uninitiated men) and ''tuva'' (slaves) refer to all motile animals in the animate gender, generally as inaccessible although pets may be accessible. ''Muja'' (initiated men) refer to animals other than pets in the inanimate gender. The Ngolu believe this allows ''muja'' to hunt without remorse.<br /> <br /> The following examples illustrate the difference. Examples which are specific to the rank of the speaker or the listener will be marked as such after the translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The interplay between a speaker and listener's rank is complex and may result in unexpected gender choices. For example, a slave must refer to him- or herself in the third person inanimate gender when speaking to ''balu'' and above unless specifically given permission otherwise. To read more about this, see [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|Social Stratification and Language Use]].<br /> <br /> ====Person====<br /> Three grammatical persons are marked by pronominals. The first person pronominals contain '''n'''. The second person pronominals contain a non-syllabic '''u''' (realised as '''v''' before '''u'''). In the third person, '''j''', '''x''', '''m''', '''z''', '''k''' and Ø appear depending on gender, definiteness and specificity.<br /> <br /> =====Clusivity=====<br /> The plural forms of all the basic pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness. <br /> <br /> The first person inclusive (second plus first persons) may be indicated by compound pronominals, the dual forms (&quot;you, one person, and I&quot;) being '''uana''', '''uanu''', '''vuna''', '''vunu''' and the plural forms being '''iuana''', '''iuanu''', '''ivuna''', '''ivunu'''. Which of the four options is used depends on [[#accessibility|accessibility]]. These compound forms are not used universally and many speakers use juxtaposition of pronouns, such as '''vu nu''' instead of '''vunu''' or '''iua na''' or '''iua ina''' instead of '''iuana'''.<br /> <br /> Even addressing people in the second person, should the group include third persons who are not being addressed, many speakers will make note of these separately, for example '''ju vu''' (gloss: NOM.3s.ICS.DEF NOM.2s.ICS) and this is somewhat prescriptively enforced. The nominal '''ivu''' (gloss: NOM.2p.ICS), for example, is recommended only for use to address two or more people when all are present or when the message is at the very least expected to be passed onto those who are not present. <br /> <br /> The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person. The compound 2nd+1st person pronouns are not subject to this ordering rule.<br /> <br /> Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive.<br /> <br /> ====Definiteness and Specificity====<br /> <br /> In the third person, pronominals indicate definiteness (whether the listener knows which individual) and specificity (whether the speaker knows which individual).<br /> <br /> =====Definite=====<br /> The Definite (+specific, +definite) is used when the listener is assumed to know which specific individual or individuals the speaker is referring to. In the following examples, '''ji ala''' (or just '''ji''') refers to a specific bird which the listener is assumed to be already aware of, possibly because it is already been mentioned.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|the bird}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|it}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Specific=====<br /> The Specific (+specific, -definite) is used when the speaker has a specific individual or individuals in mind but the listener is not assumed to know which one(s). In the following examples, '''mi ala''' (or '''mi''') refers to a specific bird but not one which the speaker expects the listener to know of.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a (particular) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|one (in particular)}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Non-Specific=====<br /> The Non-Specific (or General) does not refer to any specific individual(s) but to the abstract idea of a member or members of a particular class, any individual of which could be described. It often used when talking about desires or in negative sentences. In the examples below, '''i ala''' refers to any bird.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a(ny) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|anyone}}.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Accessibility====<br /> Accessibility is a concept integral to Ngolu culture. Outside of the third person non-specific, all animate nominals have two forms, one ''accessible'' (gloss: ACS) and one ''inaccessible'' (gloss: ICS). Accessible nominals have a low vowel,'''a''' in the nominative stem, '''e''' in the accusative stem, and these correspond to the high vowels '''u''' and '''i''' respectively in inaccessible nominals. Accessibility is typically explained as an indication of whether physical contact is permitted or not, however it is more generally a means of conveying social closeness or distance even when no actual touching is involved.<br /> <br /> In the first person, the English word ''I'' can be translated as either '''na''' (NOM.1s.ACS) or '''nu''' (NOM.1s.ICS). Using '''na''' signals to the listener &quot;I am accessible to you.&quot; This means the speaker feels close and emotionally open to the listener and physical contact is permitted or even welcome. Using '''nu''' informs the listener that physical contact is not welcome at the current time. This is typically because of emotional distance, such as when talking to strangers, casual acquaintances or people whom the speaker does not like, but it may also signal an unwillingness to be touched for other, often fleeting reasons, such as illness, pain or emotional tension. Between close friends and lovers, suddenly switching to '''nu''' may indicate that the speaker has taken offence at something.<br /> <br /> In the second and third persons, accessibility indicates the the referent's ''perceived'' accessibility ''to the speaker''. Using '''ua''' (NOM.2s.ACS) indicates that the speaker assumes he or she may touch the listener. Using '''vu''' (NOM.2s.ICS) indicates either a more respectful or colder social distance (cf. French &quot;vous&quot;, which, coincidentally, sounds identical). In the third person, '''ja''' (NOM.3s.ACS.DEF) and '''ju''' (NOM.3s.ICS.DEF) indicate the speaker's relationship to the referent. In plural, accessible indicates that ''all'' members of the group are accessible. Even one individual who the speaker regards as inaccessible, will cause the group to be marked as inaccessible. Inaccessibility is thus the 'default' and when speaking of generic or unknown individuals, these will be indicated with inaccessible nominals.<br /> <br /> Accessibility produces four speech modes or 'stances'. In situations between peers of equal rank, generally the speech mode with either be accessible (using accessible nominals in both first and second persons) or inaccessible (using inaccessible nominals in both). In situations of unequal dominance, which generally, but do not always, run along lines of rank, the dominant party speaks in the dominant mode, using inaccessible first person nominals and accessible second person nominals. The subordinate party speaks in the subordinate or submissive mode, using the reverse.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | speech mode || first person || second person || meaning<br /> |-<br /> | accessible mode (ACS) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may touch me. I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | inaccessible mode (ICS) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may not touch me. I may not touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | dominant mode (DOM) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may not touch me but I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | submissive mode (SUB) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may touch me but I may not touch you.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The speech mode used depends not only on who the speaker and listener are to one another, but how they feel about each other in that moment. A friend or lover who is deeply offended may suddenly switch to the inaccessible or dominant mode to indicate that they are now not happy and had better not be touched until the offence is resolved. The submissive mode may be used in order to flirt with an acquaintance. Flirting may be met with the accessible or inaccessible modes, which essentially give an answer. No answer (yet) is signalled by the adoption of the dominant mode. Smooth social interactions are ensured by the concordance of speech modes, ACS↔ACS, ICS↔ICS, DOM↔SUB. Conflict is often caused by the refusal to agree or by physical contact with someone marked in speech as inaccessible.<br /> <br /> Examples of the four speech modes in use.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ICS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Case====<br /> Ngolu possesses 14 grammatical cases. The nominative and accusative case appear to be the oldest and all other forms appear to derive from the agglomeration of adpositions onto them. The first group (accusative, dative, ablative, locative, genitive and possessive) appear to be relatively old. At some point after these adpositions fused onto the nominals, the plural marker '''i-''' also became a prefix. For example '''''i-e-ji''''' 'to them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;PL-DAT-ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;. The second group of derived cases (vocative, causal, benefactive, instrumental, comitative, topical, essive) appear to have developed more recently from prepositions added to either the nominative or the accusative case as the plural marker '''i-''' is sandwiched in the middle. For example '''''te-i-ji''''' 'about them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;because.of-PL.ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;.<br /> <br /> =====Nominative=====<br /> The nominative case indicates the grammatical subject of a verb. The nominative case is always formed with a back vowel, '''u''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''a''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''u''' shows animate and '''a''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''muja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|na}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.initiated.man || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be an initiated man&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} am an initiated man.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''loe''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || sleep || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} is not sleeping. / {{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} didn't sleep.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|He}} killed / murdered something / someone''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good || NOM.C || be.not || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It's good {{color|MediumBlue|that}} it's not raining.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zoua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuo}}''' || '''tavi''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ja}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.difficult || NOM.TEMP.C || be.child || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;the time when&quot; || &quot;be child&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He had a difficult childhood.<br /> (≈ {{color|MediumBlue|The time when}} {{color|MediumBlue|s/he}} was a child was difficult.)''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Accusative=====<br /> The accusative case indicates the grammatical object of a verb. The accusative case is formed with a front vowel, '''i''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''e''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''i''' represents animate and '''e''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''. The complementisers are '''jo''' and '''kio'''<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''ti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.PRF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;have finished&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Someone murdered {{color|MediumBlue|him}} / {{color|MediumBlue|He}} was murdered.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jave''' || '''ja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kivo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | throw || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF || ACC.3s.INAN.DEF || be.rock<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;throw&quot; || &quot;the being&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be rock&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''He threw {{color|MediumBlue|the rock}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jo}}''' || '''vai''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.C || stay || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; |''I want you {{color|MediumBlue|to}} stay. (≈ I want {{color|MediumBlue|that}} you stay.)'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In informal speech, the accusative case may replace the dative case when it indicates an experiencer. This does not occur with verbs that also have an accusative role and use the dative case to indicate a recipient.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ine}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || ACC.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Dative=====<br /> The dative case indicates an indirect object of the verb, a destination or goal of a movement or an experiencer. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'to' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''e(r)-''' ('''ie(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volos''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ene}}''' || '''izi''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || DAT.1s.ACS || ACC.3p.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;some things that&quot; || &quot;be water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} was given water. / Someone gave {{color|MediumBlue|me}} water.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|iene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || '''uana'''<br /> |-<br /> | JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM.1+2DU.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go - to them&quot; || &quot;you and I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''vais''' || '''inu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekio}}''' || '''loe''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF || stay || NOM.1p.ICS || DAT.TEMP.C || sleep || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;we&quot; || &quot;until&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''We stayed {{color|MediumBlue|until}} they slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Ablative=====<br /> The ablative case is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'from' in English. It is formed by suffixing '''-i''' to a nominative nominal. The complementisers are '''zuio''' and '''kuio''' in the ablative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Kuaqa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mala}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-uni}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.distant || NOM.1s.ICS || ABL.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || COP-GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be far&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;from the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm far away {{color|MediumBlue|from my home}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go - from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Get away {{color|MediumBlue|from me}}!'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || '''xuua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuio}}''' || '''iti''' || ('''ju''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;to her/him&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;since&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || (&quot;s/he&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Locative=====<br /> The locative case indicates a location. It is more or less equivalent to the prepositions 'in', 'on' and 'at' in English. It is also used to replace the verb &quot;have&quot; when indicating immediate possession as in &quot;to have something on one's person&quot;. It is formed by suffixing '''-a''' to a nominative nominal in the inaccessible and inanimate and prefixing '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ia(r)-''') to an accessible nominative nominal. The prefixed form is also used for the non-specific animate and inanimate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''bani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ana}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.money || LOC.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be money&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I don't have any money (with me). (≈ There is no money {{color|MediumBlue|at me}}.)'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|xua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mo}}''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.what || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be what&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Where are you?'' (≈ You are {{color|MediumBlue|at the what}}?) — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''iio''' || '''jas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azuo}}''' || '''muana''' || '''iti''' || '''exi''' || '''muana''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.fish || NOM.3s.ACS || LOC.C || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.small || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; || &quot;he&quot; || &quot;where&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || &quot;to the thing that&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be big&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''He's fishing {{color|MediumBlue|where}} the stream flows into the river.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || '''xuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;begin&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be yours&quot; || &quot;when&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || (&quot;to the inaccessible one&quot;) || &quot;that thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Genitive=====<br /> The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''egio''' || '''tani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|une}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.threesome || be.sibling || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a group of three&quot; || &quot;be siblings&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I have three siblings.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tta''' || '''xu''' || '''gula''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|uji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tio}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.large || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.pair.of.arms || COP-GEN.3s.DEF.ICS || be.that.3<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be large&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of arms&quot; || &quot;be of the person who&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|That person over there}} has big arms. / The arms {{color|MediumBlue|of that person over there}} are big.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Possessive=====<br /> The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) but to a nominative nominal rather than an accusative one.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || POS.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;owned by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} have / own a house.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It should be noted that, although in many languages, the genitive or possessive case is usually adnominal, referring to an immediately adjacent noun phrase, in Iliaqu, all nominals, regardless of case, refer to the predicate in their clause unless verbalised with the [[#Nominal_to_Verbal|copular prefix]]. Compare the following sentences.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || COP-POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in {{color|MediumBlue|my}} boot.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in the boot {{color|MediumBlue| and it's mine}}.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|I own}} a snake which is in the boot. — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the second sentence, the lack of the copula on '''une''' indicates that it represents an argument of the predicate ('''masa''' 'there is a snake'), meaning that it is the snake which belongs to the speaker, not the boot. The word order, placing the unadorned possessive argument ('''une''') after the much heavier locative argument ('''xua xa buja''') is heavily marked, placing focus on the fact that the snake is the speaker's legal possession.<br /> <br /> Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, ''ataiva'', the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for ''ataiva'' to avoid the possessive case entirely in favour of the genitive case.<br /> <br /> =====Vocative=====<br /> The vocative case is used to address someone or attract their attention. It is formed by adding '''e(r)-''' ('''ei-''' in plural) to a nominative nominal. <br /> <br /> The most common greeting words for most uses are simply vocative nominals. They must reflect the number and accessibility of the addressee(s). <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is common for inaccessibles to be greeted in the third person, with '''eju''' frequently replacing '''evu'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Third person definite forms, however, may also be used with accessibles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eja}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh he who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Among accessibles, the '''e-''' prefix may be added directly to a personal name. This and the predicate prefix '''i-''' are the only example of verbals (as all names are verbals) taking a non-derivational affix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|e}}-xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | hey-be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey - be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hey}} Xagu!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the indefinite, the vocative can be used to summon help from non-specific people.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eru}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when one person's assistance is enough.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3p.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when more than one person's assistance is required.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative complementiser '''ezuo''' is used to mean 'if only' or 'I wish'. It is also used for making polite requests. Literally, it's something like 'o that'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezuo}}''' || '''hunia''' || '''nua'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.C || be.potable || LOC.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if only&quot; || &quot;be beverage&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''May I have some water please? ({{color|MediumBlue|If only}} I had some water.)'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative temporal complementiser '''ekuo''' is used to express nostalgia about a past time or anticipation for a future time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || '''ata''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh for the time when&quot; || &quot;be adult&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I can't wait till}} I'm grown up.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Causal=====<br /> The causal case describes a cause. It is equivalent to the English &quot;because of&quot;. It is formed by prefixing '''te(r)-''' (plural: '''tei-''') to the accusative nominals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zaxa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.sick || NOM.1s.ICS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am sick&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm ill {{color|MediumBlue|because of you}}. / You made me ill.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ezo''' || '''zouas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tejo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''mala''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.now || be.difficult || DAT.1s.ICS || CAU.C || be.not || be.house || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;because&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''Things are tough for me at the moment {{color|MediumBlue|because}} I don't have a house..'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Benefactive=====<br /> The benefactive case indicates either a beneficiary or benefactor of an action or situation or a goal. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'for'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''kua(r)-''' (plural: '''kuai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.this.1 || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;there is this, by me&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''This is {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}. (≈ There's this {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.)'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bioi''' || '''vaia''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.willing || do.everything || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;would&quot; || &quot;do everything&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I would do anything {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''etie''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''leu''' || '''ue''' || '''veji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || move.to.here.1 || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.C || rescue || ACC.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;finish&quot; || &quot;come here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;rescue&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;about the person&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; |''I came here {{color|MediumBlue|(in order) to}} save you from him/her.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''naxe''' || '''molu''' || '''iu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''mue''' || '''lau''' || '''iu''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | must || be.dead || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || BEN.C || be.able || be.alive || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;must&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;can&quot; || &quot;live&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates that&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; |''Some must die {{color|MediumBlue|so that}} others may live.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kuas''' || '''enies''' || '''e''' || '''kueta''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuakio}}''' || '''gehuo''' || '''ua''' || '''ji''' || '''uako'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || carry || ACC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.hunting.knife || BEN.TEMP.C || encounter || NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.enemy<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;carry&quot; || &quot;a non-specific thing which&quot; || &quot;be a hunting knife&quot; || &quot;in case&quot; || &quot;encounter&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''Carry a knife {{color|MediumBlue|in case}} you cross paths with enemies.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Instrumental=====<br /> The instrumental case describes the means or method by which something is done. It is equivalent to the English preposition &quot;with&quot; when it means &quot;using&quot;. It is formed by adding the prefix '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''vuja''' || '''zi''' || '''vaku''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kueta}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || hunt || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.babirusa || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.hunting.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;deliberately killed&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;hunts&quot; || &quot;a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a babirusa&quot; || &quot;using a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a hunting knife&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''The hunter killed the babirusa {{color|MediumBlue|with a hunting knife}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g-iara''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC.3p.NSPC.INAN || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;certain people&quot; || &quot;by&quot; || &quot;wait&quot; || &quot;at anything which&quot; || &quot;is bushes&quot; || &quot;be-at any things which&quot; || &quot;be drinking water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Comitative=====<br /> The comitative case indicates an accompanying person or thing. It is equivalent to 'with' in English when it means 'along with' or 'accompanied by'. It is formed by prefixing '''le(r)-''' (plural: '''lei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''ja''' || '''meha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|leje}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jalu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Meha || COM.3s.DEF.ACS || Jalu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is hunting&quot; || &quot;the person who&quot; || &quot;is Meha&quot; || &quot;with the person who&quot; || &quot;is Jalu&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''Meha is hunting {{color|MediumBlue|with Jalu}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''hu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || move.PFV || COM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come/go&quot; || &quot;with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Come {{color|MediumBlue|with me}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bata''' || '''ja''' || '''umatu''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lejo'''}} || '''buga''' || '''taba''' || '''iju''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | dance || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Umatu || COM.C || hit || be.drum || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;dance&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be Umatu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;be drum&quot; || &quot;the beings who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Umatu danced {{color|MediumBlue|while}} the others played the drums.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Topical=====<br /> The topical case indicates the topic or theme of an act of communication and in many instances also something which is kept in mind when a particular action is performed. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'about'. It is formed by prefixing '''ve(r)-''' (plural '''vei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''ila''' || '''na''' || '''leue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vezi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|valo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || speak || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.interesting<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;speak&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;about something that&quot; || &quot;is interesting&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to talk to you {{color|MediumBlue|about something interesting}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''teuas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vexi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiau}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | thank || DAT.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.food<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;thank&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;about the thing that&quot; || &quot;is food&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Thanks {{color|MediumBlue|for the food}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''malemale''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''moio''' || '''iu''' || '''azo''' || '''lo''' || '''zola''' || '''iu''' || '''babo'''<br /> |-<br /> | gossip || TOP.C || do.what || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other || ADV || be.solely || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;gossip&quot; || &quot;about the fact that&quot; || &quot;do what&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be only&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Only unintelligent people gossip {{color|MediumBlue|about}} what other people do.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Essive=====<br /> The essive case indicates the role of something in the sentence. It is roughly equivalent to the English words 'as' or 'like'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''o(r)-''' (plural: '''oi-''') to the nominative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''atia''' || '''nas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|omas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ali}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.there.2 || NOM.1s.ACS || ESS.3s.SPEC.ACS || be.same.rank.friend || COP-DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;as a person who&quot; || &quot;be a friend of the same rank&quot; || &quot;be to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm here {{color|MediumBlue|as your friend}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ozuo}}''' || '''ka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.visible || ESS.C || be.going.to || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;appear&quot; || &quot;as if&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It looks {{color|MediumBlue|like}} it's going to rain.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Tables====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Simple pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | na<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | nu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ina<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | inu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate specific<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ma<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | mu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ima<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | imu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate definite<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate specific<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | izu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | a<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ia<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> animate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> inanimate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Compound pronominals<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dominant<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dual<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Complimentisers<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | temporal<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====First Person=====<br /> First person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''nu''' || '''inu''' || '''na''' || '''ina'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ni''' || '''ini''' || '''ne''' || '''ine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''nua''' || '''inua''' || '''ana''' || '''iana''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uni''' || '''iuni''' || '''une''' || '''iune'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''unu''' || '''iunu''' || '''una''' || '''iuna'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''enu''' || '''einu''' || '''ena''' || '''eina''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teni''' || '''teini''' || '''tene''' || '''teine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuani''' || '''kuaini''' || '''kuane''' || '''kuaine''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ani''' || '''aini''' || '''ane''' || '''aine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leni''' || '''leini''' || '''lene''' || '''leine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veni''' || '''veini''' || '''vene''' || '''veine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''onu''' || '''oinu''' || '''ona''' || '''oina''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS.SG || ICS:PL || ACS.SG || ACS.PL<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ue''' || '''iue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eui''' || '''ieui''' || '''eue''' || '''ieue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''vui''' || '''ivui''' || '''uai''' || '''iuai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''vua''' || '''ivua''' || '''aua''' || '''iaua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uui''' || '''iuui''' || '''uue''' || '''iuue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uvu''' || '''iuvu''' || '''uua''' || '''iuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''evu''' || '''eivu''' || '''eua''' || '''eiua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teui''' || '''teiui''' || '''teue''' || '''teiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiui''' || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaiue''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aui''' || '''aiui''' || '''aue''' || '''aiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leui''' || '''leiui''' || '''leue''' || '''leiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veui''' || '''veiui''' || '''veue''' || '''veiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ovu''' || '''oivu''' || '''oua''' || '''oiua''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || ICS.DU<br /> || ACS.DU<br /> || DOM.DU<br /> || SUB.DU<br /> || ICS.PL<br /> || ACS.PL<br /> || DOM.PL<br /> || SUB.PL<br /> |-<br /> || Nominative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Accusative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Dative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvuna<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''ju''' || '''iju''' || '''ja''' || '''ija''' || '''xu''' || '''ixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ji''' || '''iji''' || '''je''' || '''ije''' || '''xi''' || '''ixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jui''' || '''ijui''' || '''jai''' || '''ijai''' || '''xui''' || '''ixui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''jua''' || '''ijua''' || '''aja''' || '''iaja''' || '''xua''' || '''ixua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uji''' || '''iuji''' || '''uje''' || '''iuje''' || '''uxi''' || '''iuxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uju''' || '''iuju''' || '''uja''' || '''iuja''' || '''*uxu''' || '''*iuxu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eju''' || '''eiju''' || '''eja''' || '''eija''' || '''exu''' || '''eixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teji''' || '''teiji''' || '''teje''' || '''teije''' || '''texi''' || '''teixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaiji''' || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuaixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aji''' || '''aiji''' || '''aje''' || '''aije''' || '''axi''' || '''aixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leji''' || '''leiji''' || '''leje''' || '''leije''' || '''lexi''' || '''leixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veji''' || '''veiji''' || '''veje''' || '''veije''' || '''vexi''' || '''veixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oju''' || '''oiju''' || '''oja''' || '''oija''' || '''oxu''' || '''oixu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''mu''' || '''imu''' || '''ma''' || '''ima''' || '''zu''' || '''izu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''mi''' || '''imi''' || '''me''' || '''ime''' || '''zi''' || '''izi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''emi''' || '''iemi''' || '''eme''' || '''ieme''' || '''ezi''' || '''iezi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mui''' || '''imui''' || '''mai''' || '''imai''' || '''zui''' || '''izui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''mua''' || '''imua''' || '''ama''' || '''iama''' || '''zua''' || '''izua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''umi''' || '''iumi''' || '''ume''' || '''iume''' || '''uzi''' || '''iuzi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''umu''' || '''iumu''' || '''uma''' || '''iuma''' || '''*uzu''' || '''*iuzu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''emu''' || '''eimu''' || '''ema''' || '''eima''' || '''ezu''' || '''eizu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''temi''' || '''teimi''' || '''teme''' || '''teime''' || '''tezi''' || '''teizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuami''' || '''kuaimi''' || '''kuame''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuazi''' || '''kuaizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ami''' || '''aimi''' || '''ame''' || '''aime''' || '''azi''' || '''aizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lemi''' || '''leimi''' || '''leme''' || '''leime''' || '''lezi''' || '''leizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vemi''' || '''veimi''' || '''veme''' || '''veime''' || '''vezi''' || '''veizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''omu''' || '''oimu''' || '''oma''' || '''oima''' || '''ozu''' || '''oizu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ANIM Sg. || ANIM Pl. || INAN Sg. || INAN Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''u''' || '''iu''' || '''a''' || '''ia'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''i''' || '''iri''' || '''e''' || '''ie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eri''' || '''ieri''' || '''ere''' || '''iere'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ai''' || '''iai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''iaru''' || '''ara''' || '''iara'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''iuri''' || '''ure''' || '''iure'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''iuru''' || '''ura'''* || '''iura'''*<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu''' || '''era''' || '''eia''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' || '''tere''' || '''teie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' || '''kuare''' || '''kuaie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' || '''are''' || '''aie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' || '''lere''' || '''leie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veri''' || '''veiri''' || '''vere''' || '''veie''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu''' || '''ora''' || '''oia'''<br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> =====Complementisers=====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''jo''' || 'that' || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''ejo''' || 'to the place where' || '''ekio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || *'''uzuo''' || || *'''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vejo''' || 'about V-ing' || '''vekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |}<br /> ::&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Verbals===<br /> <br /> Verbals constitute the only open class of words in Ngolu. They are essentially content words, equivalent to what in other languages are verbs ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''loe''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to sleep' || [NOM] sleeps<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kau''' || 'to eat' || [NOM] eats [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to hunt' (= 'to be a hunter') || [NOM] hunts [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''volo''' || 'to give' || [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mahu''' || 'to know' || [DAT] knows [NOM] = [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ila''' || 'to speak/talk' || [NOM] speaks [ACC]/[INS] (= language) to [DAT]/[COM] about [TOP]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mue''' || 'to be able to' || [NOM] can / is able to […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... nouns ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''iio''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be a fish' || [NOM] is a fish of [GEN] belonging to [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to be a hunter' (= 'to hunt') || [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person<br /> |-<br /> |• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of a different rank)' || [NOM] is a friend of [DAT], lover of [GEN] and concubine of [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ilia''' || 'to be speech/language' || [NOM] is the speech/language of [GEN]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... adjectives ... <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''tta''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be large' || [NOM] is large<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kaiu''' || 'to be edible' ('to be food') || [NOM] is edible to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kuaqa''' || 'to be far/distant' || [NOM] is far from [ABL]/[DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''xeva''' || 'to be visible' (= 'to see') || [NOM is visible to [DAT]; [DAT] sees [NOM]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lau''' || 'to be alive' (= 'to live', 'to be a living being') || [NOM] is alive<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lubi''' || 'to be closed/shut' || [NOM] is closed/shut to [DAT]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... and adverbs.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''jau''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to intentionally ...' || [NOM] is intentionally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mola''' || 'to be merely ...' (= 'to be insignificant') || [NOM] is just/only/merely […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> They are generally thought of as 'content words' but even many grammatical functions are expressed by verbals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''kka''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be not ...' || [NEGATIVE] || [NOM] is not […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hua''' || 'to be always ...', 'to be eternally ...' || [GNOMIC] || [NOM] is eternally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hau''' || 'to be defined by being ...' || [ESSENTIAL] || [NOM] is essentially […] by definition<br /> |-<br /> |• '''he''' || 'to undergo' || [PASSIVE] || [NOM] undergoes […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''eti''' || 'to have previously done ...' || [PAST] || [NOM] did […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Regardless of the verbal's semantic meaning and which part of speech carries the bulk of the meaning when translated into another language, each verbal can be used in the same syntactic positions as any other verbal. All verbals can appear as a predicate, an argument (when preceded by a nominal) or as a modifier to another, preceding verbal. Compare the following two sentences which show how a semantically verb-like verbal, '''gahu''' ('to howl'), and a semantically more noun-like verbal, '''zagua''' ('to be a gibbon') can simply be swapped. Both can appear in the predicate, both can appear in an argument and neither needs to be inflected to take on either role.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{|<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || scope=&quot;col&quot; width=&quot;10&quot; | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''gahu''' || || '''ju''' || '''zagua'''<br /> |-<br /> | howl || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.gibbon<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;howls&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a gibbon&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''The gibbon howls.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |- style=&quot;height: 2em;&quot;<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''zagua''' || || '''ju''' || '''gahu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.gibbon || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is a gibbon&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;howls&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''What howls is a gibbon.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Argument Structure====<br /> <br /> Verbals each have an inherent argument structure, controlling which case are used for which role. Dictionaries, and the examples above, mark the meanings of each relevant case when used with each verbal.<br /> <br /> Many argument structures are as would be expected.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''volo''' = [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> :* '''vuja''' = [NOM] hunts [ACC]; [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]<br /> :* '''akku''' = [NOM] is blood; [NOM] is the blood of [GEN]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volo''' || '''na''' || '''xi''' || '''eje'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to him&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I give it to him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is a tendency for experiencers to be in the dative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''hualo''' = [DAT] loves/cares about [NOM]; [NOM] is loved by [DAT]<br /> :* '''xeva''' = [DAT] sees [NOM]; [NOM] is seen by [DAT]<br /> :* '''zoua''' = [NOM] is difficult for [DAT]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''eni''' || '''ju''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was seen&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I saw the king.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Although that is not always the case, as this pair of opposites shows.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''mahu''' = [DAT] knows [NOM]; [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> :* '''zau''' = [NOM] doesn't know about [TOP]; [NOM] is ignorant of [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mahu''' || '''eni''' || ('''xu''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.1s.ICS || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || (&quot;it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zau''' || '''nu''' || ('''vexi''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || (TOP.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || (&quot;about it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I don't know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also an unusual class of verbals where the nominative role usually refers to a body part, the genitive refers to the possessor and when there is an accusative argument, the whole thing refers to an action performed (with the body part) by the possessor.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bale''' = [NOM] is a fist of [GEN]; [GEN] punches [ACC]<br /> :* '''bane''' = [NOM] is a hand of [GEN]; [GEN] holds, grasps, clutches [ACC]<br /> :* '''buja''' = [NOM] is a heavy boot of [GEN]; [GEN] crushes [ACC] under his boot<br /> :* '''gula''' = [NOM] is the pair of arms of [GEN]; [GEN] hugs [ACC]<br /> :* '''juaza''' = [NOM] is the penis of [GEN]; [GEN] fucks [ACC] (vulgar!)<br /> :* '''kanu''' = [NOM] is the nose of [GEN]; [GEN] sniffs [ACC]<br /> :* '''kula''' = [NOM] is the pair of ears of [GEN]; [GEN] listens to [ACC]<br /> :* '''mama''' = [NOM] is the pair of breasts of [GEN]; [GEN] breast-feeds [ACC]<br /> :* '''miva''' = [NOM] is a finger of [GEN]; [GEN] touches, feels [ACC]<br /> :* '''musari''' = [NOM] is a molar of [GEN]; [GEN] chews [ACC]<br /> :* '''omo''' = [NOM] is the pair of eyes of [GEN]; [GEN] looks at [ACC]<br /> :* '''umakka''' = [NOM] is a tooth (incisor, canine) of [GEN]; [GEN] bites [ACC]<br /> :* '''zuru''' = [NOM] is a war against [ACC]; [GEN] wages war on [ACC]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I have eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xu''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || be.this.1<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is this, here by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''These are my eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xi''' || '''masa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || be.snake<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a snake&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking at the snake'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The verbal '''lama''' is somewhat similar, although it may simply be understood through an idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''lama''' = [NOM] is a tear of [GEN]/[LOC]; [GEN]/[LOC] weeps (silently) about [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lama''' || '''ana''' || '''teui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is (a) tear(s)&quot; || &quot;at him/her&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The above sentence may also be translated as &quot;There are tears on him/her because of you,&quot; or &quot;S/He has tears because of you,&quot; making it less clear as to whether this is a good example of an apparent non-nominative subject.<br /> <br /> There is a proposed additional place within the argument structure of many verbals, that of a following modifier. A following modifier may mark a specific role which may either be marked by another case or may only be filled by a following modifier. The notation used here indicates a following modifier with […].<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''maue''' = [NOM] is a group of seven […]<br /> :* '''kka''' = [NOM] is not […]<br /> :* '''mia''' = [NOM] approaches [DAT]/[…]<br /> :* '''tehi''' = [NOM] is possibly […]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''mala''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | approach || be.house || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''iju''' || '''exi''' || '''mala''' <br /> |-<br /> | approach || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN || be.house <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;they&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Derivation of Verbals====<br /> <br /> There are two kinds of derivational affixes, one which converts a nominal into a verbal and many others which convert a verbal into another verbal with a different meaning.<br /> <br /> =====Nominal to Verbal=====<br /> All nominals can be converted into a verbal by adding a copula prefix. The copula prefix is '''g-''' before a vowel, '''k''' or '''g''', '''m-''' before '''m''', '''b''' and '''v''', '''l-''' before '''l''' and '''n-''' before all other consonants. The copula prefix essentially prevents a nominal from signalling the start of an argument. Used with the dative or ablative case, the meaning may be interpreted as a verb of motion.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nu''' 'I' [NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}nu''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} me' [COP-NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''eni''' 'to me' [DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}eni''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} to me', '{{color|MediumBlue|to come}} to me' [COP-DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''xu mala''' 'the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xu mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} the house'<br /> :* '''xua mala''' 'at the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xua mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} at the house'<br /> :* '''kuaini''' 'for us' [BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}kuaini''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} for us' [COP-BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> <br /> <br /> Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}nu''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-NOM.1s.ICS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be I&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I{{color|MediumBlue|'m}} me.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}xuas''' || '''azikuo''' || '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.≈school || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a school for adolescent boys&quot; || &quot;s/he&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} not at school.'' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} to me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|l-}}lene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;be with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} with me. / {{color|MediumBlue|Be}} with me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''nini''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}une''' || '''ja''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.mother || COP-GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.this<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be this&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''This is my mother.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Verbal to Verbal=====<br /> <br /> A far more common means of derivation is from verbal to verbal. This is chiefly done by means of infixing although prefixes and suffixes also exist.<br /> <br /> ======Collective======<br /> <br /> The collective infix '''-ig-''' indicates a group of the named entity.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''ala''' 'to be a bird'<br /> ::→ '''al{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}a''' 'to be {{color|MediumBlue|a flock}} of bird{{color|MediumBlue|s}}'<br /> :* '''balu''' 'to be a royal guardsman'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to be the royal guard'<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to eat {{color|MediumBlue|together}}'<br /> :* '''uttia''' 'to be a tree'<br /> ::→ '''ut{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}ia''' 'to be a forest'<br /> <br /> <br /> ======Gerundive======<br /> <br /> The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something. The accusative role is promoted to the nominative role, as with the passive construction with '''he''', but in addition the assertion is made that this is a good or customary use for the referent in question.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''huna''' 'to drink'<br /> ::→ '''hun{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a''' 'to be (fresh) water', 'to be potable', 'to be drinkable' (to be something to be drunk)<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular)<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular)<br /> :* '''jalo''' 'to welcome', 'to receive', 'to accept (into a place)'<br /> ::→ '''jal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a guest' (one who is to be welcomed)<br /> :* '''asu''' 'to be seated', 'to be sitting'<br /> ::→ '''a{{color|MediumBlue|x}}u''' 'to be a chair', 'to be a seat' (to be something to be sat on) [''*asiu'' → ''axu'']<br /> :* '''ila''' 'to speak', 'to talk'<br /> ::→ '''il{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a'''' 'to be language' (to be something to be spoken)<br /> :* '''zoi''' 'to say', 'to tell'<br /> ::→ '''zo{{color|MediumBlue|j}}i''' 'to be worth saying', 'to be fitting/appropriate' (to be something to be said) [''*zoii'' → ''zoji'']<br /> :* '''go''' 'to do something', 'to act'<br /> ::→ '''g{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a duty', 'to be an obligation', 'to be a good idea' (to be something to be done)<br /> :* '''mue''' 'to be able', 'to be capable'<br /> ::→ '''m{{color|MediumBlue|i}}ue''' 'to be a required skill' (to be something that someone should be able to do)<br /> :* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes'; (with genitive subject) 'to look at'<br /> ::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at)<br /> :* '''bale''' 'to be a fist'; (with genitive subject) 'to punch'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}e''' 'to be punchable', 'to have a punchable face' (to be one who ought to be punched, a common pejorative word)<br /> :* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', (with genitive subject) 'to crush under a boot'<br /> ::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot) [''*bujia'' → ''buji'']<br /> :* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter'<br /> ::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted) [''*vujia'' → ''vuji'']<br /> <br /> ======Locative======<br /> <br /> The prefix '''a-''' indicates being at a particular place.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''tio''' 'to be that'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}tio''' 'to be there' (≈ 'to be at that')<br /> :* '''mala''' 'to be a house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}mala''' 'to be at home' (≈ 'to be at house')<br /> <br /> ======Ornative======<br /> <br /> The ornative prefix '''o-''' indicates having or being equipped with something.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bani''' 'to be money'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money')<br /> :* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with room(s)')<br /> :* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair')<br /> :* '''ulu''' 'to be muscle'<br /> ::→ '''u{{color|MediumBlue|o}}lu''' 'to be muscular' (≈ 'to be with muscle', with metathesis turning /ou/ into /uo/)<br /> <br /> ====Verbals with inherent gender / rank distinctions====<br /> <br /> Many verbals semantically encode gender within their meaning. In some cases, there are pairs of words, such as the following.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nini''' 'to be a mother / aunt'<br /> :* '''nana''' 'to be a father / uncle'<br /> <br /> <br /> In this instance, the divide along genders is easy for non-Ngolu to conceptualise. However many other concepts are also divided by gender, or, more accurately, rank, and this frequently has to do with the Ngolu's strict cultural taboos around gender and rank. For example, Ngolu men and women are expected to sing, dance, dress and urinate differently.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''laha''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''kali'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''lasa''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''kali'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''miia''' 'to wear' (of a ''kali'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''kele''' 'to urinate' (of a ''kali'', to urinate while sitting or squatting)<br /> <br /> :* '''uaie''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''muja'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''bata''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''muja'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''uara''' 'to wear' (of a ''muja'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''zatu''' 'to urinate' (of a ''muja'', to urinate while standing)<br /> <br /> <br /> In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank.<br /> <br /> Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha''' ('to fight physically'), '''aiuo''' ('to shoot').<br /> <br /> Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word.<br /> <br /> Verbals may also specify the gender/rank of an argument other than the nominal. For example, the word ''bale'' means 'to be a fist', specifying a ''muja'' in the role of the genitive possessor. Similarly, items of clothing specific to one gender can only appear with possessors in the corresponding gender.<br /> <br /> When a subject (or another argument) does not match the gender/rank specified in the verbal, there must be paraphrasing. There are generally two ways this is done, with '''ko''' and with '''hui'''.<br /> <br /> =====Ko=====<br /> <br /> '''Ko''' is a verbal meaning 'to be similar'. It can be placed before a gendered verbal when the subject (or other relevant argument) does not match. For example, the word for ''enemy'' is '''uako'''. It is a ''muja'' verb, perhaps best translated as 'to be a ''muja'' enemy'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.enemy || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is no direct equivalent for a ''kali'' who is an enemy. To express the idea of a ''kali'' being an enemy, what is essentially said is &quot;S/he is ''like'' an enemy.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.similar || be.enemy.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be.like&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The closest analogue in English would be with words such as 'midwife', which has no easy male equivalent. In Ngolu, it is as though one simply says 'He's like a midwife.' Similarly, in the following example, there is no word equivalent to a woman's fist, only a man's fist. Therefore, she made something ''like'' a man's fist.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''li''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|bale}}''' || '''uji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || begin || be.similar || be.MUJA.fist || GEN.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;start&quot; || &quot;be like&quot; || &quot;be a (man's) fist&quot; || &quot;of the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She made {{color|MediumBlue|a fist}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Hui=====<br /> <br /> '''Hui''' is similar to '''ko''' except it is filled with contempt and criticism. It is a verbal which could be translated as 'to shamefully break gender taboos by approximating |…|'. There is essentially no grammatical difference between '''ko''' and '''hui''' - the former is simply neutral and the later conveys strong condemnation of breaking taboos.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || sing.KALI<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;sing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|There's a man (shamefully) trying to sing like a woman}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ttio}}''' || '''ju''' || '''je'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || strike || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him/her.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Particles and Grammatical Affixes===<br /> <br /> Particles are words which cannot be classified as either nominals or verbals. Most of them are equivalent to conjunctions, introducing clauses. In many cases, the line between verb and particle is a little blurred and difficult to find and research is still ongoing.<br /> <br /> ====''Au''====<br /> <br /> ====''Au'' and ''teu''====<br /> <br /> '''Au''' and '''teu''' are used to order the events multiple clause sentence. '''Au''' introduces the clause in which the first action took place and is thus roughly equivalent to 'first' or 'after' whereas '''teu''' introduces a later action and is thus equivalent to 'then' or 'before'. They are usually used as correlative conjunctions, with both present in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | first;after|| eat || NOM.1s.ICS || second;before || sleep || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|First}} I ate, {{color|MediumBlue|then}} I slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I ate {{color|MediumBlue|before}} I slept.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|After}} I ate, I slept.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The order of the clauses can be reversed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | second/before || sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Before}} I slept, I ate.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Sometimes the first of the two conjunctions is omitted.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''— [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept, {{color|MediumBlue|but first}}, I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> '''Au''' is also a verbal occasionally used to mean &quot;to be first&quot;, however in this usage it has mostly been replaced by the regular '''tahu'''.<br /> <br /> ====''Ha''====<br /> <br /> '''Ha''' forms polar (yes/no) questions. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Polar_Questions|Polar Questions]]<br /> <br /> It also introduces the protasis of realis conditional sentences, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Hai''====<br /> <br /> '''Hai''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Haizuo''====<br /> <br /> '''Haizuo''' is an emphatic form of '''hai'''. It introduces the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''I-''====<br /> <br /> The clitic particle '''i-''' appears on the beginning of any part of the predicate when it is preceded in a sentence by any non-predicate element. For example, in the following sentence, '''hu mala''' is the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''mala''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || be.house || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Topicalised arguments can be brought forward in the sentence to before the verb phrase. The verb phrase must now be marked with '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;As for me&lt;/u&gt;, I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The predicate phrase can even be split, with arguments appearing inside it.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;I&lt;/u&gt;'m going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In extreme cases, there can even be more than one split in a predicate phrase, with '''i-''' necessary each time the predicate is resumed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''leuis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || COM.2s.ICS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I want to go home with you.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Of that last example, the normal word order would be '''bio hu mala na leui'''.<br /> <br /> When added to words beginning with a syllabic '''i''', the prefix '''i-''' becomes '''j-''' ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|j}}-iio'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.this.1 || PRED-be.fish<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be this&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''This, well, this is a fish!'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... but before a non-syllabic '''i''', it remains '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''omo''' || '''g-unis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}iaha'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3S.DEF.INAN || be.pair.of.eyes || COP-GEN.1s.ICS || PRED-be.painful<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;hurt&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''As for my eyes, they're sore.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Lo''====<br /> <br /> '''Lo''' appears to be a short form of the comitative complementiser '''lejo'''. It introduces an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> ====''Mie''====<br /> <br /> ====''Teuo''====<br /> <br /> ====''To''====<br /> <br /> ''To'' generally introduces consequences. It often roughly means 'so' or 'therefore'. In these cases, it may replaced by the more emphatic '''toua'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ba''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(ua)}}''' || '''ka''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''muanaiti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || rain || therefore || be.PROS || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.stream<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;so&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be stream&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''It's raining hard, so the streams are going to swell.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is used in conjunction with '''ha''' (and sometimes '''hai''' or '''haizuo''') to form conditional clauses where it introduces the apodosis. See [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]] for examples.<br /> <br /> It is also frequently used to replace '''i-''' in introducing a main clause after a subordinate clause other than a conditional clause.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''enio'''<br /> |-<br /> | LOC.TEMP.C || rain || then || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.plant<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;when&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be plant&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|When}} it rains{{color|MediumBlue|, (then)}} the plants grow.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Toi''====<br /> <br /> '''Toi''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Toua''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xe''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xue''====<br /> <br /> ===Interjections===<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> <br /> ===Phrase Structure===<br /> <br /> ====Verbal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A verbal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL ...]]]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> When multiple verbals are stacked one after the other, the head is on the left and modifiers on the right.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a large house / are large houses''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jiio''' || '''ttiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | run || be.quick<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;run&quot; || &quot;be fast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''runs quickly / run quickly''<br /> ''is a fast runner / are fast runners''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''hunts birds / hunt birds''<br /> ''is a bird hunter / are bird hunters''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In many cases, verbals with more grammatical than semantic content are followed by much more semantically rich modifying verbals. In these cases, the preceding words are nevertheless heads and the following words modifiers.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bas''' || '''ali''' || '''g-eji''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || be.friend.(of.the.same.sex) || COP-DAT.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;be friend&quot; || &quot;be to inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;be the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a good friend / are good friends of the king''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''huna'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || drink<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;drink&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''drank / has drunk / have drunk''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''toto''' || '''kas''' || '''euo''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.really || be.PROS || be.pair || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be in fact&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''are actually going to be two big ones''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''buua''' || '''tio''' || '''vaxu''' || '''zara'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.on.top.of || be.that.3 || be.table || write<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be one top of&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot; || &quot;be a table&quot; || &quot;write&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''is / are on top of that desk over there''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Each complex verbal phrase comprised of more than one verbal has its own case structure which defines how the cases are used in a sentence. The case structure is determined by the rightmost verbal which shares the same nominative argument as the leftmost verbal in the phrase.<br /> <br /> $$$$$$$ [examples to come]<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A nominal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''NOMINAL [VERBAL PHRASE]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> An unadorned nominal on its own functions as a pronoun.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''he'', ''she''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''its''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> Adorned nominal phrases consist of a nominal followed by a verbal phrase. In this case, the nominal acts as the head of a relative clause in which the verbal phrase sits.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju''' || '''xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || execute<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;execute&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the executioner''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi''' || '''tukaue'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.collar.indicating.the.owner.of.a.slave<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a slave's collar&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''of the slave's collar''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Structure===<br /> <br /> With unmarked word order, a clause generally has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''[PARTICLE] PREDICATE [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] ...'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> A &lt;tt&gt;'''PREDICATE'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a verbal phrase and an &lt;tt&gt;'''ARGUMENT'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a nominal phrase or a subordinate clause.<br /> <br /> In many cases, one or more arguments may precede the predicate or may even appear in the middle of the predicate, dividing it into two or more pieces.<br /> <br /> Unmarked word order:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental)<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau''' || '''azi''' || '''akuala''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; || &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''I ate food with a knife.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted, nominal argument partially fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || Pred... || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || ...icate || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''nu''' || '''i-kau''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || NOM.1s.ICS || eat || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Predicate-Only Clauses====<br /> <br /> The simplest clauses in Ngolu consist of nothing but a verbal or a verbal phrase used as the predicate. There are no obligatory arguments in Ngolu and all may be omitted from the clause and left to context, even the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's raining. / It rains.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's good.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> A verbal with no arguments indicates an activity or state without specifying the identity of any participants. Essentially, Ngolu is a pro-drop language. With prior context, omitted arguments can be understood as referring to someone or something already discussed. With no prior context, however, verbal-only sentences are simply understood with a &quot;someone or something&quot; as the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kau'''<br /> |-<br /> | eat<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;eats&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He, she or it is eating. (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Something or someone is eating.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He or it is hunting. / He or it is a hunter.'' (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''Something or someone is hunting. / There's a hunter.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Simple declarative or existential statements are frequently verbal-only.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.fire<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a fire&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's a fire. / There's a fire. / Fire!''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====One-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Multi-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Subordinate Clauses====<br /> <br /> =====Complementiser Clauses=====<br /> <br /> =====Adverbial Clauses=====<br /> <br /> Adverbial clauses are introduced by the particle '''lo''', which may be derived from '''lejo''', the comitative case of the copula 'zuo'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''lo''' || '''juo''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | want || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ADV || be.outside || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be outside&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to eat outside.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Relative Clauses=====<br /> <br /> ===Topic and Focus===<br /> <br /> ===Affirmation and Negation===<br /> <br /> The verbals '''ahe''' and '''kka''' indicate polarity, being positive and negative respectively. On their own, they are roughly equivalent to 'yes' and 'no'. <br /> <br /> Positive sentences are generally unmarked and '''ahe''' generally appears only for emphasis.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || '''bo''' || '''xu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.indeed || be.wanted || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;be wanted&quot; || &quot;the thing&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|do}} want it.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation is performed by means of '''kka'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xua''' || '''uttia'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be tree&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''S/He{{color|MediumBlue|'s not}} at the tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''mula''' || '''ju''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.liked || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be liked&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|don't}} like him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> After a negative question or statement, '''ahe''' indicates a contradictory, positive answer whereas '''kka''' indicates a negative answer in agreement.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.not || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be.not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Is{{color|MediumBlue|n't}} it raining?''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.indeed || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be indeed&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Yes, it is}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.not || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be not&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No, it's not}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation (as well as affirmation) is generally performed in the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''xeva''' || '''ju''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|eri}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.seen || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;to anyone who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No one else}} saw her.'' (Literally: ''{{color|MediumBlue|Anyone else didn't}} see her.'')<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> To negate or affirm an argument, it is placed within an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || '''los''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''ahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV || be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV || be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Both '''kka''' and '''ahe''' have equivalent adverbial forms, '''kku''' and '''lahe''' respectively, which do not require the use of '''lo''' when negating or affirming an argument. The previous sentence may be expressed as follows.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kku}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV.be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV.be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Interrogation===<br /> <br /> ====Polar Questions====<br /> <br /> Polar questions are indicated with '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} raining{{color|MediumBlue|?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Do}} you love me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Ha''' can occur at the end of a sentence, where it functions as a question tag.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | rain || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot; || Q<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''It's raining, {{color|MediumBlue|isn't it?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;?&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''You love me, {{color|MediumBlue|don't you?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Individual arguments in a sentence may be called into question by placing them inside an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]] introduced by '''lo'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} me who you love{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''na''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || ADV || Q || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} you who loves me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Alternative Questions====<br /> <br /> Alternative questions use two or more instances of '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Bio''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''kau''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''huna''' || '''vu'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || Q || eat || Q || drink || NOM.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;or&quot; || &quot;drink&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''Would you like anything to {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} eat {{color|MediumBlue|or}} drink{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Xevu''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ja''' || '''mahu''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ju''' || '''laiuiie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mahu || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Laiuiie<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Mahu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Laiuiie&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''Have you seen {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} Mahu {{color|MediumBlue|or}} Laiuiie{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Content Questions====<br /> <br /> ====Embedded Questions====<br /> <br /> Any type of question may be embedded inside a complementiser phrase.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Zau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ti''' || '''uaizue''' || '''ji''' || '''tavi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || TOP.C || Q || be.PRF || find || ACC.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.child<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;about that&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || be.PRF || &quot;find&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I don't know {{color|MediumBlue|if}} the child has been found.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Voice===<br /> <br /> ===Time===<br /> <br /> Marking of time (tense and aspect) is not obligatory in Ngolu and may always be left up to context. For our purposes here, we shall not distinguish between actions (e.g. ''kill'') and states (e.g. ''want'', ''be a house'') as temporal marking is identical for both. The word ''action'' will be used henceforth and should be understood to mean &quot;action or state&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Relative tenses====<br /> When time needs to be indicated, it is most often done by means of a verbal indicating a &quot;relative tense&quot; (aspect). These are relative to a contextually understood time in question, the &quot;reference time&quot;. The three basic &quot;relative tense&quot; markers are ... <br /> <br /> <br /> *'''ti''' &quot;perfect&quot; (PRF), indicating an action that occurred before the reference time<br /> *'''zo''' &quot;progressive&quot; (PROG), indicating an action underway at the reference time<br /> *'''ka''' &quot;prospective (PROS), indicating an action occurring after the reference time<br /> <br /> <br /> By default, the reference is the present, the time in which the utterance is made. However, if another time is contextually understood, any of these may refer to events in the past, present or future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|zo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROG || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be underway&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Absolute tenses====<br /> The prefix '''e-''' attached to the beginning of any of these aspect markers creates an absolute tense marker. The '''e-''' sets the reference time to the current moment in which the utterance is made. This is usually only used to disambiguate or to emphasise a time frame.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''eti''' &quot;past&quot; (PST), indicating an action that occurred in the past<br /> *'''ezo''' &quot;present&quot; (PRES), indicating an action underway in the present<br /> *'''eka''' &quot;future (FUT), indicating an action that will occur in the future<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be earlier&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRES || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Continuation====<br /> There are also compounds formed from two time words that indicate continuation from one time frame to another using a linking ''-e-''. This linking ''-e-'' is probably not related to the ''e-'' of absolute temporal reference, but to the ''e-'' prefix of dative case nominals and the derivation prefix ''e-'' that can be added to verbals indicating motion towards something.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''tiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that starting before the reference time and continuing up to it<br /> *'''zueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action continuing from the reference time and extending to a later time<br /> *'''etiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that started in the past and continues to the present<br /> *'''ezueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action that starts in the present and will continue into the future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezos}}''' || '''oila''' || '''na''' || '''xiies''' || '''oge'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF.PROG|| read || NOM.1S.ACS || ACC.3S.DEF.INAN.PROX || be.book<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have been doing&quot; || &quot;read&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;this thing which&quot; || &quot;is a book&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|have been}} read{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} this book.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Perfective and imperfective====<br /> In addition, the word '''bie''' contrasts with '''zo'''. Whereas '''zo''' specifies that an action is underway at the reference time, essentially taking a &quot;snapshot&quot; of the interior of an action, after its beginning and before its completion, '''bie''' specifies perfectivity, metaphorically painting a picture of the whole completed action without permitting a look inside. On its own, it does not specify whether the completed action occurs before or after the reference time, but it does explicitly specify that the action is ''not'' underway at the reference time. <br /> <br /> Both ''bie'' and ''zo'' may be suffixed to other verbals indicating time in order to explicitly distinguish the imperfective (progressive) aspect from the perfective aspect, while also specifying time.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfectivity:<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | imperfective (progressive)<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfective<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | bie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | relative time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kabie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | absolute time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekabie<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Note that '''zo''' appears twice in the table although it really only has one function; it specifies an action underway at the reference time (i.e. concurrent with it), which itself may be unspecified.<br /> <br /> The reduplicated forms '''zozo''' ('these days', 'in those days') and '''ezozo''' ('these days') do not appear in the above table as they indicate a loosening of the bounds of the reference time or current time. The reference or current time can be tightened or emphasised with '''bazo''' ('right now', 'right then', 'at that/this very moment') or '''ebazo''' ('right now', 'at this very moment').<br /> <br /> ====Resultative perfect====<br /> The word '''bue''' indicates a ''resultative perfect'', functioning similarly to '''ti''' in that it describes an action occurring prior to the reference time, however the focus of '''bue''' is not on the action itself, but on the resulting post-action state at the reference time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|bue}}''' || '''kaxa''' || '''xu''' || '''giloxuo'''<br /> |-<br /> | RES.PRF|| break(INTR) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || window.pane<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is in the resulting state&quot; || &quot;break&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a window pane&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''The window {{color|MediumBlue|is}} br{{color|MediumBlue|o}}k{{color|MediumBlue|en}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bue''' is frequently prefixed to the following word (for example ''buekaxa'' instead of ''bue kaxa''). Its passive equivalent '''hi-''' is always prefixed.<br /> <br /> ====Time word stacking====<br /> More than one time word can be used together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT|| be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will&quot; || &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST|| be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;will&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> These are usually compounded together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekati}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|etika}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST-PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Distance from reference time====<br /> The precise distance from the reference time can be indicated using adverbial clauses with '''lo''' followed by the unit of time, '''(e)ti''' or '''(e)ka''' and an ordinal number, which begins with ''t-''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''zaxa''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teuo}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.ill || ADV || be.year || be.PRF || be.second<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;becomes&quot; || &quot;is ill&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;is earlier&quot; || &quot;is second&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he fell ill {{color|MediumBlue|two years before/ago}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> This sentence could be translated somewhat more literally as &quot;S/he fell ill while there was the second previous year.&quot; Note that replacing '''ti''' with '''eti''' would force the interpretation with &quot;ago&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || Bie || bilo || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tahu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PFV || die || ADV || be.month || be.PROS || be.first<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is completed&quot; || &quot;dies&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;is about to&quot; || &quot;is first&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he died {{color|MediumBlue|one month later}}. / S/he will die {{color|MediumBlue|in one month}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A more literally translation could be &quot;S/he died while there was the second coming year.&quot; Note again that replacing '''ka''' with '''eka''' would force the interpretation with &quot;in one month&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment. <br /> <br /> In the following example, in which a duration is specified rather than a specific time, the adverbial clause contains only the length of time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS || ADV || be.five || be.year<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another means of conveying the same information is to place the time specifiers after the tense or aspect marker and then introducing the rest of the sentence with '''to'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''li''' || '''zaxa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || be.two || be.year || thus || begin || be.ill<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become&quot; || &quot;be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Two years ago,}} s/he fell ill.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || ... || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''bilo'''<br /> |-<br /> | || be.going.to || be.one || be.month || thus || die<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;is going to&quot; || &quot;is one&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;die&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|One month later,}} s/he died.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.five || be.year || thus || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Miscellaneous time words====<br /> There are a range of other verbals which indicate time in a similar way. Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> ''Days''<br /> * '''ariu''' &quot;yesterday&quot;<br /> * '''aku''' &quot;today&quot;<br /> * '''anu''' &quot;tomorrow&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Lighting''<br /> * '''auo''' &quot;by day&quot;<br /> * '''eio''' &quot;by night&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Distance in time''<br /> * '''ttie''' / '''ettie''' &quot;just&quot; (similar to '''ti''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''tieka''' / '''etieka''' &quot;about to&quot; (similar to '''ka''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''ti ti''' / '''eti ti''' &quot;a long time ago&quot; (reduplication for distance into the past)<br /> * '''ka ka''' / '''eka ka''' &quot;eventually&quot; (reduplication for distance into the future)<br /> <br /> ''Other aspectual differences''<br /> * '''hua''' &quot;always&quot;, &quot;permanently&quot; [gnomic]<br /> * '''niu''' &quot;habitually&quot; [habitual]<br /> * '''guegue''' &quot;repeatedly&quot;, &quot;again and again&quot; [iterative]<br /> * '''egue''' &quot;again&quot;<br /> * '''tara''' &quot;suddenly&quot;<br /> * '''li''' &quot;starts&quot;, &quot;begins&quot;, &quot;commences&quot;<br /> * '''bi''' &quot;stops&quot;, &quot;ceases&quot;<br /> * '''ligue''' &quot;resumes&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Demonstratives===<br /> <br /> Demonstratives distinguish three degrees of distance associated with the three grammatical persons.<br /> <br /> * '''''tie''''' 'this' or 'these' near the speaker [1st person - proximal]<br /> * '''''tia''''' 'that' or 'those' near the listener [2nd person - medial]<br /> * '''''tio''''' 'that' or 'those' away from both speaker and listener [3rd person - distal]<br /> <br /> When speaking to someone of the same or higher rank and referring to the something that is close to both speaker and listener (such as a house that both are inside), the 2nd person '''''tia''''' 'that' is used. Only persons of higher rank may use the first person form '''''tie''''' in such situations.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.MED || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.PROX || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The association between the grammatical persons and the demonstratives is strong, with words, statements and actions made by a person frequently being referred to using the appropriate demonstrative. For example, a commonly used phrase for &quot;therefore&quot; is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}'' (literally 'because of this (by me)') when the reasoning is based on what the speaker just said, but when the reasoning is based on what their interlocutor just said, this phrase is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}'' (literally 'because of that (by you)').<br /> <br /> ====Contractions====<br /> <br /> The demonstrative verbals '''''tie''''', '''''tia''''' and '''''tio''''' form very common contractions with third person definite nominals, transforming the above examples as follows:<br /> <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tia}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}} mala''''' 'this house' / 'that house' (by you) <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tie}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}} mala''''' 'this house' (by me)<br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what I said' <br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what you said' <br /> <br /> Here is a table of forms:<br /> <br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Proximal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Medial || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Distal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Proximal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''|| '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Medial || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Distal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Proximal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Medial || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Distal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Proximal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Medial || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Distal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Proximal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Medial || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Distal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Proximal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Medial || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Distal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Proximal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Medial || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Distal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Proximal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Medial || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Distal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Proximal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Medial || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Distal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Proximal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Medial || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Distal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Proximal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Medial || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Distal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Proximal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Medial || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Distal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Proximal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Medial || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Distal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Essive Proximal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Medial || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Distal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Location===<br /> <br /> ===Movement===<br /> <br /> Movement is expressed in a variety of ways in Ngolu. <br /> <br /> One of the most common methods for talking about movement is using the words '''hu''' and '''mia'''. There is no distinction between coming and going but rather a distinction between the perfective '''hu''', meaning 'come' or 'go', and the imperfective '''mia''', 'be one one's way', 'be coming', 'be going'. The destination may be indicated by a subsequent modifying verbal or by a dative argument. The origin is indicated by an ablative argument.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nu''' || '''exi''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || NOM.1s.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|mia}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.IPFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be on the way&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|'m going / on my way}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || move.PFV || ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Please {{color|MediumBlue|get}} away from me.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another method for expressing movement is to affix the copula prefix '''g-''', '''m-''', '''n-''' to a dative or ablative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-exi}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to you&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'll {{color|MediumBlue|come to you}}.'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Get away from me}}!'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The third way to express movement is to use an inceptive (inchoative) morpheme in conjunction with a word indicating location. For example, the verbal '''xa''' means 'to be inside' and the verbal '''atio''' means 'to be there (away from us)' - adding the infix '''-in-''' (perfective inceptive) or '''-ij-''' (imperfective inceptive) gives '''xina''' ('to go in', 'to enter') and '''xija''' ('to be on the way in'), '''atinio''' ('to go there') and '''atijo''' ('to be on the way there'). The free standing verbal '''li''' ('to begin, start, commence') may also be used, with '''li xa''' and '''li atio''' being equivalent to '''xina''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xina}}''' || '''iju''' || '''i-oba''' || '''loe'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || enter.PFV || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || PRED-be.room || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;enter&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible ones&quot; || &quot;be room&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''They {{color|MediumBlue|went into}} the bedroom.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bios''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|atinio}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || go.there.3 || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''S/He wants {{color|MediumBlue|to go there}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The inceptive infixes are frequently used with the verbals denoting location in the four cardinal directions: '''la''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' ('to be in the east', 'to be in the west', 'to be in the north', 'to be in the south' respectively) creating the perfective forms '''lina''', '''tina''', '''ginio''' and '''vino''' and the imperfective forms '''lija''', '''tija''', '''gijo''' and '''vijo'''. Direction within Qu, with its noticeable tube shape (with 'east/west' pointing along the tube and 'north/south' going around the circumference), is a much more salient feature than on Earth and referencing direction with motion is common. In certain circumstances, describing movement without reference to direction is regarded as too imprecise, such as when men are discussing hunting in the forest where there may be no obvious landmarks to identify as the destination of a movement.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''La''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' may be used to modify another verb of motion with or without taking an inceptive infix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|lina}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|gio}}''' || '''inais''' || '''ixi''' || '''vaku'''<br /> |-<br /> | go.east.PFV || be.in.the.north || ABL.1p.ACS || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.babirusa<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go east&quot; || &quot;be in the north&quot; || &quot;from us&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be babirusa&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''The babirusas {{color|MediumBlue|moved (east)-northeast}} away from us.'' — '''muja''' [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Additionally, there is yet another prefix '''e-''' which may be related to the '''e-''' prefix at the beginning of nominals in the dative case. Words with this prefix indicate perfective movement and include '''etie''' ('to come here') '''etia''' ('to go/come there/here by you') and '''etio''' ('to go there'). These words are slightly more commonly used than their equivalents '''atinie''', '''atinia''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> ===Causes===<br /> <br /> ===Goals===<br /> <br /> ===Conditionals===<br /> <br /> Conditional sentences in Ngolu use particles to indicate the condition clause (protasis) and the result clause (apodosis). These particles differ depending on whether the condition is possible (realis) or hypothetical (irrealis).<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''PROTASIS'' || ''APODOSIS''<br /> |-<br /> | ''REALIS'' || '''ha''' || '''to'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''IRREALIS'' || '''hai''' &lt;br&gt; '''haizuo''' (emphatic) || '''toi''' &lt;br&gt; '''to''' (possible only when apodosis clause appears second)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Realis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''anu''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''kka''' || '''vuja''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | if || be.tomorrow || rain || then || be.not || hunt.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if&quot; || &quot;be tomorrow&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} it rains tomorrow, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} he won't hunt.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ('''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''') || '''ttio''' || '''nu''' || '''ue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''vai''' || '''tiaia'''<br /> |-<br /> | (then) || hit || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.2s.ACS || if || stay || do.that.2<br /> |-<br /> | (&quot;then&quot;) || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;if&quot; || &quot;keep&quot; || &quot;do that which you are doing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I'll hit you {{color|MediumBlue|if}} you keep doing that.'' — '''muja''' [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Irrealis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''g-ua''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(i)}}''' || '''hales''' || '''eji''' || '''jo''' || '''nio'''|| '''mo'''<br /> |-<br /> | if.IRR || be-NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ACS || then.(would) || ask || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.C || happen || be.what<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;imagine if&quot; || &quot;be you&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then (would)&quot; || &quot;ask&quot; || &quot;(to) the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;happen&quot; || &quot;be what&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} you, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} I{{color|MediumBlue|'d}} ask him/her what happened.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || '''obani'''<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;stop&quot; || &quot;work&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || &quot;be more&quot; || &quot;be rich&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|would}} stop working, {{color|MediumBlue|if}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} richer.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''ti''' || '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''leui''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || ('''ti''') || '''mahu''' || ('''xu''') || ('''ene''')<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || be.PRF || move || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ICS || if.IRR || (be.PRF) || be.known || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN) || (DAT.1s.ACS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;move&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || (&quot;be finished&quot;) || &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''I would have come with you if I had known that.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Numbers===<br /> <br /> ===Quantity===<br /> <br /> ===Degree===<br /> <br /> ===Comparison===<br /> <br /> ==Pragmatics==<br /> <br /> ===Social Stratification and Language Use===<br /> <br /> Ngolu society is heavily stratified into five social divisions. These social divisions, or strata, are hierarchical and from highest to lowest are as follows.<br /> <br /> * 5. ''ju '''taqu''''' - the king<br /> * 4. ''iju '''balu''''' - the king's men<br /> * 3. ''iju '''muja''''' - initiated men<br /> * 2. ''iju '''kali''''' - free citizens<br /> * 1. ''iju '''tuva''''' - slaves and prisoners (''ixu tuva'' in the speech of '''muja''', '''balu''' and '''taqu''')<br /> <br /> Language use is, to a large extent, determined by the strata of the speaker, addressee and third person referents.<br /> <br /> ===Speech Crime===<br /> <br /> [[Category:Languages]]<br /> [[Category:Conlangs]]</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Iliaqu&diff=258024 2022-01-29T11:01:52Z

<p>Imralu: /* Au and teu */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Iliaqu<br /> |nativename = iliaqu<br /> |pronunciation = [ìʎàʔú]<br /> |region = Qu<br /> |ethnicity = Ngolu / Ilaqu<br /> |speakers = {{formatnum:100,000}}<br /> |setting = [[Verse:Qu|Qu]]<br /> |fam1 = Language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2013-2020<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> {{infobox|bg=#F2DC77|native=iliaqu|in=Qu|no=100,000 (approx.)|tree=Isolate (as far as known)|wo=VSO|morph=Isolating/futional|ms=Nominative-Accusative|creator=[[User:Imralu|Imralu]]|date=2013-2014}}<br /> <br /> '''Iliaqu''' (IPA: /ˌɪljəˈʔuː/), also known as '''Ngolu''' or sometimes '''Qu''' (endonym: ''iliaqu'' IPA: [ìʎàʔú]) is a language isolate spoken throughout the known regions of the space habitat [[Verse:Qu|Qu]] by the Ngolu people, whose number is estimated to be around 100,000. As the Ngolu are almost entirely monolingual, and while voluntary travel to and from Qu remains impossible, the language is not in any danger of extinction. At this stage, little is known of dialect differences within Qu. There are estimated to be somewhere between 50 and 100 Iliaqu speakers on Earth who have simply mysteriously appeared in various locations. Small communities of Ngolu speakers been brought or have found their way together, the most well-known and well-studied of which is a group of about 15 living in and around Berlin, Germany.<br /> <br /> Iliaqu is an isolating/fusional, head-initial (right-branching) language with VSO word order and nominative-accusative alignment. Verbs (verbals) make up the only open class of word, with nouns (nominals) constituting a closed class of heavily fusional words that fill the roll of pronouns and articles in other languages, marking grammatical person, number, definiteness and specificity, gender, accessibility, and case.<br /> <br /> ==Terminology==<br /> There appear to have been fewer than ten isolated instances of non-Ngolu people arriving in Qu and there are no other cultures or languages known to exist in Qu. In such a linguistically and culturally homogenous environment, the Ngolu have had no need for endonyms for their culture, people or language. Traditionally, they have described their language simply as '''ilia''' [ìʎá] 'speech', themselves as '''golu''' [ŋòlú] 'people', and their world as '''qu''' [ʔú] 'world'. <br /> <br /> With the new knowledge of other cultures and the entire universe outside of Qu, neologisms have arisen to distinguish their language and their people from those of the outsiders. For the Ngolu arrivals Earth, contact with other cultures has forced them to acknowledge that the other languages they hear must have the ability to convey information just as their language. Consequently, on Earth, the word '''ilia''' generally refers to any language. To disambiguate their own language, they may call it '''ilia qu''' [ìʎáʔú] or '''iliaqu''' [ìʎàʔú] 'Qu speech'. Non-Ngolu are still referred to as '''taia''' ('ghost', 'demon') and Earth maybe referred to as '''utaia''' [ùtàjá] 'ghost world' or a loan word such as '''hiia''', which was common among the Berlin group (from German ''hier'') although it now seems to be dying out in favour of '''utaia'''. With the acknowledgement that non-Ngolu people are also people and the consequent expansion of the term '''golu''' to include non-Ngolu, the term '''goqu''' [ŋòʔú] ('Qu people', formed by adding the human prefix '''go-''' to the word '''qu''') is gaining ground and may be contrasted with '''taia''' or '''goutaia''' [ŋòu̯tàjá].<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !VOWELS<br /> !Front<br /> !Central<br /> !Back<br /> |-<br /> !High<br /> |'''i''' ‹i›<br /> |<br /> |'''u''' ‹u›<br /> |-<br /> !Mid<br /> |'''e''' ‹e›<br /> |<br /> |'''o''' ‹o›<br /> |-<br /> !Low<br /> |<br /> |'''a''' ‹a›<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Each vowel may be 'strong' or 'weak'. These are essentially stressed and unstressed. There is only ever one 'strong' vowel per word and it is nearly always the final vowel. Where it is not, it is always the penultimate vowel and the in that case the final vowel is always /i/ or /u/. Non-final strong vowels are indicated in the romanisation using an acute accent, ‹áéíóú›.<br /> <br /> The realisation of strong vowels varies across accents. There appears to be a cline ranging from a pitch-based pronunciation to a weight-based pronunciation (used chiefly by men). At the pitch-based end of the spectrum, 'strong' vowels are pronounced with a high tone and 'weak' vowels with a low-tone. At the end of a non-interrogative utterance, a high-tone becomes a falling tone. At the end of a question, a high tone may be lengthened and/or undergo an additional rise. At the weight-based extreme, strong vowels cause gemination of the following consonant but are pronounced as long themselves when the following sound is (1) a vowel, (2) a consonant cluster or (3) an already geminated consonant. Utterance finally, strong vowels are generally neither pronounced with a high tone nor lengthened but are usually pronounced slightly louder. <br /> <br /> The high vowels, /i/ and /u/, when 'weak' and adjacent to another vowel are pronounced non-syllabically as [i̯~j] and [u̯~w]). Non-syllabic /i/ merges with and palatalises any preceding dental/alveolar consonant.<br /> <br /> In these two word examples, the pitch-based pronunciation is given before the weight-based pronunciation.<br /> <br /> :*'''ju muja''' [ʒúmùʒâ] ~ [ʒumːuˈʒa]<br /> :*'''ju aio''' [ʒúàjô] ~ [ʒuːaˈjo]<br /> :*'''ju uaia''' [ʒúwàjâ] [ʒuːwaˈja]<br /> :*'''ju ntu''' [ʒúntû] ~ [ʒu:nˈtu]<br /> :*'''ju lleue''' [ʒúlːèwê] ~ [ʒuːlːeˈwe]<br /> <br /> ===Consonants===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !CONSONANTS<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Dental/Alveolar<br /> !Post-alveolar<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> | '''m''' ‹m›<br /> | <br /> | '''n''' ‹n›<br /> |<br /> | '''ŋ''' ‹g›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> | '''b''' ‹b›<br /> |<br /> | '''t''' ‹t›<br /> |<br /> | '''k''' ‹k›<br /> | '''ʔ''' ‹q›<br /> |-<br /> !Ejective<br /> |<br /> | <br /> | '''tʼ''' ‹tt›<br /> |<br /> | '''kʼ''' ‹kk›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiced Fricative<br /> | <br /> | '''v''' ‹v›<br /> | '''z''' ‹z›<br /> | '''ʒ''' ‹j›<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiceless Fricative<br /> | <br /> | <br /> | '''s''' ‹s›<br /> | '''ʃ''' ‹x›<br /> | <br /> | '''h''' ‹h›<br /> |-<br /> !Tap<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''ɾ''' ‹r› <br /> |<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''l''' ‹l› <br /> |<br /> |<br /> | <br /> |}<br /> <br /> * The nasal consonants /m n ŋ/, unlike other consonants, may occur before another consonant and then assimilate in place of articulation to that consonant. For this reason, many authors posit the archiphoneme /N/. /N/ may be syllabic post pausa, carrying a low tone. Before /l/, /N/ assimilates to [l̪] or [l̪̩]. Before /v/, it is pronounced as [ɱ] or [ɱ̩].<br /> * The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental [n̪ t̪ t̪ʼ ɾ̪ l̪]. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears. Some speakers palatalise /t/ and /d/ to [t͡ʃ] and [d͡ʒ] respectively. The ejective /tʼ/, however, is rarely or never palatalised as [t͡ʃʼ].<br /> * /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive [d̪].<br /> * Geminate /m/, /n/ and /l/ (resulting from /Nm/, /Nn/ and /Nl/) may be pronounced as [m̩b], [n̪̩d̪] and [l̪̩d̪] respectively, particularly by men and particularly post pausa.<br /> * /s/ and /z/ are normally alveolar. When followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are not distinguished from /ʃ ʒ/. <br /> * /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ cannot be followed by non-syllabic /i/.<br /> * The phonemes /s/ and /ɾ/ do not occur at the beginning of a word.<br /> * The glottal stop /ʔ/ and the ejective consonants /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ are restricted to positions immediately before a 'strong' vowel, although there may be an intervening non-syllabic 'weak' /i/ or /u/ after the ejectives. At the beginning of a 'weak' syllable, ejective consonants become pronounced as their equivalent plain plosive and the glottal stop disappears. For example, ''kka'' [kʼá] and ''kkue'' [kʷʼé] are allowed while expected ''*kkina'' (derived from ''kka'' plus the infix ''-in-'') is instead present as ''kina'' [kì.ná]. In connected speech, /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ may be pronounced as [t̚ʔ k̚ʔ] or even [tː kː]. However, a strong ejective pronunciation is always heard post pausa.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> Phonemically, a syllable may be '''((N)C)V''', where '''V''' is a vowel '''(C)''' an optional consonant and '''(N)''' an optional nasal which assimilates to its following consonant in its point of articulation. <br /> <br /> Phonetically, syllables may be more complex. '''(N)''' is pronounced syllabically post pausa and otherwise is pronounced in the coda of the preceding syllable. The non-syllabic pronunciations of /i/ and /u/ mean that a syllable can be (C)(S)V(S)(N), where '''(S)''' is a semivowel.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::'''nxua intaneti'''<br /> ::/Nʃu.á.i.Nta.ne.tí/<br /> ::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí]<br /> ::''is on the internet''<br /> <br /> ===Epenthetic /s/===<br /> <br /> An epenthetic /s/ sometimes appears between words when the second word begins with a vowel. In the romanisation used here, the /s/ is written on the end of the preceding word. The rules are somewhat complex and are best shown as a table. The final vowels of preceding words are shown vertically on the left. Initial vowels of the following word are shown along the top. An epenthetic /s/ doesn't appear before '''i''' and '''u''' when a syllabic vowel (V) immediately follows within the same word. In the table, the word borders are shown with an '''s''' indicating where the epenthetic /s/ always appears. In other positions in the table, the epenthetic /s/ can still appear in very clear emphatic speech.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''i(V)-'' || ''u(V)-'' || ''i-'' || ''u-'' || ''e-'' || ''o-'' || ''a-''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-i'' || '''-i i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i e-''' || '''-i o-''' || '''-i a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-u'' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u u-''' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} u-''' || '''-u e-''' || '''-u o-''' || '''-u a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-e'' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-o'' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-a'' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ua''' || [è.né.wá] || '''u''' followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} u''' || [è.né.sú] || '''u''' not followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ima''' || [è.néj.má] || '''i''' is weak and can become non-syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} eme''' || [è.né.sè.mé] || '''e''' is always syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni ua''' || [è.ní.wá] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni u''' || [è.ní.ú] || final '''i''' before syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni iu''' || [è.ní.jú] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni{{color|MediumBlue|s}} iui''' || [è.ní.sì.wí] || final '''i''' before initial syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene iui''' || [è.néj.wí] || final '''e''' followed by 'weak' '''i''' which becomes non-syllabic<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> There are four classes of words in Ngolu. Ngolu is a very verb-heavy language, with verbals making up the only truly open word class.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''Nominals''': closed<br /> :* '''Verbals''': open<br /> :* '''Particles''': closed<br /> :* '''Interjections''': closed (mostly)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Nominals===<br /> Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of nominals, the &lt;u&gt;pronominals&lt;/u&gt;, are essentially the equivalent of pronouns and articles in other languages, inflecting for number, grammatical person, definiteness, specificity, gender, case and an inflectional dimension unique to Iliaqu, ''accessibility''. Pronominals can appear on their own or can be followed by a verbal or verbal phrase. When followed by a verbal, they can be regarded as the head of an underlying relative clause which nominalises the verbal and allows it to function as an argument in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> :As a pronoun:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|it}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :As an article:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|the}} house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In addition to the pronominals, there are two &lt;u&gt;complementisers&lt;/u&gt; which are essentially subordinating conjunctions which inflect for case. '''Zuo''' can be thought of as roughly equivalent to the English subordinating conjunction 'that' and '''kuo''' can be thought of as 'the time when'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''olos''' || '''ene''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''g-ixi''' || '''ja''' || '''nana''' || '''g-uje''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.strange || DAT.1s.ACS || NOM.C || be.not || COP-DAT.3s.INAN.DEF || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.father || COP-GEN.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is strange&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;is not&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the one who&quot; || &quot;is father&quot; || &quot;is hers/his&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I think it's strange {{color|MediumBlue|that}} his / her father didn't go / wasn't there.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Number====<br /> Pronominals indicate two numbers, singular and plural. Plural is marked by the prefix '''i-''', which occurs before some case prefixes and after others (see [[Ngolu#Case|Case]] below for more information).<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The singular is used before quantifiers indicating a specific plural quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a group of two&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|two}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> When the plural is used, this indicates multiples of the indicated quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are groups of two&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|pairs of}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Many words denoting powders and granular substances are used in the plural with the singular referring to an individual grain.<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a grain of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the grain of sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are grains of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the (grain{{color|MediumBlue|s}} of) sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Water referred to as '''hunia''', potable water, is indicated in the plural as well when it is a quantity larger than what one person can drink in one sitting. <br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (large quantity of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (serving of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Gender====<br /> In the third person, nominals distinguish between animate and inanimate referents. When it comes to animals, the use of the genders depends on the speaker's [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]]. ''Kali'' (women, children and uninitiated men) and ''tuva'' (slaves) refer to all motile animals in the animate gender, generally as inaccessible although pets may be accessible. ''Muja'' (initiated men) refer to animals other than pets in the inanimate gender. The Ngolu believe this allows ''muja'' to hunt without remorse.<br /> <br /> The following examples illustrate the difference. Examples which are specific to the rank of the speaker or the listener will be marked as such after the translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The interplay between a speaker and listener's rank is complex and may result in unexpected gender choices. For example, a slave must refer to him- or herself in the third person inanimate gender when speaking to ''balu'' and above unless specifically given permission otherwise. To read more about this, see [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|Social Stratification and Language Use]].<br /> <br /> ====Person====<br /> Three grammatical persons are marked by pronominals. The first person pronominals contain '''n'''. The second person pronominals contain a non-syllabic '''u''' (realised as '''v''' before '''u'''). In the third person, '''j''', '''x''', '''m''', '''z''', '''k''' and Ø appear depending on gender, definiteness and specificity.<br /> <br /> =====Clusivity=====<br /> The plural forms of all the basic pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness. <br /> <br /> The first person inclusive (second plus first persons) may be indicated by compound pronominals, the dual forms (&quot;you, one person, and I&quot;) being '''uana''', '''uanu''', '''vuna''', '''vunu''' and the plural forms being '''iuana''', '''iuanu''', '''ivuna''', '''ivunu'''. Which of the four options is used depends on [[#accessibility|accessibility]]. These compound forms are not used universally and many speakers use juxtaposition of pronouns, such as '''vu nu''' instead of '''vunu''' or '''iua na''' or '''iua ina''' instead of '''iuana'''.<br /> <br /> Even addressing people in the second person, should the group include third persons who are not being addressed, many speakers will make note of these separately, for example '''ju vu''' (gloss: NOM.3s.ICS.DEF NOM.2s.ICS) and this is somewhat prescriptively enforced. The nominal '''ivu''' (gloss: NOM.2p.ICS), for example, is recommended only for use to address two or more people when all are present or when the message is at the very least expected to be passed onto those who are not present. <br /> <br /> The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person. The compound 2nd+1st person pronouns are not subject to this ordering rule.<br /> <br /> Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive.<br /> <br /> ====Definiteness and Specificity====<br /> <br /> In the third person, pronominals indicate definiteness (whether the listener knows which individual) and specificity (whether the speaker knows which individual).<br /> <br /> =====Definite=====<br /> The Definite (+specific, +definite) is used when the listener is assumed to know which specific individual or individuals the speaker is referring to. In the following examples, '''ji ala''' (or just '''ji''') refers to a specific bird which the listener is assumed to be already aware of, possibly because it is already been mentioned.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|the bird}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|it}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Specific=====<br /> The Specific (+specific, -definite) is used when the speaker has a specific individual or individuals in mind but the listener is not assumed to know which one(s). In the following examples, '''mi ala''' (or '''mi''') refers to a specific bird but not one which the speaker expects the listener to know of.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a (particular) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|one (in particular)}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Non-Specific=====<br /> The Non-Specific (or General) does not refer to any specific individual(s) but to the abstract idea of a member or members of a particular class, any individual of which could be described. It often used when talking about desires or in negative sentences. In the examples below, '''i ala''' refers to any bird.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a(ny) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|anyone}}.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Accessibility====<br /> Accessibility is a concept integral to Ngolu culture. Outside of the third person non-specific, all animate nominals have two forms, one ''accessible'' (gloss: ACS) and one ''inaccessible'' (gloss: ICS). Accessible nominals have a low vowel,'''a''' in the nominative stem, '''e''' in the accusative stem, and these correspond to the high vowels '''u''' and '''i''' respectively in inaccessible nominals. Accessibility is typically explained as an indication of whether physical contact is permitted or not, however it is more generally a means of conveying social closeness or distance even when no actual touching is involved.<br /> <br /> In the first person, the English word ''I'' can be translated as either '''na''' (NOM.1s.ACS) or '''nu''' (NOM.1s.ICS). Using '''na''' signals to the listener &quot;I am accessible to you.&quot; This means the speaker feels close and emotionally open to the listener and physical contact is permitted or even welcome. Using '''nu''' informs the listener that physical contact is not welcome at the current time. This is typically because of emotional distance, such as when talking to strangers, casual acquaintances or people whom the speaker does not like, but it may also signal an unwillingness to be touched for other, often fleeting reasons, such as illness, pain or emotional tension. Between close friends and lovers, suddenly switching to '''nu''' may indicate that the speaker has taken offence at something.<br /> <br /> In the second and third persons, accessibility indicates the the referent's ''perceived'' accessibility ''to the speaker''. Using '''ua''' (NOM.2s.ACS) indicates that the speaker assumes he or she may touch the listener. Using '''vu''' (NOM.2s.ICS) indicates either a more respectful or colder social distance (cf. French &quot;vous&quot;, which, coincidentally, sounds identical). In the third person, '''ja''' (NOM.3s.ACS.DEF) and '''ju''' (NOM.3s.ICS.DEF) indicate the speaker's relationship to the referent. In plural, accessible indicates that ''all'' members of the group are accessible. Even one individual who the speaker regards as inaccessible, will cause the group to be marked as inaccessible. Inaccessibility is thus the 'default' and when speaking of generic or unknown individuals, these will be indicated with inaccessible nominals.<br /> <br /> Accessibility produces four speech modes or 'stances'. In situations between peers of equal rank, generally the speech mode with either be accessible (using accessible nominals in both first and second persons) or inaccessible (using inaccessible nominals in both). In situations of unequal dominance, which generally, but do not always, run along lines of rank, the dominant party speaks in the dominant mode, using inaccessible first person nominals and accessible second person nominals. The subordinate party speaks in the subordinate or submissive mode, using the reverse.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | speech mode || first person || second person || meaning<br /> |-<br /> | accessible mode (ACS) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may touch me. I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | inaccessible mode (ICS) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may not touch me. I may not touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | dominant mode (DOM) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may not touch me but I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | submissive mode (SUB) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may touch me but I may not touch you.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The speech mode used depends not only on who the speaker and listener are to one another, but how they feel about each other in that moment. A friend or lover who is deeply offended may suddenly switch to the inaccessible or dominant mode to indicate that they are now not happy and had better not be touched until the offence is resolved. The submissive mode may be used in order to flirt with an acquaintance. Flirting may be met with the accessible or inaccessible modes, which essentially give an answer. No answer (yet) is signalled by the adoption of the dominant mode. Smooth social interactions are ensured by the concordance of speech modes, ACS↔ACS, ICS↔ICS, DOM↔SUB. Conflict is often caused by the refusal to agree or by physical contact with someone marked in speech as inaccessible.<br /> <br /> Examples of the four speech modes in use.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ICS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Case====<br /> Ngolu possesses 14 grammatical cases. The nominative and accusative case appear to be the oldest and all other forms appear to derive from the agglomeration of adpositions onto them. The first group (accusative, dative, ablative, locative, genitive and possessive) appear to be relatively old. At some point after these adpositions fused onto the nominals, the plural marker '''i-''' also became a prefix. For example '''''i-e-ji''''' 'to them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;PL-DAT-ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;. The second group of derived cases (vocative, causal, benefactive, instrumental, comitative, topical, essive) appear to have developed more recently from prepositions added to either the nominative or the accusative case as the plural marker '''i-''' is sandwiched in the middle. For example '''''te-i-ji''''' 'about them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;because.of-PL.ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;.<br /> <br /> =====Nominative=====<br /> The nominative case indicates the grammatical subject of a verb. The nominative case is always formed with a back vowel, '''u''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''a''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''u''' shows animate and '''a''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''muja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|na}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.initiated.man || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be an initiated man&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} am an initiated man.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''loe''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || sleep || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} is not sleeping. / {{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} didn't sleep.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|He}} killed / murdered something / someone''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good || NOM.C || be.not || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It's good {{color|MediumBlue|that}} it's not raining.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zoua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuo}}''' || '''tavi''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ja}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.difficult || NOM.TEMP.C || be.child || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;the time when&quot; || &quot;be child&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He had a difficult childhood.<br /> (≈ {{color|MediumBlue|The time when}} {{color|MediumBlue|s/he}} was a child was difficult.)''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Accusative=====<br /> The accusative case indicates the grammatical object of a verb. The accusative case is formed with a front vowel, '''i''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''e''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''i''' represents animate and '''e''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''. The complementisers are '''jo''' and '''kio'''<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''ti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.PRF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;have finished&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Someone murdered {{color|MediumBlue|him}} / {{color|MediumBlue|He}} was murdered.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jave''' || '''ja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kivo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | throw || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF || ACC.3s.INAN.DEF || be.rock<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;throw&quot; || &quot;the being&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be rock&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''He threw {{color|MediumBlue|the rock}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jo}}''' || '''vai''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.C || stay || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; |''I want you {{color|MediumBlue|to}} stay. (≈ I want {{color|MediumBlue|that}} you stay.)'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In informal speech, the accusative case may replace the dative case when it indicates an experiencer. This does not occur with verbs that also have an accusative role and use the dative case to indicate a recipient.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ine}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || ACC.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Dative=====<br /> The dative case indicates an indirect object of the verb, a destination or goal of a movement or an experiencer. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'to' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''e(r)-''' ('''ie(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volos''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ene}}''' || '''izi''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || DAT.1s.ACS || ACC.3p.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;some things that&quot; || &quot;be water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} was given water. / Someone gave {{color|MediumBlue|me}} water.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|iene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || '''uana'''<br /> |-<br /> | JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM.1+2DU.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go - to them&quot; || &quot;you and I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''vais''' || '''inu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekio}}''' || '''loe''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF || stay || NOM.1p.ICS || DAT.TEMP.C || sleep || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;we&quot; || &quot;until&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''We stayed {{color|MediumBlue|until}} they slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Ablative=====<br /> The ablative case is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'from' in English. It is formed by suffixing '''-i''' to a nominative nominal. The complementisers are '''zuio''' and '''kuio''' in the ablative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Kuaqa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mala}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-uni}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.distant || NOM.1s.ICS || ABL.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || COP-GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be far&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;from the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm far away {{color|MediumBlue|from my home}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go - from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Get away {{color|MediumBlue|from me}}!'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || '''xuua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuio}}''' || '''iti''' || ('''ju''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;to her/him&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;since&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || (&quot;s/he&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Locative=====<br /> The locative case indicates a location. It is more or less equivalent to the prepositions 'in', 'on' and 'at' in English. It is also used to replace the verb &quot;have&quot; when indicating immediate possession as in &quot;to have something on one's person&quot;. It is formed by suffixing '''-a''' to a nominative nominal in the inaccessible and inanimate and prefixing '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ia(r)-''') to an accessible nominative nominal. The prefixed form is also used for the non-specific animate and inanimate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''bani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ana}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.money || LOC.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be money&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I don't have any money (with me). (≈ There is no money {{color|MediumBlue|at me}}.)'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|xua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mo}}''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.what || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be what&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Where are you?'' (≈ You are {{color|MediumBlue|at the what}}?) — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''iio''' || '''jas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azuo}}''' || '''muana''' || '''iti''' || '''exi''' || '''muana''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.fish || NOM.3s.ACS || LOC.C || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.small || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; || &quot;he&quot; || &quot;where&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || &quot;to the thing that&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be big&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''He's fishing {{color|MediumBlue|where}} the stream flows into the river.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || '''xuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;begin&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be yours&quot; || &quot;when&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || (&quot;to the inaccessible one&quot;) || &quot;that thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Genitive=====<br /> The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''egio''' || '''tani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|une}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.threesome || be.sibling || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a group of three&quot; || &quot;be siblings&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I have three siblings.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tta''' || '''xu''' || '''gula''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|uji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tio}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.large || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.pair.of.arms || COP-GEN.3s.DEF.ICS || be.that.3<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be large&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of arms&quot; || &quot;be of the person who&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|That person over there}} has big arms. / The arms {{color|MediumBlue|of that person over there}} are big.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Possessive=====<br /> The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) but to a nominative nominal rather than an accusative one.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || POS.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;owned by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} have / own a house.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It should be noted that, although in many languages, the genitive or possessive case is usually adnominal, referring to an immediately adjacent noun phrase, in Iliaqu, all nominals, regardless of case, refer to the predicate in their clause unless verbalised with the [[#Nominal_to_Verbal|copular prefix]]. Compare the following sentences.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || COP-POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in {{color|MediumBlue|my}} boot.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in the boot {{color|MediumBlue| and it's mine}}.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|I own}} a snake which is in the boot. — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the second sentence, the lack of the copula on '''une''' indicates that it represents an argument of the predicate ('''masa''' 'there is a snake'), meaning that it is the snake which belongs to the speaker, not the boot. The word order, placing the unadorned possessive argument ('''une''') after the much heavier locative argument ('''xua xa buja''') is heavily marked, placing focus on the fact that the snake is the speaker's legal possession.<br /> <br /> Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, ''ataiva'', the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for ''ataiva'' to avoid the possessive case entirely in favour of the genitive case.<br /> <br /> =====Vocative=====<br /> The vocative case is used to address someone or attract their attention. It is formed by adding '''e(r)-''' ('''ei-''' in plural) to a nominative nominal. <br /> <br /> The most common greeting words for most uses are simply vocative nominals. They must reflect the number and accessibility of the addressee(s). <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is common for inaccessibles to be greeted in the third person, with '''eju''' frequently replacing '''evu'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Third person definite forms, however, may also be used with accessibles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eja}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh he who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Among accessibles, the '''e-''' prefix may be added directly to a personal name. This and the predicate prefix '''i-''' are the only example of verbals (as all names are verbals) taking a non-derivational affix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|e}}-xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | hey-be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey - be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hey}} Xagu!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the indefinite, the vocative can be used to summon help from non-specific people.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eru}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when one person's assistance is enough.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3p.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when more than one person's assistance is required.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative complementiser '''ezuo''' is used to mean 'if only' or 'I wish'. It is also used for making polite requests. Literally, it's something like 'o that'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezuo}}''' || '''hunia''' || '''nua'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.C || be.potable || LOC.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if only&quot; || &quot;be beverage&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''May I have some water please? ({{color|MediumBlue|If only}} I had some water.)'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative temporal complementiser '''ekuo''' is used to express nostalgia about a past time or anticipation for a future time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || '''ata''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh for the time when&quot; || &quot;be adult&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I can't wait till}} I'm grown up.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Causal=====<br /> The causal case describes a cause. It is equivalent to the English &quot;because of&quot;. It is formed by prefixing '''te(r)-''' (plural: '''tei-''') to the accusative nominals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zaxa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.sick || NOM.1s.ICS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am sick&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm ill {{color|MediumBlue|because of you}}. / You made me ill.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ezo''' || '''zouas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tejo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''mala''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.now || be.difficult || DAT.1s.ICS || CAU.C || be.not || be.house || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;because&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''Things are tough for me at the moment {{color|MediumBlue|because}} I don't have a house..'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Benefactive=====<br /> The benefactive case indicates either a beneficiary or benefactor of an action or situation or a goal. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'for'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''kua(r)-''' (plural: '''kuai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.this.1 || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;there is this, by me&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''This is {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}. (≈ There's this {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.)'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bioi''' || '''vaia''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.willing || do.everything || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;would&quot; || &quot;do everything&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I would do anything {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''etie''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''leu''' || '''ue''' || '''veji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || move.to.here.1 || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.C || rescue || ACC.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;finish&quot; || &quot;come here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;rescue&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;about the person&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; |''I came here {{color|MediumBlue|(in order) to}} save you from him/her.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''naxe''' || '''molu''' || '''iu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''mue''' || '''lau''' || '''iu''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | must || be.dead || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || BEN.C || be.able || be.alive || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;must&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;can&quot; || &quot;live&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates that&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; |''Some must die {{color|MediumBlue|so that}} others may live.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kuas''' || '''enies''' || '''e''' || '''kueta''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuakio}}''' || '''gehuo''' || '''ua''' || '''ji''' || '''uako'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || carry || ACC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.hunting.knife || BEN.TEMP.C || encounter || NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.enemy<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;carry&quot; || &quot;a non-specific thing which&quot; || &quot;be a hunting knife&quot; || &quot;in case&quot; || &quot;encounter&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''Carry a knife {{color|MediumBlue|in case}} you cross paths with enemies.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Instrumental=====<br /> The instrumental case describes the means or method by which something is done. It is equivalent to the English preposition &quot;with&quot; when it means &quot;using&quot;. It is formed by adding the prefix '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''vuja''' || '''zi''' || '''vaku''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kueta}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || hunt || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.babirusa || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.hunting.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;deliberately killed&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;hunts&quot; || &quot;a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a babirusa&quot; || &quot;using a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a hunting knife&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''The hunter killed the babirusa {{color|MediumBlue|with a hunting knife}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g-iara''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC.3p.NSPC.INAN || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;certain people&quot; || &quot;by&quot; || &quot;wait&quot; || &quot;at anything which&quot; || &quot;is bushes&quot; || &quot;be-at any things which&quot; || &quot;be drinking water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Comitative=====<br /> The comitative case indicates an accompanying person or thing. It is equivalent to 'with' in English when it means 'along with' or 'accompanied by'. It is formed by prefixing '''le(r)-''' (plural: '''lei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''ja''' || '''meha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|leje}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jalu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Meha || COM.3s.DEF.ACS || Jalu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is hunting&quot; || &quot;the person who&quot; || &quot;is Meha&quot; || &quot;with the person who&quot; || &quot;is Jalu&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''Meha is hunting {{color|MediumBlue|with Jalu}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''hu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || move.PFV || COM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come/go&quot; || &quot;with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Come {{color|MediumBlue|with me}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bata''' || '''ja''' || '''umatu''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lejo'''}} || '''buga''' || '''taba''' || '''iju''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | dance || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Umatu || COM.C || hit || be.drum || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;dance&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be Umatu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;be drum&quot; || &quot;the beings who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Umatu danced {{color|MediumBlue|while}} the others played the drums.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Topical=====<br /> The topical case indicates the topic or theme of an act of communication and in many instances also something which is kept in mind when a particular action is performed. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'about'. It is formed by prefixing '''ve(r)-''' (plural '''vei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''ila''' || '''na''' || '''leue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vezi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|valo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || speak || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.interesting<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;speak&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;about something that&quot; || &quot;is interesting&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to talk to you {{color|MediumBlue|about something interesting}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''teuas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vexi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiau}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | thank || DAT.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.food<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;thank&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;about the thing that&quot; || &quot;is food&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Thanks {{color|MediumBlue|for the food}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''malemale''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''moio''' || '''iu''' || '''azo''' || '''lo''' || '''zola''' || '''iu''' || '''babo'''<br /> |-<br /> | gossip || TOP.C || do.what || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other || ADV || be.solely || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;gossip&quot; || &quot;about the fact that&quot; || &quot;do what&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be only&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Only unintelligent people gossip {{color|MediumBlue|about}} what other people do.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Essive=====<br /> The essive case indicates the role of something in the sentence. It is roughly equivalent to the English words 'as' or 'like'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''o(r)-''' (plural: '''oi-''') to the nominative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''atia''' || '''nas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|omas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ali}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.there.2 || NOM.1s.ACS || ESS.3s.SPEC.ACS || be.same.rank.friend || COP-DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;as a person who&quot; || &quot;be a friend of the same rank&quot; || &quot;be to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm here {{color|MediumBlue|as your friend}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ozuo}}''' || '''ka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.visible || ESS.C || be.going.to || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;appear&quot; || &quot;as if&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It looks {{color|MediumBlue|like}} it's going to rain.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Tables====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Simple pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | na<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | nu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ina<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | inu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate specific<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ma<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | mu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ima<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | imu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate definite<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate specific<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | izu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | a<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ia<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> animate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> inanimate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Compound pronominals<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dominant<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dual<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Complimentisers<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | temporal<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====First Person=====<br /> First person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''nu''' || '''inu''' || '''na''' || '''ina'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ni''' || '''ini''' || '''ne''' || '''ine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''nua''' || '''inua''' || '''ana''' || '''iana''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uni''' || '''iuni''' || '''une''' || '''iune'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''unu''' || '''iunu''' || '''una''' || '''iuna'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''enu''' || '''einu''' || '''ena''' || '''eina''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teni''' || '''teini''' || '''tene''' || '''teine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuani''' || '''kuaini''' || '''kuane''' || '''kuaine''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ani''' || '''aini''' || '''ane''' || '''aine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leni''' || '''leini''' || '''lene''' || '''leine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veni''' || '''veini''' || '''vene''' || '''veine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''onu''' || '''oinu''' || '''ona''' || '''oina''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS.SG || ICS:PL || ACS.SG || ACS.PL<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ue''' || '''iue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eui''' || '''ieui''' || '''eue''' || '''ieue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''vui''' || '''ivui''' || '''uai''' || '''iuai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''vua''' || '''ivua''' || '''aua''' || '''iaua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uui''' || '''iuui''' || '''uue''' || '''iuue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uvu''' || '''iuvu''' || '''uua''' || '''iuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''evu''' || '''eivu''' || '''eua''' || '''eiua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teui''' || '''teiui''' || '''teue''' || '''teiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiui''' || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaiue''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aui''' || '''aiui''' || '''aue''' || '''aiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leui''' || '''leiui''' || '''leue''' || '''leiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veui''' || '''veiui''' || '''veue''' || '''veiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ovu''' || '''oivu''' || '''oua''' || '''oiua''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || ICS.DU<br /> || ACS.DU<br /> || DOM.DU<br /> || SUB.DU<br /> || ICS.PL<br /> || ACS.PL<br /> || DOM.PL<br /> || SUB.PL<br /> |-<br /> || Nominative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Accusative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Dative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvuna<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''ju''' || '''iju''' || '''ja''' || '''ija''' || '''xu''' || '''ixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ji''' || '''iji''' || '''je''' || '''ije''' || '''xi''' || '''ixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jui''' || '''ijui''' || '''jai''' || '''ijai''' || '''xui''' || '''ixui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''jua''' || '''ijua''' || '''aja''' || '''iaja''' || '''xua''' || '''ixua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uji''' || '''iuji''' || '''uje''' || '''iuje''' || '''uxi''' || '''iuxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uju''' || '''iuju''' || '''uja''' || '''iuja''' || '''*uxu''' || '''*iuxu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eju''' || '''eiju''' || '''eja''' || '''eija''' || '''exu''' || '''eixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teji''' || '''teiji''' || '''teje''' || '''teije''' || '''texi''' || '''teixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaiji''' || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuaixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aji''' || '''aiji''' || '''aje''' || '''aije''' || '''axi''' || '''aixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leji''' || '''leiji''' || '''leje''' || '''leije''' || '''lexi''' || '''leixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veji''' || '''veiji''' || '''veje''' || '''veije''' || '''vexi''' || '''veixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oju''' || '''oiju''' || '''oja''' || '''oija''' || '''oxu''' || '''oixu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''mu''' || '''imu''' || '''ma''' || '''ima''' || '''zu''' || '''izu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''mi''' || '''imi''' || '''me''' || '''ime''' || '''zi''' || '''izi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''emi''' || '''iemi''' || '''eme''' || '''ieme''' || '''ezi''' || '''iezi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mui''' || '''imui''' || '''mai''' || '''imai''' || '''zui''' || '''izui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''mua''' || '''imua''' || '''ama''' || '''iama''' || '''zua''' || '''izua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''umi''' || '''iumi''' || '''ume''' || '''iume''' || '''uzi''' || '''iuzi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''umu''' || '''iumu''' || '''uma''' || '''iuma''' || '''*uzu''' || '''*iuzu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''emu''' || '''eimu''' || '''ema''' || '''eima''' || '''ezu''' || '''eizu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''temi''' || '''teimi''' || '''teme''' || '''teime''' || '''tezi''' || '''teizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuami''' || '''kuaimi''' || '''kuame''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuazi''' || '''kuaizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ami''' || '''aimi''' || '''ame''' || '''aime''' || '''azi''' || '''aizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lemi''' || '''leimi''' || '''leme''' || '''leime''' || '''lezi''' || '''leizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vemi''' || '''veimi''' || '''veme''' || '''veime''' || '''vezi''' || '''veizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''omu''' || '''oimu''' || '''oma''' || '''oima''' || '''ozu''' || '''oizu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ANIM Sg. || ANIM Pl. || INAN Sg. || INAN Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''u''' || '''iu''' || '''a''' || '''ia'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''i''' || '''iri''' || '''e''' || '''ie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eri''' || '''ieri''' || '''ere''' || '''iere'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ai''' || '''iai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''iaru''' || '''ara''' || '''iara'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''iuri''' || '''ure''' || '''iure'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''iuru''' || '''ura'''* || '''iura'''*<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu''' || '''era''' || '''eia''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' || '''tere''' || '''teie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' || '''kuare''' || '''kuaie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' || '''are''' || '''aie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' || '''lere''' || '''leie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veri''' || '''veiri''' || '''vere''' || '''veie''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu''' || '''ora''' || '''oia'''<br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> =====Complementisers=====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''jo''' || 'that' || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''ejo''' || 'to the place where' || '''ekio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || *'''uzuo''' || || *'''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vejo''' || 'about V-ing' || '''vekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |}<br /> ::&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Verbals===<br /> <br /> Verbals constitute the only open class of words in Ngolu. They are essentially content words, equivalent to what in other languages are verbs ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''loe''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to sleep' || [NOM] sleeps<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kau''' || 'to eat' || [NOM] eats [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to hunt' (= 'to be a hunter') || [NOM] hunts [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''volo''' || 'to give' || [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mahu''' || 'to know' || [DAT] knows [NOM] = [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ila''' || 'to speak/talk' || [NOM] speaks [ACC]/[INS] (= language) to [DAT]/[COM] about [TOP]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mue''' || 'to be able to' || [NOM] can / is able to […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... nouns ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''iio''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be a fish' || [NOM] is a fish of [GEN] belonging to [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to be a hunter' (= 'to hunt') || [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person<br /> |-<br /> |• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of a different rank)' || [NOM] is a friend of [DAT], lover of [GEN] and concubine of [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ilia''' || 'to be speech/language' || [NOM] is the speech/language of [GEN]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... adjectives ... <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''tta''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be large' || [NOM] is large<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kaiu''' || 'to be edible' ('to be food') || [NOM] is edible to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kuaqa''' || 'to be far/distant' || [NOM] is far from [ABL]/[DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''xeva''' || 'to be visible' (= 'to see') || [NOM is visible to [DAT]; [DAT] sees [NOM]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lau''' || 'to be alive' (= 'to live', 'to be a living being') || [NOM] is alive<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lubi''' || 'to be closed/shut' || [NOM] is closed/shut to [DAT]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... and adverbs.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''jau''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to intentionally ...' || [NOM] is intentionally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mola''' || 'to be merely ...' (= 'to be insignificant') || [NOM] is just/only/merely […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> They are generally thought of as 'content words' but even many grammatical functions are expressed by verbals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''kka''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be not ...' || [NEGATIVE] || [NOM] is not […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hua''' || 'to be always ...', 'to be eternally ...' || [GNOMIC] || [NOM] is eternally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hau''' || 'to be defined by being ...' || [ESSENTIAL] || [NOM] is essentially […] by definition<br /> |-<br /> |• '''he''' || 'to undergo' || [PASSIVE] || [NOM] undergoes […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''eti''' || 'to have previously done ...' || [PAST] || [NOM] did […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Regardless of the verbal's semantic meaning and which part of speech carries the bulk of the meaning when translated into another language, each verbal can be used in the same syntactic positions as any other verbal. All verbals can appear as a predicate, an argument (when preceded by a nominal) or as a modifier to another, preceding verbal. Compare the following two sentences which show how a semantically verb-like verbal, '''gahu''' ('to howl'), and a semantically more noun-like verbal, '''zagua''' ('to be a gibbon') can simply be swapped. Both can appear in the predicate, both can appear in an argument and neither needs to be inflected to take on either role.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{|<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || scope=&quot;col&quot; width=&quot;10&quot; | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''gahu''' || || '''ju''' || '''zagua'''<br /> |-<br /> | howl || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.gibbon<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;howls&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a gibbon&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''The gibbon howls.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |- style=&quot;height: 2em;&quot;<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''zagua''' || || '''ju''' || '''gahu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.gibbon || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is a gibbon&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;howls&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''What howls is a gibbon.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Argument Structure====<br /> <br /> Verbals each have an inherent argument structure, controlling which case are used for which role. Dictionaries, and the examples above, mark the meanings of each relevant case when used with each verbal.<br /> <br /> Many argument structures are as would be expected.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''volo''' = [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> :* '''vuja''' = [NOM] hunts [ACC]; [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]<br /> :* '''akku''' = [NOM] is blood; [NOM] is the blood of [GEN]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volo''' || '''na''' || '''xi''' || '''eje'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to him&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I give it to him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is a tendency for experiencers to be in the dative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''hualo''' = [DAT] loves/cares about [NOM]; [NOM] is loved by [DAT]<br /> :* '''xeva''' = [DAT] sees [NOM]; [NOM] is seen by [DAT]<br /> :* '''zoua''' = [NOM] is difficult for [DAT]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''eni''' || '''ju''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was seen&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I saw the king.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Although that is not always the case, as this pair of opposites shows.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''mahu''' = [DAT] knows [NOM]; [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> :* '''zau''' = [NOM] doesn't know about [TOP]; [NOM] is ignorant of [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mahu''' || '''eni''' || ('''xu''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.1s.ICS || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || (&quot;it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zau''' || '''nu''' || ('''vexi''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || (TOP.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || (&quot;about it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I don't know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also an unusual class of verbals where the nominative role usually refers to a body part, the genitive refers to the possessor and when there is an accusative argument, the whole thing refers to an action performed (with the body part) by the possessor.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bale''' = [NOM] is a fist of [GEN]; [GEN] punches [ACC]<br /> :* '''bane''' = [NOM] is a hand of [GEN]; [GEN] holds, grasps, clutches [ACC]<br /> :* '''buja''' = [NOM] is a heavy boot of [GEN]; [GEN] crushes [ACC] under his boot<br /> :* '''gula''' = [NOM] is the pair of arms of [GEN]; [GEN] hugs [ACC]<br /> :* '''juaza''' = [NOM] is the penis of [GEN]; [GEN] fucks [ACC] (vulgar!)<br /> :* '''kanu''' = [NOM] is the nose of [GEN]; [GEN] sniffs [ACC]<br /> :* '''kula''' = [NOM] is the pair of ears of [GEN]; [GEN] listens to [ACC]<br /> :* '''mama''' = [NOM] is the pair of breasts of [GEN]; [GEN] breast-feeds [ACC]<br /> :* '''miva''' = [NOM] is a finger of [GEN]; [GEN] touches, feels [ACC]<br /> :* '''musari''' = [NOM] is a molar of [GEN]; [GEN] chews [ACC]<br /> :* '''omo''' = [NOM] is the pair of eyes of [GEN]; [GEN] looks at [ACC]<br /> :* '''umakka''' = [NOM] is a tooth (incisor, canine) of [GEN]; [GEN] bites [ACC]<br /> :* '''zuru''' = [NOM] is a war against [ACC]; [GEN] wages war on [ACC]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I have eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xu''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || be.this.1<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is this, here by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''These are my eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xi''' || '''masa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || be.snake<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a snake&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking at the snake'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The verbal '''lama''' is somewhat similar, although it may simply be understood through an idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''lama''' = [NOM] is a tear of [GEN]/[LOC]; [GEN]/[LOC] weeps (silently) about [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lama''' || '''ana''' || '''teui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is (a) tear(s)&quot; || &quot;at him/her&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The above sentence may also be translated as &quot;There are tears on him/her because of you,&quot; or &quot;S/He has tears because of you,&quot; making it less clear as to whether this is a good example of an apparent non-nominative subject.<br /> <br /> There is a proposed additional place within the argument structure of many verbals, that of a following modifier. A following modifier may mark a specific role which may either be marked by another case or may only be filled by a following modifier. The notation used here indicates a following modifier with […].<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''maue''' = [NOM] is a group of seven […]<br /> :* '''kka''' = [NOM] is not […]<br /> :* '''mia''' = [NOM] approaches [DAT]/[…]<br /> :* '''tehi''' = [NOM] is possibly […]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''mala''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | approach || be.house || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''iju''' || '''exi''' || '''mala''' <br /> |-<br /> | approach || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN || be.house <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;they&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Derivation of Verbals====<br /> <br /> There are two kinds of derivational affixes, one which converts a nominal into a verbal and many others which convert a verbal into another verbal with a different meaning.<br /> <br /> =====Nominal to Verbal=====<br /> All nominals can be converted into a verbal by adding a copula prefix. The copula prefix is '''g-''' before a vowel, '''k''' or '''g''', '''m-''' before '''m''', '''b''' and '''v''', '''l-''' before '''l''' and '''n-''' before all other consonants. The copula prefix essentially prevents a nominal from signalling the start of an argument. Used with the dative or ablative case, the meaning may be interpreted as a verb of motion.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nu''' 'I' [NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}nu''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} me' [COP-NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''eni''' 'to me' [DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}eni''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} to me', '{{color|MediumBlue|to come}} to me' [COP-DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''xu mala''' 'the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xu mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} the house'<br /> :* '''xua mala''' 'at the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xua mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} at the house'<br /> :* '''kuaini''' 'for us' [BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}kuaini''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} for us' [COP-BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> <br /> <br /> Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}nu''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-NOM.1s.ICS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be I&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I{{color|MediumBlue|'m}} me.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}xuas''' || '''azikuo''' || '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.≈school || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a school for adolescent boys&quot; || &quot;s/he&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} not at school.'' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} to me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|l-}}lene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;be with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} with me. / {{color|MediumBlue|Be}} with me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''nini''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}une''' || '''ja''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.mother || COP-GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.this<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be this&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''This is my mother.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Verbal to Verbal=====<br /> <br /> A far more common means of derivation is from verbal to verbal. This is chiefly done by means of infixing although prefixes and suffixes also exist.<br /> <br /> ======Collective======<br /> <br /> The collective infix '''-ig-''' indicates a group of the named entity.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''ala''' 'to be a bird'<br /> ::→ '''al{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}a''' 'to be {{color|MediumBlue|a flock}} of bird{{color|MediumBlue|s}}'<br /> :* '''balu''' 'to be a royal guardsman'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to be the royal guard'<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to eat {{color|MediumBlue|together}}'<br /> :* '''uttia''' 'to be a tree'<br /> ::→ '''ut{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}ia''' 'to be a forest'<br /> <br /> <br /> ======Gerundive======<br /> <br /> The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something. The accusative role is promoted to the nominative role, as with the passive construction with '''he''', but in addition the assertion is made that this is a good or customary use for the referent in question.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''huna''' 'to drink'<br /> ::→ '''hun{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a''' 'to be (fresh) water', 'to be potable', 'to be drinkable' (to be something to be drunk)<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular)<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular)<br /> :* '''jalo''' 'to welcome', 'to receive', 'to accept (into a place)'<br /> ::→ '''jal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a guest' (one who is to be welcomed)<br /> :* '''asu''' 'to be seated', 'to be sitting'<br /> ::→ '''a{{color|MediumBlue|x}}u''' 'to be a chair', 'to be a seat' (to be something to be sat on) [''*asiu'' → ''axu'']<br /> :* '''ila''' 'to speak', 'to talk'<br /> ::→ '''il{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a'''' 'to be language' (to be something to be spoken)<br /> :* '''zoi''' 'to say', 'to tell'<br /> ::→ '''zo{{color|MediumBlue|j}}i''' 'to be worth saying', 'to be fitting/appropriate' (to be something to be said) [''*zoii'' → ''zoji'']<br /> :* '''go''' 'to do something', 'to act'<br /> ::→ '''g{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a duty', 'to be an obligation', 'to be a good idea' (to be something to be done)<br /> :* '''mue''' 'to be able', 'to be capable'<br /> ::→ '''m{{color|MediumBlue|i}}ue''' 'to be a required skill' (to be something that someone should be able to do)<br /> :* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes'; (with genitive subject) 'to look at'<br /> ::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at)<br /> :* '''bale''' 'to be a fist'; (with genitive subject) 'to punch'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}e''' 'to be punchable', 'to have a punchable face' (to be one who ought to be punched, a common pejorative word)<br /> :* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', (with genitive subject) 'to crush under a boot'<br /> ::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot) [''*bujia'' → ''buji'']<br /> :* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter'<br /> ::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted) [''*vujia'' → ''vuji'']<br /> <br /> ======Locative======<br /> <br /> The prefix '''a-''' indicates being at a particular place.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''tio''' 'to be that'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}tio''' 'to be there' (≈ 'to be at that')<br /> :* '''mala''' 'to be a house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}mala''' 'to be at home' (≈ 'to be at house')<br /> <br /> ======Ornative======<br /> <br /> The ornative prefix '''o-''' indicates having or being equipped with something.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bani''' 'to be money'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money')<br /> :* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with room(s)')<br /> :* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair')<br /> :* '''ulu''' 'to be muscle'<br /> ::→ '''u{{color|MediumBlue|o}}lu''' 'to be muscular' (≈ 'to be with muscle', with metathesis turning /ou/ into /uo/)<br /> <br /> ====Verbals with inherent gender / rank distinctions====<br /> <br /> Many verbals semantically encode gender within their meaning. In some cases, there are pairs of words, such as the following.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nini''' 'to be a mother / aunt'<br /> :* '''nana''' 'to be a father / uncle'<br /> <br /> <br /> In this instance, the divide along genders is easy for non-Ngolu to conceptualise. However many other concepts are also divided by gender, or, more accurately, rank, and this frequently has to do with the Ngolu's strict cultural taboos around gender and rank. For example, Ngolu men and women are expected to sing, dance, dress and urinate differently.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''laha''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''kali'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''lasa''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''kali'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''miia''' 'to wear' (of a ''kali'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''kele''' 'to urinate' (of a ''kali'', to urinate while sitting or squatting)<br /> <br /> :* '''uaie''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''muja'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''bata''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''muja'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''uara''' 'to wear' (of a ''muja'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''zatu''' 'to urinate' (of a ''muja'', to urinate while standing)<br /> <br /> <br /> In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank.<br /> <br /> Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha''' ('to fight physically'), '''aiuo''' ('to shoot').<br /> <br /> Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word.<br /> <br /> Verbals may also specify the gender/rank of an argument other than the nominal. For example, the word ''bale'' means 'to be a fist', specifying a ''muja'' in the role of the genitive possessor. Similarly, items of clothing specific to one gender can only appear with possessors in the corresponding gender.<br /> <br /> When a subject (or another argument) does not match the gender/rank specified in the verbal, there must be paraphrasing. There are generally two ways this is done, with '''ko''' and with '''hui'''.<br /> <br /> =====Ko=====<br /> <br /> '''Ko''' is a verbal meaning 'to be similar'. It can be placed before a gendered verbal when the subject (or other relevant argument) does not match. For example, the word for ''enemy'' is '''uako'''. It is a ''muja'' verb, perhaps best translated as 'to be a ''muja'' enemy'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.enemy || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is no direct equivalent for a ''kali'' who is an enemy. To express the idea of a ''kali'' being an enemy, what is essentially said is &quot;S/he is ''like'' an enemy.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.similar || be.enemy.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be.like&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The closest analogue in English would be with words such as 'midwife', which has no easy male equivalent. In Ngolu, it is as though one simply says 'He's like a midwife.' Similarly, in the following example, there is no word equivalent to a woman's fist, only a man's fist. Therefore, she made something ''like'' a man's fist.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''li''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|bale}}''' || '''uji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || begin || be.similar || be.MUJA.fist || GEN.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;start&quot; || &quot;be like&quot; || &quot;be a (man's) fist&quot; || &quot;of the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She made {{color|MediumBlue|a fist}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Hui=====<br /> <br /> '''Hui''' is similar to '''ko''' except it is filled with contempt and criticism. It is a verbal which could be translated as 'to shamefully break gender taboos by approximating |…|'. There is essentially no grammatical difference between '''ko''' and '''hui''' - the former is simply neutral and the later conveys strong condemnation of breaking taboos.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || sing.KALI<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;sing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|There's a man (shamefully) trying to sing like a woman}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ttio}}''' || '''ju''' || '''je'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || strike || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him/her.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Particles and Grammatical Affixes===<br /> <br /> Particles are words which cannot be classified as either nominals or verbals. Most of them are equivalent to conjunctions, introducing clauses. In many cases, the line between verb and particle is a little blurred and difficult to find and research is still ongoing.<br /> <br /> ====''Au''====<br /> <br /> ====''Au'' and ''teu''====<br /> <br /> '''Au''' and '''teu''' are used to order the events multiple clause sentence. '''Au''' introduces the clause in which the first action took place and is thus roughly equivalent to 'first' or 'after' whereas '''teu''' introduces a later action and is thus equivalent to 'then' or 'before'. They are usually used as correlative conjunctions, with both present in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | first;after|| eat || NOM.1s.ICS || second;before || sleep || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|First}} I ate, {{color|MediumBlue|then}} I slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I ate {{color|MediumBlue|before}} I slept.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|After}} I ate, I slept.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The order of the clauses can be reversed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | second/before || sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Before}} I slept, I ate.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Sometimes the first of the two conjunctions is omitted.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''— [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept, {{color|MediumBlue|but first}}, I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> '''Au''' is also a verbal occasionally used to mean &quot;to be first&quot;, however in this usage it has mostly been replaced by the regular '''tahu'''.<br /> <br /> ====''Ha''====<br /> <br /> '''Ha''' forms polar (yes/no) questions. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Polar_Questions|Polar Questions]]<br /> <br /> It also introduces the protasis of realis conditional sentences, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Hai''====<br /> <br /> '''Hai''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Haizuo''====<br /> <br /> '''Haizuo''' is an emphatic form of '''hai'''. It introduces the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''I-''====<br /> <br /> The clitic particle '''i-''' appears on the beginning of any part of the predicate when it is preceded in a sentence by any non-predicate element. For example, in the following sentence, '''hu mala''' is the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''mala''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || be.house || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Topicalised arguments can be brought forward in the sentence to before the verb phrase. The verb phrase must now be marked with '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;As for me&lt;/u&gt;, I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The predicate phrase can even be split, with arguments appearing inside it.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;I&lt;/u&gt;'m going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In extreme cases, there can even be more than one split in a predicate phrase, with '''i-''' necessary each time the predicate is resumed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''leuis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || COM.2s.ICS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I want to go home with you.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Of that last example, the normal word order would be '''bio hu mala na leui'''.<br /> <br /> When added to words beginning with a syllabic '''i''', the prefix '''i-''' becomes '''j-''' ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|j}}-iio'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.this.1 || PRED-be.fish<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be this&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''This, well, this is a fish!'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... but before a non-syllabic '''i''', it remains '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''omo''' || '''g-unis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}iaha'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3S.DEF.INAN || be.pair.of.eyes || COP-GEN.1s.ICS || PRED-be.painful<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;hurt&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''As for my eyes, they're sore.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Lo''====<br /> <br /> '''Lo''' appears to be a short form of the comitative complementiser '''lejo'''. It introduces an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> ====''Mie''====<br /> <br /> ====''Teuo''====<br /> <br /> ====''To''====<br /> <br /> ''To'' generally introduces consequences. It often roughly means 'so' or 'therefore'. In these cases, it may replaced by the more emphatic '''toua'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ba''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(ua)}}''' || '''ka''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''muanaiti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || rain || therefore || be.PROS || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.stream<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;so&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be stream&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''It's raining hard, so the streams are going to swell.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is used in conjunction with '''ha''' (and sometimes '''hai''' or '''haizuo''') to form conditional clauses where it introduces the apodosis. See [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]] for examples.<br /> <br /> It is also frequently used to replace '''i-''' in introducing a main clause after a subordinate clause other than a conditional clause.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''enio'''<br /> |-<br /> | LOC.TEMP.C || rain || then || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.plant<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;when&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be plant&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|When}} it rains{{color|MediumBlue|, (then)}} the plants grow.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Toi''====<br /> <br /> '''Toi''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Toua''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xe''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xue''====<br /> <br /> ===Interjections===<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> <br /> ===Phrase Structure===<br /> <br /> ====Verbal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A verbal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL ...]]]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> When multiple verbals are stacked one after the other, the head is on the left and modifiers on the right.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a large house / are large houses''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jiio''' || '''ttiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | run || be.quick<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;run&quot; || &quot;be fast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''runs quickly / run quickly''<br /> ''is a fast runner / are fast runners''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''hunts birds / hunt birds''<br /> ''is a bird hunter / are bird hunters''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In many cases, verbals with more grammatical than semantic content are followed by much more semantically rich modifying verbals. In these cases, the preceding words are nevertheless heads and the following words modifiers.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bas''' || '''ali''' || '''g-eji''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || be.friend.(of.the.same.sex) || COP-DAT.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;be friend&quot; || &quot;be to inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;be the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a good friend / are good friends of the king''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''huna'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || drink<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;drink&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''drank / has drunk / have drunk''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''toto''' || '''kas''' || '''euo''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.really || be.PROS || be.pair || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be in fact&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''are actually going to be two big ones''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''buua''' || '''tio''' || '''vaxu''' || '''zara'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.on.top.of || be.that.3 || be.table || write<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be one top of&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot; || &quot;be a table&quot; || &quot;write&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''is / are on top of that desk over there''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Each complex verbal phrase comprised of more than one verbal has its own case structure which defines how the cases are used in a sentence. The case structure is determined by the rightmost verbal which shares the same nominative argument as the leftmost verbal in the phrase.<br /> <br /> $$$$$$$ [examples to come]<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A nominal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''NOMINAL [VERBAL PHRASE]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> An unadorned nominal on its own functions as a pronoun.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''he'', ''she''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''its''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> Adorned nominal phrases consist of a nominal followed by a verbal phrase. In this case, the nominal acts as the head of a relative clause in which the verbal phrase sits.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju''' || '''xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || execute<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;execute&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the executioner''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi''' || '''tukaue'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.collar.indicating.the.owner.of.a.slave<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a slave's collar&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''of the slave's collar''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Structure===<br /> <br /> With unmarked word order, a clause generally has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''[PARTICLE] PREDICATE [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] ...'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> A &lt;tt&gt;'''PREDICATE'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a verbal phrase and an &lt;tt&gt;'''ARGUMENT'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a nominal phrase or a subordinate clause.<br /> <br /> In many cases, one or more arguments may precede the predicate or may even appear in the middle of the predicate, dividing it into two or more pieces.<br /> <br /> Unmarked word order:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental)<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau''' || '''azi''' || '''akuala''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; || &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''I ate food with a knife.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted, nominal argument partially fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || Pred... || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || ...icate || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''nu''' || '''i-kau''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || NOM.1s.ICS || eat || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Predicate-Only Clauses====<br /> <br /> The simplest clauses in Ngolu consist of nothing but a verbal or a verbal phrase used as the predicate. There are no obligatory arguments in Ngolu and all may be omitted from the clause and left to context, even the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's raining. / It rains.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's good.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> A verbal with no arguments indicates an activity or state without specifying the identity of any participants. Essentially, Ngolu is a pro-drop language. With prior context, omitted arguments can be understood as referring to someone or something already discussed. With no prior context, however, verbal-only sentences are simply understood with a &quot;someone or something&quot; as the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kau'''<br /> |-<br /> | eat<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;eats&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He, she or it is eating. (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Something or someone is eating.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He or it is hunting. / He or it is a hunter.'' (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''Something or someone is hunting. / There's a hunter.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Simple declarative or existential statements are frequently verbal-only.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.fire<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a fire&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's a fire. / There's a fire. / Fire!''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====One-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Multi-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Subordinate Clauses====<br /> <br /> =====Complementiser Clauses=====<br /> <br /> =====Adverbial Clauses=====<br /> <br /> Adverbial clauses are introduced by the particle '''lo''', which may be derived from '''lejo''', the comitative case of the copula 'zuo'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''lo''' || '''juo''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | want || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ADV || be.outside || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be outside&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to eat outside.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Relative Clauses=====<br /> <br /> ===Topic and Focus===<br /> <br /> ===Affirmation and Negation===<br /> <br /> The verbals '''ahe''' and '''kka''' indicate polarity, being positive and negative respectively. On their own, they are roughly equivalent to 'yes' and 'no'. <br /> <br /> Positive sentences are generally unmarked and '''ahe''' generally appears only for emphasis.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || '''bo''' || '''xu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.indeed || be.wanted || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;be wanted&quot; || &quot;the thing&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|do}} want it.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation is performed by means of '''kka'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xua''' || '''uttia'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be tree&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''S/He{{color|MediumBlue|'s not}} at the tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''mula''' || '''ju''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.liked || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be liked&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|don't}} like him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> After a negative question or statement, '''ahe''' indicates a contradictory, positive answer whereas '''kka''' indicates a negative answer in agreement.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.not || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be.not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Is{{color|MediumBlue|n't}} it raining?''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.indeed || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be indeed&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Yes, it is}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.not || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be not&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No, it's not}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation (as well as affirmation) is generally performed in the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''xeva''' || '''ju''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|eri}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.seen || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;to anyone who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No one else}} saw her.'' (Literally: ''{{color|MediumBlue|Anyone else didn't}} see her.'')<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> To negate or affirm an argument, it is placed within an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || '''los''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''ahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV || be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV || be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Both '''kka''' and '''ahe''' have equivalent adverbial forms, '''kku''' and '''lahe''' respectively, which do not require the use of '''lo''' when negating or affirming an argument. The previous sentence may be expressed as follows.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kku}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV.be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV.be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Interrogation===<br /> <br /> ====Polar Questions====<br /> <br /> Polar questions are indicated with '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} raining{{color|MediumBlue|?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Do}} you love me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Ha''' can occur at the end of a sentence, where it functions as a question tag.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | rain || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot; || Q<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''It's raining, {{color|MediumBlue|isn't it?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;?&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''You love me, {{color|MediumBlue|don't you?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Individual arguments in a sentence may be called into question by placing them inside an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]] introduced by '''lo'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} me who you love{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''na''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || ADV || Q || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} you who loves me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Alternative Questions====<br /> <br /> Alternative questions use two or more instances of '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Bio''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''kau''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''huna''' || '''vu'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || Q || eat || Q || drink || NOM.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;or&quot; || &quot;drink&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''Would you like anything to {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} eat {{color|MediumBlue|or}} drink{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Xevu''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ja''' || '''mahu''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ju''' || '''laiuiie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mahu || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Laiuiie<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Mahu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Laiuiie&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''Have you seen {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} Mahu {{color|MediumBlue|or}} Laiuiie{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Content Questions====<br /> <br /> ====Embedded Questions====<br /> <br /> Any type of question may be embedded inside a complementiser phrase.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Zau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ti''' || '''uaizue''' || '''ji''' || '''tavi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || TOP.C || Q || be.PRF || find || ACC.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.child<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;about that&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || be.PRF || &quot;find&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I don't know {{color|MediumBlue|if}} the child has been found.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Voice===<br /> <br /> ===Time===<br /> <br /> Marking of time (tense and aspect) is not obligatory in Ngolu and may always be left up to context. For our purposes here, we shall not distinguish between actions (e.g. ''kill'') and states (e.g. ''want'', ''be a house'') as temporal marking is identical for both. The word ''action'' will be used henceforth and should be understood to mean &quot;action or state&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Relative tenses====<br /> When time needs to be indicated, it is most often done by means of a verbal indicating a &quot;relative tense&quot; (aspect). These are relative to a contextually understood time in question, the &quot;reference time&quot;. The three basic &quot;relative tense&quot; markers are ... <br /> <br /> <br /> *'''ti''' &quot;perfect&quot; (PRF), indicating an action that occurred before the reference time<br /> *'''zo''' &quot;progressive&quot; (PROG), indicating an action underway at the reference time<br /> *'''ka''' &quot;prospective (PROS), indicating an action occurring after the reference time<br /> <br /> <br /> By default, the reference is the present, the time in which the utterance is made. However, if another time is contextually understood, any of these may refer to events in the past, present or future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|zo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROG || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be underway&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Absolute tenses====<br /> The prefix '''e-''' attached to the beginning of any of these aspect markers creates an absolute tense marker. The '''e-''' sets the reference time to the current moment in which the utterance is made. This is usually only used to disambiguate or to emphasise a time frame.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''eti''' &quot;past&quot; (PST), indicating an action that occurred in the past<br /> *'''ezo''' &quot;present&quot; (PRES), indicating an action underway in the present<br /> *'''eka''' &quot;future (FUT), indicating an action that will occur in the future<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be earlier&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRES || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Continuation====<br /> There are also compounds formed from two time words that indicate continuation from one time frame to another using a linking ''-e-''. This linking ''-e-'' is probably not related to the ''e-'' of absolute temporal reference, but to the ''e-'' prefix of dative case nominals and the derivation prefix ''e-'' that can be added to verbals indicating motion towards something.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''tiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that starting before the reference time and continuing up to it<br /> *'''zueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action continuing from the reference time and extending to a later time<br /> *'''etiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that started in the past and continues to the present<br /> *'''ezueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action that starts in the present and will continue into the future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezos}}''' || '''oila''' || '''na''' || '''xiies''' || '''oge'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF.PROG|| read || NOM.1S.ACS || ACC.3S.DEF.INAN.PROX || be.book<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have been doing&quot; || &quot;read&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;this thing which&quot; || &quot;is a book&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|have been}} read{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} this book.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Perfective and imperfective====<br /> In addition, the word '''bie''' contrasts with '''zo'''. Whereas '''zo''' specifies that an action is underway at the reference time, essentially taking a &quot;snapshot&quot; of the interior of an action, after its beginning and before its completion, '''bie''' specifies perfectivity, metaphorically painting a picture of the whole completed action without permitting a look inside. On its own, it does not specify whether the completed action occurs before or after the reference time, but it does explicitly specify that the action is ''not'' underway at the reference time. <br /> <br /> Both ''bie'' and ''zo'' may be suffixed to other verbals indicating time in order to explicitly distinguish the imperfective (progressive) aspect from the perfective aspect, while also specifying time.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfectivity:<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | imperfective (progressive)<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfective<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | bie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | relative time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kabie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | absolute time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekabie<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Note that '''zo''' appears twice in the table although it really only has one function; it specifies an action underway at the reference time (i.e. concurrent with it), which itself may be unspecified.<br /> <br /> The reduplicated forms '''zozo''' ('these days', 'in those days') and '''ezozo''' ('these days') do not appear in the above table as they indicate a loosening of the bounds of the reference time or current time. The reference or current time can be tightened or emphasised with '''bazo''' ('right now', 'right then', 'at that/this very moment') or '''ebazo''' ('right now', 'at this very moment').<br /> <br /> ====Resultative perfect====<br /> The word '''bue''' indicates a ''resultative perfect'', functioning similarly to '''ti''' in that it describes an action occurring prior to the reference time, however the focus of '''bue''' is not on the action itself, but on the resulting post-action state at the reference time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|bue}}''' || '''kaxa''' || '''xu''' || '''giloxuo'''<br /> |-<br /> | RES.PRF|| break(INTR) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || window.pane<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is in the resulting state&quot; || &quot;break&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a window pane&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''The window {{color|MediumBlue|is}} br{{color|MediumBlue|o}}k{{color|MediumBlue|en}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bue''' is frequently prefixed to the following word (for example ''buekaxa'' instead of ''bue kaxa''). Its passive equivalent '''hi-''' is always prefixed.<br /> <br /> ====Time word stacking====<br /> More than one time word can be used together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT|| be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will&quot; || &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST|| be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;will&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> These are usually compounded together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekati}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|etika}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST-PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Distance from reference time====<br /> The precise distance from the reference time can be indicated using adverbial clauses with '''lo''' followed by the unit of time, '''(e)ti''' or '''(e)ka''' and an ordinal number, which begins with ''t-''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''zaxa''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teuo}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.ill || ADV || be.year || be.PRF || be.second<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;becomes&quot; || &quot;is ill&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;is earlier&quot; || &quot;is second&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he fell ill {{color|MediumBlue|two years before/ago}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> This sentence could be translated somewhat more literally as &quot;S/he fell ill while there was the second previous year.&quot; Note that replacing '''ti''' with '''eti''' would force the interpretation with &quot;ago&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || Bie || bilo || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tahu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PFV || die || ADV || be.month || be.PROS || be.first<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is completed&quot; || &quot;dies&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;is about to&quot; || &quot;is first&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he died {{color|MediumBlue|one month later}}. / S/he will die {{color|MediumBlue|in one month}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A more literally translation could be &quot;S/he died while there was the second coming year.&quot; Note again that replacing '''ka''' with '''eka''' would force the interpretation with &quot;in one month&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment. <br /> <br /> In the following example, in which a duration is specified rather than a specific time, the adverbial clause contains only the length of time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS || ADV || be.five || be.year<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another means of conveying the same information is to place the time specifiers after the tense or aspect marker and then introducing the rest of the sentence with '''to'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''li''' || '''zaxa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || be.two || be.year || thus || begin || be.ill<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become&quot; || &quot;be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Two years ago,}} s/he fell ill.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || ... || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''bilo'''<br /> |-<br /> | || be.going.to || be.one || be.month || thus || die<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;is going to&quot; || &quot;is one&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;die&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|One month later,}} s/he died.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.five || be.year || thus || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Miscellaneous time words====<br /> There are a range of other verbals which indicate time in a similar way. Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> ''Days''<br /> * '''ariu''' &quot;yesterday&quot;<br /> * '''aku''' &quot;today&quot;<br /> * '''anu''' &quot;tomorrow&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Lighting''<br /> * '''auo''' &quot;by day&quot;<br /> * '''eio''' &quot;by night&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Distance in time''<br /> * '''ttie''' / '''ettie''' &quot;just&quot; (similar to '''ti''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''tieka''' / '''etieka''' &quot;about to&quot; (similar to '''ka''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''ti ti''' / '''eti ti''' &quot;a long time ago&quot; (reduplication for distance into the past)<br /> * '''ka ka''' / '''eka ka''' &quot;eventually&quot; (reduplication for distance into the future)<br /> <br /> ''Other aspectual differences''<br /> * '''hua''' &quot;always&quot;, &quot;permanently&quot; [gnomic]<br /> * '''niu''' &quot;habitually&quot; [habitual]<br /> * '''guegue''' &quot;repeatedly&quot;, &quot;again and again&quot; [iterative]<br /> * '''egue''' &quot;again&quot;<br /> * '''tara''' &quot;suddenly&quot;<br /> * '''li''' &quot;starts&quot;, &quot;begins&quot;, &quot;commences&quot;<br /> * '''bi''' &quot;stops&quot;, &quot;ceases&quot;<br /> * '''ligue''' &quot;resumes&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Demonstratives===<br /> <br /> Demonstratives distinguish three degrees of distance associated with the three grammatical persons.<br /> <br /> * '''''tie''''' 'this' or 'these' near the speaker [1st person - proximal]<br /> * '''''tia''''' 'that' or 'those' near the listener [2nd person - medial]<br /> * '''''tio''''' 'that' or 'those' away from both speaker and listener [3rd person - distal]<br /> <br /> When speaking to someone of the same or higher rank and referring to the something that is close to both speaker and listener (such as a house that both are inside), the 2nd person '''''tia''''' 'that' is used. Only persons of higher rank may use the first person form '''''tie''''' in such situations.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.MED || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.PROX || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The association between the grammatical persons and the demonstratives is strong, with words, statements and actions made by a person frequently being referred to using the appropriate demonstrative. For example, a commonly used phrase for &quot;therefore&quot; is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}'' (literally 'because of this (by me)') when the reasoning is based on what the speaker just said, but when the reasoning is based on what their interlocutor just said, this phrase is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}'' (literally 'because of that (by you)').<br /> <br /> ====Contractions====<br /> <br /> The demonstrative verbals '''''tie''''', '''''tia''''' and '''''tio''''' form very common contractions with third person definite nominals, transforming the above examples as follows:<br /> <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tia}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}} mala''''' 'this house' / 'that house' (by you) <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tie}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}} mala''''' 'this house' (by me)<br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what I said' <br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what you said' <br /> <br /> Here is a table of forms:<br /> <br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Proximal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Medial || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Distal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Proximal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''|| '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Medial || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Distal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Proximal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Medial || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Distal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Proximal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Medial || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Distal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Proximal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Medial || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Distal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Proximal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Medial || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Distal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Proximal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Medial || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Distal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Proximal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Medial || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Distal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Proximal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Medial || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Distal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Proximal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Medial || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Distal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Proximal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Medial || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Distal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Proximal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Medial || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Distal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Proximal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Medial || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Distal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Essive Proximal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Medial || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Distal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Location===<br /> <br /> ===Movement===<br /> <br /> Movement is expressed in a variety of ways in Ngolu. <br /> <br /> One of the most common methods for talking about movement is using the words '''hu''' and '''mia'''. There is no distinction between coming and going but rather a distinction between the perfective '''hu''', meaning 'come' or 'go', and the imperfective '''mia''', 'be one one's way', 'be coming', 'be going'. The destination may be indicated by a subsequent modifying verbal or by a dative argument. The origin is indicated by an ablative argument.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nu''' || '''exi''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || NOM.1s.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|mia}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.IPFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be on the way&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|'m going / on my way}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || move.PFV || ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Please {{color|MediumBlue|get}} away from me.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another method for expressing movement is to affix the copula prefix '''g-''', '''m-''', '''n-''' to a dative or ablative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-exi}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to you&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'll {{color|MediumBlue|come to you}}.'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Get away from me}}!'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The third way to express movement is to use an inceptive (inchoative) morpheme in conjunction with a word indicating location. For example, the verbal '''xa''' means 'to be inside' and the verbal '''atio''' means 'to be there (away from us)' - adding the infix '''-in-''' (perfective inceptive) or '''-ij-''' (imperfective inceptive) gives '''xina''' ('to go in', 'to enter') and '''xija''' ('to be on the way in'), '''atinio''' ('to go there') and '''atijo''' ('to be on the way there'). The free standing verbal '''li''' ('to begin, start, commence') may also be used, with '''li xa''' and '''li atio''' being equivalent to '''xina''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xina}}''' || '''iju''' || '''i-oba''' || '''loe'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || enter.PFV || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || PRED-be.room || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;enter&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible ones&quot; || &quot;be room&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''They {{color|MediumBlue|went into}} the bedroom.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bios''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|atinio}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || go.there.3 || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''S/He wants {{color|MediumBlue|to go there}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The inceptive infixes are frequently used with the verbals denoting location in the four cardinal directions: '''la''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' ('to be in the east', 'to be in the west', 'to be in the north', 'to be in the south' respectively) creating the perfective forms '''lina''', '''tina''', '''ginio''' and '''vino''' and the imperfective forms '''lija''', '''tija''', '''gijo''' and '''vijo'''. Direction within Qu, with its noticeable tube shape (with 'east/west' pointing along the tube and 'north/south' going around the circumference), is a much more salient feature than on Earth and referencing direction with motion is common. In certain circumstances, describing movement without reference to direction is regarded as too imprecise, such as when men are discussing hunting in the forest where there may be no obvious landmarks to identify as the destination of a movement.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''La''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' may be used to modify another verb of motion with or without taking an inceptive infix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|lina}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|gio}}''' || '''inais''' || '''ixi''' || '''vaku'''<br /> |-<br /> | go.east.PFV || be.in.the.north || ABL.1p.ACS || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.babirusa<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go east&quot; || &quot;be in the north&quot; || &quot;from us&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be babirusa&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''The babirusas {{color|MediumBlue|moved (east)-northeast}} away from us.'' — '''muja''' [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Additionally, there is yet another prefix '''e-''' which may be related to the '''e-''' prefix at the beginning of nominals in the dative case. Words with this prefix indicate perfective movement and include '''etie''' ('to come here') '''etia''' ('to go/come there/here by you') and '''etio''' ('to go there'). These words are slightly more commonly used than their equivalents '''atinie''', '''atinia''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> ===Causes===<br /> <br /> ===Goals===<br /> <br /> ===Conditionals===<br /> <br /> Conditional sentences in Ngolu use particles to indicate the condition clause (protasis) and the result clause (apodosis). These particles differ depending on whether the condition is possible (realis) or hypothetical (irrealis).<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''PROTASIS'' || ''APODOSIS''<br /> |-<br /> | ''REALIS'' || '''ha''' || '''to'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''IRREALIS'' || '''hai''' &lt;br&gt; '''haizuo''' (emphatic) || '''toi''' &lt;br&gt; '''to''' (possible only when apodosis clause appears second)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Realis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''anu''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''kka''' || '''vuja''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | if || be.tomorrow || rain || then || be.not || hunt.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if&quot; || &quot;be tomorrow&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} it rains tomorrow, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} he won't hunt.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ('''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''') || '''ttio''' || '''nu''' || '''ue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''vai''' || '''tiaia'''<br /> |-<br /> | (then) || hit || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.2s.ACS || if || stay || do.that.2<br /> |-<br /> | (&quot;then&quot;) || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;if&quot; || &quot;keep&quot; || &quot;do that which you are doing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I'll hit you {{color|MediumBlue|if}} you keep doing that.'' — '''muja''' [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Irrealis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''g-ua''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(i)}}''' || '''hales''' || '''eji''' || '''jo''' || '''nio'''|| '''mo'''<br /> |-<br /> | if.IRR || be-NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ACS || then.(would) || ask || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.C || happen || be.what<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;imagine if&quot; || &quot;be you&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then (would)&quot; || &quot;ask&quot; || &quot;(to) the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;happen&quot; || &quot;be what&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} you, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} I{{color|MediumBlue|'d}} ask him/her what happened.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || '''abani'''<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;stop&quot; || &quot;work&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || &quot;be more&quot; || &quot;be rich&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|would}} stop working, {{color|MediumBlue|if}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} richer.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''ti''' || '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''leui''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || ('''ti''') || '''mahu''' || ('''xu''') || ('''ene''')<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || be.PRF || move || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ICS || if.IRR || (be.PRF) || be.known || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN) || (DAT.1s.ACS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;move&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || (&quot;be finished&quot;) || &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''I would have come with you if I had known that.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Numbers===<br /> <br /> ===Quantity===<br /> <br /> ===Degree===<br /> <br /> ===Comparison===<br /> <br /> ==Pragmatics==<br /> <br /> ===Social Stratification and Language Use===<br /> <br /> Ngolu society is heavily stratified into five social divisions. These social divisions, or strata, are hierarchical and from highest to lowest are as follows.<br /> <br /> * 5. ''ju '''taqu''''' - the king<br /> * 4. ''iju '''balu''''' - the king's men<br /> * 3. ''iju '''muja''''' - initiated men<br /> * 2. ''iju '''kali''''' - free citizens<br /> * 1. ''iju '''tuva''''' - slaves and prisoners (''ixu tuva'' in the speech of '''muja''', '''balu''' and '''taqu''')<br /> <br /> Language use is, to a large extent, determined by the strata of the speaker, addressee and third person referents.<br /> <br /> ===Speech Crime===<br /> <br /> [[Category:Languages]]<br /> [[Category:Conlangs]]</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Iliaqu&diff=258023 2022-01-29T10:59:51Z

<p>Imralu: /* Hui */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Iliaqu<br /> |nativename = iliaqu<br /> |pronunciation = [ìʎàʔú]<br /> |region = Qu<br /> |ethnicity = Ngolu / Ilaqu<br /> |speakers = {{formatnum:100,000}}<br /> |setting = [[Verse:Qu|Qu]]<br /> |fam1 = Language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2013-2020<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> {{infobox|bg=#F2DC77|native=iliaqu|in=Qu|no=100,000 (approx.)|tree=Isolate (as far as known)|wo=VSO|morph=Isolating/futional|ms=Nominative-Accusative|creator=[[User:Imralu|Imralu]]|date=2013-2014}}<br /> <br /> '''Iliaqu''' (IPA: /ˌɪljəˈʔuː/), also known as '''Ngolu''' or sometimes '''Qu''' (endonym: ''iliaqu'' IPA: [ìʎàʔú]) is a language isolate spoken throughout the known regions of the space habitat [[Verse:Qu|Qu]] by the Ngolu people, whose number is estimated to be around 100,000. As the Ngolu are almost entirely monolingual, and while voluntary travel to and from Qu remains impossible, the language is not in any danger of extinction. At this stage, little is known of dialect differences within Qu. There are estimated to be somewhere between 50 and 100 Iliaqu speakers on Earth who have simply mysteriously appeared in various locations. Small communities of Ngolu speakers been brought or have found their way together, the most well-known and well-studied of which is a group of about 15 living in and around Berlin, Germany.<br /> <br /> Iliaqu is an isolating/fusional, head-initial (right-branching) language with VSO word order and nominative-accusative alignment. Verbs (verbals) make up the only open class of word, with nouns (nominals) constituting a closed class of heavily fusional words that fill the roll of pronouns and articles in other languages, marking grammatical person, number, definiteness and specificity, gender, accessibility, and case.<br /> <br /> ==Terminology==<br /> There appear to have been fewer than ten isolated instances of non-Ngolu people arriving in Qu and there are no other cultures or languages known to exist in Qu. In such a linguistically and culturally homogenous environment, the Ngolu have had no need for endonyms for their culture, people or language. Traditionally, they have described their language simply as '''ilia''' [ìʎá] 'speech', themselves as '''golu''' [ŋòlú] 'people', and their world as '''qu''' [ʔú] 'world'. <br /> <br /> With the new knowledge of other cultures and the entire universe outside of Qu, neologisms have arisen to distinguish their language and their people from those of the outsiders. For the Ngolu arrivals Earth, contact with other cultures has forced them to acknowledge that the other languages they hear must have the ability to convey information just as their language. Consequently, on Earth, the word '''ilia''' generally refers to any language. To disambiguate their own language, they may call it '''ilia qu''' [ìʎáʔú] or '''iliaqu''' [ìʎàʔú] 'Qu speech'. Non-Ngolu are still referred to as '''taia''' ('ghost', 'demon') and Earth maybe referred to as '''utaia''' [ùtàjá] 'ghost world' or a loan word such as '''hiia''', which was common among the Berlin group (from German ''hier'') although it now seems to be dying out in favour of '''utaia'''. With the acknowledgement that non-Ngolu people are also people and the consequent expansion of the term '''golu''' to include non-Ngolu, the term '''goqu''' [ŋòʔú] ('Qu people', formed by adding the human prefix '''go-''' to the word '''qu''') is gaining ground and may be contrasted with '''taia''' or '''goutaia''' [ŋòu̯tàjá].<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !VOWELS<br /> !Front<br /> !Central<br /> !Back<br /> |-<br /> !High<br /> |'''i''' ‹i›<br /> |<br /> |'''u''' ‹u›<br /> |-<br /> !Mid<br /> |'''e''' ‹e›<br /> |<br /> |'''o''' ‹o›<br /> |-<br /> !Low<br /> |<br /> |'''a''' ‹a›<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Each vowel may be 'strong' or 'weak'. These are essentially stressed and unstressed. There is only ever one 'strong' vowel per word and it is nearly always the final vowel. Where it is not, it is always the penultimate vowel and the in that case the final vowel is always /i/ or /u/. Non-final strong vowels are indicated in the romanisation using an acute accent, ‹áéíóú›.<br /> <br /> The realisation of strong vowels varies across accents. There appears to be a cline ranging from a pitch-based pronunciation to a weight-based pronunciation (used chiefly by men). At the pitch-based end of the spectrum, 'strong' vowels are pronounced with a high tone and 'weak' vowels with a low-tone. At the end of a non-interrogative utterance, a high-tone becomes a falling tone. At the end of a question, a high tone may be lengthened and/or undergo an additional rise. At the weight-based extreme, strong vowels cause gemination of the following consonant but are pronounced as long themselves when the following sound is (1) a vowel, (2) a consonant cluster or (3) an already geminated consonant. Utterance finally, strong vowels are generally neither pronounced with a high tone nor lengthened but are usually pronounced slightly louder. <br /> <br /> The high vowels, /i/ and /u/, when 'weak' and adjacent to another vowel are pronounced non-syllabically as [i̯~j] and [u̯~w]). Non-syllabic /i/ merges with and palatalises any preceding dental/alveolar consonant.<br /> <br /> In these two word examples, the pitch-based pronunciation is given before the weight-based pronunciation.<br /> <br /> :*'''ju muja''' [ʒúmùʒâ] ~ [ʒumːuˈʒa]<br /> :*'''ju aio''' [ʒúàjô] ~ [ʒuːaˈjo]<br /> :*'''ju uaia''' [ʒúwàjâ] [ʒuːwaˈja]<br /> :*'''ju ntu''' [ʒúntû] ~ [ʒu:nˈtu]<br /> :*'''ju lleue''' [ʒúlːèwê] ~ [ʒuːlːeˈwe]<br /> <br /> ===Consonants===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !CONSONANTS<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Dental/Alveolar<br /> !Post-alveolar<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> | '''m''' ‹m›<br /> | <br /> | '''n''' ‹n›<br /> |<br /> | '''ŋ''' ‹g›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> | '''b''' ‹b›<br /> |<br /> | '''t''' ‹t›<br /> |<br /> | '''k''' ‹k›<br /> | '''ʔ''' ‹q›<br /> |-<br /> !Ejective<br /> |<br /> | <br /> | '''tʼ''' ‹tt›<br /> |<br /> | '''kʼ''' ‹kk›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiced Fricative<br /> | <br /> | '''v''' ‹v›<br /> | '''z''' ‹z›<br /> | '''ʒ''' ‹j›<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiceless Fricative<br /> | <br /> | <br /> | '''s''' ‹s›<br /> | '''ʃ''' ‹x›<br /> | <br /> | '''h''' ‹h›<br /> |-<br /> !Tap<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''ɾ''' ‹r› <br /> |<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''l''' ‹l› <br /> |<br /> |<br /> | <br /> |}<br /> <br /> * The nasal consonants /m n ŋ/, unlike other consonants, may occur before another consonant and then assimilate in place of articulation to that consonant. For this reason, many authors posit the archiphoneme /N/. /N/ may be syllabic post pausa, carrying a low tone. Before /l/, /N/ assimilates to [l̪] or [l̪̩]. Before /v/, it is pronounced as [ɱ] or [ɱ̩].<br /> * The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental [n̪ t̪ t̪ʼ ɾ̪ l̪]. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears. Some speakers palatalise /t/ and /d/ to [t͡ʃ] and [d͡ʒ] respectively. The ejective /tʼ/, however, is rarely or never palatalised as [t͡ʃʼ].<br /> * /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive [d̪].<br /> * Geminate /m/, /n/ and /l/ (resulting from /Nm/, /Nn/ and /Nl/) may be pronounced as [m̩b], [n̪̩d̪] and [l̪̩d̪] respectively, particularly by men and particularly post pausa.<br /> * /s/ and /z/ are normally alveolar. When followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are not distinguished from /ʃ ʒ/. <br /> * /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ cannot be followed by non-syllabic /i/.<br /> * The phonemes /s/ and /ɾ/ do not occur at the beginning of a word.<br /> * The glottal stop /ʔ/ and the ejective consonants /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ are restricted to positions immediately before a 'strong' vowel, although there may be an intervening non-syllabic 'weak' /i/ or /u/ after the ejectives. At the beginning of a 'weak' syllable, ejective consonants become pronounced as their equivalent plain plosive and the glottal stop disappears. For example, ''kka'' [kʼá] and ''kkue'' [kʷʼé] are allowed while expected ''*kkina'' (derived from ''kka'' plus the infix ''-in-'') is instead present as ''kina'' [kì.ná]. In connected speech, /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ may be pronounced as [t̚ʔ k̚ʔ] or even [tː kː]. However, a strong ejective pronunciation is always heard post pausa.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> Phonemically, a syllable may be '''((N)C)V''', where '''V''' is a vowel '''(C)''' an optional consonant and '''(N)''' an optional nasal which assimilates to its following consonant in its point of articulation. <br /> <br /> Phonetically, syllables may be more complex. '''(N)''' is pronounced syllabically post pausa and otherwise is pronounced in the coda of the preceding syllable. The non-syllabic pronunciations of /i/ and /u/ mean that a syllable can be (C)(S)V(S)(N), where '''(S)''' is a semivowel.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::'''nxua intaneti'''<br /> ::/Nʃu.á.i.Nta.ne.tí/<br /> ::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí]<br /> ::''is on the internet''<br /> <br /> ===Epenthetic /s/===<br /> <br /> An epenthetic /s/ sometimes appears between words when the second word begins with a vowel. In the romanisation used here, the /s/ is written on the end of the preceding word. The rules are somewhat complex and are best shown as a table. The final vowels of preceding words are shown vertically on the left. Initial vowels of the following word are shown along the top. An epenthetic /s/ doesn't appear before '''i''' and '''u''' when a syllabic vowel (V) immediately follows within the same word. In the table, the word borders are shown with an '''s''' indicating where the epenthetic /s/ always appears. In other positions in the table, the epenthetic /s/ can still appear in very clear emphatic speech.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''i(V)-'' || ''u(V)-'' || ''i-'' || ''u-'' || ''e-'' || ''o-'' || ''a-''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-i'' || '''-i i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i e-''' || '''-i o-''' || '''-i a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-u'' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u u-''' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} u-''' || '''-u e-''' || '''-u o-''' || '''-u a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-e'' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-o'' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-a'' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ua''' || [è.né.wá] || '''u''' followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} u''' || [è.né.sú] || '''u''' not followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ima''' || [è.néj.má] || '''i''' is weak and can become non-syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} eme''' || [è.né.sè.mé] || '''e''' is always syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni ua''' || [è.ní.wá] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni u''' || [è.ní.ú] || final '''i''' before syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni iu''' || [è.ní.jú] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni{{color|MediumBlue|s}} iui''' || [è.ní.sì.wí] || final '''i''' before initial syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene iui''' || [è.néj.wí] || final '''e''' followed by 'weak' '''i''' which becomes non-syllabic<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> There are four classes of words in Ngolu. Ngolu is a very verb-heavy language, with verbals making up the only truly open word class.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''Nominals''': closed<br /> :* '''Verbals''': open<br /> :* '''Particles''': closed<br /> :* '''Interjections''': closed (mostly)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Nominals===<br /> Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of nominals, the &lt;u&gt;pronominals&lt;/u&gt;, are essentially the equivalent of pronouns and articles in other languages, inflecting for number, grammatical person, definiteness, specificity, gender, case and an inflectional dimension unique to Iliaqu, ''accessibility''. Pronominals can appear on their own or can be followed by a verbal or verbal phrase. When followed by a verbal, they can be regarded as the head of an underlying relative clause which nominalises the verbal and allows it to function as an argument in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> :As a pronoun:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|it}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :As an article:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|the}} house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In addition to the pronominals, there are two &lt;u&gt;complementisers&lt;/u&gt; which are essentially subordinating conjunctions which inflect for case. '''Zuo''' can be thought of as roughly equivalent to the English subordinating conjunction 'that' and '''kuo''' can be thought of as 'the time when'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''olos''' || '''ene''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''g-ixi''' || '''ja''' || '''nana''' || '''g-uje''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.strange || DAT.1s.ACS || NOM.C || be.not || COP-DAT.3s.INAN.DEF || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.father || COP-GEN.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is strange&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;is not&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the one who&quot; || &quot;is father&quot; || &quot;is hers/his&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I think it's strange {{color|MediumBlue|that}} his / her father didn't go / wasn't there.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Number====<br /> Pronominals indicate two numbers, singular and plural. Plural is marked by the prefix '''i-''', which occurs before some case prefixes and after others (see [[Ngolu#Case|Case]] below for more information).<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The singular is used before quantifiers indicating a specific plural quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a group of two&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|two}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> When the plural is used, this indicates multiples of the indicated quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are groups of two&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|pairs of}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Many words denoting powders and granular substances are used in the plural with the singular referring to an individual grain.<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a grain of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the grain of sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are grains of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the (grain{{color|MediumBlue|s}} of) sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Water referred to as '''hunia''', potable water, is indicated in the plural as well when it is a quantity larger than what one person can drink in one sitting. <br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (large quantity of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (serving of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Gender====<br /> In the third person, nominals distinguish between animate and inanimate referents. When it comes to animals, the use of the genders depends on the speaker's [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]]. ''Kali'' (women, children and uninitiated men) and ''tuva'' (slaves) refer to all motile animals in the animate gender, generally as inaccessible although pets may be accessible. ''Muja'' (initiated men) refer to animals other than pets in the inanimate gender. The Ngolu believe this allows ''muja'' to hunt without remorse.<br /> <br /> The following examples illustrate the difference. Examples which are specific to the rank of the speaker or the listener will be marked as such after the translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The interplay between a speaker and listener's rank is complex and may result in unexpected gender choices. For example, a slave must refer to him- or herself in the third person inanimate gender when speaking to ''balu'' and above unless specifically given permission otherwise. To read more about this, see [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|Social Stratification and Language Use]].<br /> <br /> ====Person====<br /> Three grammatical persons are marked by pronominals. The first person pronominals contain '''n'''. The second person pronominals contain a non-syllabic '''u''' (realised as '''v''' before '''u'''). In the third person, '''j''', '''x''', '''m''', '''z''', '''k''' and Ø appear depending on gender, definiteness and specificity.<br /> <br /> =====Clusivity=====<br /> The plural forms of all the basic pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness. <br /> <br /> The first person inclusive (second plus first persons) may be indicated by compound pronominals, the dual forms (&quot;you, one person, and I&quot;) being '''uana''', '''uanu''', '''vuna''', '''vunu''' and the plural forms being '''iuana''', '''iuanu''', '''ivuna''', '''ivunu'''. Which of the four options is used depends on [[#accessibility|accessibility]]. These compound forms are not used universally and many speakers use juxtaposition of pronouns, such as '''vu nu''' instead of '''vunu''' or '''iua na''' or '''iua ina''' instead of '''iuana'''.<br /> <br /> Even addressing people in the second person, should the group include third persons who are not being addressed, many speakers will make note of these separately, for example '''ju vu''' (gloss: NOM.3s.ICS.DEF NOM.2s.ICS) and this is somewhat prescriptively enforced. The nominal '''ivu''' (gloss: NOM.2p.ICS), for example, is recommended only for use to address two or more people when all are present or when the message is at the very least expected to be passed onto those who are not present. <br /> <br /> The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person. The compound 2nd+1st person pronouns are not subject to this ordering rule.<br /> <br /> Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive.<br /> <br /> ====Definiteness and Specificity====<br /> <br /> In the third person, pronominals indicate definiteness (whether the listener knows which individual) and specificity (whether the speaker knows which individual).<br /> <br /> =====Definite=====<br /> The Definite (+specific, +definite) is used when the listener is assumed to know which specific individual or individuals the speaker is referring to. In the following examples, '''ji ala''' (or just '''ji''') refers to a specific bird which the listener is assumed to be already aware of, possibly because it is already been mentioned.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|the bird}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|it}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Specific=====<br /> The Specific (+specific, -definite) is used when the speaker has a specific individual or individuals in mind but the listener is not assumed to know which one(s). In the following examples, '''mi ala''' (or '''mi''') refers to a specific bird but not one which the speaker expects the listener to know of.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a (particular) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|one (in particular)}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Non-Specific=====<br /> The Non-Specific (or General) does not refer to any specific individual(s) but to the abstract idea of a member or members of a particular class, any individual of which could be described. It often used when talking about desires or in negative sentences. In the examples below, '''i ala''' refers to any bird.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a(ny) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|anyone}}.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Accessibility====<br /> Accessibility is a concept integral to Ngolu culture. Outside of the third person non-specific, all animate nominals have two forms, one ''accessible'' (gloss: ACS) and one ''inaccessible'' (gloss: ICS). Accessible nominals have a low vowel,'''a''' in the nominative stem, '''e''' in the accusative stem, and these correspond to the high vowels '''u''' and '''i''' respectively in inaccessible nominals. Accessibility is typically explained as an indication of whether physical contact is permitted or not, however it is more generally a means of conveying social closeness or distance even when no actual touching is involved.<br /> <br /> In the first person, the English word ''I'' can be translated as either '''na''' (NOM.1s.ACS) or '''nu''' (NOM.1s.ICS). Using '''na''' signals to the listener &quot;I am accessible to you.&quot; This means the speaker feels close and emotionally open to the listener and physical contact is permitted or even welcome. Using '''nu''' informs the listener that physical contact is not welcome at the current time. This is typically because of emotional distance, such as when talking to strangers, casual acquaintances or people whom the speaker does not like, but it may also signal an unwillingness to be touched for other, often fleeting reasons, such as illness, pain or emotional tension. Between close friends and lovers, suddenly switching to '''nu''' may indicate that the speaker has taken offence at something.<br /> <br /> In the second and third persons, accessibility indicates the the referent's ''perceived'' accessibility ''to the speaker''. Using '''ua''' (NOM.2s.ACS) indicates that the speaker assumes he or she may touch the listener. Using '''vu''' (NOM.2s.ICS) indicates either a more respectful or colder social distance (cf. French &quot;vous&quot;, which, coincidentally, sounds identical). In the third person, '''ja''' (NOM.3s.ACS.DEF) and '''ju''' (NOM.3s.ICS.DEF) indicate the speaker's relationship to the referent. In plural, accessible indicates that ''all'' members of the group are accessible. Even one individual who the speaker regards as inaccessible, will cause the group to be marked as inaccessible. Inaccessibility is thus the 'default' and when speaking of generic or unknown individuals, these will be indicated with inaccessible nominals.<br /> <br /> Accessibility produces four speech modes or 'stances'. In situations between peers of equal rank, generally the speech mode with either be accessible (using accessible nominals in both first and second persons) or inaccessible (using inaccessible nominals in both). In situations of unequal dominance, which generally, but do not always, run along lines of rank, the dominant party speaks in the dominant mode, using inaccessible first person nominals and accessible second person nominals. The subordinate party speaks in the subordinate or submissive mode, using the reverse.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | speech mode || first person || second person || meaning<br /> |-<br /> | accessible mode (ACS) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may touch me. I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | inaccessible mode (ICS) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may not touch me. I may not touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | dominant mode (DOM) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may not touch me but I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | submissive mode (SUB) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may touch me but I may not touch you.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The speech mode used depends not only on who the speaker and listener are to one another, but how they feel about each other in that moment. A friend or lover who is deeply offended may suddenly switch to the inaccessible or dominant mode to indicate that they are now not happy and had better not be touched until the offence is resolved. The submissive mode may be used in order to flirt with an acquaintance. Flirting may be met with the accessible or inaccessible modes, which essentially give an answer. No answer (yet) is signalled by the adoption of the dominant mode. Smooth social interactions are ensured by the concordance of speech modes, ACS↔ACS, ICS↔ICS, DOM↔SUB. Conflict is often caused by the refusal to agree or by physical contact with someone marked in speech as inaccessible.<br /> <br /> Examples of the four speech modes in use.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ICS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Case====<br /> Ngolu possesses 14 grammatical cases. The nominative and accusative case appear to be the oldest and all other forms appear to derive from the agglomeration of adpositions onto them. The first group (accusative, dative, ablative, locative, genitive and possessive) appear to be relatively old. At some point after these adpositions fused onto the nominals, the plural marker '''i-''' also became a prefix. For example '''''i-e-ji''''' 'to them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;PL-DAT-ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;. The second group of derived cases (vocative, causal, benefactive, instrumental, comitative, topical, essive) appear to have developed more recently from prepositions added to either the nominative or the accusative case as the plural marker '''i-''' is sandwiched in the middle. For example '''''te-i-ji''''' 'about them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;because.of-PL.ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;.<br /> <br /> =====Nominative=====<br /> The nominative case indicates the grammatical subject of a verb. The nominative case is always formed with a back vowel, '''u''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''a''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''u''' shows animate and '''a''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''muja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|na}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.initiated.man || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be an initiated man&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} am an initiated man.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''loe''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || sleep || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} is not sleeping. / {{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} didn't sleep.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|He}} killed / murdered something / someone''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good || NOM.C || be.not || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It's good {{color|MediumBlue|that}} it's not raining.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zoua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuo}}''' || '''tavi''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ja}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.difficult || NOM.TEMP.C || be.child || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;the time when&quot; || &quot;be child&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He had a difficult childhood.<br /> (≈ {{color|MediumBlue|The time when}} {{color|MediumBlue|s/he}} was a child was difficult.)''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Accusative=====<br /> The accusative case indicates the grammatical object of a verb. The accusative case is formed with a front vowel, '''i''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''e''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''i''' represents animate and '''e''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''. The complementisers are '''jo''' and '''kio'''<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''ti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.PRF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;have finished&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Someone murdered {{color|MediumBlue|him}} / {{color|MediumBlue|He}} was murdered.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jave''' || '''ja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kivo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | throw || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF || ACC.3s.INAN.DEF || be.rock<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;throw&quot; || &quot;the being&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be rock&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''He threw {{color|MediumBlue|the rock}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jo}}''' || '''vai''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.C || stay || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; |''I want you {{color|MediumBlue|to}} stay. (≈ I want {{color|MediumBlue|that}} you stay.)'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In informal speech, the accusative case may replace the dative case when it indicates an experiencer. This does not occur with verbs that also have an accusative role and use the dative case to indicate a recipient.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ine}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || ACC.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Dative=====<br /> The dative case indicates an indirect object of the verb, a destination or goal of a movement or an experiencer. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'to' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''e(r)-''' ('''ie(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volos''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ene}}''' || '''izi''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || DAT.1s.ACS || ACC.3p.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;some things that&quot; || &quot;be water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} was given water. / Someone gave {{color|MediumBlue|me}} water.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|iene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || '''uana'''<br /> |-<br /> | JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM.1+2DU.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go - to them&quot; || &quot;you and I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''vais''' || '''inu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekio}}''' || '''loe''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF || stay || NOM.1p.ICS || DAT.TEMP.C || sleep || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;we&quot; || &quot;until&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''We stayed {{color|MediumBlue|until}} they slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Ablative=====<br /> The ablative case is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'from' in English. It is formed by suffixing '''-i''' to a nominative nominal. The complementisers are '''zuio''' and '''kuio''' in the ablative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Kuaqa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mala}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-uni}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.distant || NOM.1s.ICS || ABL.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || COP-GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be far&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;from the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm far away {{color|MediumBlue|from my home}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go - from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Get away {{color|MediumBlue|from me}}!'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || '''xuua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuio}}''' || '''iti''' || ('''ju''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;to her/him&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;since&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || (&quot;s/he&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Locative=====<br /> The locative case indicates a location. It is more or less equivalent to the prepositions 'in', 'on' and 'at' in English. It is also used to replace the verb &quot;have&quot; when indicating immediate possession as in &quot;to have something on one's person&quot;. It is formed by suffixing '''-a''' to a nominative nominal in the inaccessible and inanimate and prefixing '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ia(r)-''') to an accessible nominative nominal. The prefixed form is also used for the non-specific animate and inanimate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''bani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ana}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.money || LOC.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be money&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I don't have any money (with me). (≈ There is no money {{color|MediumBlue|at me}}.)'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|xua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mo}}''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.what || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be what&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Where are you?'' (≈ You are {{color|MediumBlue|at the what}}?) — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''iio''' || '''jas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azuo}}''' || '''muana''' || '''iti''' || '''exi''' || '''muana''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.fish || NOM.3s.ACS || LOC.C || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.small || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; || &quot;he&quot; || &quot;where&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || &quot;to the thing that&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be big&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''He's fishing {{color|MediumBlue|where}} the stream flows into the river.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || '''xuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;begin&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be yours&quot; || &quot;when&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || (&quot;to the inaccessible one&quot;) || &quot;that thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Genitive=====<br /> The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''egio''' || '''tani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|une}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.threesome || be.sibling || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a group of three&quot; || &quot;be siblings&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I have three siblings.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tta''' || '''xu''' || '''gula''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|uji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tio}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.large || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.pair.of.arms || COP-GEN.3s.DEF.ICS || be.that.3<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be large&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of arms&quot; || &quot;be of the person who&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|That person over there}} has big arms. / The arms {{color|MediumBlue|of that person over there}} are big.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Possessive=====<br /> The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) but to a nominative nominal rather than an accusative one.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || POS.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;owned by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} have / own a house.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It should be noted that, although in many languages, the genitive or possessive case is usually adnominal, referring to an immediately adjacent noun phrase, in Iliaqu, all nominals, regardless of case, refer to the predicate in their clause unless verbalised with the [[#Nominal_to_Verbal|copular prefix]]. Compare the following sentences.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || COP-POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in {{color|MediumBlue|my}} boot.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in the boot {{color|MediumBlue| and it's mine}}.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|I own}} a snake which is in the boot. — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the second sentence, the lack of the copula on '''une''' indicates that it represents an argument of the predicate ('''masa''' 'there is a snake'), meaning that it is the snake which belongs to the speaker, not the boot. The word order, placing the unadorned possessive argument ('''une''') after the much heavier locative argument ('''xua xa buja''') is heavily marked, placing focus on the fact that the snake is the speaker's legal possession.<br /> <br /> Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, ''ataiva'', the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for ''ataiva'' to avoid the possessive case entirely in favour of the genitive case.<br /> <br /> =====Vocative=====<br /> The vocative case is used to address someone or attract their attention. It is formed by adding '''e(r)-''' ('''ei-''' in plural) to a nominative nominal. <br /> <br /> The most common greeting words for most uses are simply vocative nominals. They must reflect the number and accessibility of the addressee(s). <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is common for inaccessibles to be greeted in the third person, with '''eju''' frequently replacing '''evu'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Third person definite forms, however, may also be used with accessibles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eja}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh he who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Among accessibles, the '''e-''' prefix may be added directly to a personal name. This and the predicate prefix '''i-''' are the only example of verbals (as all names are verbals) taking a non-derivational affix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|e}}-xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | hey-be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey - be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hey}} Xagu!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the indefinite, the vocative can be used to summon help from non-specific people.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eru}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when one person's assistance is enough.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3p.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when more than one person's assistance is required.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative complementiser '''ezuo''' is used to mean 'if only' or 'I wish'. It is also used for making polite requests. Literally, it's something like 'o that'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezuo}}''' || '''hunia''' || '''nua'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.C || be.potable || LOC.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if only&quot; || &quot;be beverage&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''May I have some water please? ({{color|MediumBlue|If only}} I had some water.)'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative temporal complementiser '''ekuo''' is used to express nostalgia about a past time or anticipation for a future time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || '''ata''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh for the time when&quot; || &quot;be adult&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I can't wait till}} I'm grown up.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Causal=====<br /> The causal case describes a cause. It is equivalent to the English &quot;because of&quot;. It is formed by prefixing '''te(r)-''' (plural: '''tei-''') to the accusative nominals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zaxa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.sick || NOM.1s.ICS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am sick&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm ill {{color|MediumBlue|because of you}}. / You made me ill.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ezo''' || '''zouas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tejo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''mala''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.now || be.difficult || DAT.1s.ICS || CAU.C || be.not || be.house || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;because&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''Things are tough for me at the moment {{color|MediumBlue|because}} I don't have a house..'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Benefactive=====<br /> The benefactive case indicates either a beneficiary or benefactor of an action or situation or a goal. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'for'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''kua(r)-''' (plural: '''kuai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.this.1 || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;there is this, by me&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''This is {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}. (≈ There's this {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.)'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bioi''' || '''vaia''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.willing || do.everything || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;would&quot; || &quot;do everything&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I would do anything {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''etie''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''leu''' || '''ue''' || '''veji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || move.to.here.1 || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.C || rescue || ACC.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;finish&quot; || &quot;come here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;rescue&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;about the person&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; |''I came here {{color|MediumBlue|(in order) to}} save you from him/her.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''naxe''' || '''molu''' || '''iu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''mue''' || '''lau''' || '''iu''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | must || be.dead || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || BEN.C || be.able || be.alive || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;must&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;can&quot; || &quot;live&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates that&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; |''Some must die {{color|MediumBlue|so that}} others may live.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kuas''' || '''enies''' || '''e''' || '''kueta''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuakio}}''' || '''gehuo''' || '''ua''' || '''ji''' || '''uako'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || carry || ACC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.hunting.knife || BEN.TEMP.C || encounter || NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.enemy<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;carry&quot; || &quot;a non-specific thing which&quot; || &quot;be a hunting knife&quot; || &quot;in case&quot; || &quot;encounter&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''Carry a knife {{color|MediumBlue|in case}} you cross paths with enemies.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Instrumental=====<br /> The instrumental case describes the means or method by which something is done. It is equivalent to the English preposition &quot;with&quot; when it means &quot;using&quot;. It is formed by adding the prefix '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''vuja''' || '''zi''' || '''vaku''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kueta}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || hunt || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.babirusa || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.hunting.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;deliberately killed&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;hunts&quot; || &quot;a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a babirusa&quot; || &quot;using a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a hunting knife&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''The hunter killed the babirusa {{color|MediumBlue|with a hunting knife}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g-iara''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC.3p.NSPC.INAN || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;certain people&quot; || &quot;by&quot; || &quot;wait&quot; || &quot;at anything which&quot; || &quot;is bushes&quot; || &quot;be-at any things which&quot; || &quot;be drinking water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Comitative=====<br /> The comitative case indicates an accompanying person or thing. It is equivalent to 'with' in English when it means 'along with' or 'accompanied by'. It is formed by prefixing '''le(r)-''' (plural: '''lei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''ja''' || '''meha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|leje}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jalu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Meha || COM.3s.DEF.ACS || Jalu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is hunting&quot; || &quot;the person who&quot; || &quot;is Meha&quot; || &quot;with the person who&quot; || &quot;is Jalu&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''Meha is hunting {{color|MediumBlue|with Jalu}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''hu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || move.PFV || COM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come/go&quot; || &quot;with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Come {{color|MediumBlue|with me}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bata''' || '''ja''' || '''umatu''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lejo'''}} || '''buga''' || '''taba''' || '''iju''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | dance || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Umatu || COM.C || hit || be.drum || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;dance&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be Umatu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;be drum&quot; || &quot;the beings who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Umatu danced {{color|MediumBlue|while}} the others played the drums.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Topical=====<br /> The topical case indicates the topic or theme of an act of communication and in many instances also something which is kept in mind when a particular action is performed. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'about'. It is formed by prefixing '''ve(r)-''' (plural '''vei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''ila''' || '''na''' || '''leue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vezi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|valo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || speak || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.interesting<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;speak&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;about something that&quot; || &quot;is interesting&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to talk to you {{color|MediumBlue|about something interesting}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''teuas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vexi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiau}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | thank || DAT.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.food<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;thank&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;about the thing that&quot; || &quot;is food&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Thanks {{color|MediumBlue|for the food}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''malemale''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''moio''' || '''iu''' || '''azo''' || '''lo''' || '''zola''' || '''iu''' || '''babo'''<br /> |-<br /> | gossip || TOP.C || do.what || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other || ADV || be.solely || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;gossip&quot; || &quot;about the fact that&quot; || &quot;do what&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be only&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Only unintelligent people gossip {{color|MediumBlue|about}} what other people do.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Essive=====<br /> The essive case indicates the role of something in the sentence. It is roughly equivalent to the English words 'as' or 'like'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''o(r)-''' (plural: '''oi-''') to the nominative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''atia''' || '''nas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|omas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ali}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.there.2 || NOM.1s.ACS || ESS.3s.SPEC.ACS || be.same.rank.friend || COP-DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;as a person who&quot; || &quot;be a friend of the same rank&quot; || &quot;be to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm here {{color|MediumBlue|as your friend}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ozuo}}''' || '''ka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.visible || ESS.C || be.going.to || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;appear&quot; || &quot;as if&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It looks {{color|MediumBlue|like}} it's going to rain.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Tables====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Simple pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | na<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | nu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ina<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | inu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate specific<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ma<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | mu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ima<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | imu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate definite<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate specific<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | izu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | a<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ia<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> animate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> inanimate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Compound pronominals<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dominant<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dual<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Complimentisers<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | temporal<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====First Person=====<br /> First person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''nu''' || '''inu''' || '''na''' || '''ina'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ni''' || '''ini''' || '''ne''' || '''ine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''nua''' || '''inua''' || '''ana''' || '''iana''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uni''' || '''iuni''' || '''une''' || '''iune'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''unu''' || '''iunu''' || '''una''' || '''iuna'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''enu''' || '''einu''' || '''ena''' || '''eina''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teni''' || '''teini''' || '''tene''' || '''teine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuani''' || '''kuaini''' || '''kuane''' || '''kuaine''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ani''' || '''aini''' || '''ane''' || '''aine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leni''' || '''leini''' || '''lene''' || '''leine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veni''' || '''veini''' || '''vene''' || '''veine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''onu''' || '''oinu''' || '''ona''' || '''oina''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS.SG || ICS:PL || ACS.SG || ACS.PL<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ue''' || '''iue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eui''' || '''ieui''' || '''eue''' || '''ieue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''vui''' || '''ivui''' || '''uai''' || '''iuai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''vua''' || '''ivua''' || '''aua''' || '''iaua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uui''' || '''iuui''' || '''uue''' || '''iuue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uvu''' || '''iuvu''' || '''uua''' || '''iuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''evu''' || '''eivu''' || '''eua''' || '''eiua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teui''' || '''teiui''' || '''teue''' || '''teiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiui''' || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaiue''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aui''' || '''aiui''' || '''aue''' || '''aiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leui''' || '''leiui''' || '''leue''' || '''leiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veui''' || '''veiui''' || '''veue''' || '''veiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ovu''' || '''oivu''' || '''oua''' || '''oiua''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || ICS.DU<br /> || ACS.DU<br /> || DOM.DU<br /> || SUB.DU<br /> || ICS.PL<br /> || ACS.PL<br /> || DOM.PL<br /> || SUB.PL<br /> |-<br /> || Nominative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Accusative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Dative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvuna<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''ju''' || '''iju''' || '''ja''' || '''ija''' || '''xu''' || '''ixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ji''' || '''iji''' || '''je''' || '''ije''' || '''xi''' || '''ixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jui''' || '''ijui''' || '''jai''' || '''ijai''' || '''xui''' || '''ixui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''jua''' || '''ijua''' || '''aja''' || '''iaja''' || '''xua''' || '''ixua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uji''' || '''iuji''' || '''uje''' || '''iuje''' || '''uxi''' || '''iuxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uju''' || '''iuju''' || '''uja''' || '''iuja''' || '''*uxu''' || '''*iuxu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eju''' || '''eiju''' || '''eja''' || '''eija''' || '''exu''' || '''eixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teji''' || '''teiji''' || '''teje''' || '''teije''' || '''texi''' || '''teixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaiji''' || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuaixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aji''' || '''aiji''' || '''aje''' || '''aije''' || '''axi''' || '''aixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leji''' || '''leiji''' || '''leje''' || '''leije''' || '''lexi''' || '''leixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veji''' || '''veiji''' || '''veje''' || '''veije''' || '''vexi''' || '''veixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oju''' || '''oiju''' || '''oja''' || '''oija''' || '''oxu''' || '''oixu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''mu''' || '''imu''' || '''ma''' || '''ima''' || '''zu''' || '''izu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''mi''' || '''imi''' || '''me''' || '''ime''' || '''zi''' || '''izi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''emi''' || '''iemi''' || '''eme''' || '''ieme''' || '''ezi''' || '''iezi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mui''' || '''imui''' || '''mai''' || '''imai''' || '''zui''' || '''izui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''mua''' || '''imua''' || '''ama''' || '''iama''' || '''zua''' || '''izua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''umi''' || '''iumi''' || '''ume''' || '''iume''' || '''uzi''' || '''iuzi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''umu''' || '''iumu''' || '''uma''' || '''iuma''' || '''*uzu''' || '''*iuzu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''emu''' || '''eimu''' || '''ema''' || '''eima''' || '''ezu''' || '''eizu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''temi''' || '''teimi''' || '''teme''' || '''teime''' || '''tezi''' || '''teizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuami''' || '''kuaimi''' || '''kuame''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuazi''' || '''kuaizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ami''' || '''aimi''' || '''ame''' || '''aime''' || '''azi''' || '''aizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lemi''' || '''leimi''' || '''leme''' || '''leime''' || '''lezi''' || '''leizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vemi''' || '''veimi''' || '''veme''' || '''veime''' || '''vezi''' || '''veizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''omu''' || '''oimu''' || '''oma''' || '''oima''' || '''ozu''' || '''oizu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ANIM Sg. || ANIM Pl. || INAN Sg. || INAN Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''u''' || '''iu''' || '''a''' || '''ia'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''i''' || '''iri''' || '''e''' || '''ie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eri''' || '''ieri''' || '''ere''' || '''iere'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ai''' || '''iai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''iaru''' || '''ara''' || '''iara'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''iuri''' || '''ure''' || '''iure'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''iuru''' || '''ura'''* || '''iura'''*<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu''' || '''era''' || '''eia''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' || '''tere''' || '''teie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' || '''kuare''' || '''kuaie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' || '''are''' || '''aie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' || '''lere''' || '''leie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veri''' || '''veiri''' || '''vere''' || '''veie''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu''' || '''ora''' || '''oia'''<br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> =====Complementisers=====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''jo''' || 'that' || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''ejo''' || 'to the place where' || '''ekio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || *'''uzuo''' || || *'''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vejo''' || 'about V-ing' || '''vekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |}<br /> ::&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Verbals===<br /> <br /> Verbals constitute the only open class of words in Ngolu. They are essentially content words, equivalent to what in other languages are verbs ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''loe''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to sleep' || [NOM] sleeps<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kau''' || 'to eat' || [NOM] eats [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to hunt' (= 'to be a hunter') || [NOM] hunts [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''volo''' || 'to give' || [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mahu''' || 'to know' || [DAT] knows [NOM] = [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ila''' || 'to speak/talk' || [NOM] speaks [ACC]/[INS] (= language) to [DAT]/[COM] about [TOP]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mue''' || 'to be able to' || [NOM] can / is able to […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... nouns ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''iio''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be a fish' || [NOM] is a fish of [GEN] belonging to [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to be a hunter' (= 'to hunt') || [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person<br /> |-<br /> |• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of a different rank)' || [NOM] is a friend of [DAT], lover of [GEN] and concubine of [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ilia''' || 'to be speech/language' || [NOM] is the speech/language of [GEN]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... adjectives ... <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''tta''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be large' || [NOM] is large<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kaiu''' || 'to be edible' ('to be food') || [NOM] is edible to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kuaqa''' || 'to be far/distant' || [NOM] is far from [ABL]/[DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''xeva''' || 'to be visible' (= 'to see') || [NOM is visible to [DAT]; [DAT] sees [NOM]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lau''' || 'to be alive' (= 'to live', 'to be a living being') || [NOM] is alive<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lubi''' || 'to be closed/shut' || [NOM] is closed/shut to [DAT]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... and adverbs.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''jau''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to intentionally ...' || [NOM] is intentionally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mola''' || 'to be merely ...' (= 'to be insignificant') || [NOM] is just/only/merely […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> They are generally thought of as 'content words' but even many grammatical functions are expressed by verbals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''kka''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be not ...' || [NEGATIVE] || [NOM] is not […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hua''' || 'to be always ...', 'to be eternally ...' || [GNOMIC] || [NOM] is eternally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hau''' || 'to be defined by being ...' || [ESSENTIAL] || [NOM] is essentially […] by definition<br /> |-<br /> |• '''he''' || 'to undergo' || [PASSIVE] || [NOM] undergoes […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''eti''' || 'to have previously done ...' || [PAST] || [NOM] did […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Regardless of the verbal's semantic meaning and which part of speech carries the bulk of the meaning when translated into another language, each verbal can be used in the same syntactic positions as any other verbal. All verbals can appear as a predicate, an argument (when preceded by a nominal) or as a modifier to another, preceding verbal. Compare the following two sentences which show how a semantically verb-like verbal, '''gahu''' ('to howl'), and a semantically more noun-like verbal, '''zagua''' ('to be a gibbon') can simply be swapped. Both can appear in the predicate, both can appear in an argument and neither needs to be inflected to take on either role.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{|<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || scope=&quot;col&quot; width=&quot;10&quot; | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''gahu''' || || '''ju''' || '''zagua'''<br /> |-<br /> | howl || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.gibbon<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;howls&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a gibbon&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''The gibbon howls.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |- style=&quot;height: 2em;&quot;<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''zagua''' || || '''ju''' || '''gahu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.gibbon || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is a gibbon&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;howls&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''What howls is a gibbon.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Argument Structure====<br /> <br /> Verbals each have an inherent argument structure, controlling which case are used for which role. Dictionaries, and the examples above, mark the meanings of each relevant case when used with each verbal.<br /> <br /> Many argument structures are as would be expected.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''volo''' = [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> :* '''vuja''' = [NOM] hunts [ACC]; [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]<br /> :* '''akku''' = [NOM] is blood; [NOM] is the blood of [GEN]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volo''' || '''na''' || '''xi''' || '''eje'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to him&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I give it to him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is a tendency for experiencers to be in the dative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''hualo''' = [DAT] loves/cares about [NOM]; [NOM] is loved by [DAT]<br /> :* '''xeva''' = [DAT] sees [NOM]; [NOM] is seen by [DAT]<br /> :* '''zoua''' = [NOM] is difficult for [DAT]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''eni''' || '''ju''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was seen&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I saw the king.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Although that is not always the case, as this pair of opposites shows.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''mahu''' = [DAT] knows [NOM]; [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> :* '''zau''' = [NOM] doesn't know about [TOP]; [NOM] is ignorant of [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mahu''' || '''eni''' || ('''xu''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.1s.ICS || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || (&quot;it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zau''' || '''nu''' || ('''vexi''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || (TOP.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || (&quot;about it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I don't know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also an unusual class of verbals where the nominative role usually refers to a body part, the genitive refers to the possessor and when there is an accusative argument, the whole thing refers to an action performed (with the body part) by the possessor.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bale''' = [NOM] is a fist of [GEN]; [GEN] punches [ACC]<br /> :* '''bane''' = [NOM] is a hand of [GEN]; [GEN] holds, grasps, clutches [ACC]<br /> :* '''buja''' = [NOM] is a heavy boot of [GEN]; [GEN] crushes [ACC] under his boot<br /> :* '''gula''' = [NOM] is the pair of arms of [GEN]; [GEN] hugs [ACC]<br /> :* '''juaza''' = [NOM] is the penis of [GEN]; [GEN] fucks [ACC] (vulgar!)<br /> :* '''kanu''' = [NOM] is the nose of [GEN]; [GEN] sniffs [ACC]<br /> :* '''kula''' = [NOM] is the pair of ears of [GEN]; [GEN] listens to [ACC]<br /> :* '''mama''' = [NOM] is the pair of breasts of [GEN]; [GEN] breast-feeds [ACC]<br /> :* '''miva''' = [NOM] is a finger of [GEN]; [GEN] touches, feels [ACC]<br /> :* '''musari''' = [NOM] is a molar of [GEN]; [GEN] chews [ACC]<br /> :* '''omo''' = [NOM] is the pair of eyes of [GEN]; [GEN] looks at [ACC]<br /> :* '''umakka''' = [NOM] is a tooth (incisor, canine) of [GEN]; [GEN] bites [ACC]<br /> :* '''zuru''' = [NOM] is a war against [ACC]; [GEN] wages war on [ACC]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I have eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xu''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || be.this.1<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is this, here by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''These are my eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xi''' || '''masa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || be.snake<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a snake&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking at the snake'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The verbal '''lama''' is somewhat similar, although it may simply be understood through an idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''lama''' = [NOM] is a tear of [GEN]/[LOC]; [GEN]/[LOC] weeps (silently) about [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lama''' || '''ana''' || '''teui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is (a) tear(s)&quot; || &quot;at him/her&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The above sentence may also be translated as &quot;There are tears on him/her because of you,&quot; or &quot;S/He has tears because of you,&quot; making it less clear as to whether this is a good example of an apparent non-nominative subject.<br /> <br /> There is a proposed additional place within the argument structure of many verbals, that of a following modifier. A following modifier may mark a specific role which may either be marked by another case or may only be filled by a following modifier. The notation used here indicates a following modifier with […].<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''maue''' = [NOM] is a group of seven […]<br /> :* '''kka''' = [NOM] is not […]<br /> :* '''mia''' = [NOM] approaches [DAT]/[…]<br /> :* '''tehi''' = [NOM] is possibly […]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''mala''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | approach || be.house || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''iju''' || '''exi''' || '''mala''' <br /> |-<br /> | approach || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN || be.house <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;they&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Derivation of Verbals====<br /> <br /> There are two kinds of derivational affixes, one which converts a nominal into a verbal and many others which convert a verbal into another verbal with a different meaning.<br /> <br /> =====Nominal to Verbal=====<br /> All nominals can be converted into a verbal by adding a copula prefix. The copula prefix is '''g-''' before a vowel, '''k''' or '''g''', '''m-''' before '''m''', '''b''' and '''v''', '''l-''' before '''l''' and '''n-''' before all other consonants. The copula prefix essentially prevents a nominal from signalling the start of an argument. Used with the dative or ablative case, the meaning may be interpreted as a verb of motion.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nu''' 'I' [NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}nu''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} me' [COP-NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''eni''' 'to me' [DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}eni''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} to me', '{{color|MediumBlue|to come}} to me' [COP-DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''xu mala''' 'the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xu mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} the house'<br /> :* '''xua mala''' 'at the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xua mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} at the house'<br /> :* '''kuaini''' 'for us' [BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}kuaini''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} for us' [COP-BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> <br /> <br /> Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}nu''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-NOM.1s.ICS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be I&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I{{color|MediumBlue|'m}} me.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}xuas''' || '''azikuo''' || '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.≈school || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a school for adolescent boys&quot; || &quot;s/he&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} not at school.'' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} to me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|l-}}lene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;be with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} with me. / {{color|MediumBlue|Be}} with me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''nini''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}une''' || '''ja''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.mother || COP-GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.this<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be this&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''This is my mother.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Verbal to Verbal=====<br /> <br /> A far more common means of derivation is from verbal to verbal. This is chiefly done by means of infixing although prefixes and suffixes also exist.<br /> <br /> ======Collective======<br /> <br /> The collective infix '''-ig-''' indicates a group of the named entity.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''ala''' 'to be a bird'<br /> ::→ '''al{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}a''' 'to be {{color|MediumBlue|a flock}} of bird{{color|MediumBlue|s}}'<br /> :* '''balu''' 'to be a royal guardsman'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to be the royal guard'<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to eat {{color|MediumBlue|together}}'<br /> :* '''uttia''' 'to be a tree'<br /> ::→ '''ut{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}ia''' 'to be a forest'<br /> <br /> <br /> ======Gerundive======<br /> <br /> The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something. The accusative role is promoted to the nominative role, as with the passive construction with '''he''', but in addition the assertion is made that this is a good or customary use for the referent in question.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''huna''' 'to drink'<br /> ::→ '''hun{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a''' 'to be (fresh) water', 'to be potable', 'to be drinkable' (to be something to be drunk)<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular)<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular)<br /> :* '''jalo''' 'to welcome', 'to receive', 'to accept (into a place)'<br /> ::→ '''jal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a guest' (one who is to be welcomed)<br /> :* '''asu''' 'to be seated', 'to be sitting'<br /> ::→ '''a{{color|MediumBlue|x}}u''' 'to be a chair', 'to be a seat' (to be something to be sat on) [''*asiu'' → ''axu'']<br /> :* '''ila''' 'to speak', 'to talk'<br /> ::→ '''il{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a'''' 'to be language' (to be something to be spoken)<br /> :* '''zoi''' 'to say', 'to tell'<br /> ::→ '''zo{{color|MediumBlue|j}}i''' 'to be worth saying', 'to be fitting/appropriate' (to be something to be said) [''*zoii'' → ''zoji'']<br /> :* '''go''' 'to do something', 'to act'<br /> ::→ '''g{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a duty', 'to be an obligation', 'to be a good idea' (to be something to be done)<br /> :* '''mue''' 'to be able', 'to be capable'<br /> ::→ '''m{{color|MediumBlue|i}}ue''' 'to be a required skill' (to be something that someone should be able to do)<br /> :* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes'; (with genitive subject) 'to look at'<br /> ::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at)<br /> :* '''bale''' 'to be a fist'; (with genitive subject) 'to punch'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}e''' 'to be punchable', 'to have a punchable face' (to be one who ought to be punched, a common pejorative word)<br /> :* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', (with genitive subject) 'to crush under a boot'<br /> ::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot) [''*bujia'' → ''buji'']<br /> :* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter'<br /> ::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted) [''*vujia'' → ''vuji'']<br /> <br /> ======Locative======<br /> <br /> The prefix '''a-''' indicates being at a particular place.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''tio''' 'to be that'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}tio''' 'to be there' (≈ 'to be at that')<br /> :* '''mala''' 'to be a house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}mala''' 'to be at home' (≈ 'to be at house')<br /> <br /> ======Ornative======<br /> <br /> The ornative prefix '''o-''' indicates having or being equipped with something.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bani''' 'to be money'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money')<br /> :* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with room(s)')<br /> :* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair')<br /> :* '''ulu''' 'to be muscle'<br /> ::→ '''u{{color|MediumBlue|o}}lu''' 'to be muscular' (≈ 'to be with muscle', with metathesis turning /ou/ into /uo/)<br /> <br /> ====Verbals with inherent gender / rank distinctions====<br /> <br /> Many verbals semantically encode gender within their meaning. In some cases, there are pairs of words, such as the following.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nini''' 'to be a mother / aunt'<br /> :* '''nana''' 'to be a father / uncle'<br /> <br /> <br /> In this instance, the divide along genders is easy for non-Ngolu to conceptualise. However many other concepts are also divided by gender, or, more accurately, rank, and this frequently has to do with the Ngolu's strict cultural taboos around gender and rank. For example, Ngolu men and women are expected to sing, dance, dress and urinate differently.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''laha''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''kali'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''lasa''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''kali'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''miia''' 'to wear' (of a ''kali'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''kele''' 'to urinate' (of a ''kali'', to urinate while sitting or squatting)<br /> <br /> :* '''uaie''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''muja'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''bata''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''muja'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''uara''' 'to wear' (of a ''muja'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''zatu''' 'to urinate' (of a ''muja'', to urinate while standing)<br /> <br /> <br /> In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank.<br /> <br /> Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha''' ('to fight physically'), '''aiuo''' ('to shoot').<br /> <br /> Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word.<br /> <br /> Verbals may also specify the gender/rank of an argument other than the nominal. For example, the word ''bale'' means 'to be a fist', specifying a ''muja'' in the role of the genitive possessor. Similarly, items of clothing specific to one gender can only appear with possessors in the corresponding gender.<br /> <br /> When a subject (or another argument) does not match the gender/rank specified in the verbal, there must be paraphrasing. There are generally two ways this is done, with '''ko''' and with '''hui'''.<br /> <br /> =====Ko=====<br /> <br /> '''Ko''' is a verbal meaning 'to be similar'. It can be placed before a gendered verbal when the subject (or other relevant argument) does not match. For example, the word for ''enemy'' is '''uako'''. It is a ''muja'' verb, perhaps best translated as 'to be a ''muja'' enemy'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.enemy || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is no direct equivalent for a ''kali'' who is an enemy. To express the idea of a ''kali'' being an enemy, what is essentially said is &quot;S/he is ''like'' an enemy.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.similar || be.enemy.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be.like&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The closest analogue in English would be with words such as 'midwife', which has no easy male equivalent. In Ngolu, it is as though one simply says 'He's like a midwife.' Similarly, in the following example, there is no word equivalent to a woman's fist, only a man's fist. Therefore, she made something ''like'' a man's fist.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''li''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|bale}}''' || '''uji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || begin || be.similar || be.MUJA.fist || GEN.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;start&quot; || &quot;be like&quot; || &quot;be a (man's) fist&quot; || &quot;of the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She made {{color|MediumBlue|a fist}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Hui=====<br /> <br /> '''Hui''' is similar to '''ko''' except it is filled with contempt and criticism. It is a verbal which could be translated as 'to shamefully break gender taboos by approximating |…|'. There is essentially no grammatical difference between '''ko''' and '''hui''' - the former is simply neutral and the later conveys strong condemnation of breaking taboos.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || sing.KALI<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;sing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|There's a man (shamefully) trying to sing like a woman}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ttio}}''' || '''ju''' || '''je'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || strike || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him/her.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Particles and Grammatical Affixes===<br /> <br /> Particles are words which cannot be classified as either nominals or verbals. Most of them are equivalent to conjunctions, introducing clauses. In many cases, the line between verb and particle is a little blurred and difficult to find and research is still ongoing.<br /> <br /> ====''Au''====<br /> <br /> ====''Au'' and ''teu''====<br /> <br /> '''Au''' and '''teu''' are used to order the events multiple clause sentence. '''Au''' introduces the clause in which the first action took place and is thus roughly equivalent to 'first' or 'after' whereas '''teu''' introduces a later action and is thus equivalent to 'then' or 'before'. They are usually used as correlative conjunctions, with both present in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | first;after|| eat || NOM.1s.ICS || second;before || sleep || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|First}} I ate, {{color|MediumBlue|then}} I slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I ate {{color|MediumBlue|before}} I slept.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|After}} I ate, I slept.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The order of the clauses can be reversed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | second/before || sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Before}} I slept, I ate.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Sometimes the first of the two conjunctions is omitted.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''— [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept, {{color|MediumBlue|but first}}, I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> '''Au''' is also a verbal occa<br /> <br /> ====''Ha''====<br /> <br /> '''Ha''' forms polar (yes/no) questions. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Polar_Questions|Polar Questions]]<br /> <br /> It also introduces the protasis of realis conditional sentences, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Hai''====<br /> <br /> '''Hai''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Haizuo''====<br /> <br /> '''Haizuo''' is an emphatic form of '''hai'''. It introduces the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''I-''====<br /> <br /> The clitic particle '''i-''' appears on the beginning of any part of the predicate when it is preceded in a sentence by any non-predicate element. For example, in the following sentence, '''hu mala''' is the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''mala''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || be.house || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Topicalised arguments can be brought forward in the sentence to before the verb phrase. The verb phrase must now be marked with '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;As for me&lt;/u&gt;, I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The predicate phrase can even be split, with arguments appearing inside it.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;I&lt;/u&gt;'m going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In extreme cases, there can even be more than one split in a predicate phrase, with '''i-''' necessary each time the predicate is resumed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''leuis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || COM.2s.ICS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I want to go home with you.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Of that last example, the normal word order would be '''bio hu mala na leui'''.<br /> <br /> When added to words beginning with a syllabic '''i''', the prefix '''i-''' becomes '''j-''' ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|j}}-iio'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.this.1 || PRED-be.fish<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be this&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''This, well, this is a fish!'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... but before a non-syllabic '''i''', it remains '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''omo''' || '''g-unis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}iaha'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3S.DEF.INAN || be.pair.of.eyes || COP-GEN.1s.ICS || PRED-be.painful<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;hurt&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''As for my eyes, they're sore.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Lo''====<br /> <br /> '''Lo''' appears to be a short form of the comitative complementiser '''lejo'''. It introduces an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> ====''Mie''====<br /> <br /> ====''Teuo''====<br /> <br /> ====''To''====<br /> <br /> ''To'' generally introduces consequences. It often roughly means 'so' or 'therefore'. In these cases, it may replaced by the more emphatic '''toua'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ba''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(ua)}}''' || '''ka''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''muanaiti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || rain || therefore || be.PROS || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.stream<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;so&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be stream&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''It's raining hard, so the streams are going to swell.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is used in conjunction with '''ha''' (and sometimes '''hai''' or '''haizuo''') to form conditional clauses where it introduces the apodosis. See [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]] for examples.<br /> <br /> It is also frequently used to replace '''i-''' in introducing a main clause after a subordinate clause other than a conditional clause.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''enio'''<br /> |-<br /> | LOC.TEMP.C || rain || then || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.plant<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;when&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be plant&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|When}} it rains{{color|MediumBlue|, (then)}} the plants grow.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Toi''====<br /> <br /> '''Toi''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Toua''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xe''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xue''====<br /> <br /> ===Interjections===<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> <br /> ===Phrase Structure===<br /> <br /> ====Verbal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A verbal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL ...]]]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> When multiple verbals are stacked one after the other, the head is on the left and modifiers on the right.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a large house / are large houses''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jiio''' || '''ttiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | run || be.quick<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;run&quot; || &quot;be fast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''runs quickly / run quickly''<br /> ''is a fast runner / are fast runners''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''hunts birds / hunt birds''<br /> ''is a bird hunter / are bird hunters''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In many cases, verbals with more grammatical than semantic content are followed by much more semantically rich modifying verbals. In these cases, the preceding words are nevertheless heads and the following words modifiers.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bas''' || '''ali''' || '''g-eji''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || be.friend.(of.the.same.sex) || COP-DAT.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;be friend&quot; || &quot;be to inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;be the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a good friend / are good friends of the king''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''huna'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || drink<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;drink&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''drank / has drunk / have drunk''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''toto''' || '''kas''' || '''euo''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.really || be.PROS || be.pair || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be in fact&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''are actually going to be two big ones''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''buua''' || '''tio''' || '''vaxu''' || '''zara'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.on.top.of || be.that.3 || be.table || write<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be one top of&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot; || &quot;be a table&quot; || &quot;write&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''is / are on top of that desk over there''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Each complex verbal phrase comprised of more than one verbal has its own case structure which defines how the cases are used in a sentence. The case structure is determined by the rightmost verbal which shares the same nominative argument as the leftmost verbal in the phrase.<br /> <br /> $$$$$$$ [examples to come]<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A nominal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''NOMINAL [VERBAL PHRASE]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> An unadorned nominal on its own functions as a pronoun.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''he'', ''she''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''its''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> Adorned nominal phrases consist of a nominal followed by a verbal phrase. In this case, the nominal acts as the head of a relative clause in which the verbal phrase sits.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju''' || '''xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || execute<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;execute&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the executioner''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi''' || '''tukaue'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.collar.indicating.the.owner.of.a.slave<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a slave's collar&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''of the slave's collar''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Structure===<br /> <br /> With unmarked word order, a clause generally has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''[PARTICLE] PREDICATE [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] ...'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> A &lt;tt&gt;'''PREDICATE'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a verbal phrase and an &lt;tt&gt;'''ARGUMENT'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a nominal phrase or a subordinate clause.<br /> <br /> In many cases, one or more arguments may precede the predicate or may even appear in the middle of the predicate, dividing it into two or more pieces.<br /> <br /> Unmarked word order:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental)<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau''' || '''azi''' || '''akuala''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; || &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''I ate food with a knife.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted, nominal argument partially fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || Pred... || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || ...icate || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''nu''' || '''i-kau''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || NOM.1s.ICS || eat || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Predicate-Only Clauses====<br /> <br /> The simplest clauses in Ngolu consist of nothing but a verbal or a verbal phrase used as the predicate. There are no obligatory arguments in Ngolu and all may be omitted from the clause and left to context, even the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's raining. / It rains.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's good.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> A verbal with no arguments indicates an activity or state without specifying the identity of any participants. Essentially, Ngolu is a pro-drop language. With prior context, omitted arguments can be understood as referring to someone or something already discussed. With no prior context, however, verbal-only sentences are simply understood with a &quot;someone or something&quot; as the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kau'''<br /> |-<br /> | eat<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;eats&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He, she or it is eating. (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Something or someone is eating.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He or it is hunting. / He or it is a hunter.'' (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''Something or someone is hunting. / There's a hunter.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Simple declarative or existential statements are frequently verbal-only.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.fire<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a fire&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's a fire. / There's a fire. / Fire!''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====One-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Multi-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Subordinate Clauses====<br /> <br /> =====Complementiser Clauses=====<br /> <br /> =====Adverbial Clauses=====<br /> <br /> Adverbial clauses are introduced by the particle '''lo''', which may be derived from '''lejo''', the comitative case of the copula 'zuo'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''lo''' || '''juo''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | want || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ADV || be.outside || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be outside&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to eat outside.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Relative Clauses=====<br /> <br /> ===Topic and Focus===<br /> <br /> ===Affirmation and Negation===<br /> <br /> The verbals '''ahe''' and '''kka''' indicate polarity, being positive and negative respectively. On their own, they are roughly equivalent to 'yes' and 'no'. <br /> <br /> Positive sentences are generally unmarked and '''ahe''' generally appears only for emphasis.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || '''bo''' || '''xu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.indeed || be.wanted || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;be wanted&quot; || &quot;the thing&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|do}} want it.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation is performed by means of '''kka'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xua''' || '''uttia'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be tree&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''S/He{{color|MediumBlue|'s not}} at the tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''mula''' || '''ju''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.liked || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be liked&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|don't}} like him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> After a negative question or statement, '''ahe''' indicates a contradictory, positive answer whereas '''kka''' indicates a negative answer in agreement.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.not || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be.not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Is{{color|MediumBlue|n't}} it raining?''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.indeed || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be indeed&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Yes, it is}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.not || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be not&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No, it's not}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation (as well as affirmation) is generally performed in the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''xeva''' || '''ju''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|eri}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.seen || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;to anyone who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No one else}} saw her.'' (Literally: ''{{color|MediumBlue|Anyone else didn't}} see her.'')<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> To negate or affirm an argument, it is placed within an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || '''los''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''ahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV || be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV || be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Both '''kka''' and '''ahe''' have equivalent adverbial forms, '''kku''' and '''lahe''' respectively, which do not require the use of '''lo''' when negating or affirming an argument. The previous sentence may be expressed as follows.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kku}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV.be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV.be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Interrogation===<br /> <br /> ====Polar Questions====<br /> <br /> Polar questions are indicated with '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} raining{{color|MediumBlue|?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Do}} you love me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Ha''' can occur at the end of a sentence, where it functions as a question tag.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | rain || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot; || Q<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''It's raining, {{color|MediumBlue|isn't it?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;?&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''You love me, {{color|MediumBlue|don't you?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Individual arguments in a sentence may be called into question by placing them inside an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]] introduced by '''lo'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} me who you love{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''na''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || ADV || Q || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} you who loves me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Alternative Questions====<br /> <br /> Alternative questions use two or more instances of '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Bio''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''kau''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''huna''' || '''vu'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || Q || eat || Q || drink || NOM.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;or&quot; || &quot;drink&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''Would you like anything to {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} eat {{color|MediumBlue|or}} drink{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Xevu''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ja''' || '''mahu''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ju''' || '''laiuiie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mahu || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Laiuiie<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Mahu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Laiuiie&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''Have you seen {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} Mahu {{color|MediumBlue|or}} Laiuiie{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Content Questions====<br /> <br /> ====Embedded Questions====<br /> <br /> Any type of question may be embedded inside a complementiser phrase.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Zau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ti''' || '''uaizue''' || '''ji''' || '''tavi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || TOP.C || Q || be.PRF || find || ACC.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.child<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;about that&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || be.PRF || &quot;find&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I don't know {{color|MediumBlue|if}} the child has been found.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Voice===<br /> <br /> ===Time===<br /> <br /> Marking of time (tense and aspect) is not obligatory in Ngolu and may always be left up to context. For our purposes here, we shall not distinguish between actions (e.g. ''kill'') and states (e.g. ''want'', ''be a house'') as temporal marking is identical for both. The word ''action'' will be used henceforth and should be understood to mean &quot;action or state&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Relative tenses====<br /> When time needs to be indicated, it is most often done by means of a verbal indicating a &quot;relative tense&quot; (aspect). These are relative to a contextually understood time in question, the &quot;reference time&quot;. The three basic &quot;relative tense&quot; markers are ... <br /> <br /> <br /> *'''ti''' &quot;perfect&quot; (PRF), indicating an action that occurred before the reference time<br /> *'''zo''' &quot;progressive&quot; (PROG), indicating an action underway at the reference time<br /> *'''ka''' &quot;prospective (PROS), indicating an action occurring after the reference time<br /> <br /> <br /> By default, the reference is the present, the time in which the utterance is made. However, if another time is contextually understood, any of these may refer to events in the past, present or future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|zo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROG || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be underway&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Absolute tenses====<br /> The prefix '''e-''' attached to the beginning of any of these aspect markers creates an absolute tense marker. The '''e-''' sets the reference time to the current moment in which the utterance is made. This is usually only used to disambiguate or to emphasise a time frame.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''eti''' &quot;past&quot; (PST), indicating an action that occurred in the past<br /> *'''ezo''' &quot;present&quot; (PRES), indicating an action underway in the present<br /> *'''eka''' &quot;future (FUT), indicating an action that will occur in the future<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be earlier&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRES || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Continuation====<br /> There are also compounds formed from two time words that indicate continuation from one time frame to another using a linking ''-e-''. This linking ''-e-'' is probably not related to the ''e-'' of absolute temporal reference, but to the ''e-'' prefix of dative case nominals and the derivation prefix ''e-'' that can be added to verbals indicating motion towards something.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''tiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that starting before the reference time and continuing up to it<br /> *'''zueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action continuing from the reference time and extending to a later time<br /> *'''etiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that started in the past and continues to the present<br /> *'''ezueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action that starts in the present and will continue into the future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezos}}''' || '''oila''' || '''na''' || '''xiies''' || '''oge'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF.PROG|| read || NOM.1S.ACS || ACC.3S.DEF.INAN.PROX || be.book<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have been doing&quot; || &quot;read&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;this thing which&quot; || &quot;is a book&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|have been}} read{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} this book.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Perfective and imperfective====<br /> In addition, the word '''bie''' contrasts with '''zo'''. Whereas '''zo''' specifies that an action is underway at the reference time, essentially taking a &quot;snapshot&quot; of the interior of an action, after its beginning and before its completion, '''bie''' specifies perfectivity, metaphorically painting a picture of the whole completed action without permitting a look inside. On its own, it does not specify whether the completed action occurs before or after the reference time, but it does explicitly specify that the action is ''not'' underway at the reference time. <br /> <br /> Both ''bie'' and ''zo'' may be suffixed to other verbals indicating time in order to explicitly distinguish the imperfective (progressive) aspect from the perfective aspect, while also specifying time.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfectivity:<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | imperfective (progressive)<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfective<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | bie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | relative time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kabie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | absolute time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekabie<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Note that '''zo''' appears twice in the table although it really only has one function; it specifies an action underway at the reference time (i.e. concurrent with it), which itself may be unspecified.<br /> <br /> The reduplicated forms '''zozo''' ('these days', 'in those days') and '''ezozo''' ('these days') do not appear in the above table as they indicate a loosening of the bounds of the reference time or current time. The reference or current time can be tightened or emphasised with '''bazo''' ('right now', 'right then', 'at that/this very moment') or '''ebazo''' ('right now', 'at this very moment').<br /> <br /> ====Resultative perfect====<br /> The word '''bue''' indicates a ''resultative perfect'', functioning similarly to '''ti''' in that it describes an action occurring prior to the reference time, however the focus of '''bue''' is not on the action itself, but on the resulting post-action state at the reference time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|bue}}''' || '''kaxa''' || '''xu''' || '''giloxuo'''<br /> |-<br /> | RES.PRF|| break(INTR) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || window.pane<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is in the resulting state&quot; || &quot;break&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a window pane&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''The window {{color|MediumBlue|is}} br{{color|MediumBlue|o}}k{{color|MediumBlue|en}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bue''' is frequently prefixed to the following word (for example ''buekaxa'' instead of ''bue kaxa''). Its passive equivalent '''hi-''' is always prefixed.<br /> <br /> ====Time word stacking====<br /> More than one time word can be used together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT|| be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will&quot; || &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST|| be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;will&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> These are usually compounded together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekati}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|etika}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST-PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Distance from reference time====<br /> The precise distance from the reference time can be indicated using adverbial clauses with '''lo''' followed by the unit of time, '''(e)ti''' or '''(e)ka''' and an ordinal number, which begins with ''t-''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''zaxa''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teuo}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.ill || ADV || be.year || be.PRF || be.second<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;becomes&quot; || &quot;is ill&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;is earlier&quot; || &quot;is second&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he fell ill {{color|MediumBlue|two years before/ago}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> This sentence could be translated somewhat more literally as &quot;S/he fell ill while there was the second previous year.&quot; Note that replacing '''ti''' with '''eti''' would force the interpretation with &quot;ago&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || Bie || bilo || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tahu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PFV || die || ADV || be.month || be.PROS || be.first<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is completed&quot; || &quot;dies&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;is about to&quot; || &quot;is first&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he died {{color|MediumBlue|one month later}}. / S/he will die {{color|MediumBlue|in one month}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A more literally translation could be &quot;S/he died while there was the second coming year.&quot; Note again that replacing '''ka''' with '''eka''' would force the interpretation with &quot;in one month&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment. <br /> <br /> In the following example, in which a duration is specified rather than a specific time, the adverbial clause contains only the length of time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS || ADV || be.five || be.year<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another means of conveying the same information is to place the time specifiers after the tense or aspect marker and then introducing the rest of the sentence with '''to'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''li''' || '''zaxa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || be.two || be.year || thus || begin || be.ill<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become&quot; || &quot;be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Two years ago,}} s/he fell ill.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || ... || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''bilo'''<br /> |-<br /> | || be.going.to || be.one || be.month || thus || die<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;is going to&quot; || &quot;is one&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;die&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|One month later,}} s/he died.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.five || be.year || thus || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Miscellaneous time words====<br /> There are a range of other verbals which indicate time in a similar way. Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> ''Days''<br /> * '''ariu''' &quot;yesterday&quot;<br /> * '''aku''' &quot;today&quot;<br /> * '''anu''' &quot;tomorrow&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Lighting''<br /> * '''auo''' &quot;by day&quot;<br /> * '''eio''' &quot;by night&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Distance in time''<br /> * '''ttie''' / '''ettie''' &quot;just&quot; (similar to '''ti''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''tieka''' / '''etieka''' &quot;about to&quot; (similar to '''ka''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''ti ti''' / '''eti ti''' &quot;a long time ago&quot; (reduplication for distance into the past)<br /> * '''ka ka''' / '''eka ka''' &quot;eventually&quot; (reduplication for distance into the future)<br /> <br /> ''Other aspectual differences''<br /> * '''hua''' &quot;always&quot;, &quot;permanently&quot; [gnomic]<br /> * '''niu''' &quot;habitually&quot; [habitual]<br /> * '''guegue''' &quot;repeatedly&quot;, &quot;again and again&quot; [iterative]<br /> * '''egue''' &quot;again&quot;<br /> * '''tara''' &quot;suddenly&quot;<br /> * '''li''' &quot;starts&quot;, &quot;begins&quot;, &quot;commences&quot;<br /> * '''bi''' &quot;stops&quot;, &quot;ceases&quot;<br /> * '''ligue''' &quot;resumes&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Demonstratives===<br /> <br /> Demonstratives distinguish three degrees of distance associated with the three grammatical persons.<br /> <br /> * '''''tie''''' 'this' or 'these' near the speaker [1st person - proximal]<br /> * '''''tia''''' 'that' or 'those' near the listener [2nd person - medial]<br /> * '''''tio''''' 'that' or 'those' away from both speaker and listener [3rd person - distal]<br /> <br /> When speaking to someone of the same or higher rank and referring to the something that is close to both speaker and listener (such as a house that both are inside), the 2nd person '''''tia''''' 'that' is used. Only persons of higher rank may use the first person form '''''tie''''' in such situations.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.MED || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.PROX || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The association between the grammatical persons and the demonstratives is strong, with words, statements and actions made by a person frequently being referred to using the appropriate demonstrative. For example, a commonly used phrase for &quot;therefore&quot; is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}'' (literally 'because of this (by me)') when the reasoning is based on what the speaker just said, but when the reasoning is based on what their interlocutor just said, this phrase is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}'' (literally 'because of that (by you)').<br /> <br /> ====Contractions====<br /> <br /> The demonstrative verbals '''''tie''''', '''''tia''''' and '''''tio''''' form very common contractions with third person definite nominals, transforming the above examples as follows:<br /> <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tia}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}} mala''''' 'this house' / 'that house' (by you) <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tie}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}} mala''''' 'this house' (by me)<br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what I said' <br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what you said' <br /> <br /> Here is a table of forms:<br /> <br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Proximal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Medial || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Distal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Proximal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''|| '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Medial || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Distal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Proximal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Medial || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Distal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Proximal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Medial || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Distal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Proximal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Medial || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Distal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Proximal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Medial || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Distal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Proximal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Medial || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Distal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Proximal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Medial || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Distal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Proximal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Medial || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Distal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Proximal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Medial || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Distal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Proximal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Medial || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Distal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Proximal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Medial || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Distal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Proximal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Medial || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Distal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Essive Proximal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Medial || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Distal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Location===<br /> <br /> ===Movement===<br /> <br /> Movement is expressed in a variety of ways in Ngolu. <br /> <br /> One of the most common methods for talking about movement is using the words '''hu''' and '''mia'''. There is no distinction between coming and going but rather a distinction between the perfective '''hu''', meaning 'come' or 'go', and the imperfective '''mia''', 'be one one's way', 'be coming', 'be going'. The destination may be indicated by a subsequent modifying verbal or by a dative argument. The origin is indicated by an ablative argument.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nu''' || '''exi''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || NOM.1s.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|mia}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.IPFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be on the way&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|'m going / on my way}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || move.PFV || ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Please {{color|MediumBlue|get}} away from me.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another method for expressing movement is to affix the copula prefix '''g-''', '''m-''', '''n-''' to a dative or ablative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-exi}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to you&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'll {{color|MediumBlue|come to you}}.'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Get away from me}}!'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The third way to express movement is to use an inceptive (inchoative) morpheme in conjunction with a word indicating location. For example, the verbal '''xa''' means 'to be inside' and the verbal '''atio''' means 'to be there (away from us)' - adding the infix '''-in-''' (perfective inceptive) or '''-ij-''' (imperfective inceptive) gives '''xina''' ('to go in', 'to enter') and '''xija''' ('to be on the way in'), '''atinio''' ('to go there') and '''atijo''' ('to be on the way there'). The free standing verbal '''li''' ('to begin, start, commence') may also be used, with '''li xa''' and '''li atio''' being equivalent to '''xina''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xina}}''' || '''iju''' || '''i-oba''' || '''loe'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || enter.PFV || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || PRED-be.room || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;enter&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible ones&quot; || &quot;be room&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''They {{color|MediumBlue|went into}} the bedroom.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bios''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|atinio}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || go.there.3 || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''S/He wants {{color|MediumBlue|to go there}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The inceptive infixes are frequently used with the verbals denoting location in the four cardinal directions: '''la''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' ('to be in the east', 'to be in the west', 'to be in the north', 'to be in the south' respectively) creating the perfective forms '''lina''', '''tina''', '''ginio''' and '''vino''' and the imperfective forms '''lija''', '''tija''', '''gijo''' and '''vijo'''. Direction within Qu, with its noticeable tube shape (with 'east/west' pointing along the tube and 'north/south' going around the circumference), is a much more salient feature than on Earth and referencing direction with motion is common. In certain circumstances, describing movement without reference to direction is regarded as too imprecise, such as when men are discussing hunting in the forest where there may be no obvious landmarks to identify as the destination of a movement.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''La''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' may be used to modify another verb of motion with or without taking an inceptive infix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|lina}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|gio}}''' || '''inais''' || '''ixi''' || '''vaku'''<br /> |-<br /> | go.east.PFV || be.in.the.north || ABL.1p.ACS || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.babirusa<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go east&quot; || &quot;be in the north&quot; || &quot;from us&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be babirusa&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''The babirusas {{color|MediumBlue|moved (east)-northeast}} away from us.'' — '''muja''' [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Additionally, there is yet another prefix '''e-''' which may be related to the '''e-''' prefix at the beginning of nominals in the dative case. Words with this prefix indicate perfective movement and include '''etie''' ('to come here') '''etia''' ('to go/come there/here by you') and '''etio''' ('to go there'). These words are slightly more commonly used than their equivalents '''atinie''', '''atinia''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> ===Causes===<br /> <br /> ===Goals===<br /> <br /> ===Conditionals===<br /> <br /> Conditional sentences in Ngolu use particles to indicate the condition clause (protasis) and the result clause (apodosis). These particles differ depending on whether the condition is possible (realis) or hypothetical (irrealis).<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''PROTASIS'' || ''APODOSIS''<br /> |-<br /> | ''REALIS'' || '''ha''' || '''to'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''IRREALIS'' || '''hai''' &lt;br&gt; '''haizuo''' (emphatic) || '''toi''' &lt;br&gt; '''to''' (possible only when apodosis clause appears second)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Realis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''anu''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''kka''' || '''vuja''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | if || be.tomorrow || rain || then || be.not || hunt.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if&quot; || &quot;be tomorrow&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} it rains tomorrow, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} he won't hunt.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ('''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''') || '''ttio''' || '''nu''' || '''ue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''vai''' || '''tiaia'''<br /> |-<br /> | (then) || hit || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.2s.ACS || if || stay || do.that.2<br /> |-<br /> | (&quot;then&quot;) || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;if&quot; || &quot;keep&quot; || &quot;do that which you are doing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I'll hit you {{color|MediumBlue|if}} you keep doing that.'' — '''muja''' [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Irrealis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''g-ua''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(i)}}''' || '''hales''' || '''eji''' || '''jo''' || '''nio'''|| '''mo'''<br /> |-<br /> | if.IRR || be-NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ACS || then.(would) || ask || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.C || happen || be.what<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;imagine if&quot; || &quot;be you&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then (would)&quot; || &quot;ask&quot; || &quot;(to) the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;happen&quot; || &quot;be what&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} you, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} I{{color|MediumBlue|'d}} ask him/her what happened.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || '''abani'''<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;stop&quot; || &quot;work&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || &quot;be more&quot; || &quot;be rich&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|would}} stop working, {{color|MediumBlue|if}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} richer.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''ti''' || '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''leui''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || ('''ti''') || '''mahu''' || ('''xu''') || ('''ene''')<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || be.PRF || move || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ICS || if.IRR || (be.PRF) || be.known || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN) || (DAT.1s.ACS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;move&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || (&quot;be finished&quot;) || &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''I would have come with you if I had known that.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Numbers===<br /> <br /> ===Quantity===<br /> <br /> ===Degree===<br /> <br /> ===Comparison===<br /> <br /> ==Pragmatics==<br /> <br /> ===Social Stratification and Language Use===<br /> <br /> Ngolu society is heavily stratified into five social divisions. These social divisions, or strata, are hierarchical and from highest to lowest are as follows.<br /> <br /> * 5. ''ju '''taqu''''' - the king<br /> * 4. ''iju '''balu''''' - the king's men<br /> * 3. ''iju '''muja''''' - initiated men<br /> * 2. ''iju '''kali''''' - free citizens<br /> * 1. ''iju '''tuva''''' - slaves and prisoners (''ixu tuva'' in the speech of '''muja''', '''balu''' and '''taqu''')<br /> <br /> Language use is, to a large extent, determined by the strata of the speaker, addressee and third person referents.<br /> <br /> ===Speech Crime===<br /> <br /> [[Category:Languages]]<br /> [[Category:Conlangs]]</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Iliaqu&diff=258022 2022-01-29T10:59:11Z

<p>Imralu: /* Verbals with inherent gender / rank distinctions */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Iliaqu<br /> |nativename = iliaqu<br /> |pronunciation = [ìʎàʔú]<br /> |region = Qu<br /> |ethnicity = Ngolu / Ilaqu<br /> |speakers = {{formatnum:100,000}}<br /> |setting = [[Verse:Qu|Qu]]<br /> |fam1 = Language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2013-2020<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> {{infobox|bg=#F2DC77|native=iliaqu|in=Qu|no=100,000 (approx.)|tree=Isolate (as far as known)|wo=VSO|morph=Isolating/futional|ms=Nominative-Accusative|creator=[[User:Imralu|Imralu]]|date=2013-2014}}<br /> <br /> '''Iliaqu''' (IPA: /ˌɪljəˈʔuː/), also known as '''Ngolu''' or sometimes '''Qu''' (endonym: ''iliaqu'' IPA: [ìʎàʔú]) is a language isolate spoken throughout the known regions of the space habitat [[Verse:Qu|Qu]] by the Ngolu people, whose number is estimated to be around 100,000. As the Ngolu are almost entirely monolingual, and while voluntary travel to and from Qu remains impossible, the language is not in any danger of extinction. At this stage, little is known of dialect differences within Qu. There are estimated to be somewhere between 50 and 100 Iliaqu speakers on Earth who have simply mysteriously appeared in various locations. Small communities of Ngolu speakers been brought or have found their way together, the most well-known and well-studied of which is a group of about 15 living in and around Berlin, Germany.<br /> <br /> Iliaqu is an isolating/fusional, head-initial (right-branching) language with VSO word order and nominative-accusative alignment. Verbs (verbals) make up the only open class of word, with nouns (nominals) constituting a closed class of heavily fusional words that fill the roll of pronouns and articles in other languages, marking grammatical person, number, definiteness and specificity, gender, accessibility, and case.<br /> <br /> ==Terminology==<br /> There appear to have been fewer than ten isolated instances of non-Ngolu people arriving in Qu and there are no other cultures or languages known to exist in Qu. In such a linguistically and culturally homogenous environment, the Ngolu have had no need for endonyms for their culture, people or language. Traditionally, they have described their language simply as '''ilia''' [ìʎá] 'speech', themselves as '''golu''' [ŋòlú] 'people', and their world as '''qu''' [ʔú] 'world'. <br /> <br /> With the new knowledge of other cultures and the entire universe outside of Qu, neologisms have arisen to distinguish their language and their people from those of the outsiders. For the Ngolu arrivals Earth, contact with other cultures has forced them to acknowledge that the other languages they hear must have the ability to convey information just as their language. Consequently, on Earth, the word '''ilia''' generally refers to any language. To disambiguate their own language, they may call it '''ilia qu''' [ìʎáʔú] or '''iliaqu''' [ìʎàʔú] 'Qu speech'. Non-Ngolu are still referred to as '''taia''' ('ghost', 'demon') and Earth maybe referred to as '''utaia''' [ùtàjá] 'ghost world' or a loan word such as '''hiia''', which was common among the Berlin group (from German ''hier'') although it now seems to be dying out in favour of '''utaia'''. With the acknowledgement that non-Ngolu people are also people and the consequent expansion of the term '''golu''' to include non-Ngolu, the term '''goqu''' [ŋòʔú] ('Qu people', formed by adding the human prefix '''go-''' to the word '''qu''') is gaining ground and may be contrasted with '''taia''' or '''goutaia''' [ŋòu̯tàjá].<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !VOWELS<br /> !Front<br /> !Central<br /> !Back<br /> |-<br /> !High<br /> |'''i''' ‹i›<br /> |<br /> |'''u''' ‹u›<br /> |-<br /> !Mid<br /> |'''e''' ‹e›<br /> |<br /> |'''o''' ‹o›<br /> |-<br /> !Low<br /> |<br /> |'''a''' ‹a›<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Each vowel may be 'strong' or 'weak'. These are essentially stressed and unstressed. There is only ever one 'strong' vowel per word and it is nearly always the final vowel. Where it is not, it is always the penultimate vowel and the in that case the final vowel is always /i/ or /u/. Non-final strong vowels are indicated in the romanisation using an acute accent, ‹áéíóú›.<br /> <br /> The realisation of strong vowels varies across accents. There appears to be a cline ranging from a pitch-based pronunciation to a weight-based pronunciation (used chiefly by men). At the pitch-based end of the spectrum, 'strong' vowels are pronounced with a high tone and 'weak' vowels with a low-tone. At the end of a non-interrogative utterance, a high-tone becomes a falling tone. At the end of a question, a high tone may be lengthened and/or undergo an additional rise. At the weight-based extreme, strong vowels cause gemination of the following consonant but are pronounced as long themselves when the following sound is (1) a vowel, (2) a consonant cluster or (3) an already geminated consonant. Utterance finally, strong vowels are generally neither pronounced with a high tone nor lengthened but are usually pronounced slightly louder. <br /> <br /> The high vowels, /i/ and /u/, when 'weak' and adjacent to another vowel are pronounced non-syllabically as [i̯~j] and [u̯~w]). Non-syllabic /i/ merges with and palatalises any preceding dental/alveolar consonant.<br /> <br /> In these two word examples, the pitch-based pronunciation is given before the weight-based pronunciation.<br /> <br /> :*'''ju muja''' [ʒúmùʒâ] ~ [ʒumːuˈʒa]<br /> :*'''ju aio''' [ʒúàjô] ~ [ʒuːaˈjo]<br /> :*'''ju uaia''' [ʒúwàjâ] [ʒuːwaˈja]<br /> :*'''ju ntu''' [ʒúntû] ~ [ʒu:nˈtu]<br /> :*'''ju lleue''' [ʒúlːèwê] ~ [ʒuːlːeˈwe]<br /> <br /> ===Consonants===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !CONSONANTS<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Dental/Alveolar<br /> !Post-alveolar<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> | '''m''' ‹m›<br /> | <br /> | '''n''' ‹n›<br /> |<br /> | '''ŋ''' ‹g›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> | '''b''' ‹b›<br /> |<br /> | '''t''' ‹t›<br /> |<br /> | '''k''' ‹k›<br /> | '''ʔ''' ‹q›<br /> |-<br /> !Ejective<br /> |<br /> | <br /> | '''tʼ''' ‹tt›<br /> |<br /> | '''kʼ''' ‹kk›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiced Fricative<br /> | <br /> | '''v''' ‹v›<br /> | '''z''' ‹z›<br /> | '''ʒ''' ‹j›<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiceless Fricative<br /> | <br /> | <br /> | '''s''' ‹s›<br /> | '''ʃ''' ‹x›<br /> | <br /> | '''h''' ‹h›<br /> |-<br /> !Tap<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''ɾ''' ‹r› <br /> |<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''l''' ‹l› <br /> |<br /> |<br /> | <br /> |}<br /> <br /> * The nasal consonants /m n ŋ/, unlike other consonants, may occur before another consonant and then assimilate in place of articulation to that consonant. For this reason, many authors posit the archiphoneme /N/. /N/ may be syllabic post pausa, carrying a low tone. Before /l/, /N/ assimilates to [l̪] or [l̪̩]. Before /v/, it is pronounced as [ɱ] or [ɱ̩].<br /> * The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental [n̪ t̪ t̪ʼ ɾ̪ l̪]. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears. Some speakers palatalise /t/ and /d/ to [t͡ʃ] and [d͡ʒ] respectively. The ejective /tʼ/, however, is rarely or never palatalised as [t͡ʃʼ].<br /> * /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive [d̪].<br /> * Geminate /m/, /n/ and /l/ (resulting from /Nm/, /Nn/ and /Nl/) may be pronounced as [m̩b], [n̪̩d̪] and [l̪̩d̪] respectively, particularly by men and particularly post pausa.<br /> * /s/ and /z/ are normally alveolar. When followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are not distinguished from /ʃ ʒ/. <br /> * /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ cannot be followed by non-syllabic /i/.<br /> * The phonemes /s/ and /ɾ/ do not occur at the beginning of a word.<br /> * The glottal stop /ʔ/ and the ejective consonants /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ are restricted to positions immediately before a 'strong' vowel, although there may be an intervening non-syllabic 'weak' /i/ or /u/ after the ejectives. At the beginning of a 'weak' syllable, ejective consonants become pronounced as their equivalent plain plosive and the glottal stop disappears. For example, ''kka'' [kʼá] and ''kkue'' [kʷʼé] are allowed while expected ''*kkina'' (derived from ''kka'' plus the infix ''-in-'') is instead present as ''kina'' [kì.ná]. In connected speech, /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ may be pronounced as [t̚ʔ k̚ʔ] or even [tː kː]. However, a strong ejective pronunciation is always heard post pausa.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> Phonemically, a syllable may be '''((N)C)V''', where '''V''' is a vowel '''(C)''' an optional consonant and '''(N)''' an optional nasal which assimilates to its following consonant in its point of articulation. <br /> <br /> Phonetically, syllables may be more complex. '''(N)''' is pronounced syllabically post pausa and otherwise is pronounced in the coda of the preceding syllable. The non-syllabic pronunciations of /i/ and /u/ mean that a syllable can be (C)(S)V(S)(N), where '''(S)''' is a semivowel.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::'''nxua intaneti'''<br /> ::/Nʃu.á.i.Nta.ne.tí/<br /> ::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí]<br /> ::''is on the internet''<br /> <br /> ===Epenthetic /s/===<br /> <br /> An epenthetic /s/ sometimes appears between words when the second word begins with a vowel. In the romanisation used here, the /s/ is written on the end of the preceding word. The rules are somewhat complex and are best shown as a table. The final vowels of preceding words are shown vertically on the left. Initial vowels of the following word are shown along the top. An epenthetic /s/ doesn't appear before '''i''' and '''u''' when a syllabic vowel (V) immediately follows within the same word. In the table, the word borders are shown with an '''s''' indicating where the epenthetic /s/ always appears. In other positions in the table, the epenthetic /s/ can still appear in very clear emphatic speech.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''i(V)-'' || ''u(V)-'' || ''i-'' || ''u-'' || ''e-'' || ''o-'' || ''a-''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-i'' || '''-i i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i e-''' || '''-i o-''' || '''-i a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-u'' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u u-''' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} u-''' || '''-u e-''' || '''-u o-''' || '''-u a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-e'' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-o'' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-a'' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ua''' || [è.né.wá] || '''u''' followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} u''' || [è.né.sú] || '''u''' not followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ima''' || [è.néj.má] || '''i''' is weak and can become non-syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} eme''' || [è.né.sè.mé] || '''e''' is always syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni ua''' || [è.ní.wá] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni u''' || [è.ní.ú] || final '''i''' before syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni iu''' || [è.ní.jú] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni{{color|MediumBlue|s}} iui''' || [è.ní.sì.wí] || final '''i''' before initial syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene iui''' || [è.néj.wí] || final '''e''' followed by 'weak' '''i''' which becomes non-syllabic<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> There are four classes of words in Ngolu. Ngolu is a very verb-heavy language, with verbals making up the only truly open word class.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''Nominals''': closed<br /> :* '''Verbals''': open<br /> :* '''Particles''': closed<br /> :* '''Interjections''': closed (mostly)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Nominals===<br /> Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of nominals, the &lt;u&gt;pronominals&lt;/u&gt;, are essentially the equivalent of pronouns and articles in other languages, inflecting for number, grammatical person, definiteness, specificity, gender, case and an inflectional dimension unique to Iliaqu, ''accessibility''. Pronominals can appear on their own or can be followed by a verbal or verbal phrase. When followed by a verbal, they can be regarded as the head of an underlying relative clause which nominalises the verbal and allows it to function as an argument in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> :As a pronoun:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|it}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :As an article:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|the}} house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In addition to the pronominals, there are two &lt;u&gt;complementisers&lt;/u&gt; which are essentially subordinating conjunctions which inflect for case. '''Zuo''' can be thought of as roughly equivalent to the English subordinating conjunction 'that' and '''kuo''' can be thought of as 'the time when'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''olos''' || '''ene''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''g-ixi''' || '''ja''' || '''nana''' || '''g-uje''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.strange || DAT.1s.ACS || NOM.C || be.not || COP-DAT.3s.INAN.DEF || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.father || COP-GEN.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is strange&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;is not&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the one who&quot; || &quot;is father&quot; || &quot;is hers/his&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I think it's strange {{color|MediumBlue|that}} his / her father didn't go / wasn't there.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Number====<br /> Pronominals indicate two numbers, singular and plural. Plural is marked by the prefix '''i-''', which occurs before some case prefixes and after others (see [[Ngolu#Case|Case]] below for more information).<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The singular is used before quantifiers indicating a specific plural quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a group of two&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|two}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> When the plural is used, this indicates multiples of the indicated quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are groups of two&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|pairs of}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Many words denoting powders and granular substances are used in the plural with the singular referring to an individual grain.<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a grain of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the grain of sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are grains of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the (grain{{color|MediumBlue|s}} of) sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Water referred to as '''hunia''', potable water, is indicated in the plural as well when it is a quantity larger than what one person can drink in one sitting. <br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (large quantity of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (serving of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Gender====<br /> In the third person, nominals distinguish between animate and inanimate referents. When it comes to animals, the use of the genders depends on the speaker's [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]]. ''Kali'' (women, children and uninitiated men) and ''tuva'' (slaves) refer to all motile animals in the animate gender, generally as inaccessible although pets may be accessible. ''Muja'' (initiated men) refer to animals other than pets in the inanimate gender. The Ngolu believe this allows ''muja'' to hunt without remorse.<br /> <br /> The following examples illustrate the difference. Examples which are specific to the rank of the speaker or the listener will be marked as such after the translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The interplay between a speaker and listener's rank is complex and may result in unexpected gender choices. For example, a slave must refer to him- or herself in the third person inanimate gender when speaking to ''balu'' and above unless specifically given permission otherwise. To read more about this, see [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|Social Stratification and Language Use]].<br /> <br /> ====Person====<br /> Three grammatical persons are marked by pronominals. The first person pronominals contain '''n'''. The second person pronominals contain a non-syllabic '''u''' (realised as '''v''' before '''u'''). In the third person, '''j''', '''x''', '''m''', '''z''', '''k''' and Ø appear depending on gender, definiteness and specificity.<br /> <br /> =====Clusivity=====<br /> The plural forms of all the basic pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness. <br /> <br /> The first person inclusive (second plus first persons) may be indicated by compound pronominals, the dual forms (&quot;you, one person, and I&quot;) being '''uana''', '''uanu''', '''vuna''', '''vunu''' and the plural forms being '''iuana''', '''iuanu''', '''ivuna''', '''ivunu'''. Which of the four options is used depends on [[#accessibility|accessibility]]. These compound forms are not used universally and many speakers use juxtaposition of pronouns, such as '''vu nu''' instead of '''vunu''' or '''iua na''' or '''iua ina''' instead of '''iuana'''.<br /> <br /> Even addressing people in the second person, should the group include third persons who are not being addressed, many speakers will make note of these separately, for example '''ju vu''' (gloss: NOM.3s.ICS.DEF NOM.2s.ICS) and this is somewhat prescriptively enforced. The nominal '''ivu''' (gloss: NOM.2p.ICS), for example, is recommended only for use to address two or more people when all are present or when the message is at the very least expected to be passed onto those who are not present. <br /> <br /> The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person. The compound 2nd+1st person pronouns are not subject to this ordering rule.<br /> <br /> Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive.<br /> <br /> ====Definiteness and Specificity====<br /> <br /> In the third person, pronominals indicate definiteness (whether the listener knows which individual) and specificity (whether the speaker knows which individual).<br /> <br /> =====Definite=====<br /> The Definite (+specific, +definite) is used when the listener is assumed to know which specific individual or individuals the speaker is referring to. In the following examples, '''ji ala''' (or just '''ji''') refers to a specific bird which the listener is assumed to be already aware of, possibly because it is already been mentioned.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|the bird}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|it}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Specific=====<br /> The Specific (+specific, -definite) is used when the speaker has a specific individual or individuals in mind but the listener is not assumed to know which one(s). In the following examples, '''mi ala''' (or '''mi''') refers to a specific bird but not one which the speaker expects the listener to know of.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a (particular) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|one (in particular)}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Non-Specific=====<br /> The Non-Specific (or General) does not refer to any specific individual(s) but to the abstract idea of a member or members of a particular class, any individual of which could be described. It often used when talking about desires or in negative sentences. In the examples below, '''i ala''' refers to any bird.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a(ny) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|anyone}}.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Accessibility====<br /> Accessibility is a concept integral to Ngolu culture. Outside of the third person non-specific, all animate nominals have two forms, one ''accessible'' (gloss: ACS) and one ''inaccessible'' (gloss: ICS). Accessible nominals have a low vowel,'''a''' in the nominative stem, '''e''' in the accusative stem, and these correspond to the high vowels '''u''' and '''i''' respectively in inaccessible nominals. Accessibility is typically explained as an indication of whether physical contact is permitted or not, however it is more generally a means of conveying social closeness or distance even when no actual touching is involved.<br /> <br /> In the first person, the English word ''I'' can be translated as either '''na''' (NOM.1s.ACS) or '''nu''' (NOM.1s.ICS). Using '''na''' signals to the listener &quot;I am accessible to you.&quot; This means the speaker feels close and emotionally open to the listener and physical contact is permitted or even welcome. Using '''nu''' informs the listener that physical contact is not welcome at the current time. This is typically because of emotional distance, such as when talking to strangers, casual acquaintances or people whom the speaker does not like, but it may also signal an unwillingness to be touched for other, often fleeting reasons, such as illness, pain or emotional tension. Between close friends and lovers, suddenly switching to '''nu''' may indicate that the speaker has taken offence at something.<br /> <br /> In the second and third persons, accessibility indicates the the referent's ''perceived'' accessibility ''to the speaker''. Using '''ua''' (NOM.2s.ACS) indicates that the speaker assumes he or she may touch the listener. Using '''vu''' (NOM.2s.ICS) indicates either a more respectful or colder social distance (cf. French &quot;vous&quot;, which, coincidentally, sounds identical). In the third person, '''ja''' (NOM.3s.ACS.DEF) and '''ju''' (NOM.3s.ICS.DEF) indicate the speaker's relationship to the referent. In plural, accessible indicates that ''all'' members of the group are accessible. Even one individual who the speaker regards as inaccessible, will cause the group to be marked as inaccessible. Inaccessibility is thus the 'default' and when speaking of generic or unknown individuals, these will be indicated with inaccessible nominals.<br /> <br /> Accessibility produces four speech modes or 'stances'. In situations between peers of equal rank, generally the speech mode with either be accessible (using accessible nominals in both first and second persons) or inaccessible (using inaccessible nominals in both). In situations of unequal dominance, which generally, but do not always, run along lines of rank, the dominant party speaks in the dominant mode, using inaccessible first person nominals and accessible second person nominals. The subordinate party speaks in the subordinate or submissive mode, using the reverse.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | speech mode || first person || second person || meaning<br /> |-<br /> | accessible mode (ACS) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may touch me. I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | inaccessible mode (ICS) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may not touch me. I may not touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | dominant mode (DOM) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may not touch me but I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | submissive mode (SUB) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may touch me but I may not touch you.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The speech mode used depends not only on who the speaker and listener are to one another, but how they feel about each other in that moment. A friend or lover who is deeply offended may suddenly switch to the inaccessible or dominant mode to indicate that they are now not happy and had better not be touched until the offence is resolved. The submissive mode may be used in order to flirt with an acquaintance. Flirting may be met with the accessible or inaccessible modes, which essentially give an answer. No answer (yet) is signalled by the adoption of the dominant mode. Smooth social interactions are ensured by the concordance of speech modes, ACS↔ACS, ICS↔ICS, DOM↔SUB. Conflict is often caused by the refusal to agree or by physical contact with someone marked in speech as inaccessible.<br /> <br /> Examples of the four speech modes in use.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ICS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Case====<br /> Ngolu possesses 14 grammatical cases. The nominative and accusative case appear to be the oldest and all other forms appear to derive from the agglomeration of adpositions onto them. The first group (accusative, dative, ablative, locative, genitive and possessive) appear to be relatively old. At some point after these adpositions fused onto the nominals, the plural marker '''i-''' also became a prefix. For example '''''i-e-ji''''' 'to them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;PL-DAT-ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;. The second group of derived cases (vocative, causal, benefactive, instrumental, comitative, topical, essive) appear to have developed more recently from prepositions added to either the nominative or the accusative case as the plural marker '''i-''' is sandwiched in the middle. For example '''''te-i-ji''''' 'about them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;because.of-PL.ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;.<br /> <br /> =====Nominative=====<br /> The nominative case indicates the grammatical subject of a verb. The nominative case is always formed with a back vowel, '''u''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''a''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''u''' shows animate and '''a''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''muja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|na}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.initiated.man || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be an initiated man&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} am an initiated man.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''loe''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || sleep || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} is not sleeping. / {{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} didn't sleep.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|He}} killed / murdered something / someone''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good || NOM.C || be.not || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It's good {{color|MediumBlue|that}} it's not raining.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zoua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuo}}''' || '''tavi''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ja}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.difficult || NOM.TEMP.C || be.child || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;the time when&quot; || &quot;be child&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He had a difficult childhood.<br /> (≈ {{color|MediumBlue|The time when}} {{color|MediumBlue|s/he}} was a child was difficult.)''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Accusative=====<br /> The accusative case indicates the grammatical object of a verb. The accusative case is formed with a front vowel, '''i''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''e''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''i''' represents animate and '''e''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''. The complementisers are '''jo''' and '''kio'''<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''ti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.PRF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;have finished&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Someone murdered {{color|MediumBlue|him}} / {{color|MediumBlue|He}} was murdered.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jave''' || '''ja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kivo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | throw || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF || ACC.3s.INAN.DEF || be.rock<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;throw&quot; || &quot;the being&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be rock&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''He threw {{color|MediumBlue|the rock}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jo}}''' || '''vai''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.C || stay || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; |''I want you {{color|MediumBlue|to}} stay. (≈ I want {{color|MediumBlue|that}} you stay.)'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In informal speech, the accusative case may replace the dative case when it indicates an experiencer. This does not occur with verbs that also have an accusative role and use the dative case to indicate a recipient.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ine}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || ACC.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Dative=====<br /> The dative case indicates an indirect object of the verb, a destination or goal of a movement or an experiencer. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'to' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''e(r)-''' ('''ie(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volos''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ene}}''' || '''izi''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || DAT.1s.ACS || ACC.3p.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;some things that&quot; || &quot;be water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} was given water. / Someone gave {{color|MediumBlue|me}} water.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|iene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || '''uana'''<br /> |-<br /> | JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM.1+2DU.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go - to them&quot; || &quot;you and I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''vais''' || '''inu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekio}}''' || '''loe''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF || stay || NOM.1p.ICS || DAT.TEMP.C || sleep || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;we&quot; || &quot;until&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''We stayed {{color|MediumBlue|until}} they slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Ablative=====<br /> The ablative case is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'from' in English. It is formed by suffixing '''-i''' to a nominative nominal. The complementisers are '''zuio''' and '''kuio''' in the ablative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Kuaqa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mala}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-uni}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.distant || NOM.1s.ICS || ABL.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || COP-GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be far&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;from the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm far away {{color|MediumBlue|from my home}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go - from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Get away {{color|MediumBlue|from me}}!'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || '''xuua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuio}}''' || '''iti''' || ('''ju''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;to her/him&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;since&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || (&quot;s/he&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Locative=====<br /> The locative case indicates a location. It is more or less equivalent to the prepositions 'in', 'on' and 'at' in English. It is also used to replace the verb &quot;have&quot; when indicating immediate possession as in &quot;to have something on one's person&quot;. It is formed by suffixing '''-a''' to a nominative nominal in the inaccessible and inanimate and prefixing '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ia(r)-''') to an accessible nominative nominal. The prefixed form is also used for the non-specific animate and inanimate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''bani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ana}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.money || LOC.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be money&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I don't have any money (with me). (≈ There is no money {{color|MediumBlue|at me}}.)'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|xua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mo}}''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.what || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be what&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Where are you?'' (≈ You are {{color|MediumBlue|at the what}}?) — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''iio''' || '''jas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azuo}}''' || '''muana''' || '''iti''' || '''exi''' || '''muana''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.fish || NOM.3s.ACS || LOC.C || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.small || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; || &quot;he&quot; || &quot;where&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || &quot;to the thing that&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be big&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''He's fishing {{color|MediumBlue|where}} the stream flows into the river.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || '''xuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;begin&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be yours&quot; || &quot;when&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || (&quot;to the inaccessible one&quot;) || &quot;that thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Genitive=====<br /> The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''egio''' || '''tani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|une}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.threesome || be.sibling || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a group of three&quot; || &quot;be siblings&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I have three siblings.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tta''' || '''xu''' || '''gula''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|uji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tio}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.large || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.pair.of.arms || COP-GEN.3s.DEF.ICS || be.that.3<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be large&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of arms&quot; || &quot;be of the person who&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|That person over there}} has big arms. / The arms {{color|MediumBlue|of that person over there}} are big.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Possessive=====<br /> The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) but to a nominative nominal rather than an accusative one.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || POS.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;owned by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} have / own a house.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It should be noted that, although in many languages, the genitive or possessive case is usually adnominal, referring to an immediately adjacent noun phrase, in Iliaqu, all nominals, regardless of case, refer to the predicate in their clause unless verbalised with the [[#Nominal_to_Verbal|copular prefix]]. Compare the following sentences.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || COP-POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in {{color|MediumBlue|my}} boot.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in the boot {{color|MediumBlue| and it's mine}}.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|I own}} a snake which is in the boot. — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the second sentence, the lack of the copula on '''une''' indicates that it represents an argument of the predicate ('''masa''' 'there is a snake'), meaning that it is the snake which belongs to the speaker, not the boot. The word order, placing the unadorned possessive argument ('''une''') after the much heavier locative argument ('''xua xa buja''') is heavily marked, placing focus on the fact that the snake is the speaker's legal possession.<br /> <br /> Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, ''ataiva'', the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for ''ataiva'' to avoid the possessive case entirely in favour of the genitive case.<br /> <br /> =====Vocative=====<br /> The vocative case is used to address someone or attract their attention. It is formed by adding '''e(r)-''' ('''ei-''' in plural) to a nominative nominal. <br /> <br /> The most common greeting words for most uses are simply vocative nominals. They must reflect the number and accessibility of the addressee(s). <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is common for inaccessibles to be greeted in the third person, with '''eju''' frequently replacing '''evu'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Third person definite forms, however, may also be used with accessibles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eja}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh he who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Among accessibles, the '''e-''' prefix may be added directly to a personal name. This and the predicate prefix '''i-''' are the only example of verbals (as all names are verbals) taking a non-derivational affix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|e}}-xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | hey-be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey - be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hey}} Xagu!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the indefinite, the vocative can be used to summon help from non-specific people.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eru}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when one person's assistance is enough.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3p.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when more than one person's assistance is required.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative complementiser '''ezuo''' is used to mean 'if only' or 'I wish'. It is also used for making polite requests. Literally, it's something like 'o that'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezuo}}''' || '''hunia''' || '''nua'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.C || be.potable || LOC.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if only&quot; || &quot;be beverage&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''May I have some water please? ({{color|MediumBlue|If only}} I had some water.)'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative temporal complementiser '''ekuo''' is used to express nostalgia about a past time or anticipation for a future time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || '''ata''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh for the time when&quot; || &quot;be adult&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I can't wait till}} I'm grown up.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Causal=====<br /> The causal case describes a cause. It is equivalent to the English &quot;because of&quot;. It is formed by prefixing '''te(r)-''' (plural: '''tei-''') to the accusative nominals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zaxa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.sick || NOM.1s.ICS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am sick&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm ill {{color|MediumBlue|because of you}}. / You made me ill.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ezo''' || '''zouas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tejo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''mala''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.now || be.difficult || DAT.1s.ICS || CAU.C || be.not || be.house || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;because&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''Things are tough for me at the moment {{color|MediumBlue|because}} I don't have a house..'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Benefactive=====<br /> The benefactive case indicates either a beneficiary or benefactor of an action or situation or a goal. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'for'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''kua(r)-''' (plural: '''kuai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.this.1 || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;there is this, by me&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''This is {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}. (≈ There's this {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.)'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bioi''' || '''vaia''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.willing || do.everything || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;would&quot; || &quot;do everything&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I would do anything {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''etie''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''leu''' || '''ue''' || '''veji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || move.to.here.1 || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.C || rescue || ACC.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;finish&quot; || &quot;come here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;rescue&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;about the person&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; |''I came here {{color|MediumBlue|(in order) to}} save you from him/her.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''naxe''' || '''molu''' || '''iu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''mue''' || '''lau''' || '''iu''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | must || be.dead || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || BEN.C || be.able || be.alive || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;must&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;can&quot; || &quot;live&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates that&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; |''Some must die {{color|MediumBlue|so that}} others may live.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kuas''' || '''enies''' || '''e''' || '''kueta''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuakio}}''' || '''gehuo''' || '''ua''' || '''ji''' || '''uako'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || carry || ACC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.hunting.knife || BEN.TEMP.C || encounter || NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.enemy<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;carry&quot; || &quot;a non-specific thing which&quot; || &quot;be a hunting knife&quot; || &quot;in case&quot; || &quot;encounter&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''Carry a knife {{color|MediumBlue|in case}} you cross paths with enemies.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Instrumental=====<br /> The instrumental case describes the means or method by which something is done. It is equivalent to the English preposition &quot;with&quot; when it means &quot;using&quot;. It is formed by adding the prefix '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''vuja''' || '''zi''' || '''vaku''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kueta}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || hunt || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.babirusa || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.hunting.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;deliberately killed&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;hunts&quot; || &quot;a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a babirusa&quot; || &quot;using a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a hunting knife&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''The hunter killed the babirusa {{color|MediumBlue|with a hunting knife}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g-iara''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC.3p.NSPC.INAN || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;certain people&quot; || &quot;by&quot; || &quot;wait&quot; || &quot;at anything which&quot; || &quot;is bushes&quot; || &quot;be-at any things which&quot; || &quot;be drinking water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Comitative=====<br /> The comitative case indicates an accompanying person or thing. It is equivalent to 'with' in English when it means 'along with' or 'accompanied by'. It is formed by prefixing '''le(r)-''' (plural: '''lei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''ja''' || '''meha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|leje}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jalu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Meha || COM.3s.DEF.ACS || Jalu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is hunting&quot; || &quot;the person who&quot; || &quot;is Meha&quot; || &quot;with the person who&quot; || &quot;is Jalu&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''Meha is hunting {{color|MediumBlue|with Jalu}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''hu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || move.PFV || COM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come/go&quot; || &quot;with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Come {{color|MediumBlue|with me}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bata''' || '''ja''' || '''umatu''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lejo'''}} || '''buga''' || '''taba''' || '''iju''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | dance || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Umatu || COM.C || hit || be.drum || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;dance&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be Umatu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;be drum&quot; || &quot;the beings who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Umatu danced {{color|MediumBlue|while}} the others played the drums.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Topical=====<br /> The topical case indicates the topic or theme of an act of communication and in many instances also something which is kept in mind when a particular action is performed. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'about'. It is formed by prefixing '''ve(r)-''' (plural '''vei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''ila''' || '''na''' || '''leue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vezi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|valo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || speak || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.interesting<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;speak&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;about something that&quot; || &quot;is interesting&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to talk to you {{color|MediumBlue|about something interesting}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''teuas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vexi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiau}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | thank || DAT.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.food<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;thank&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;about the thing that&quot; || &quot;is food&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Thanks {{color|MediumBlue|for the food}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''malemale''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''moio''' || '''iu''' || '''azo''' || '''lo''' || '''zola''' || '''iu''' || '''babo'''<br /> |-<br /> | gossip || TOP.C || do.what || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other || ADV || be.solely || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;gossip&quot; || &quot;about the fact that&quot; || &quot;do what&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be only&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Only unintelligent people gossip {{color|MediumBlue|about}} what other people do.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Essive=====<br /> The essive case indicates the role of something in the sentence. It is roughly equivalent to the English words 'as' or 'like'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''o(r)-''' (plural: '''oi-''') to the nominative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''atia''' || '''nas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|omas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ali}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.there.2 || NOM.1s.ACS || ESS.3s.SPEC.ACS || be.same.rank.friend || COP-DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;as a person who&quot; || &quot;be a friend of the same rank&quot; || &quot;be to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm here {{color|MediumBlue|as your friend}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ozuo}}''' || '''ka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.visible || ESS.C || be.going.to || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;appear&quot; || &quot;as if&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It looks {{color|MediumBlue|like}} it's going to rain.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Tables====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Simple pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | na<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | nu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ina<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | inu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate specific<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ma<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | mu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ima<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | imu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate definite<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate specific<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | izu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | a<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ia<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> animate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> inanimate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Compound pronominals<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dominant<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dual<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Complimentisers<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | temporal<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====First Person=====<br /> First person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''nu''' || '''inu''' || '''na''' || '''ina'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ni''' || '''ini''' || '''ne''' || '''ine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''nua''' || '''inua''' || '''ana''' || '''iana''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uni''' || '''iuni''' || '''une''' || '''iune'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''unu''' || '''iunu''' || '''una''' || '''iuna'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''enu''' || '''einu''' || '''ena''' || '''eina''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teni''' || '''teini''' || '''tene''' || '''teine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuani''' || '''kuaini''' || '''kuane''' || '''kuaine''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ani''' || '''aini''' || '''ane''' || '''aine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leni''' || '''leini''' || '''lene''' || '''leine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veni''' || '''veini''' || '''vene''' || '''veine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''onu''' || '''oinu''' || '''ona''' || '''oina''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS.SG || ICS:PL || ACS.SG || ACS.PL<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ue''' || '''iue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eui''' || '''ieui''' || '''eue''' || '''ieue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''vui''' || '''ivui''' || '''uai''' || '''iuai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''vua''' || '''ivua''' || '''aua''' || '''iaua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uui''' || '''iuui''' || '''uue''' || '''iuue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uvu''' || '''iuvu''' || '''uua''' || '''iuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''evu''' || '''eivu''' || '''eua''' || '''eiua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teui''' || '''teiui''' || '''teue''' || '''teiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiui''' || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaiue''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aui''' || '''aiui''' || '''aue''' || '''aiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leui''' || '''leiui''' || '''leue''' || '''leiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veui''' || '''veiui''' || '''veue''' || '''veiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ovu''' || '''oivu''' || '''oua''' || '''oiua''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || ICS.DU<br /> || ACS.DU<br /> || DOM.DU<br /> || SUB.DU<br /> || ICS.PL<br /> || ACS.PL<br /> || DOM.PL<br /> || SUB.PL<br /> |-<br /> || Nominative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Accusative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Dative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvuna<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''ju''' || '''iju''' || '''ja''' || '''ija''' || '''xu''' || '''ixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ji''' || '''iji''' || '''je''' || '''ije''' || '''xi''' || '''ixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jui''' || '''ijui''' || '''jai''' || '''ijai''' || '''xui''' || '''ixui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''jua''' || '''ijua''' || '''aja''' || '''iaja''' || '''xua''' || '''ixua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uji''' || '''iuji''' || '''uje''' || '''iuje''' || '''uxi''' || '''iuxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uju''' || '''iuju''' || '''uja''' || '''iuja''' || '''*uxu''' || '''*iuxu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eju''' || '''eiju''' || '''eja''' || '''eija''' || '''exu''' || '''eixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teji''' || '''teiji''' || '''teje''' || '''teije''' || '''texi''' || '''teixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaiji''' || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuaixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aji''' || '''aiji''' || '''aje''' || '''aije''' || '''axi''' || '''aixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leji''' || '''leiji''' || '''leje''' || '''leije''' || '''lexi''' || '''leixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veji''' || '''veiji''' || '''veje''' || '''veije''' || '''vexi''' || '''veixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oju''' || '''oiju''' || '''oja''' || '''oija''' || '''oxu''' || '''oixu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''mu''' || '''imu''' || '''ma''' || '''ima''' || '''zu''' || '''izu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''mi''' || '''imi''' || '''me''' || '''ime''' || '''zi''' || '''izi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''emi''' || '''iemi''' || '''eme''' || '''ieme''' || '''ezi''' || '''iezi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mui''' || '''imui''' || '''mai''' || '''imai''' || '''zui''' || '''izui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''mua''' || '''imua''' || '''ama''' || '''iama''' || '''zua''' || '''izua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''umi''' || '''iumi''' || '''ume''' || '''iume''' || '''uzi''' || '''iuzi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''umu''' || '''iumu''' || '''uma''' || '''iuma''' || '''*uzu''' || '''*iuzu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''emu''' || '''eimu''' || '''ema''' || '''eima''' || '''ezu''' || '''eizu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''temi''' || '''teimi''' || '''teme''' || '''teime''' || '''tezi''' || '''teizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuami''' || '''kuaimi''' || '''kuame''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuazi''' || '''kuaizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ami''' || '''aimi''' || '''ame''' || '''aime''' || '''azi''' || '''aizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lemi''' || '''leimi''' || '''leme''' || '''leime''' || '''lezi''' || '''leizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vemi''' || '''veimi''' || '''veme''' || '''veime''' || '''vezi''' || '''veizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''omu''' || '''oimu''' || '''oma''' || '''oima''' || '''ozu''' || '''oizu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ANIM Sg. || ANIM Pl. || INAN Sg. || INAN Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''u''' || '''iu''' || '''a''' || '''ia'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''i''' || '''iri''' || '''e''' || '''ie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eri''' || '''ieri''' || '''ere''' || '''iere'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ai''' || '''iai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''iaru''' || '''ara''' || '''iara'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''iuri''' || '''ure''' || '''iure'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''iuru''' || '''ura'''* || '''iura'''*<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu''' || '''era''' || '''eia''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' || '''tere''' || '''teie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' || '''kuare''' || '''kuaie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' || '''are''' || '''aie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' || '''lere''' || '''leie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veri''' || '''veiri''' || '''vere''' || '''veie''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu''' || '''ora''' || '''oia'''<br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> =====Complementisers=====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''jo''' || 'that' || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''ejo''' || 'to the place where' || '''ekio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || *'''uzuo''' || || *'''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vejo''' || 'about V-ing' || '''vekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |}<br /> ::&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Verbals===<br /> <br /> Verbals constitute the only open class of words in Ngolu. They are essentially content words, equivalent to what in other languages are verbs ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''loe''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to sleep' || [NOM] sleeps<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kau''' || 'to eat' || [NOM] eats [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to hunt' (= 'to be a hunter') || [NOM] hunts [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''volo''' || 'to give' || [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mahu''' || 'to know' || [DAT] knows [NOM] = [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ila''' || 'to speak/talk' || [NOM] speaks [ACC]/[INS] (= language) to [DAT]/[COM] about [TOP]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mue''' || 'to be able to' || [NOM] can / is able to […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... nouns ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''iio''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be a fish' || [NOM] is a fish of [GEN] belonging to [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to be a hunter' (= 'to hunt') || [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person<br /> |-<br /> |• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of a different rank)' || [NOM] is a friend of [DAT], lover of [GEN] and concubine of [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ilia''' || 'to be speech/language' || [NOM] is the speech/language of [GEN]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... adjectives ... <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''tta''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be large' || [NOM] is large<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kaiu''' || 'to be edible' ('to be food') || [NOM] is edible to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kuaqa''' || 'to be far/distant' || [NOM] is far from [ABL]/[DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''xeva''' || 'to be visible' (= 'to see') || [NOM is visible to [DAT]; [DAT] sees [NOM]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lau''' || 'to be alive' (= 'to live', 'to be a living being') || [NOM] is alive<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lubi''' || 'to be closed/shut' || [NOM] is closed/shut to [DAT]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... and adverbs.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''jau''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to intentionally ...' || [NOM] is intentionally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mola''' || 'to be merely ...' (= 'to be insignificant') || [NOM] is just/only/merely […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> They are generally thought of as 'content words' but even many grammatical functions are expressed by verbals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''kka''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be not ...' || [NEGATIVE] || [NOM] is not […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hua''' || 'to be always ...', 'to be eternally ...' || [GNOMIC] || [NOM] is eternally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hau''' || 'to be defined by being ...' || [ESSENTIAL] || [NOM] is essentially […] by definition<br /> |-<br /> |• '''he''' || 'to undergo' || [PASSIVE] || [NOM] undergoes […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''eti''' || 'to have previously done ...' || [PAST] || [NOM] did […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Regardless of the verbal's semantic meaning and which part of speech carries the bulk of the meaning when translated into another language, each verbal can be used in the same syntactic positions as any other verbal. All verbals can appear as a predicate, an argument (when preceded by a nominal) or as a modifier to another, preceding verbal. Compare the following two sentences which show how a semantically verb-like verbal, '''gahu''' ('to howl'), and a semantically more noun-like verbal, '''zagua''' ('to be a gibbon') can simply be swapped. Both can appear in the predicate, both can appear in an argument and neither needs to be inflected to take on either role.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{|<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || scope=&quot;col&quot; width=&quot;10&quot; | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''gahu''' || || '''ju''' || '''zagua'''<br /> |-<br /> | howl || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.gibbon<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;howls&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a gibbon&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''The gibbon howls.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |- style=&quot;height: 2em;&quot;<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''zagua''' || || '''ju''' || '''gahu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.gibbon || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is a gibbon&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;howls&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''What howls is a gibbon.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Argument Structure====<br /> <br /> Verbals each have an inherent argument structure, controlling which case are used for which role. Dictionaries, and the examples above, mark the meanings of each relevant case when used with each verbal.<br /> <br /> Many argument structures are as would be expected.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''volo''' = [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> :* '''vuja''' = [NOM] hunts [ACC]; [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]<br /> :* '''akku''' = [NOM] is blood; [NOM] is the blood of [GEN]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volo''' || '''na''' || '''xi''' || '''eje'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to him&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I give it to him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is a tendency for experiencers to be in the dative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''hualo''' = [DAT] loves/cares about [NOM]; [NOM] is loved by [DAT]<br /> :* '''xeva''' = [DAT] sees [NOM]; [NOM] is seen by [DAT]<br /> :* '''zoua''' = [NOM] is difficult for [DAT]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''eni''' || '''ju''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was seen&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I saw the king.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Although that is not always the case, as this pair of opposites shows.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''mahu''' = [DAT] knows [NOM]; [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> :* '''zau''' = [NOM] doesn't know about [TOP]; [NOM] is ignorant of [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mahu''' || '''eni''' || ('''xu''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.1s.ICS || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || (&quot;it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zau''' || '''nu''' || ('''vexi''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || (TOP.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || (&quot;about it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I don't know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also an unusual class of verbals where the nominative role usually refers to a body part, the genitive refers to the possessor and when there is an accusative argument, the whole thing refers to an action performed (with the body part) by the possessor.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bale''' = [NOM] is a fist of [GEN]; [GEN] punches [ACC]<br /> :* '''bane''' = [NOM] is a hand of [GEN]; [GEN] holds, grasps, clutches [ACC]<br /> :* '''buja''' = [NOM] is a heavy boot of [GEN]; [GEN] crushes [ACC] under his boot<br /> :* '''gula''' = [NOM] is the pair of arms of [GEN]; [GEN] hugs [ACC]<br /> :* '''juaza''' = [NOM] is the penis of [GEN]; [GEN] fucks [ACC] (vulgar!)<br /> :* '''kanu''' = [NOM] is the nose of [GEN]; [GEN] sniffs [ACC]<br /> :* '''kula''' = [NOM] is the pair of ears of [GEN]; [GEN] listens to [ACC]<br /> :* '''mama''' = [NOM] is the pair of breasts of [GEN]; [GEN] breast-feeds [ACC]<br /> :* '''miva''' = [NOM] is a finger of [GEN]; [GEN] touches, feels [ACC]<br /> :* '''musari''' = [NOM] is a molar of [GEN]; [GEN] chews [ACC]<br /> :* '''omo''' = [NOM] is the pair of eyes of [GEN]; [GEN] looks at [ACC]<br /> :* '''umakka''' = [NOM] is a tooth (incisor, canine) of [GEN]; [GEN] bites [ACC]<br /> :* '''zuru''' = [NOM] is a war against [ACC]; [GEN] wages war on [ACC]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I have eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xu''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || be.this.1<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is this, here by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''These are my eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xi''' || '''masa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || be.snake<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a snake&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking at the snake'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The verbal '''lama''' is somewhat similar, although it may simply be understood through an idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''lama''' = [NOM] is a tear of [GEN]/[LOC]; [GEN]/[LOC] weeps (silently) about [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lama''' || '''ana''' || '''teui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is (a) tear(s)&quot; || &quot;at him/her&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The above sentence may also be translated as &quot;There are tears on him/her because of you,&quot; or &quot;S/He has tears because of you,&quot; making it less clear as to whether this is a good example of an apparent non-nominative subject.<br /> <br /> There is a proposed additional place within the argument structure of many verbals, that of a following modifier. A following modifier may mark a specific role which may either be marked by another case or may only be filled by a following modifier. The notation used here indicates a following modifier with […].<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''maue''' = [NOM] is a group of seven […]<br /> :* '''kka''' = [NOM] is not […]<br /> :* '''mia''' = [NOM] approaches [DAT]/[…]<br /> :* '''tehi''' = [NOM] is possibly […]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''mala''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | approach || be.house || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''iju''' || '''exi''' || '''mala''' <br /> |-<br /> | approach || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN || be.house <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;they&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Derivation of Verbals====<br /> <br /> There are two kinds of derivational affixes, one which converts a nominal into a verbal and many others which convert a verbal into another verbal with a different meaning.<br /> <br /> =====Nominal to Verbal=====<br /> All nominals can be converted into a verbal by adding a copula prefix. The copula prefix is '''g-''' before a vowel, '''k''' or '''g''', '''m-''' before '''m''', '''b''' and '''v''', '''l-''' before '''l''' and '''n-''' before all other consonants. The copula prefix essentially prevents a nominal from signalling the start of an argument. Used with the dative or ablative case, the meaning may be interpreted as a verb of motion.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nu''' 'I' [NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}nu''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} me' [COP-NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''eni''' 'to me' [DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}eni''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} to me', '{{color|MediumBlue|to come}} to me' [COP-DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''xu mala''' 'the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xu mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} the house'<br /> :* '''xua mala''' 'at the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xua mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} at the house'<br /> :* '''kuaini''' 'for us' [BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}kuaini''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} for us' [COP-BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> <br /> <br /> Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}nu''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-NOM.1s.ICS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be I&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I{{color|MediumBlue|'m}} me.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}xuas''' || '''azikuo''' || '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.≈school || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a school for adolescent boys&quot; || &quot;s/he&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} not at school.'' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} to me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|l-}}lene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;be with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} with me. / {{color|MediumBlue|Be}} with me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''nini''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}une''' || '''ja''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.mother || COP-GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.this<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be this&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''This is my mother.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Verbal to Verbal=====<br /> <br /> A far more common means of derivation is from verbal to verbal. This is chiefly done by means of infixing although prefixes and suffixes also exist.<br /> <br /> ======Collective======<br /> <br /> The collective infix '''-ig-''' indicates a group of the named entity.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''ala''' 'to be a bird'<br /> ::→ '''al{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}a''' 'to be {{color|MediumBlue|a flock}} of bird{{color|MediumBlue|s}}'<br /> :* '''balu''' 'to be a royal guardsman'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to be the royal guard'<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to eat {{color|MediumBlue|together}}'<br /> :* '''uttia''' 'to be a tree'<br /> ::→ '''ut{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}ia''' 'to be a forest'<br /> <br /> <br /> ======Gerundive======<br /> <br /> The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something. The accusative role is promoted to the nominative role, as with the passive construction with '''he''', but in addition the assertion is made that this is a good or customary use for the referent in question.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''huna''' 'to drink'<br /> ::→ '''hun{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a''' 'to be (fresh) water', 'to be potable', 'to be drinkable' (to be something to be drunk)<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular)<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular)<br /> :* '''jalo''' 'to welcome', 'to receive', 'to accept (into a place)'<br /> ::→ '''jal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a guest' (one who is to be welcomed)<br /> :* '''asu''' 'to be seated', 'to be sitting'<br /> ::→ '''a{{color|MediumBlue|x}}u''' 'to be a chair', 'to be a seat' (to be something to be sat on) [''*asiu'' → ''axu'']<br /> :* '''ila''' 'to speak', 'to talk'<br /> ::→ '''il{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a'''' 'to be language' (to be something to be spoken)<br /> :* '''zoi''' 'to say', 'to tell'<br /> ::→ '''zo{{color|MediumBlue|j}}i''' 'to be worth saying', 'to be fitting/appropriate' (to be something to be said) [''*zoii'' → ''zoji'']<br /> :* '''go''' 'to do something', 'to act'<br /> ::→ '''g{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a duty', 'to be an obligation', 'to be a good idea' (to be something to be done)<br /> :* '''mue''' 'to be able', 'to be capable'<br /> ::→ '''m{{color|MediumBlue|i}}ue''' 'to be a required skill' (to be something that someone should be able to do)<br /> :* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes'; (with genitive subject) 'to look at'<br /> ::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at)<br /> :* '''bale''' 'to be a fist'; (with genitive subject) 'to punch'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}e''' 'to be punchable', 'to have a punchable face' (to be one who ought to be punched, a common pejorative word)<br /> :* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', (with genitive subject) 'to crush under a boot'<br /> ::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot) [''*bujia'' → ''buji'']<br /> :* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter'<br /> ::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted) [''*vujia'' → ''vuji'']<br /> <br /> ======Locative======<br /> <br /> The prefix '''a-''' indicates being at a particular place.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''tio''' 'to be that'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}tio''' 'to be there' (≈ 'to be at that')<br /> :* '''mala''' 'to be a house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}mala''' 'to be at home' (≈ 'to be at house')<br /> <br /> ======Ornative======<br /> <br /> The ornative prefix '''o-''' indicates having or being equipped with something.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bani''' 'to be money'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money')<br /> :* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with room(s)')<br /> :* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair')<br /> :* '''ulu''' 'to be muscle'<br /> ::→ '''u{{color|MediumBlue|o}}lu''' 'to be muscular' (≈ 'to be with muscle', with metathesis turning /ou/ into /uo/)<br /> <br /> ====Verbals with inherent gender / rank distinctions====<br /> <br /> Many verbals semantically encode gender within their meaning. In some cases, there are pairs of words, such as the following.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nini''' 'to be a mother / aunt'<br /> :* '''nana''' 'to be a father / uncle'<br /> <br /> <br /> In this instance, the divide along genders is easy for non-Ngolu to conceptualise. However many other concepts are also divided by gender, or, more accurately, rank, and this frequently has to do with the Ngolu's strict cultural taboos around gender and rank. For example, Ngolu men and women are expected to sing, dance, dress and urinate differently.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''laha''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''kali'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''lasa''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''kali'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''miia''' 'to wear' (of a ''kali'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''kele''' 'to urinate' (of a ''kali'', to urinate while sitting or squatting)<br /> <br /> :* '''uaie''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''muja'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''bata''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''muja'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''uara''' 'to wear' (of a ''muja'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''zatu''' 'to urinate' (of a ''muja'', to urinate while standing)<br /> <br /> <br /> In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank.<br /> <br /> Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha''' ('to fight physically'), '''aiuo''' ('to shoot').<br /> <br /> Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word.<br /> <br /> Verbals may also specify the gender/rank of an argument other than the nominal. For example, the word ''bale'' means 'to be a fist', specifying a ''muja'' in the role of the genitive possessor. Similarly, items of clothing specific to one gender can only appear with possessors in the corresponding gender.<br /> <br /> When a subject (or another argument) does not match the gender/rank specified in the verbal, there must be paraphrasing. There are generally two ways this is done, with '''ko''' and with '''hui'''.<br /> <br /> =====Ko=====<br /> <br /> '''Ko''' is a verbal meaning 'to be similar'. It can be placed before a gendered verbal when the subject (or other relevant argument) does not match. For example, the word for ''enemy'' is '''uako'''. It is a ''muja'' verb, perhaps best translated as 'to be a ''muja'' enemy'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.enemy || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is no direct equivalent for a ''kali'' who is an enemy. To express the idea of a ''kali'' being an enemy, what is essentially said is &quot;S/he is ''like'' an enemy.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.similar || be.enemy.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be.like&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The closest analogue in English would be with words such as 'midwife', which has no easy male equivalent. In Ngolu, it is as though one simply says 'He's like a midwife.' Similarly, in the following example, there is no word equivalent to a woman's fist, only a man's fist. Therefore, she made something ''like'' a man's fist.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''li''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|bale}}''' || '''uji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || begin || be.similar || be.MUJA.fist || GEN.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;start&quot; || &quot;be like&quot; || &quot;be a (man's) fist&quot; || &quot;of the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She made {{color|MediumBlue|a fist}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Hui=====<br /> <br /> '''Hui''' is similar to '''ko''' except it is filled with contempt and criticism. It is a verbal which could be translated as 'to shamefully break gender taboos by approximating |…|'. There is essentially no grammatical difference between '''ko''' and '''hui''' - the former is simply neutral and the later conveys strong condemnation of breaking taboos.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || sing.KALI<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;sing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|There's a man (shamefully) trying to sing like a woman}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ttio}}''' || '''ju''' || '''je'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || strike || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Particles and Grammatical Affixes===<br /> <br /> Particles are words which cannot be classified as either nominals or verbals. Most of them are equivalent to conjunctions, introducing clauses. In many cases, the line between verb and particle is a little blurred and difficult to find and research is still ongoing.<br /> <br /> ====''Au''====<br /> <br /> ====''Au'' and ''teu''====<br /> <br /> '''Au''' and '''teu''' are used to order the events multiple clause sentence. '''Au''' introduces the clause in which the first action took place and is thus roughly equivalent to 'first' or 'after' whereas '''teu''' introduces a later action and is thus equivalent to 'then' or 'before'. They are usually used as correlative conjunctions, with both present in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | first;after|| eat || NOM.1s.ICS || second;before || sleep || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|First}} I ate, {{color|MediumBlue|then}} I slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I ate {{color|MediumBlue|before}} I slept.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|After}} I ate, I slept.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The order of the clauses can be reversed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | second/before || sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Before}} I slept, I ate.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Sometimes the first of the two conjunctions is omitted.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''— [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept, {{color|MediumBlue|but first}}, I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> '''Au''' is also a verbal occa<br /> <br /> ====''Ha''====<br /> <br /> '''Ha''' forms polar (yes/no) questions. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Polar_Questions|Polar Questions]]<br /> <br /> It also introduces the protasis of realis conditional sentences, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Hai''====<br /> <br /> '''Hai''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Haizuo''====<br /> <br /> '''Haizuo''' is an emphatic form of '''hai'''. It introduces the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''I-''====<br /> <br /> The clitic particle '''i-''' appears on the beginning of any part of the predicate when it is preceded in a sentence by any non-predicate element. For example, in the following sentence, '''hu mala''' is the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''mala''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || be.house || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Topicalised arguments can be brought forward in the sentence to before the verb phrase. The verb phrase must now be marked with '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;As for me&lt;/u&gt;, I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The predicate phrase can even be split, with arguments appearing inside it.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;I&lt;/u&gt;'m going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In extreme cases, there can even be more than one split in a predicate phrase, with '''i-''' necessary each time the predicate is resumed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''leuis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || COM.2s.ICS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I want to go home with you.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Of that last example, the normal word order would be '''bio hu mala na leui'''.<br /> <br /> When added to words beginning with a syllabic '''i''', the prefix '''i-''' becomes '''j-''' ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|j}}-iio'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.this.1 || PRED-be.fish<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be this&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''This, well, this is a fish!'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... but before a non-syllabic '''i''', it remains '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''omo''' || '''g-unis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}iaha'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3S.DEF.INAN || be.pair.of.eyes || COP-GEN.1s.ICS || PRED-be.painful<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;hurt&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''As for my eyes, they're sore.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Lo''====<br /> <br /> '''Lo''' appears to be a short form of the comitative complementiser '''lejo'''. It introduces an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> ====''Mie''====<br /> <br /> ====''Teuo''====<br /> <br /> ====''To''====<br /> <br /> ''To'' generally introduces consequences. It often roughly means 'so' or 'therefore'. In these cases, it may replaced by the more emphatic '''toua'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ba''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(ua)}}''' || '''ka''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''muanaiti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || rain || therefore || be.PROS || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.stream<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;so&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be stream&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''It's raining hard, so the streams are going to swell.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is used in conjunction with '''ha''' (and sometimes '''hai''' or '''haizuo''') to form conditional clauses where it introduces the apodosis. See [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]] for examples.<br /> <br /> It is also frequently used to replace '''i-''' in introducing a main clause after a subordinate clause other than a conditional clause.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''enio'''<br /> |-<br /> | LOC.TEMP.C || rain || then || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.plant<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;when&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be plant&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|When}} it rains{{color|MediumBlue|, (then)}} the plants grow.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Toi''====<br /> <br /> '''Toi''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Toua''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xe''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xue''====<br /> <br /> ===Interjections===<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> <br /> ===Phrase Structure===<br /> <br /> ====Verbal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A verbal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL ...]]]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> When multiple verbals are stacked one after the other, the head is on the left and modifiers on the right.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a large house / are large houses''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jiio''' || '''ttiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | run || be.quick<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;run&quot; || &quot;be fast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''runs quickly / run quickly''<br /> ''is a fast runner / are fast runners''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''hunts birds / hunt birds''<br /> ''is a bird hunter / are bird hunters''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In many cases, verbals with more grammatical than semantic content are followed by much more semantically rich modifying verbals. In these cases, the preceding words are nevertheless heads and the following words modifiers.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bas''' || '''ali''' || '''g-eji''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || be.friend.(of.the.same.sex) || COP-DAT.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;be friend&quot; || &quot;be to inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;be the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a good friend / are good friends of the king''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''huna'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || drink<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;drink&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''drank / has drunk / have drunk''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''toto''' || '''kas''' || '''euo''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.really || be.PROS || be.pair || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be in fact&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''are actually going to be two big ones''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''buua''' || '''tio''' || '''vaxu''' || '''zara'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.on.top.of || be.that.3 || be.table || write<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be one top of&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot; || &quot;be a table&quot; || &quot;write&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''is / are on top of that desk over there''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Each complex verbal phrase comprised of more than one verbal has its own case structure which defines how the cases are used in a sentence. The case structure is determined by the rightmost verbal which shares the same nominative argument as the leftmost verbal in the phrase.<br /> <br /> $$$$$$$ [examples to come]<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A nominal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''NOMINAL [VERBAL PHRASE]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> An unadorned nominal on its own functions as a pronoun.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''he'', ''she''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''its''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> Adorned nominal phrases consist of a nominal followed by a verbal phrase. In this case, the nominal acts as the head of a relative clause in which the verbal phrase sits.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju''' || '''xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || execute<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;execute&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the executioner''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi''' || '''tukaue'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.collar.indicating.the.owner.of.a.slave<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a slave's collar&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''of the slave's collar''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Structure===<br /> <br /> With unmarked word order, a clause generally has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''[PARTICLE] PREDICATE [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] ...'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> A &lt;tt&gt;'''PREDICATE'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a verbal phrase and an &lt;tt&gt;'''ARGUMENT'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a nominal phrase or a subordinate clause.<br /> <br /> In many cases, one or more arguments may precede the predicate or may even appear in the middle of the predicate, dividing it into two or more pieces.<br /> <br /> Unmarked word order:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental)<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau''' || '''azi''' || '''akuala''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; || &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''I ate food with a knife.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted, nominal argument partially fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || Pred... || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || ...icate || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''nu''' || '''i-kau''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || NOM.1s.ICS || eat || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Predicate-Only Clauses====<br /> <br /> The simplest clauses in Ngolu consist of nothing but a verbal or a verbal phrase used as the predicate. There are no obligatory arguments in Ngolu and all may be omitted from the clause and left to context, even the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's raining. / It rains.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's good.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> A verbal with no arguments indicates an activity or state without specifying the identity of any participants. Essentially, Ngolu is a pro-drop language. With prior context, omitted arguments can be understood as referring to someone or something already discussed. With no prior context, however, verbal-only sentences are simply understood with a &quot;someone or something&quot; as the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kau'''<br /> |-<br /> | eat<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;eats&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He, she or it is eating. (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Something or someone is eating.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He or it is hunting. / He or it is a hunter.'' (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''Something or someone is hunting. / There's a hunter.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Simple declarative or existential statements are frequently verbal-only.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.fire<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a fire&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's a fire. / There's a fire. / Fire!''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====One-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Multi-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Subordinate Clauses====<br /> <br /> =====Complementiser Clauses=====<br /> <br /> =====Adverbial Clauses=====<br /> <br /> Adverbial clauses are introduced by the particle '''lo''', which may be derived from '''lejo''', the comitative case of the copula 'zuo'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''lo''' || '''juo''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | want || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ADV || be.outside || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be outside&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to eat outside.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Relative Clauses=====<br /> <br /> ===Topic and Focus===<br /> <br /> ===Affirmation and Negation===<br /> <br /> The verbals '''ahe''' and '''kka''' indicate polarity, being positive and negative respectively. On their own, they are roughly equivalent to 'yes' and 'no'. <br /> <br /> Positive sentences are generally unmarked and '''ahe''' generally appears only for emphasis.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || '''bo''' || '''xu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.indeed || be.wanted || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;be wanted&quot; || &quot;the thing&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|do}} want it.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation is performed by means of '''kka'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xua''' || '''uttia'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be tree&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''S/He{{color|MediumBlue|'s not}} at the tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''mula''' || '''ju''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.liked || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be liked&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|don't}} like him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> After a negative question or statement, '''ahe''' indicates a contradictory, positive answer whereas '''kka''' indicates a negative answer in agreement.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.not || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be.not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Is{{color|MediumBlue|n't}} it raining?''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.indeed || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be indeed&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Yes, it is}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.not || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be not&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No, it's not}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation (as well as affirmation) is generally performed in the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''xeva''' || '''ju''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|eri}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.seen || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;to anyone who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No one else}} saw her.'' (Literally: ''{{color|MediumBlue|Anyone else didn't}} see her.'')<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> To negate or affirm an argument, it is placed within an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || '''los''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''ahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV || be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV || be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Both '''kka''' and '''ahe''' have equivalent adverbial forms, '''kku''' and '''lahe''' respectively, which do not require the use of '''lo''' when negating or affirming an argument. The previous sentence may be expressed as follows.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kku}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV.be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV.be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Interrogation===<br /> <br /> ====Polar Questions====<br /> <br /> Polar questions are indicated with '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} raining{{color|MediumBlue|?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Do}} you love me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Ha''' can occur at the end of a sentence, where it functions as a question tag.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | rain || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot; || Q<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''It's raining, {{color|MediumBlue|isn't it?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;?&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''You love me, {{color|MediumBlue|don't you?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Individual arguments in a sentence may be called into question by placing them inside an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]] introduced by '''lo'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} me who you love{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''na''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || ADV || Q || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} you who loves me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Alternative Questions====<br /> <br /> Alternative questions use two or more instances of '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Bio''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''kau''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''huna''' || '''vu'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || Q || eat || Q || drink || NOM.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;or&quot; || &quot;drink&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''Would you like anything to {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} eat {{color|MediumBlue|or}} drink{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Xevu''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ja''' || '''mahu''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ju''' || '''laiuiie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mahu || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Laiuiie<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Mahu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Laiuiie&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''Have you seen {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} Mahu {{color|MediumBlue|or}} Laiuiie{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Content Questions====<br /> <br /> ====Embedded Questions====<br /> <br /> Any type of question may be embedded inside a complementiser phrase.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Zau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ti''' || '''uaizue''' || '''ji''' || '''tavi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || TOP.C || Q || be.PRF || find || ACC.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.child<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;about that&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || be.PRF || &quot;find&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I don't know {{color|MediumBlue|if}} the child has been found.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Voice===<br /> <br /> ===Time===<br /> <br /> Marking of time (tense and aspect) is not obligatory in Ngolu and may always be left up to context. For our purposes here, we shall not distinguish between actions (e.g. ''kill'') and states (e.g. ''want'', ''be a house'') as temporal marking is identical for both. The word ''action'' will be used henceforth and should be understood to mean &quot;action or state&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Relative tenses====<br /> When time needs to be indicated, it is most often done by means of a verbal indicating a &quot;relative tense&quot; (aspect). These are relative to a contextually understood time in question, the &quot;reference time&quot;. The three basic &quot;relative tense&quot; markers are ... <br /> <br /> <br /> *'''ti''' &quot;perfect&quot; (PRF), indicating an action that occurred before the reference time<br /> *'''zo''' &quot;progressive&quot; (PROG), indicating an action underway at the reference time<br /> *'''ka''' &quot;prospective (PROS), indicating an action occurring after the reference time<br /> <br /> <br /> By default, the reference is the present, the time in which the utterance is made. However, if another time is contextually understood, any of these may refer to events in the past, present or future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|zo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROG || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be underway&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Absolute tenses====<br /> The prefix '''e-''' attached to the beginning of any of these aspect markers creates an absolute tense marker. The '''e-''' sets the reference time to the current moment in which the utterance is made. This is usually only used to disambiguate or to emphasise a time frame.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''eti''' &quot;past&quot; (PST), indicating an action that occurred in the past<br /> *'''ezo''' &quot;present&quot; (PRES), indicating an action underway in the present<br /> *'''eka''' &quot;future (FUT), indicating an action that will occur in the future<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be earlier&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRES || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Continuation====<br /> There are also compounds formed from two time words that indicate continuation from one time frame to another using a linking ''-e-''. This linking ''-e-'' is probably not related to the ''e-'' of absolute temporal reference, but to the ''e-'' prefix of dative case nominals and the derivation prefix ''e-'' that can be added to verbals indicating motion towards something.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''tiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that starting before the reference time and continuing up to it<br /> *'''zueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action continuing from the reference time and extending to a later time<br /> *'''etiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that started in the past and continues to the present<br /> *'''ezueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action that starts in the present and will continue into the future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezos}}''' || '''oila''' || '''na''' || '''xiies''' || '''oge'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF.PROG|| read || NOM.1S.ACS || ACC.3S.DEF.INAN.PROX || be.book<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have been doing&quot; || &quot;read&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;this thing which&quot; || &quot;is a book&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|have been}} read{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} this book.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Perfective and imperfective====<br /> In addition, the word '''bie''' contrasts with '''zo'''. Whereas '''zo''' specifies that an action is underway at the reference time, essentially taking a &quot;snapshot&quot; of the interior of an action, after its beginning and before its completion, '''bie''' specifies perfectivity, metaphorically painting a picture of the whole completed action without permitting a look inside. On its own, it does not specify whether the completed action occurs before or after the reference time, but it does explicitly specify that the action is ''not'' underway at the reference time. <br /> <br /> Both ''bie'' and ''zo'' may be suffixed to other verbals indicating time in order to explicitly distinguish the imperfective (progressive) aspect from the perfective aspect, while also specifying time.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfectivity:<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | imperfective (progressive)<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfective<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | bie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | relative time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kabie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | absolute time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekabie<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Note that '''zo''' appears twice in the table although it really only has one function; it specifies an action underway at the reference time (i.e. concurrent with it), which itself may be unspecified.<br /> <br /> The reduplicated forms '''zozo''' ('these days', 'in those days') and '''ezozo''' ('these days') do not appear in the above table as they indicate a loosening of the bounds of the reference time or current time. The reference or current time can be tightened or emphasised with '''bazo''' ('right now', 'right then', 'at that/this very moment') or '''ebazo''' ('right now', 'at this very moment').<br /> <br /> ====Resultative perfect====<br /> The word '''bue''' indicates a ''resultative perfect'', functioning similarly to '''ti''' in that it describes an action occurring prior to the reference time, however the focus of '''bue''' is not on the action itself, but on the resulting post-action state at the reference time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|bue}}''' || '''kaxa''' || '''xu''' || '''giloxuo'''<br /> |-<br /> | RES.PRF|| break(INTR) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || window.pane<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is in the resulting state&quot; || &quot;break&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a window pane&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''The window {{color|MediumBlue|is}} br{{color|MediumBlue|o}}k{{color|MediumBlue|en}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bue''' is frequently prefixed to the following word (for example ''buekaxa'' instead of ''bue kaxa''). Its passive equivalent '''hi-''' is always prefixed.<br /> <br /> ====Time word stacking====<br /> More than one time word can be used together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT|| be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will&quot; || &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST|| be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;will&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> These are usually compounded together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekati}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|etika}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST-PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Distance from reference time====<br /> The precise distance from the reference time can be indicated using adverbial clauses with '''lo''' followed by the unit of time, '''(e)ti''' or '''(e)ka''' and an ordinal number, which begins with ''t-''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''zaxa''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teuo}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.ill || ADV || be.year || be.PRF || be.second<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;becomes&quot; || &quot;is ill&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;is earlier&quot; || &quot;is second&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he fell ill {{color|MediumBlue|two years before/ago}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> This sentence could be translated somewhat more literally as &quot;S/he fell ill while there was the second previous year.&quot; Note that replacing '''ti''' with '''eti''' would force the interpretation with &quot;ago&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || Bie || bilo || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tahu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PFV || die || ADV || be.month || be.PROS || be.first<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is completed&quot; || &quot;dies&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;is about to&quot; || &quot;is first&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he died {{color|MediumBlue|one month later}}. / S/he will die {{color|MediumBlue|in one month}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A more literally translation could be &quot;S/he died while there was the second coming year.&quot; Note again that replacing '''ka''' with '''eka''' would force the interpretation with &quot;in one month&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment. <br /> <br /> In the following example, in which a duration is specified rather than a specific time, the adverbial clause contains only the length of time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS || ADV || be.five || be.year<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another means of conveying the same information is to place the time specifiers after the tense or aspect marker and then introducing the rest of the sentence with '''to'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''li''' || '''zaxa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || be.two || be.year || thus || begin || be.ill<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become&quot; || &quot;be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Two years ago,}} s/he fell ill.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || ... || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''bilo'''<br /> |-<br /> | || be.going.to || be.one || be.month || thus || die<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;is going to&quot; || &quot;is one&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;die&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|One month later,}} s/he died.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.five || be.year || thus || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Miscellaneous time words====<br /> There are a range of other verbals which indicate time in a similar way. Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> ''Days''<br /> * '''ariu''' &quot;yesterday&quot;<br /> * '''aku''' &quot;today&quot;<br /> * '''anu''' &quot;tomorrow&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Lighting''<br /> * '''auo''' &quot;by day&quot;<br /> * '''eio''' &quot;by night&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Distance in time''<br /> * '''ttie''' / '''ettie''' &quot;just&quot; (similar to '''ti''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''tieka''' / '''etieka''' &quot;about to&quot; (similar to '''ka''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''ti ti''' / '''eti ti''' &quot;a long time ago&quot; (reduplication for distance into the past)<br /> * '''ka ka''' / '''eka ka''' &quot;eventually&quot; (reduplication for distance into the future)<br /> <br /> ''Other aspectual differences''<br /> * '''hua''' &quot;always&quot;, &quot;permanently&quot; [gnomic]<br /> * '''niu''' &quot;habitually&quot; [habitual]<br /> * '''guegue''' &quot;repeatedly&quot;, &quot;again and again&quot; [iterative]<br /> * '''egue''' &quot;again&quot;<br /> * '''tara''' &quot;suddenly&quot;<br /> * '''li''' &quot;starts&quot;, &quot;begins&quot;, &quot;commences&quot;<br /> * '''bi''' &quot;stops&quot;, &quot;ceases&quot;<br /> * '''ligue''' &quot;resumes&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Demonstratives===<br /> <br /> Demonstratives distinguish three degrees of distance associated with the three grammatical persons.<br /> <br /> * '''''tie''''' 'this' or 'these' near the speaker [1st person - proximal]<br /> * '''''tia''''' 'that' or 'those' near the listener [2nd person - medial]<br /> * '''''tio''''' 'that' or 'those' away from both speaker and listener [3rd person - distal]<br /> <br /> When speaking to someone of the same or higher rank and referring to the something that is close to both speaker and listener (such as a house that both are inside), the 2nd person '''''tia''''' 'that' is used. Only persons of higher rank may use the first person form '''''tie''''' in such situations.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.MED || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.PROX || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The association between the grammatical persons and the demonstratives is strong, with words, statements and actions made by a person frequently being referred to using the appropriate demonstrative. For example, a commonly used phrase for &quot;therefore&quot; is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}'' (literally 'because of this (by me)') when the reasoning is based on what the speaker just said, but when the reasoning is based on what their interlocutor just said, this phrase is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}'' (literally 'because of that (by you)').<br /> <br /> ====Contractions====<br /> <br /> The demonstrative verbals '''''tie''''', '''''tia''''' and '''''tio''''' form very common contractions with third person definite nominals, transforming the above examples as follows:<br /> <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tia}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}} mala''''' 'this house' / 'that house' (by you) <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tie}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}} mala''''' 'this house' (by me)<br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what I said' <br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what you said' <br /> <br /> Here is a table of forms:<br /> <br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Proximal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Medial || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Distal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Proximal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''|| '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Medial || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Distal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Proximal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Medial || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Distal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Proximal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Medial || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Distal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Proximal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Medial || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Distal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Proximal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Medial || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Distal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Proximal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Medial || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Distal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Proximal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Medial || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Distal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Proximal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Medial || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Distal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Proximal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Medial || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Distal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Proximal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Medial || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Distal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Proximal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Medial || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Distal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Proximal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Medial || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Distal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Essive Proximal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Medial || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Distal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Location===<br /> <br /> ===Movement===<br /> <br /> Movement is expressed in a variety of ways in Ngolu. <br /> <br /> One of the most common methods for talking about movement is using the words '''hu''' and '''mia'''. There is no distinction between coming and going but rather a distinction between the perfective '''hu''', meaning 'come' or 'go', and the imperfective '''mia''', 'be one one's way', 'be coming', 'be going'. The destination may be indicated by a subsequent modifying verbal or by a dative argument. The origin is indicated by an ablative argument.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nu''' || '''exi''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || NOM.1s.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|mia}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.IPFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be on the way&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|'m going / on my way}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || move.PFV || ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Please {{color|MediumBlue|get}} away from me.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another method for expressing movement is to affix the copula prefix '''g-''', '''m-''', '''n-''' to a dative or ablative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-exi}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to you&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'll {{color|MediumBlue|come to you}}.'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Get away from me}}!'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The third way to express movement is to use an inceptive (inchoative) morpheme in conjunction with a word indicating location. For example, the verbal '''xa''' means 'to be inside' and the verbal '''atio''' means 'to be there (away from us)' - adding the infix '''-in-''' (perfective inceptive) or '''-ij-''' (imperfective inceptive) gives '''xina''' ('to go in', 'to enter') and '''xija''' ('to be on the way in'), '''atinio''' ('to go there') and '''atijo''' ('to be on the way there'). The free standing verbal '''li''' ('to begin, start, commence') may also be used, with '''li xa''' and '''li atio''' being equivalent to '''xina''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xina}}''' || '''iju''' || '''i-oba''' || '''loe'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || enter.PFV || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || PRED-be.room || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;enter&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible ones&quot; || &quot;be room&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''They {{color|MediumBlue|went into}} the bedroom.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bios''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|atinio}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || go.there.3 || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''S/He wants {{color|MediumBlue|to go there}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The inceptive infixes are frequently used with the verbals denoting location in the four cardinal directions: '''la''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' ('to be in the east', 'to be in the west', 'to be in the north', 'to be in the south' respectively) creating the perfective forms '''lina''', '''tina''', '''ginio''' and '''vino''' and the imperfective forms '''lija''', '''tija''', '''gijo''' and '''vijo'''. Direction within Qu, with its noticeable tube shape (with 'east/west' pointing along the tube and 'north/south' going around the circumference), is a much more salient feature than on Earth and referencing direction with motion is common. In certain circumstances, describing movement without reference to direction is regarded as too imprecise, such as when men are discussing hunting in the forest where there may be no obvious landmarks to identify as the destination of a movement.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''La''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' may be used to modify another verb of motion with or without taking an inceptive infix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|lina}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|gio}}''' || '''inais''' || '''ixi''' || '''vaku'''<br /> |-<br /> | go.east.PFV || be.in.the.north || ABL.1p.ACS || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.babirusa<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go east&quot; || &quot;be in the north&quot; || &quot;from us&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be babirusa&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''The babirusas {{color|MediumBlue|moved (east)-northeast}} away from us.'' — '''muja''' [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Additionally, there is yet another prefix '''e-''' which may be related to the '''e-''' prefix at the beginning of nominals in the dative case. Words with this prefix indicate perfective movement and include '''etie''' ('to come here') '''etia''' ('to go/come there/here by you') and '''etio''' ('to go there'). These words are slightly more commonly used than their equivalents '''atinie''', '''atinia''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> ===Causes===<br /> <br /> ===Goals===<br /> <br /> ===Conditionals===<br /> <br /> Conditional sentences in Ngolu use particles to indicate the condition clause (protasis) and the result clause (apodosis). These particles differ depending on whether the condition is possible (realis) or hypothetical (irrealis).<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''PROTASIS'' || ''APODOSIS''<br /> |-<br /> | ''REALIS'' || '''ha''' || '''to'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''IRREALIS'' || '''hai''' &lt;br&gt; '''haizuo''' (emphatic) || '''toi''' &lt;br&gt; '''to''' (possible only when apodosis clause appears second)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Realis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''anu''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''kka''' || '''vuja''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | if || be.tomorrow || rain || then || be.not || hunt.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if&quot; || &quot;be tomorrow&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} it rains tomorrow, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} he won't hunt.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ('''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''') || '''ttio''' || '''nu''' || '''ue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''vai''' || '''tiaia'''<br /> |-<br /> | (then) || hit || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.2s.ACS || if || stay || do.that.2<br /> |-<br /> | (&quot;then&quot;) || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;if&quot; || &quot;keep&quot; || &quot;do that which you are doing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I'll hit you {{color|MediumBlue|if}} you keep doing that.'' — '''muja''' [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Irrealis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''g-ua''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(i)}}''' || '''hales''' || '''eji''' || '''jo''' || '''nio'''|| '''mo'''<br /> |-<br /> | if.IRR || be-NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ACS || then.(would) || ask || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.C || happen || be.what<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;imagine if&quot; || &quot;be you&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then (would)&quot; || &quot;ask&quot; || &quot;(to) the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;happen&quot; || &quot;be what&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} you, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} I{{color|MediumBlue|'d}} ask him/her what happened.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || '''abani'''<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;stop&quot; || &quot;work&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || &quot;be more&quot; || &quot;be rich&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|would}} stop working, {{color|MediumBlue|if}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} richer.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''ti''' || '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''leui''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || ('''ti''') || '''mahu''' || ('''xu''') || ('''ene''')<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || be.PRF || move || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ICS || if.IRR || (be.PRF) || be.known || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN) || (DAT.1s.ACS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;move&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || (&quot;be finished&quot;) || &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''I would have come with you if I had known that.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Numbers===<br /> <br /> ===Quantity===<br /> <br /> ===Degree===<br /> <br /> ===Comparison===<br /> <br /> ==Pragmatics==<br /> <br /> ===Social Stratification and Language Use===<br /> <br /> Ngolu society is heavily stratified into five social divisions. These social divisions, or strata, are hierarchical and from highest to lowest are as follows.<br /> <br /> * 5. ''ju '''taqu''''' - the king<br /> * 4. ''iju '''balu''''' - the king's men<br /> * 3. ''iju '''muja''''' - initiated men<br /> * 2. ''iju '''kali''''' - free citizens<br /> * 1. ''iju '''tuva''''' - slaves and prisoners (''ixu tuva'' in the speech of '''muja''', '''balu''' and '''taqu''')<br /> <br /> Language use is, to a large extent, determined by the strata of the speaker, addressee and third person referents.<br /> <br /> ===Speech Crime===<br /> <br /> [[Category:Languages]]<br /> [[Category:Conlangs]]</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Iliaqu&diff=258021 2022-01-29T10:58:32Z

<p>Imralu: /* Argument Structure */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Iliaqu<br /> |nativename = iliaqu<br /> |pronunciation = [ìʎàʔú]<br /> |region = Qu<br /> |ethnicity = Ngolu / Ilaqu<br /> |speakers = {{formatnum:100,000}}<br /> |setting = [[Verse:Qu|Qu]]<br /> |fam1 = Language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2013-2020<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> {{infobox|bg=#F2DC77|native=iliaqu|in=Qu|no=100,000 (approx.)|tree=Isolate (as far as known)|wo=VSO|morph=Isolating/futional|ms=Nominative-Accusative|creator=[[User:Imralu|Imralu]]|date=2013-2014}}<br /> <br /> '''Iliaqu''' (IPA: /ˌɪljəˈʔuː/), also known as '''Ngolu''' or sometimes '''Qu''' (endonym: ''iliaqu'' IPA: [ìʎàʔú]) is a language isolate spoken throughout the known regions of the space habitat [[Verse:Qu|Qu]] by the Ngolu people, whose number is estimated to be around 100,000. As the Ngolu are almost entirely monolingual, and while voluntary travel to and from Qu remains impossible, the language is not in any danger of extinction. At this stage, little is known of dialect differences within Qu. There are estimated to be somewhere between 50 and 100 Iliaqu speakers on Earth who have simply mysteriously appeared in various locations. Small communities of Ngolu speakers been brought or have found their way together, the most well-known and well-studied of which is a group of about 15 living in and around Berlin, Germany.<br /> <br /> Iliaqu is an isolating/fusional, head-initial (right-branching) language with VSO word order and nominative-accusative alignment. Verbs (verbals) make up the only open class of word, with nouns (nominals) constituting a closed class of heavily fusional words that fill the roll of pronouns and articles in other languages, marking grammatical person, number, definiteness and specificity, gender, accessibility, and case.<br /> <br /> ==Terminology==<br /> There appear to have been fewer than ten isolated instances of non-Ngolu people arriving in Qu and there are no other cultures or languages known to exist in Qu. In such a linguistically and culturally homogenous environment, the Ngolu have had no need for endonyms for their culture, people or language. Traditionally, they have described their language simply as '''ilia''' [ìʎá] 'speech', themselves as '''golu''' [ŋòlú] 'people', and their world as '''qu''' [ʔú] 'world'. <br /> <br /> With the new knowledge of other cultures and the entire universe outside of Qu, neologisms have arisen to distinguish their language and their people from those of the outsiders. For the Ngolu arrivals Earth, contact with other cultures has forced them to acknowledge that the other languages they hear must have the ability to convey information just as their language. Consequently, on Earth, the word '''ilia''' generally refers to any language. To disambiguate their own language, they may call it '''ilia qu''' [ìʎáʔú] or '''iliaqu''' [ìʎàʔú] 'Qu speech'. Non-Ngolu are still referred to as '''taia''' ('ghost', 'demon') and Earth maybe referred to as '''utaia''' [ùtàjá] 'ghost world' or a loan word such as '''hiia''', which was common among the Berlin group (from German ''hier'') although it now seems to be dying out in favour of '''utaia'''. With the acknowledgement that non-Ngolu people are also people and the consequent expansion of the term '''golu''' to include non-Ngolu, the term '''goqu''' [ŋòʔú] ('Qu people', formed by adding the human prefix '''go-''' to the word '''qu''') is gaining ground and may be contrasted with '''taia''' or '''goutaia''' [ŋòu̯tàjá].<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !VOWELS<br /> !Front<br /> !Central<br /> !Back<br /> |-<br /> !High<br /> |'''i''' ‹i›<br /> |<br /> |'''u''' ‹u›<br /> |-<br /> !Mid<br /> |'''e''' ‹e›<br /> |<br /> |'''o''' ‹o›<br /> |-<br /> !Low<br /> |<br /> |'''a''' ‹a›<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Each vowel may be 'strong' or 'weak'. These are essentially stressed and unstressed. There is only ever one 'strong' vowel per word and it is nearly always the final vowel. Where it is not, it is always the penultimate vowel and the in that case the final vowel is always /i/ or /u/. Non-final strong vowels are indicated in the romanisation using an acute accent, ‹áéíóú›.<br /> <br /> The realisation of strong vowels varies across accents. There appears to be a cline ranging from a pitch-based pronunciation to a weight-based pronunciation (used chiefly by men). At the pitch-based end of the spectrum, 'strong' vowels are pronounced with a high tone and 'weak' vowels with a low-tone. At the end of a non-interrogative utterance, a high-tone becomes a falling tone. At the end of a question, a high tone may be lengthened and/or undergo an additional rise. At the weight-based extreme, strong vowels cause gemination of the following consonant but are pronounced as long themselves when the following sound is (1) a vowel, (2) a consonant cluster or (3) an already geminated consonant. Utterance finally, strong vowels are generally neither pronounced with a high tone nor lengthened but are usually pronounced slightly louder. <br /> <br /> The high vowels, /i/ and /u/, when 'weak' and adjacent to another vowel are pronounced non-syllabically as [i̯~j] and [u̯~w]). Non-syllabic /i/ merges with and palatalises any preceding dental/alveolar consonant.<br /> <br /> In these two word examples, the pitch-based pronunciation is given before the weight-based pronunciation.<br /> <br /> :*'''ju muja''' [ʒúmùʒâ] ~ [ʒumːuˈʒa]<br /> :*'''ju aio''' [ʒúàjô] ~ [ʒuːaˈjo]<br /> :*'''ju uaia''' [ʒúwàjâ] [ʒuːwaˈja]<br /> :*'''ju ntu''' [ʒúntû] ~ [ʒu:nˈtu]<br /> :*'''ju lleue''' [ʒúlːèwê] ~ [ʒuːlːeˈwe]<br /> <br /> ===Consonants===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !CONSONANTS<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Dental/Alveolar<br /> !Post-alveolar<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> | '''m''' ‹m›<br /> | <br /> | '''n''' ‹n›<br /> |<br /> | '''ŋ''' ‹g›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> | '''b''' ‹b›<br /> |<br /> | '''t''' ‹t›<br /> |<br /> | '''k''' ‹k›<br /> | '''ʔ''' ‹q›<br /> |-<br /> !Ejective<br /> |<br /> | <br /> | '''tʼ''' ‹tt›<br /> |<br /> | '''kʼ''' ‹kk›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiced Fricative<br /> | <br /> | '''v''' ‹v›<br /> | '''z''' ‹z›<br /> | '''ʒ''' ‹j›<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiceless Fricative<br /> | <br /> | <br /> | '''s''' ‹s›<br /> | '''ʃ''' ‹x›<br /> | <br /> | '''h''' ‹h›<br /> |-<br /> !Tap<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''ɾ''' ‹r› <br /> |<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''l''' ‹l› <br /> |<br /> |<br /> | <br /> |}<br /> <br /> * The nasal consonants /m n ŋ/, unlike other consonants, may occur before another consonant and then assimilate in place of articulation to that consonant. For this reason, many authors posit the archiphoneme /N/. /N/ may be syllabic post pausa, carrying a low tone. Before /l/, /N/ assimilates to [l̪] or [l̪̩]. Before /v/, it is pronounced as [ɱ] or [ɱ̩].<br /> * The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental [n̪ t̪ t̪ʼ ɾ̪ l̪]. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears. Some speakers palatalise /t/ and /d/ to [t͡ʃ] and [d͡ʒ] respectively. The ejective /tʼ/, however, is rarely or never palatalised as [t͡ʃʼ].<br /> * /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive [d̪].<br /> * Geminate /m/, /n/ and /l/ (resulting from /Nm/, /Nn/ and /Nl/) may be pronounced as [m̩b], [n̪̩d̪] and [l̪̩d̪] respectively, particularly by men and particularly post pausa.<br /> * /s/ and /z/ are normally alveolar. When followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are not distinguished from /ʃ ʒ/. <br /> * /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ cannot be followed by non-syllabic /i/.<br /> * The phonemes /s/ and /ɾ/ do not occur at the beginning of a word.<br /> * The glottal stop /ʔ/ and the ejective consonants /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ are restricted to positions immediately before a 'strong' vowel, although there may be an intervening non-syllabic 'weak' /i/ or /u/ after the ejectives. At the beginning of a 'weak' syllable, ejective consonants become pronounced as their equivalent plain plosive and the glottal stop disappears. For example, ''kka'' [kʼá] and ''kkue'' [kʷʼé] are allowed while expected ''*kkina'' (derived from ''kka'' plus the infix ''-in-'') is instead present as ''kina'' [kì.ná]. In connected speech, /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ may be pronounced as [t̚ʔ k̚ʔ] or even [tː kː]. However, a strong ejective pronunciation is always heard post pausa.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> Phonemically, a syllable may be '''((N)C)V''', where '''V''' is a vowel '''(C)''' an optional consonant and '''(N)''' an optional nasal which assimilates to its following consonant in its point of articulation. <br /> <br /> Phonetically, syllables may be more complex. '''(N)''' is pronounced syllabically post pausa and otherwise is pronounced in the coda of the preceding syllable. The non-syllabic pronunciations of /i/ and /u/ mean that a syllable can be (C)(S)V(S)(N), where '''(S)''' is a semivowel.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::'''nxua intaneti'''<br /> ::/Nʃu.á.i.Nta.ne.tí/<br /> ::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí]<br /> ::''is on the internet''<br /> <br /> ===Epenthetic /s/===<br /> <br /> An epenthetic /s/ sometimes appears between words when the second word begins with a vowel. In the romanisation used here, the /s/ is written on the end of the preceding word. The rules are somewhat complex and are best shown as a table. The final vowels of preceding words are shown vertically on the left. Initial vowels of the following word are shown along the top. An epenthetic /s/ doesn't appear before '''i''' and '''u''' when a syllabic vowel (V) immediately follows within the same word. In the table, the word borders are shown with an '''s''' indicating where the epenthetic /s/ always appears. In other positions in the table, the epenthetic /s/ can still appear in very clear emphatic speech.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''i(V)-'' || ''u(V)-'' || ''i-'' || ''u-'' || ''e-'' || ''o-'' || ''a-''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-i'' || '''-i i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i e-''' || '''-i o-''' || '''-i a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-u'' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u u-''' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} u-''' || '''-u e-''' || '''-u o-''' || '''-u a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-e'' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-o'' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-a'' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ua''' || [è.né.wá] || '''u''' followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} u''' || [è.né.sú] || '''u''' not followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ima''' || [è.néj.má] || '''i''' is weak and can become non-syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} eme''' || [è.né.sè.mé] || '''e''' is always syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni ua''' || [è.ní.wá] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni u''' || [è.ní.ú] || final '''i''' before syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni iu''' || [è.ní.jú] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni{{color|MediumBlue|s}} iui''' || [è.ní.sì.wí] || final '''i''' before initial syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene iui''' || [è.néj.wí] || final '''e''' followed by 'weak' '''i''' which becomes non-syllabic<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> There are four classes of words in Ngolu. Ngolu is a very verb-heavy language, with verbals making up the only truly open word class.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''Nominals''': closed<br /> :* '''Verbals''': open<br /> :* '''Particles''': closed<br /> :* '''Interjections''': closed (mostly)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Nominals===<br /> Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of nominals, the &lt;u&gt;pronominals&lt;/u&gt;, are essentially the equivalent of pronouns and articles in other languages, inflecting for number, grammatical person, definiteness, specificity, gender, case and an inflectional dimension unique to Iliaqu, ''accessibility''. Pronominals can appear on their own or can be followed by a verbal or verbal phrase. When followed by a verbal, they can be regarded as the head of an underlying relative clause which nominalises the verbal and allows it to function as an argument in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> :As a pronoun:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|it}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :As an article:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|the}} house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In addition to the pronominals, there are two &lt;u&gt;complementisers&lt;/u&gt; which are essentially subordinating conjunctions which inflect for case. '''Zuo''' can be thought of as roughly equivalent to the English subordinating conjunction 'that' and '''kuo''' can be thought of as 'the time when'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''olos''' || '''ene''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''g-ixi''' || '''ja''' || '''nana''' || '''g-uje''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.strange || DAT.1s.ACS || NOM.C || be.not || COP-DAT.3s.INAN.DEF || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.father || COP-GEN.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is strange&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;is not&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the one who&quot; || &quot;is father&quot; || &quot;is hers/his&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I think it's strange {{color|MediumBlue|that}} his / her father didn't go / wasn't there.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Number====<br /> Pronominals indicate two numbers, singular and plural. Plural is marked by the prefix '''i-''', which occurs before some case prefixes and after others (see [[Ngolu#Case|Case]] below for more information).<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The singular is used before quantifiers indicating a specific plural quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a group of two&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|two}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> When the plural is used, this indicates multiples of the indicated quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are groups of two&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|pairs of}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Many words denoting powders and granular substances are used in the plural with the singular referring to an individual grain.<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a grain of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the grain of sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are grains of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the (grain{{color|MediumBlue|s}} of) sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Water referred to as '''hunia''', potable water, is indicated in the plural as well when it is a quantity larger than what one person can drink in one sitting. <br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (large quantity of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (serving of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Gender====<br /> In the third person, nominals distinguish between animate and inanimate referents. When it comes to animals, the use of the genders depends on the speaker's [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]]. ''Kali'' (women, children and uninitiated men) and ''tuva'' (slaves) refer to all motile animals in the animate gender, generally as inaccessible although pets may be accessible. ''Muja'' (initiated men) refer to animals other than pets in the inanimate gender. The Ngolu believe this allows ''muja'' to hunt without remorse.<br /> <br /> The following examples illustrate the difference. Examples which are specific to the rank of the speaker or the listener will be marked as such after the translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The interplay between a speaker and listener's rank is complex and may result in unexpected gender choices. For example, a slave must refer to him- or herself in the third person inanimate gender when speaking to ''balu'' and above unless specifically given permission otherwise. To read more about this, see [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|Social Stratification and Language Use]].<br /> <br /> ====Person====<br /> Three grammatical persons are marked by pronominals. The first person pronominals contain '''n'''. The second person pronominals contain a non-syllabic '''u''' (realised as '''v''' before '''u'''). In the third person, '''j''', '''x''', '''m''', '''z''', '''k''' and Ø appear depending on gender, definiteness and specificity.<br /> <br /> =====Clusivity=====<br /> The plural forms of all the basic pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness. <br /> <br /> The first person inclusive (second plus first persons) may be indicated by compound pronominals, the dual forms (&quot;you, one person, and I&quot;) being '''uana''', '''uanu''', '''vuna''', '''vunu''' and the plural forms being '''iuana''', '''iuanu''', '''ivuna''', '''ivunu'''. Which of the four options is used depends on [[#accessibility|accessibility]]. These compound forms are not used universally and many speakers use juxtaposition of pronouns, such as '''vu nu''' instead of '''vunu''' or '''iua na''' or '''iua ina''' instead of '''iuana'''.<br /> <br /> Even addressing people in the second person, should the group include third persons who are not being addressed, many speakers will make note of these separately, for example '''ju vu''' (gloss: NOM.3s.ICS.DEF NOM.2s.ICS) and this is somewhat prescriptively enforced. The nominal '''ivu''' (gloss: NOM.2p.ICS), for example, is recommended only for use to address two or more people when all are present or when the message is at the very least expected to be passed onto those who are not present. <br /> <br /> The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person. The compound 2nd+1st person pronouns are not subject to this ordering rule.<br /> <br /> Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive.<br /> <br /> ====Definiteness and Specificity====<br /> <br /> In the third person, pronominals indicate definiteness (whether the listener knows which individual) and specificity (whether the speaker knows which individual).<br /> <br /> =====Definite=====<br /> The Definite (+specific, +definite) is used when the listener is assumed to know which specific individual or individuals the speaker is referring to. In the following examples, '''ji ala''' (or just '''ji''') refers to a specific bird which the listener is assumed to be already aware of, possibly because it is already been mentioned.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|the bird}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|it}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Specific=====<br /> The Specific (+specific, -definite) is used when the speaker has a specific individual or individuals in mind but the listener is not assumed to know which one(s). In the following examples, '''mi ala''' (or '''mi''') refers to a specific bird but not one which the speaker expects the listener to know of.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a (particular) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|one (in particular)}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Non-Specific=====<br /> The Non-Specific (or General) does not refer to any specific individual(s) but to the abstract idea of a member or members of a particular class, any individual of which could be described. It often used when talking about desires or in negative sentences. In the examples below, '''i ala''' refers to any bird.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a(ny) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|anyone}}.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Accessibility====<br /> Accessibility is a concept integral to Ngolu culture. Outside of the third person non-specific, all animate nominals have two forms, one ''accessible'' (gloss: ACS) and one ''inaccessible'' (gloss: ICS). Accessible nominals have a low vowel,'''a''' in the nominative stem, '''e''' in the accusative stem, and these correspond to the high vowels '''u''' and '''i''' respectively in inaccessible nominals. Accessibility is typically explained as an indication of whether physical contact is permitted or not, however it is more generally a means of conveying social closeness or distance even when no actual touching is involved.<br /> <br /> In the first person, the English word ''I'' can be translated as either '''na''' (NOM.1s.ACS) or '''nu''' (NOM.1s.ICS). Using '''na''' signals to the listener &quot;I am accessible to you.&quot; This means the speaker feels close and emotionally open to the listener and physical contact is permitted or even welcome. Using '''nu''' informs the listener that physical contact is not welcome at the current time. This is typically because of emotional distance, such as when talking to strangers, casual acquaintances or people whom the speaker does not like, but it may also signal an unwillingness to be touched for other, often fleeting reasons, such as illness, pain or emotional tension. Between close friends and lovers, suddenly switching to '''nu''' may indicate that the speaker has taken offence at something.<br /> <br /> In the second and third persons, accessibility indicates the the referent's ''perceived'' accessibility ''to the speaker''. Using '''ua''' (NOM.2s.ACS) indicates that the speaker assumes he or she may touch the listener. Using '''vu''' (NOM.2s.ICS) indicates either a more respectful or colder social distance (cf. French &quot;vous&quot;, which, coincidentally, sounds identical). In the third person, '''ja''' (NOM.3s.ACS.DEF) and '''ju''' (NOM.3s.ICS.DEF) indicate the speaker's relationship to the referent. In plural, accessible indicates that ''all'' members of the group are accessible. Even one individual who the speaker regards as inaccessible, will cause the group to be marked as inaccessible. Inaccessibility is thus the 'default' and when speaking of generic or unknown individuals, these will be indicated with inaccessible nominals.<br /> <br /> Accessibility produces four speech modes or 'stances'. In situations between peers of equal rank, generally the speech mode with either be accessible (using accessible nominals in both first and second persons) or inaccessible (using inaccessible nominals in both). In situations of unequal dominance, which generally, but do not always, run along lines of rank, the dominant party speaks in the dominant mode, using inaccessible first person nominals and accessible second person nominals. The subordinate party speaks in the subordinate or submissive mode, using the reverse.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | speech mode || first person || second person || meaning<br /> |-<br /> | accessible mode (ACS) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may touch me. I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | inaccessible mode (ICS) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may not touch me. I may not touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | dominant mode (DOM) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may not touch me but I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | submissive mode (SUB) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may touch me but I may not touch you.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The speech mode used depends not only on who the speaker and listener are to one another, but how they feel about each other in that moment. A friend or lover who is deeply offended may suddenly switch to the inaccessible or dominant mode to indicate that they are now not happy and had better not be touched until the offence is resolved. The submissive mode may be used in order to flirt with an acquaintance. Flirting may be met with the accessible or inaccessible modes, which essentially give an answer. No answer (yet) is signalled by the adoption of the dominant mode. Smooth social interactions are ensured by the concordance of speech modes, ACS↔ACS, ICS↔ICS, DOM↔SUB. Conflict is often caused by the refusal to agree or by physical contact with someone marked in speech as inaccessible.<br /> <br /> Examples of the four speech modes in use.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ICS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Case====<br /> Ngolu possesses 14 grammatical cases. The nominative and accusative case appear to be the oldest and all other forms appear to derive from the agglomeration of adpositions onto them. The first group (accusative, dative, ablative, locative, genitive and possessive) appear to be relatively old. At some point after these adpositions fused onto the nominals, the plural marker '''i-''' also became a prefix. For example '''''i-e-ji''''' 'to them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;PL-DAT-ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;. The second group of derived cases (vocative, causal, benefactive, instrumental, comitative, topical, essive) appear to have developed more recently from prepositions added to either the nominative or the accusative case as the plural marker '''i-''' is sandwiched in the middle. For example '''''te-i-ji''''' 'about them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;because.of-PL.ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;.<br /> <br /> =====Nominative=====<br /> The nominative case indicates the grammatical subject of a verb. The nominative case is always formed with a back vowel, '''u''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''a''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''u''' shows animate and '''a''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''muja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|na}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.initiated.man || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be an initiated man&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} am an initiated man.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''loe''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || sleep || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} is not sleeping. / {{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} didn't sleep.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|He}} killed / murdered something / someone''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good || NOM.C || be.not || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It's good {{color|MediumBlue|that}} it's not raining.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zoua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuo}}''' || '''tavi''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ja}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.difficult || NOM.TEMP.C || be.child || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;the time when&quot; || &quot;be child&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He had a difficult childhood.<br /> (≈ {{color|MediumBlue|The time when}} {{color|MediumBlue|s/he}} was a child was difficult.)''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Accusative=====<br /> The accusative case indicates the grammatical object of a verb. The accusative case is formed with a front vowel, '''i''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''e''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''i''' represents animate and '''e''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''. The complementisers are '''jo''' and '''kio'''<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''ti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.PRF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;have finished&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Someone murdered {{color|MediumBlue|him}} / {{color|MediumBlue|He}} was murdered.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jave''' || '''ja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kivo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | throw || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF || ACC.3s.INAN.DEF || be.rock<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;throw&quot; || &quot;the being&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be rock&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''He threw {{color|MediumBlue|the rock}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jo}}''' || '''vai''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.C || stay || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; |''I want you {{color|MediumBlue|to}} stay. (≈ I want {{color|MediumBlue|that}} you stay.)'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In informal speech, the accusative case may replace the dative case when it indicates an experiencer. This does not occur with verbs that also have an accusative role and use the dative case to indicate a recipient.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ine}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || ACC.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Dative=====<br /> The dative case indicates an indirect object of the verb, a destination or goal of a movement or an experiencer. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'to' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''e(r)-''' ('''ie(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volos''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ene}}''' || '''izi''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || DAT.1s.ACS || ACC.3p.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;some things that&quot; || &quot;be water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} was given water. / Someone gave {{color|MediumBlue|me}} water.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|iene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || '''uana'''<br /> |-<br /> | JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM.1+2DU.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go - to them&quot; || &quot;you and I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''vais''' || '''inu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekio}}''' || '''loe''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF || stay || NOM.1p.ICS || DAT.TEMP.C || sleep || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;we&quot; || &quot;until&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''We stayed {{color|MediumBlue|until}} they slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Ablative=====<br /> The ablative case is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'from' in English. It is formed by suffixing '''-i''' to a nominative nominal. The complementisers are '''zuio''' and '''kuio''' in the ablative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Kuaqa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mala}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-uni}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.distant || NOM.1s.ICS || ABL.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || COP-GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be far&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;from the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm far away {{color|MediumBlue|from my home}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go - from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Get away {{color|MediumBlue|from me}}!'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || '''xuua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuio}}''' || '''iti''' || ('''ju''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;to her/him&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;since&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || (&quot;s/he&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Locative=====<br /> The locative case indicates a location. It is more or less equivalent to the prepositions 'in', 'on' and 'at' in English. It is also used to replace the verb &quot;have&quot; when indicating immediate possession as in &quot;to have something on one's person&quot;. It is formed by suffixing '''-a''' to a nominative nominal in the inaccessible and inanimate and prefixing '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ia(r)-''') to an accessible nominative nominal. The prefixed form is also used for the non-specific animate and inanimate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''bani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ana}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.money || LOC.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be money&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I don't have any money (with me). (≈ There is no money {{color|MediumBlue|at me}}.)'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|xua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mo}}''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.what || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be what&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Where are you?'' (≈ You are {{color|MediumBlue|at the what}}?) — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''iio''' || '''jas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azuo}}''' || '''muana''' || '''iti''' || '''exi''' || '''muana''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.fish || NOM.3s.ACS || LOC.C || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.small || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; || &quot;he&quot; || &quot;where&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || &quot;to the thing that&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be big&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''He's fishing {{color|MediumBlue|where}} the stream flows into the river.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || '''xuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;begin&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be yours&quot; || &quot;when&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || (&quot;to the inaccessible one&quot;) || &quot;that thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Genitive=====<br /> The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''egio''' || '''tani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|une}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.threesome || be.sibling || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a group of three&quot; || &quot;be siblings&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I have three siblings.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tta''' || '''xu''' || '''gula''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|uji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tio}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.large || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.pair.of.arms || COP-GEN.3s.DEF.ICS || be.that.3<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be large&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of arms&quot; || &quot;be of the person who&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|That person over there}} has big arms. / The arms {{color|MediumBlue|of that person over there}} are big.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Possessive=====<br /> The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) but to a nominative nominal rather than an accusative one.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || POS.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;owned by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} have / own a house.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It should be noted that, although in many languages, the genitive or possessive case is usually adnominal, referring to an immediately adjacent noun phrase, in Iliaqu, all nominals, regardless of case, refer to the predicate in their clause unless verbalised with the [[#Nominal_to_Verbal|copular prefix]]. Compare the following sentences.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || COP-POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in {{color|MediumBlue|my}} boot.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in the boot {{color|MediumBlue| and it's mine}}.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|I own}} a snake which is in the boot. — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the second sentence, the lack of the copula on '''une''' indicates that it represents an argument of the predicate ('''masa''' 'there is a snake'), meaning that it is the snake which belongs to the speaker, not the boot. The word order, placing the unadorned possessive argument ('''une''') after the much heavier locative argument ('''xua xa buja''') is heavily marked, placing focus on the fact that the snake is the speaker's legal possession.<br /> <br /> Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, ''ataiva'', the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for ''ataiva'' to avoid the possessive case entirely in favour of the genitive case.<br /> <br /> =====Vocative=====<br /> The vocative case is used to address someone or attract their attention. It is formed by adding '''e(r)-''' ('''ei-''' in plural) to a nominative nominal. <br /> <br /> The most common greeting words for most uses are simply vocative nominals. They must reflect the number and accessibility of the addressee(s). <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is common for inaccessibles to be greeted in the third person, with '''eju''' frequently replacing '''evu'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Third person definite forms, however, may also be used with accessibles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eja}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh he who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Among accessibles, the '''e-''' prefix may be added directly to a personal name. This and the predicate prefix '''i-''' are the only example of verbals (as all names are verbals) taking a non-derivational affix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|e}}-xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | hey-be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey - be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hey}} Xagu!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the indefinite, the vocative can be used to summon help from non-specific people.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eru}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when one person's assistance is enough.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3p.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when more than one person's assistance is required.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative complementiser '''ezuo''' is used to mean 'if only' or 'I wish'. It is also used for making polite requests. Literally, it's something like 'o that'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezuo}}''' || '''hunia''' || '''nua'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.C || be.potable || LOC.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if only&quot; || &quot;be beverage&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''May I have some water please? ({{color|MediumBlue|If only}} I had some water.)'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative temporal complementiser '''ekuo''' is used to express nostalgia about a past time or anticipation for a future time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || '''ata''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh for the time when&quot; || &quot;be adult&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I can't wait till}} I'm grown up.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Causal=====<br /> The causal case describes a cause. It is equivalent to the English &quot;because of&quot;. It is formed by prefixing '''te(r)-''' (plural: '''tei-''') to the accusative nominals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zaxa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.sick || NOM.1s.ICS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am sick&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm ill {{color|MediumBlue|because of you}}. / You made me ill.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ezo''' || '''zouas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tejo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''mala''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.now || be.difficult || DAT.1s.ICS || CAU.C || be.not || be.house || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;because&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''Things are tough for me at the moment {{color|MediumBlue|because}} I don't have a house..'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Benefactive=====<br /> The benefactive case indicates either a beneficiary or benefactor of an action or situation or a goal. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'for'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''kua(r)-''' (plural: '''kuai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.this.1 || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;there is this, by me&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''This is {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}. (≈ There's this {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.)'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bioi''' || '''vaia''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.willing || do.everything || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;would&quot; || &quot;do everything&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I would do anything {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''etie''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''leu''' || '''ue''' || '''veji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || move.to.here.1 || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.C || rescue || ACC.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;finish&quot; || &quot;come here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;rescue&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;about the person&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; |''I came here {{color|MediumBlue|(in order) to}} save you from him/her.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''naxe''' || '''molu''' || '''iu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''mue''' || '''lau''' || '''iu''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | must || be.dead || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || BEN.C || be.able || be.alive || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;must&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;can&quot; || &quot;live&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates that&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; |''Some must die {{color|MediumBlue|so that}} others may live.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kuas''' || '''enies''' || '''e''' || '''kueta''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuakio}}''' || '''gehuo''' || '''ua''' || '''ji''' || '''uako'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || carry || ACC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.hunting.knife || BEN.TEMP.C || encounter || NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.enemy<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;carry&quot; || &quot;a non-specific thing which&quot; || &quot;be a hunting knife&quot; || &quot;in case&quot; || &quot;encounter&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''Carry a knife {{color|MediumBlue|in case}} you cross paths with enemies.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Instrumental=====<br /> The instrumental case describes the means or method by which something is done. It is equivalent to the English preposition &quot;with&quot; when it means &quot;using&quot;. It is formed by adding the prefix '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''vuja''' || '''zi''' || '''vaku''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kueta}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || hunt || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.babirusa || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.hunting.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;deliberately killed&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;hunts&quot; || &quot;a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a babirusa&quot; || &quot;using a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a hunting knife&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''The hunter killed the babirusa {{color|MediumBlue|with a hunting knife}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g-iara''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC.3p.NSPC.INAN || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;certain people&quot; || &quot;by&quot; || &quot;wait&quot; || &quot;at anything which&quot; || &quot;is bushes&quot; || &quot;be-at any things which&quot; || &quot;be drinking water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Comitative=====<br /> The comitative case indicates an accompanying person or thing. It is equivalent to 'with' in English when it means 'along with' or 'accompanied by'. It is formed by prefixing '''le(r)-''' (plural: '''lei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''ja''' || '''meha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|leje}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jalu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Meha || COM.3s.DEF.ACS || Jalu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is hunting&quot; || &quot;the person who&quot; || &quot;is Meha&quot; || &quot;with the person who&quot; || &quot;is Jalu&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''Meha is hunting {{color|MediumBlue|with Jalu}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''hu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || move.PFV || COM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come/go&quot; || &quot;with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Come {{color|MediumBlue|with me}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bata''' || '''ja''' || '''umatu''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lejo'''}} || '''buga''' || '''taba''' || '''iju''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | dance || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Umatu || COM.C || hit || be.drum || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;dance&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be Umatu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;be drum&quot; || &quot;the beings who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Umatu danced {{color|MediumBlue|while}} the others played the drums.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Topical=====<br /> The topical case indicates the topic or theme of an act of communication and in many instances also something which is kept in mind when a particular action is performed. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'about'. It is formed by prefixing '''ve(r)-''' (plural '''vei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''ila''' || '''na''' || '''leue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vezi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|valo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || speak || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.interesting<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;speak&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;about something that&quot; || &quot;is interesting&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to talk to you {{color|MediumBlue|about something interesting}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''teuas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vexi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiau}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | thank || DAT.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.food<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;thank&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;about the thing that&quot; || &quot;is food&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Thanks {{color|MediumBlue|for the food}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''malemale''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''moio''' || '''iu''' || '''azo''' || '''lo''' || '''zola''' || '''iu''' || '''babo'''<br /> |-<br /> | gossip || TOP.C || do.what || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other || ADV || be.solely || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;gossip&quot; || &quot;about the fact that&quot; || &quot;do what&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be only&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Only unintelligent people gossip {{color|MediumBlue|about}} what other people do.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Essive=====<br /> The essive case indicates the role of something in the sentence. It is roughly equivalent to the English words 'as' or 'like'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''o(r)-''' (plural: '''oi-''') to the nominative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''atia''' || '''nas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|omas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ali}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.there.2 || NOM.1s.ACS || ESS.3s.SPEC.ACS || be.same.rank.friend || COP-DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;as a person who&quot; || &quot;be a friend of the same rank&quot; || &quot;be to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm here {{color|MediumBlue|as your friend}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ozuo}}''' || '''ka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.visible || ESS.C || be.going.to || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;appear&quot; || &quot;as if&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It looks {{color|MediumBlue|like}} it's going to rain.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Tables====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Simple pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | na<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | nu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ina<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | inu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate specific<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ma<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | mu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ima<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | imu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate definite<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate specific<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | izu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | a<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ia<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> animate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> inanimate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Compound pronominals<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dominant<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dual<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Complimentisers<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | temporal<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====First Person=====<br /> First person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''nu''' || '''inu''' || '''na''' || '''ina'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ni''' || '''ini''' || '''ne''' || '''ine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''nua''' || '''inua''' || '''ana''' || '''iana''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uni''' || '''iuni''' || '''une''' || '''iune'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''unu''' || '''iunu''' || '''una''' || '''iuna'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''enu''' || '''einu''' || '''ena''' || '''eina''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teni''' || '''teini''' || '''tene''' || '''teine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuani''' || '''kuaini''' || '''kuane''' || '''kuaine''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ani''' || '''aini''' || '''ane''' || '''aine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leni''' || '''leini''' || '''lene''' || '''leine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veni''' || '''veini''' || '''vene''' || '''veine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''onu''' || '''oinu''' || '''ona''' || '''oina''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS.SG || ICS:PL || ACS.SG || ACS.PL<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ue''' || '''iue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eui''' || '''ieui''' || '''eue''' || '''ieue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''vui''' || '''ivui''' || '''uai''' || '''iuai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''vua''' || '''ivua''' || '''aua''' || '''iaua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uui''' || '''iuui''' || '''uue''' || '''iuue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uvu''' || '''iuvu''' || '''uua''' || '''iuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''evu''' || '''eivu''' || '''eua''' || '''eiua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teui''' || '''teiui''' || '''teue''' || '''teiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiui''' || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaiue''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aui''' || '''aiui''' || '''aue''' || '''aiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leui''' || '''leiui''' || '''leue''' || '''leiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veui''' || '''veiui''' || '''veue''' || '''veiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ovu''' || '''oivu''' || '''oua''' || '''oiua''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || ICS.DU<br /> || ACS.DU<br /> || DOM.DU<br /> || SUB.DU<br /> || ICS.PL<br /> || ACS.PL<br /> || DOM.PL<br /> || SUB.PL<br /> |-<br /> || Nominative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Accusative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Dative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvuna<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''ju''' || '''iju''' || '''ja''' || '''ija''' || '''xu''' || '''ixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ji''' || '''iji''' || '''je''' || '''ije''' || '''xi''' || '''ixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jui''' || '''ijui''' || '''jai''' || '''ijai''' || '''xui''' || '''ixui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''jua''' || '''ijua''' || '''aja''' || '''iaja''' || '''xua''' || '''ixua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uji''' || '''iuji''' || '''uje''' || '''iuje''' || '''uxi''' || '''iuxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uju''' || '''iuju''' || '''uja''' || '''iuja''' || '''*uxu''' || '''*iuxu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eju''' || '''eiju''' || '''eja''' || '''eija''' || '''exu''' || '''eixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teji''' || '''teiji''' || '''teje''' || '''teije''' || '''texi''' || '''teixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaiji''' || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuaixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aji''' || '''aiji''' || '''aje''' || '''aije''' || '''axi''' || '''aixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leji''' || '''leiji''' || '''leje''' || '''leije''' || '''lexi''' || '''leixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veji''' || '''veiji''' || '''veje''' || '''veije''' || '''vexi''' || '''veixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oju''' || '''oiju''' || '''oja''' || '''oija''' || '''oxu''' || '''oixu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''mu''' || '''imu''' || '''ma''' || '''ima''' || '''zu''' || '''izu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''mi''' || '''imi''' || '''me''' || '''ime''' || '''zi''' || '''izi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''emi''' || '''iemi''' || '''eme''' || '''ieme''' || '''ezi''' || '''iezi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mui''' || '''imui''' || '''mai''' || '''imai''' || '''zui''' || '''izui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''mua''' || '''imua''' || '''ama''' || '''iama''' || '''zua''' || '''izua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''umi''' || '''iumi''' || '''ume''' || '''iume''' || '''uzi''' || '''iuzi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''umu''' || '''iumu''' || '''uma''' || '''iuma''' || '''*uzu''' || '''*iuzu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''emu''' || '''eimu''' || '''ema''' || '''eima''' || '''ezu''' || '''eizu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''temi''' || '''teimi''' || '''teme''' || '''teime''' || '''tezi''' || '''teizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuami''' || '''kuaimi''' || '''kuame''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuazi''' || '''kuaizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ami''' || '''aimi''' || '''ame''' || '''aime''' || '''azi''' || '''aizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lemi''' || '''leimi''' || '''leme''' || '''leime''' || '''lezi''' || '''leizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vemi''' || '''veimi''' || '''veme''' || '''veime''' || '''vezi''' || '''veizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''omu''' || '''oimu''' || '''oma''' || '''oima''' || '''ozu''' || '''oizu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ANIM Sg. || ANIM Pl. || INAN Sg. || INAN Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''u''' || '''iu''' || '''a''' || '''ia'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''i''' || '''iri''' || '''e''' || '''ie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eri''' || '''ieri''' || '''ere''' || '''iere'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ai''' || '''iai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''iaru''' || '''ara''' || '''iara'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''iuri''' || '''ure''' || '''iure'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''iuru''' || '''ura'''* || '''iura'''*<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu''' || '''era''' || '''eia''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' || '''tere''' || '''teie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' || '''kuare''' || '''kuaie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' || '''are''' || '''aie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' || '''lere''' || '''leie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veri''' || '''veiri''' || '''vere''' || '''veie''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu''' || '''ora''' || '''oia'''<br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> =====Complementisers=====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''jo''' || 'that' || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''ejo''' || 'to the place where' || '''ekio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || *'''uzuo''' || || *'''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vejo''' || 'about V-ing' || '''vekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |}<br /> ::&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Verbals===<br /> <br /> Verbals constitute the only open class of words in Ngolu. They are essentially content words, equivalent to what in other languages are verbs ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''loe''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to sleep' || [NOM] sleeps<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kau''' || 'to eat' || [NOM] eats [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to hunt' (= 'to be a hunter') || [NOM] hunts [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''volo''' || 'to give' || [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mahu''' || 'to know' || [DAT] knows [NOM] = [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ila''' || 'to speak/talk' || [NOM] speaks [ACC]/[INS] (= language) to [DAT]/[COM] about [TOP]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mue''' || 'to be able to' || [NOM] can / is able to […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... nouns ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''iio''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be a fish' || [NOM] is a fish of [GEN] belonging to [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to be a hunter' (= 'to hunt') || [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person<br /> |-<br /> |• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of a different rank)' || [NOM] is a friend of [DAT], lover of [GEN] and concubine of [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ilia''' || 'to be speech/language' || [NOM] is the speech/language of [GEN]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... adjectives ... <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''tta''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be large' || [NOM] is large<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kaiu''' || 'to be edible' ('to be food') || [NOM] is edible to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kuaqa''' || 'to be far/distant' || [NOM] is far from [ABL]/[DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''xeva''' || 'to be visible' (= 'to see') || [NOM is visible to [DAT]; [DAT] sees [NOM]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lau''' || 'to be alive' (= 'to live', 'to be a living being') || [NOM] is alive<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lubi''' || 'to be closed/shut' || [NOM] is closed/shut to [DAT]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... and adverbs.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''jau''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to intentionally ...' || [NOM] is intentionally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mola''' || 'to be merely ...' (= 'to be insignificant') || [NOM] is just/only/merely […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> They are generally thought of as 'content words' but even many grammatical functions are expressed by verbals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''kka''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be not ...' || [NEGATIVE] || [NOM] is not […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hua''' || 'to be always ...', 'to be eternally ...' || [GNOMIC] || [NOM] is eternally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hau''' || 'to be defined by being ...' || [ESSENTIAL] || [NOM] is essentially […] by definition<br /> |-<br /> |• '''he''' || 'to undergo' || [PASSIVE] || [NOM] undergoes […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''eti''' || 'to have previously done ...' || [PAST] || [NOM] did […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Regardless of the verbal's semantic meaning and which part of speech carries the bulk of the meaning when translated into another language, each verbal can be used in the same syntactic positions as any other verbal. All verbals can appear as a predicate, an argument (when preceded by a nominal) or as a modifier to another, preceding verbal. Compare the following two sentences which show how a semantically verb-like verbal, '''gahu''' ('to howl'), and a semantically more noun-like verbal, '''zagua''' ('to be a gibbon') can simply be swapped. Both can appear in the predicate, both can appear in an argument and neither needs to be inflected to take on either role.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{|<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || scope=&quot;col&quot; width=&quot;10&quot; | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''gahu''' || || '''ju''' || '''zagua'''<br /> |-<br /> | howl || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.gibbon<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;howls&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a gibbon&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''The gibbon howls.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |- style=&quot;height: 2em;&quot;<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''zagua''' || || '''ju''' || '''gahu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.gibbon || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is a gibbon&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;howls&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''What howls is a gibbon.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Argument Structure====<br /> <br /> Verbals each have an inherent argument structure, controlling which case are used for which role. Dictionaries, and the examples above, mark the meanings of each relevant case when used with each verbal.<br /> <br /> Many argument structures are as would be expected.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''volo''' = [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> :* '''vuja''' = [NOM] hunts [ACC]; [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]<br /> :* '''akku''' = [NOM] is blood; [NOM] is the blood of [GEN]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volo''' || '''na''' || '''xi''' || '''eje'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to him&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I give it to him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is a tendency for experiencers to be in the dative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''hualo''' = [DAT] loves/cares about [NOM]; [NOM] is loved by [DAT]<br /> :* '''xeva''' = [DAT] sees [NOM]; [NOM] is seen by [DAT]<br /> :* '''zoua''' = [NOM] is difficult for [DAT]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''eni''' || '''ju''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was seen&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I saw the king.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Although that is not always the case, as this pair of opposites shows.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''mahu''' = [DAT] knows [NOM]; [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> :* '''zau''' = [NOM] doesn't know about [TOP]; [NOM] is ignorant of [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mahu''' || '''eni''' || ('''xu''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.1s.ICS || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || (&quot;it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zau''' || '''nu''' || ('''vexi''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || (TOP.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || (&quot;about it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I don't know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also an unusual class of verbals where the nominative role usually refers to a body part, the genitive refers to the possessor and when there is an accusative argument, the whole thing refers to an action performed (with the body part) by the possessor.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bale''' = [NOM] is a fist of [GEN]; [GEN] punches [ACC]<br /> :* '''bane''' = [NOM] is a hand of [GEN]; [GEN] holds, grasps, clutches [ACC]<br /> :* '''buja''' = [NOM] is a heavy boot of [GEN]; [GEN] crushes [ACC] under his boot<br /> :* '''gula''' = [NOM] is the pair of arms of [GEN]; [GEN] hugs [ACC]<br /> :* '''juaza''' = [NOM] is the penis of [GEN]; [GEN] fucks [ACC] (vulgar!)<br /> :* '''kanu''' = [NOM] is the nose of [GEN]; [GEN] sniffs [ACC]<br /> :* '''kula''' = [NOM] is the pair of ears of [GEN]; [GEN] listens to [ACC]<br /> :* '''mama''' = [NOM] is the pair of breasts of [GEN]; [GEN] breast-feeds [ACC]<br /> :* '''miva''' = [NOM] is a finger of [GEN]; [GEN] touches, feels [ACC]<br /> :* '''musari''' = [NOM] is a molar of [GEN]; [GEN] chews [ACC]<br /> :* '''omo''' = [NOM] is the pair of eyes of [GEN]; [GEN] looks at [ACC]<br /> :* '''umakka''' = [NOM] is a tooth (incisor, canine) of [GEN]; [GEN] bites [ACC]<br /> :* '''zuru''' = [NOM] is a war against [ACC]; [GEN] wages war on [ACC]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I have eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xu''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || be.this.1<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is this, here by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''These are my eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xi''' || '''masa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || be.snake<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a snake&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking at the snake'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The verbal '''lama''' is somewhat similar, although it may simply be understood through an idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''lama''' = [NOM] is a tear of [GEN]/[LOC]; [GEN]/[LOC] weeps (silently) about [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lama''' || '''ana''' || '''teui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is (a) tear(s)&quot; || &quot;at him/her&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The above sentence may also be translated as &quot;There are tears on him/her because of you,&quot; or &quot;S/He has tears because of you,&quot; making it less clear as to whether this is a good example of an apparent non-nominative subject.<br /> <br /> There is a proposed additional place within the argument structure of many verbals, that of a following modifier. A following modifier may mark a specific role which may either be marked by another case or may only be filled by a following modifier. The notation used here indicates a following modifier with […].<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''maue''' = [NOM] is a group of seven […]<br /> :* '''kka''' = [NOM] is not […]<br /> :* '''mia''' = [NOM] approaches [DAT]/[…]<br /> :* '''tehi''' = [NOM] is possibly […]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''mala''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | approach || be.house || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''iju''' || '''exi''' || '''mala''' <br /> |-<br /> | approach || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN || be.house <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;they&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Derivation of Verbals====<br /> <br /> There are two kinds of derivational affixes, one which converts a nominal into a verbal and many others which convert a verbal into another verbal with a different meaning.<br /> <br /> =====Nominal to Verbal=====<br /> All nominals can be converted into a verbal by adding a copula prefix. The copula prefix is '''g-''' before a vowel, '''k''' or '''g''', '''m-''' before '''m''', '''b''' and '''v''', '''l-''' before '''l''' and '''n-''' before all other consonants. The copula prefix essentially prevents a nominal from signalling the start of an argument. Used with the dative or ablative case, the meaning may be interpreted as a verb of motion.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nu''' 'I' [NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}nu''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} me' [COP-NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''eni''' 'to me' [DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}eni''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} to me', '{{color|MediumBlue|to come}} to me' [COP-DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''xu mala''' 'the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xu mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} the house'<br /> :* '''xua mala''' 'at the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xua mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} at the house'<br /> :* '''kuaini''' 'for us' [BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}kuaini''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} for us' [COP-BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> <br /> <br /> Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}nu''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-NOM.1s.ICS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be I&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I{{color|MediumBlue|'m}} me.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}xuas''' || '''azikuo''' || '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.≈school || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a school for adolescent boys&quot; || &quot;s/he&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} not at school.'' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} to me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|l-}}lene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;be with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} with me. / {{color|MediumBlue|Be}} with me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''nini''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}une''' || '''ja''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.mother || COP-GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.this<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be this&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''This is my mother.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Verbal to Verbal=====<br /> <br /> A far more common means of derivation is from verbal to verbal. This is chiefly done by means of infixing although prefixes and suffixes also exist.<br /> <br /> ======Collective======<br /> <br /> The collective infix '''-ig-''' indicates a group of the named entity.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''ala''' 'to be a bird'<br /> ::→ '''al{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}a''' 'to be {{color|MediumBlue|a flock}} of bird{{color|MediumBlue|s}}'<br /> :* '''balu''' 'to be a royal guardsman'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to be the royal guard'<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to eat {{color|MediumBlue|together}}'<br /> :* '''uttia''' 'to be a tree'<br /> ::→ '''ut{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}ia''' 'to be a forest'<br /> <br /> <br /> ======Gerundive======<br /> <br /> The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something. The accusative role is promoted to the nominative role, as with the passive construction with '''he''', but in addition the assertion is made that this is a good or customary use for the referent in question.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''huna''' 'to drink'<br /> ::→ '''hun{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a''' 'to be (fresh) water', 'to be potable', 'to be drinkable' (to be something to be drunk)<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular)<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular)<br /> :* '''jalo''' 'to welcome', 'to receive', 'to accept (into a place)'<br /> ::→ '''jal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a guest' (one who is to be welcomed)<br /> :* '''asu''' 'to be seated', 'to be sitting'<br /> ::→ '''a{{color|MediumBlue|x}}u''' 'to be a chair', 'to be a seat' (to be something to be sat on) [''*asiu'' → ''axu'']<br /> :* '''ila''' 'to speak', 'to talk'<br /> ::→ '''il{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a'''' 'to be language' (to be something to be spoken)<br /> :* '''zoi''' 'to say', 'to tell'<br /> ::→ '''zo{{color|MediumBlue|j}}i''' 'to be worth saying', 'to be fitting/appropriate' (to be something to be said) [''*zoii'' → ''zoji'']<br /> :* '''go''' 'to do something', 'to act'<br /> ::→ '''g{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a duty', 'to be an obligation', 'to be a good idea' (to be something to be done)<br /> :* '''mue''' 'to be able', 'to be capable'<br /> ::→ '''m{{color|MediumBlue|i}}ue''' 'to be a required skill' (to be something that someone should be able to do)<br /> :* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes'; (with genitive subject) 'to look at'<br /> ::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at)<br /> :* '''bale''' 'to be a fist'; (with genitive subject) 'to punch'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}e''' 'to be punchable', 'to have a punchable face' (to be one who ought to be punched, a common pejorative word)<br /> :* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', (with genitive subject) 'to crush under a boot'<br /> ::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot) [''*bujia'' → ''buji'']<br /> :* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter'<br /> ::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted) [''*vujia'' → ''vuji'']<br /> <br /> ======Locative======<br /> <br /> The prefix '''a-''' indicates being at a particular place.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''tio''' 'to be that'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}tio''' 'to be there' (≈ 'to be at that')<br /> :* '''mala''' 'to be a house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}mala''' 'to be at home' (≈ 'to be at house')<br /> <br /> ======Ornative======<br /> <br /> The ornative prefix '''o-''' indicates having or being equipped with something.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bani''' 'to be money'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money')<br /> :* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with room(s)')<br /> :* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair')<br /> :* '''ulu''' 'to be muscle'<br /> ::→ '''u{{color|MediumBlue|o}}lu''' 'to be muscular' (≈ 'to be with muscle', with metathesis turning /ou/ into /uo/)<br /> <br /> ====Verbals with inherent gender / rank distinctions====<br /> <br /> Many verbals semantically encode gender within their meaning. In some cases, there are pairs of words, such as the following.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nini''' 'to be a mother / aunt'<br /> :* '''nana''' 'to be a father / uncle'<br /> <br /> <br /> In this instance, the divide along genders is easy for non-Ngolu to conceptualise. However many other concepts are also divided by gender, or, more accurately, rank, and this frequently has to do with the Ngolu's strict cultural taboos around gender and rank. For example, Ngolu men and women are expected to sing, dance, dress and urinate differently.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''laha''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''kali'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''lasa''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''kali'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''miia''' 'to wear' (of a ''kali'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''kele''' 'to urinate' (of a ''kali'', to urinate while sitting or squatting)<br /> <br /> :* '''uaie''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''muja'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''bata''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''muja'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''uara''' 'to wear' (of a ''muja'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''zatu''' 'to urinate' (of a ''muja'', to urinate while standing)<br /> <br /> <br /> In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank.<br /> <br /> Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha'''' ('to fight physically'), '''aiuo''' ('to shoot').<br /> <br /> Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word.<br /> <br /> Verbals may also specify the gender/rank of an argument other than the nominal. For example, the word ''bale'' means 'to be a fist', specifying a ''muja'' in the role of the genitive possessor. Similarly, items of clothing specific to one gender can only appear with possessors in the corresponding gender.<br /> <br /> When a subject (or another argument) does not match the gender/rank specified in the verbal, there must be paraphrasing. There are generally two ways this is done, with '''ko''' and with '''hui'''.<br /> <br /> =====Ko=====<br /> <br /> '''Ko''' is a verbal meaning 'to be similar'. It can be placed before a gendered verbal when the subject (or other relevant argument) does not match. For example, the word for ''enemy'' is '''uako'''. It is a ''muja'' verb, perhaps best translated as 'to be a ''muja'' enemy'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.enemy || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is no direct equivalent for a ''kali'' who is an enemy. To express the idea of a ''kali'' being an enemy, what is essentially said is &quot;S/he is ''like'' an enemy.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.similar || be.enemy.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be.like&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The closest analogue in English would be with words such as 'midwife', which has no easy male equivalent. In Ngolu, it is as though one simply says 'He's like a midwife.' Similarly, in the following example, there is no word equivalent to a woman's fist, only a man's fist. Therefore, she made something ''like'' a man's fist.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''li''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|bale}}''' || '''uji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || begin || be.similar || be.MUJA.fist || GEN.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;start&quot; || &quot;be like&quot; || &quot;be a (man's) fist&quot; || &quot;of the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She made {{color|MediumBlue|a fist}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Hui=====<br /> <br /> '''Hui''' is similar to '''ko''' except it is filled with contempt and criticism. It is a verbal which could be translated as 'to shamefully break gender taboos by approximating |…|'. There is essentially no grammatical difference between '''ko''' and '''hui''' - the former is simply neutral and the later conveys strong condemnation of breaking taboos.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || sing.KALI<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;sing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|There's a man (shamefully) trying to sing like a woman}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ttio}}''' || '''ju''' || '''je'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || strike || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Particles and Grammatical Affixes===<br /> <br /> Particles are words which cannot be classified as either nominals or verbals. Most of them are equivalent to conjunctions, introducing clauses. In many cases, the line between verb and particle is a little blurred and difficult to find and research is still ongoing.<br /> <br /> ====''Au''====<br /> <br /> ====''Au'' and ''teu''====<br /> <br /> '''Au''' and '''teu''' are used to order the events multiple clause sentence. '''Au''' introduces the clause in which the first action took place and is thus roughly equivalent to 'first' or 'after' whereas '''teu''' introduces a later action and is thus equivalent to 'then' or 'before'. They are usually used as correlative conjunctions, with both present in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | first;after|| eat || NOM.1s.ICS || second;before || sleep || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|First}} I ate, {{color|MediumBlue|then}} I slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I ate {{color|MediumBlue|before}} I slept.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|After}} I ate, I slept.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The order of the clauses can be reversed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | second/before || sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Before}} I slept, I ate.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Sometimes the first of the two conjunctions is omitted.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''— [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept, {{color|MediumBlue|but first}}, I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> '''Au''' is also a verbal occa<br /> <br /> ====''Ha''====<br /> <br /> '''Ha''' forms polar (yes/no) questions. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Polar_Questions|Polar Questions]]<br /> <br /> It also introduces the protasis of realis conditional sentences, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Hai''====<br /> <br /> '''Hai''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Haizuo''====<br /> <br /> '''Haizuo''' is an emphatic form of '''hai'''. It introduces the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''I-''====<br /> <br /> The clitic particle '''i-''' appears on the beginning of any part of the predicate when it is preceded in a sentence by any non-predicate element. For example, in the following sentence, '''hu mala''' is the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''mala''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || be.house || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Topicalised arguments can be brought forward in the sentence to before the verb phrase. The verb phrase must now be marked with '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;As for me&lt;/u&gt;, I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The predicate phrase can even be split, with arguments appearing inside it.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;I&lt;/u&gt;'m going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In extreme cases, there can even be more than one split in a predicate phrase, with '''i-''' necessary each time the predicate is resumed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''leuis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || COM.2s.ICS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I want to go home with you.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Of that last example, the normal word order would be '''bio hu mala na leui'''.<br /> <br /> When added to words beginning with a syllabic '''i''', the prefix '''i-''' becomes '''j-''' ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|j}}-iio'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.this.1 || PRED-be.fish<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be this&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''This, well, this is a fish!'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... but before a non-syllabic '''i''', it remains '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''omo''' || '''g-unis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}iaha'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3S.DEF.INAN || be.pair.of.eyes || COP-GEN.1s.ICS || PRED-be.painful<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;hurt&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''As for my eyes, they're sore.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Lo''====<br /> <br /> '''Lo''' appears to be a short form of the comitative complementiser '''lejo'''. It introduces an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> ====''Mie''====<br /> <br /> ====''Teuo''====<br /> <br /> ====''To''====<br /> <br /> ''To'' generally introduces consequences. It often roughly means 'so' or 'therefore'. In these cases, it may replaced by the more emphatic '''toua'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ba''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(ua)}}''' || '''ka''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''muanaiti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || rain || therefore || be.PROS || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.stream<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;so&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be stream&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''It's raining hard, so the streams are going to swell.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is used in conjunction with '''ha''' (and sometimes '''hai''' or '''haizuo''') to form conditional clauses where it introduces the apodosis. See [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]] for examples.<br /> <br /> It is also frequently used to replace '''i-''' in introducing a main clause after a subordinate clause other than a conditional clause.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''enio'''<br /> |-<br /> | LOC.TEMP.C || rain || then || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.plant<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;when&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be plant&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|When}} it rains{{color|MediumBlue|, (then)}} the plants grow.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Toi''====<br /> <br /> '''Toi''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Toua''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xe''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xue''====<br /> <br /> ===Interjections===<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> <br /> ===Phrase Structure===<br /> <br /> ====Verbal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A verbal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL ...]]]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> When multiple verbals are stacked one after the other, the head is on the left and modifiers on the right.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a large house / are large houses''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jiio''' || '''ttiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | run || be.quick<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;run&quot; || &quot;be fast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''runs quickly / run quickly''<br /> ''is a fast runner / are fast runners''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''hunts birds / hunt birds''<br /> ''is a bird hunter / are bird hunters''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In many cases, verbals with more grammatical than semantic content are followed by much more semantically rich modifying verbals. In these cases, the preceding words are nevertheless heads and the following words modifiers.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bas''' || '''ali''' || '''g-eji''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || be.friend.(of.the.same.sex) || COP-DAT.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;be friend&quot; || &quot;be to inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;be the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a good friend / are good friends of the king''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''huna'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || drink<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;drink&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''drank / has drunk / have drunk''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''toto''' || '''kas''' || '''euo''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.really || be.PROS || be.pair || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be in fact&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''are actually going to be two big ones''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''buua''' || '''tio''' || '''vaxu''' || '''zara'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.on.top.of || be.that.3 || be.table || write<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be one top of&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot; || &quot;be a table&quot; || &quot;write&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''is / are on top of that desk over there''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Each complex verbal phrase comprised of more than one verbal has its own case structure which defines how the cases are used in a sentence. The case structure is determined by the rightmost verbal which shares the same nominative argument as the leftmost verbal in the phrase.<br /> <br /> $$$$$$$ [examples to come]<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A nominal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''NOMINAL [VERBAL PHRASE]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> An unadorned nominal on its own functions as a pronoun.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''he'', ''she''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''its''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> Adorned nominal phrases consist of a nominal followed by a verbal phrase. In this case, the nominal acts as the head of a relative clause in which the verbal phrase sits.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju''' || '''xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || execute<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;execute&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the executioner''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi''' || '''tukaue'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.collar.indicating.the.owner.of.a.slave<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a slave's collar&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''of the slave's collar''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Structure===<br /> <br /> With unmarked word order, a clause generally has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''[PARTICLE] PREDICATE [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] ...'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> A &lt;tt&gt;'''PREDICATE'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a verbal phrase and an &lt;tt&gt;'''ARGUMENT'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a nominal phrase or a subordinate clause.<br /> <br /> In many cases, one or more arguments may precede the predicate or may even appear in the middle of the predicate, dividing it into two or more pieces.<br /> <br /> Unmarked word order:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental)<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau''' || '''azi''' || '''akuala''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; || &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''I ate food with a knife.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted, nominal argument partially fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || Pred... || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || ...icate || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''nu''' || '''i-kau''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || NOM.1s.ICS || eat || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Predicate-Only Clauses====<br /> <br /> The simplest clauses in Ngolu consist of nothing but a verbal or a verbal phrase used as the predicate. There are no obligatory arguments in Ngolu and all may be omitted from the clause and left to context, even the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's raining. / It rains.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's good.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> A verbal with no arguments indicates an activity or state without specifying the identity of any participants. Essentially, Ngolu is a pro-drop language. With prior context, omitted arguments can be understood as referring to someone or something already discussed. With no prior context, however, verbal-only sentences are simply understood with a &quot;someone or something&quot; as the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kau'''<br /> |-<br /> | eat<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;eats&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He, she or it is eating. (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Something or someone is eating.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He or it is hunting. / He or it is a hunter.'' (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''Something or someone is hunting. / There's a hunter.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Simple declarative or existential statements are frequently verbal-only.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.fire<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a fire&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's a fire. / There's a fire. / Fire!''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====One-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Multi-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Subordinate Clauses====<br /> <br /> =====Complementiser Clauses=====<br /> <br /> =====Adverbial Clauses=====<br /> <br /> Adverbial clauses are introduced by the particle '''lo''', which may be derived from '''lejo''', the comitative case of the copula 'zuo'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''lo''' || '''juo''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | want || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ADV || be.outside || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be outside&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to eat outside.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Relative Clauses=====<br /> <br /> ===Topic and Focus===<br /> <br /> ===Affirmation and Negation===<br /> <br /> The verbals '''ahe''' and '''kka''' indicate polarity, being positive and negative respectively. On their own, they are roughly equivalent to 'yes' and 'no'. <br /> <br /> Positive sentences are generally unmarked and '''ahe''' generally appears only for emphasis.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || '''bo''' || '''xu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.indeed || be.wanted || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;be wanted&quot; || &quot;the thing&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|do}} want it.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation is performed by means of '''kka'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xua''' || '''uttia'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be tree&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''S/He{{color|MediumBlue|'s not}} at the tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''mula''' || '''ju''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.liked || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be liked&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|don't}} like him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> After a negative question or statement, '''ahe''' indicates a contradictory, positive answer whereas '''kka''' indicates a negative answer in agreement.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.not || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be.not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Is{{color|MediumBlue|n't}} it raining?''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.indeed || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be indeed&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Yes, it is}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.not || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be not&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No, it's not}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation (as well as affirmation) is generally performed in the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''xeva''' || '''ju''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|eri}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.seen || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;to anyone who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No one else}} saw her.'' (Literally: ''{{color|MediumBlue|Anyone else didn't}} see her.'')<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> To negate or affirm an argument, it is placed within an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || '''los''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''ahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV || be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV || be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Both '''kka''' and '''ahe''' have equivalent adverbial forms, '''kku''' and '''lahe''' respectively, which do not require the use of '''lo''' when negating or affirming an argument. The previous sentence may be expressed as follows.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kku}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV.be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV.be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Interrogation===<br /> <br /> ====Polar Questions====<br /> <br /> Polar questions are indicated with '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} raining{{color|MediumBlue|?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Do}} you love me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Ha''' can occur at the end of a sentence, where it functions as a question tag.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | rain || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot; || Q<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''It's raining, {{color|MediumBlue|isn't it?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;?&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''You love me, {{color|MediumBlue|don't you?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Individual arguments in a sentence may be called into question by placing them inside an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]] introduced by '''lo'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} me who you love{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''na''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || ADV || Q || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} you who loves me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Alternative Questions====<br /> <br /> Alternative questions use two or more instances of '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Bio''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''kau''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''huna''' || '''vu'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || Q || eat || Q || drink || NOM.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;or&quot; || &quot;drink&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''Would you like anything to {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} eat {{color|MediumBlue|or}} drink{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Xevu''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ja''' || '''mahu''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ju''' || '''laiuiie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mahu || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Laiuiie<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Mahu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Laiuiie&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''Have you seen {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} Mahu {{color|MediumBlue|or}} Laiuiie{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Content Questions====<br /> <br /> ====Embedded Questions====<br /> <br /> Any type of question may be embedded inside a complementiser phrase.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Zau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ti''' || '''uaizue''' || '''ji''' || '''tavi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || TOP.C || Q || be.PRF || find || ACC.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.child<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;about that&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || be.PRF || &quot;find&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I don't know {{color|MediumBlue|if}} the child has been found.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Voice===<br /> <br /> ===Time===<br /> <br /> Marking of time (tense and aspect) is not obligatory in Ngolu and may always be left up to context. For our purposes here, we shall not distinguish between actions (e.g. ''kill'') and states (e.g. ''want'', ''be a house'') as temporal marking is identical for both. The word ''action'' will be used henceforth and should be understood to mean &quot;action or state&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Relative tenses====<br /> When time needs to be indicated, it is most often done by means of a verbal indicating a &quot;relative tense&quot; (aspect). These are relative to a contextually understood time in question, the &quot;reference time&quot;. The three basic &quot;relative tense&quot; markers are ... <br /> <br /> <br /> *'''ti''' &quot;perfect&quot; (PRF), indicating an action that occurred before the reference time<br /> *'''zo''' &quot;progressive&quot; (PROG), indicating an action underway at the reference time<br /> *'''ka''' &quot;prospective (PROS), indicating an action occurring after the reference time<br /> <br /> <br /> By default, the reference is the present, the time in which the utterance is made. However, if another time is contextually understood, any of these may refer to events in the past, present or future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|zo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROG || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be underway&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Absolute tenses====<br /> The prefix '''e-''' attached to the beginning of any of these aspect markers creates an absolute tense marker. The '''e-''' sets the reference time to the current moment in which the utterance is made. This is usually only used to disambiguate or to emphasise a time frame.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''eti''' &quot;past&quot; (PST), indicating an action that occurred in the past<br /> *'''ezo''' &quot;present&quot; (PRES), indicating an action underway in the present<br /> *'''eka''' &quot;future (FUT), indicating an action that will occur in the future<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be earlier&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRES || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Continuation====<br /> There are also compounds formed from two time words that indicate continuation from one time frame to another using a linking ''-e-''. This linking ''-e-'' is probably not related to the ''e-'' of absolute temporal reference, but to the ''e-'' prefix of dative case nominals and the derivation prefix ''e-'' that can be added to verbals indicating motion towards something.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''tiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that starting before the reference time and continuing up to it<br /> *'''zueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action continuing from the reference time and extending to a later time<br /> *'''etiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that started in the past and continues to the present<br /> *'''ezueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action that starts in the present and will continue into the future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezos}}''' || '''oila''' || '''na''' || '''xiies''' || '''oge'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF.PROG|| read || NOM.1S.ACS || ACC.3S.DEF.INAN.PROX || be.book<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have been doing&quot; || &quot;read&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;this thing which&quot; || &quot;is a book&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|have been}} read{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} this book.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Perfective and imperfective====<br /> In addition, the word '''bie''' contrasts with '''zo'''. Whereas '''zo''' specifies that an action is underway at the reference time, essentially taking a &quot;snapshot&quot; of the interior of an action, after its beginning and before its completion, '''bie''' specifies perfectivity, metaphorically painting a picture of the whole completed action without permitting a look inside. On its own, it does not specify whether the completed action occurs before or after the reference time, but it does explicitly specify that the action is ''not'' underway at the reference time. <br /> <br /> Both ''bie'' and ''zo'' may be suffixed to other verbals indicating time in order to explicitly distinguish the imperfective (progressive) aspect from the perfective aspect, while also specifying time.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfectivity:<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | imperfective (progressive)<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfective<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | bie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | relative time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kabie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | absolute time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekabie<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Note that '''zo''' appears twice in the table although it really only has one function; it specifies an action underway at the reference time (i.e. concurrent with it), which itself may be unspecified.<br /> <br /> The reduplicated forms '''zozo''' ('these days', 'in those days') and '''ezozo''' ('these days') do not appear in the above table as they indicate a loosening of the bounds of the reference time or current time. The reference or current time can be tightened or emphasised with '''bazo''' ('right now', 'right then', 'at that/this very moment') or '''ebazo''' ('right now', 'at this very moment').<br /> <br /> ====Resultative perfect====<br /> The word '''bue''' indicates a ''resultative perfect'', functioning similarly to '''ti''' in that it describes an action occurring prior to the reference time, however the focus of '''bue''' is not on the action itself, but on the resulting post-action state at the reference time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|bue}}''' || '''kaxa''' || '''xu''' || '''giloxuo'''<br /> |-<br /> | RES.PRF|| break(INTR) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || window.pane<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is in the resulting state&quot; || &quot;break&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a window pane&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''The window {{color|MediumBlue|is}} br{{color|MediumBlue|o}}k{{color|MediumBlue|en}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bue''' is frequently prefixed to the following word (for example ''buekaxa'' instead of ''bue kaxa''). Its passive equivalent '''hi-''' is always prefixed.<br /> <br /> ====Time word stacking====<br /> More than one time word can be used together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT|| be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will&quot; || &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST|| be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;will&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> These are usually compounded together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekati}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|etika}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST-PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Distance from reference time====<br /> The precise distance from the reference time can be indicated using adverbial clauses with '''lo''' followed by the unit of time, '''(e)ti''' or '''(e)ka''' and an ordinal number, which begins with ''t-''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''zaxa''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teuo}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.ill || ADV || be.year || be.PRF || be.second<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;becomes&quot; || &quot;is ill&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;is earlier&quot; || &quot;is second&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he fell ill {{color|MediumBlue|two years before/ago}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> This sentence could be translated somewhat more literally as &quot;S/he fell ill while there was the second previous year.&quot; Note that replacing '''ti''' with '''eti''' would force the interpretation with &quot;ago&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || Bie || bilo || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tahu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PFV || die || ADV || be.month || be.PROS || be.first<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is completed&quot; || &quot;dies&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;is about to&quot; || &quot;is first&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he died {{color|MediumBlue|one month later}}. / S/he will die {{color|MediumBlue|in one month}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A more literally translation could be &quot;S/he died while there was the second coming year.&quot; Note again that replacing '''ka''' with '''eka''' would force the interpretation with &quot;in one month&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment. <br /> <br /> In the following example, in which a duration is specified rather than a specific time, the adverbial clause contains only the length of time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS || ADV || be.five || be.year<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another means of conveying the same information is to place the time specifiers after the tense or aspect marker and then introducing the rest of the sentence with '''to'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''li''' || '''zaxa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || be.two || be.year || thus || begin || be.ill<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become&quot; || &quot;be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Two years ago,}} s/he fell ill.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || ... || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''bilo'''<br /> |-<br /> | || be.going.to || be.one || be.month || thus || die<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;is going to&quot; || &quot;is one&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;die&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|One month later,}} s/he died.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.five || be.year || thus || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Miscellaneous time words====<br /> There are a range of other verbals which indicate time in a similar way. Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> ''Days''<br /> * '''ariu''' &quot;yesterday&quot;<br /> * '''aku''' &quot;today&quot;<br /> * '''anu''' &quot;tomorrow&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Lighting''<br /> * '''auo''' &quot;by day&quot;<br /> * '''eio''' &quot;by night&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Distance in time''<br /> * '''ttie''' / '''ettie''' &quot;just&quot; (similar to '''ti''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''tieka''' / '''etieka''' &quot;about to&quot; (similar to '''ka''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''ti ti''' / '''eti ti''' &quot;a long time ago&quot; (reduplication for distance into the past)<br /> * '''ka ka''' / '''eka ka''' &quot;eventually&quot; (reduplication for distance into the future)<br /> <br /> ''Other aspectual differences''<br /> * '''hua''' &quot;always&quot;, &quot;permanently&quot; [gnomic]<br /> * '''niu''' &quot;habitually&quot; [habitual]<br /> * '''guegue''' &quot;repeatedly&quot;, &quot;again and again&quot; [iterative]<br /> * '''egue''' &quot;again&quot;<br /> * '''tara''' &quot;suddenly&quot;<br /> * '''li''' &quot;starts&quot;, &quot;begins&quot;, &quot;commences&quot;<br /> * '''bi''' &quot;stops&quot;, &quot;ceases&quot;<br /> * '''ligue''' &quot;resumes&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Demonstratives===<br /> <br /> Demonstratives distinguish three degrees of distance associated with the three grammatical persons.<br /> <br /> * '''''tie''''' 'this' or 'these' near the speaker [1st person - proximal]<br /> * '''''tia''''' 'that' or 'those' near the listener [2nd person - medial]<br /> * '''''tio''''' 'that' or 'those' away from both speaker and listener [3rd person - distal]<br /> <br /> When speaking to someone of the same or higher rank and referring to the something that is close to both speaker and listener (such as a house that both are inside), the 2nd person '''''tia''''' 'that' is used. Only persons of higher rank may use the first person form '''''tie''''' in such situations.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.MED || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.PROX || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The association between the grammatical persons and the demonstratives is strong, with words, statements and actions made by a person frequently being referred to using the appropriate demonstrative. For example, a commonly used phrase for &quot;therefore&quot; is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}'' (literally 'because of this (by me)') when the reasoning is based on what the speaker just said, but when the reasoning is based on what their interlocutor just said, this phrase is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}'' (literally 'because of that (by you)').<br /> <br /> ====Contractions====<br /> <br /> The demonstrative verbals '''''tie''''', '''''tia''''' and '''''tio''''' form very common contractions with third person definite nominals, transforming the above examples as follows:<br /> <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tia}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}} mala''''' 'this house' / 'that house' (by you) <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tie}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}} mala''''' 'this house' (by me)<br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what I said' <br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what you said' <br /> <br /> Here is a table of forms:<br /> <br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Proximal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Medial || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Distal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Proximal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''|| '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Medial || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Distal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Proximal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Medial || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Distal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Proximal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Medial || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Distal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Proximal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Medial || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Distal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Proximal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Medial || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Distal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Proximal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Medial || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Distal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Proximal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Medial || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Distal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Proximal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Medial || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Distal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Proximal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Medial || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Distal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Proximal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Medial || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Distal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Proximal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Medial || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Distal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Proximal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Medial || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Distal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Essive Proximal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Medial || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Distal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Location===<br /> <br /> ===Movement===<br /> <br /> Movement is expressed in a variety of ways in Ngolu. <br /> <br /> One of the most common methods for talking about movement is using the words '''hu''' and '''mia'''. There is no distinction between coming and going but rather a distinction between the perfective '''hu''', meaning 'come' or 'go', and the imperfective '''mia''', 'be one one's way', 'be coming', 'be going'. The destination may be indicated by a subsequent modifying verbal or by a dative argument. The origin is indicated by an ablative argument.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nu''' || '''exi''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || NOM.1s.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|mia}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.IPFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be on the way&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|'m going / on my way}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || move.PFV || ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Please {{color|MediumBlue|get}} away from me.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another method for expressing movement is to affix the copula prefix '''g-''', '''m-''', '''n-''' to a dative or ablative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-exi}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to you&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'll {{color|MediumBlue|come to you}}.'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Get away from me}}!'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The third way to express movement is to use an inceptive (inchoative) morpheme in conjunction with a word indicating location. For example, the verbal '''xa''' means 'to be inside' and the verbal '''atio''' means 'to be there (away from us)' - adding the infix '''-in-''' (perfective inceptive) or '''-ij-''' (imperfective inceptive) gives '''xina''' ('to go in', 'to enter') and '''xija''' ('to be on the way in'), '''atinio''' ('to go there') and '''atijo''' ('to be on the way there'). The free standing verbal '''li''' ('to begin, start, commence') may also be used, with '''li xa''' and '''li atio''' being equivalent to '''xina''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xina}}''' || '''iju''' || '''i-oba''' || '''loe'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || enter.PFV || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || PRED-be.room || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;enter&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible ones&quot; || &quot;be room&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''They {{color|MediumBlue|went into}} the bedroom.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bios''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|atinio}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || go.there.3 || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''S/He wants {{color|MediumBlue|to go there}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The inceptive infixes are frequently used with the verbals denoting location in the four cardinal directions: '''la''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' ('to be in the east', 'to be in the west', 'to be in the north', 'to be in the south' respectively) creating the perfective forms '''lina''', '''tina''', '''ginio''' and '''vino''' and the imperfective forms '''lija''', '''tija''', '''gijo''' and '''vijo'''. Direction within Qu, with its noticeable tube shape (with 'east/west' pointing along the tube and 'north/south' going around the circumference), is a much more salient feature than on Earth and referencing direction with motion is common. In certain circumstances, describing movement without reference to direction is regarded as too imprecise, such as when men are discussing hunting in the forest where there may be no obvious landmarks to identify as the destination of a movement.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''La''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' may be used to modify another verb of motion with or without taking an inceptive infix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|lina}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|gio}}''' || '''inais''' || '''ixi''' || '''vaku'''<br /> |-<br /> | go.east.PFV || be.in.the.north || ABL.1p.ACS || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.babirusa<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go east&quot; || &quot;be in the north&quot; || &quot;from us&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be babirusa&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''The babirusas {{color|MediumBlue|moved (east)-northeast}} away from us.'' — '''muja''' [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Additionally, there is yet another prefix '''e-''' which may be related to the '''e-''' prefix at the beginning of nominals in the dative case. Words with this prefix indicate perfective movement and include '''etie''' ('to come here') '''etia''' ('to go/come there/here by you') and '''etio''' ('to go there'). These words are slightly more commonly used than their equivalents '''atinie''', '''atinia''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> ===Causes===<br /> <br /> ===Goals===<br /> <br /> ===Conditionals===<br /> <br /> Conditional sentences in Ngolu use particles to indicate the condition clause (protasis) and the result clause (apodosis). These particles differ depending on whether the condition is possible (realis) or hypothetical (irrealis).<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''PROTASIS'' || ''APODOSIS''<br /> |-<br /> | ''REALIS'' || '''ha''' || '''to'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''IRREALIS'' || '''hai''' &lt;br&gt; '''haizuo''' (emphatic) || '''toi''' &lt;br&gt; '''to''' (possible only when apodosis clause appears second)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Realis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''anu''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''kka''' || '''vuja''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | if || be.tomorrow || rain || then || be.not || hunt.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if&quot; || &quot;be tomorrow&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} it rains tomorrow, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} he won't hunt.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ('''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''') || '''ttio''' || '''nu''' || '''ue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''vai''' || '''tiaia'''<br /> |-<br /> | (then) || hit || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.2s.ACS || if || stay || do.that.2<br /> |-<br /> | (&quot;then&quot;) || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;if&quot; || &quot;keep&quot; || &quot;do that which you are doing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I'll hit you {{color|MediumBlue|if}} you keep doing that.'' — '''muja''' [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Irrealis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''g-ua''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(i)}}''' || '''hales''' || '''eji''' || '''jo''' || '''nio'''|| '''mo'''<br /> |-<br /> | if.IRR || be-NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ACS || then.(would) || ask || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.C || happen || be.what<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;imagine if&quot; || &quot;be you&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then (would)&quot; || &quot;ask&quot; || &quot;(to) the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;happen&quot; || &quot;be what&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} you, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} I{{color|MediumBlue|'d}} ask him/her what happened.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || '''abani'''<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;stop&quot; || &quot;work&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || &quot;be more&quot; || &quot;be rich&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|would}} stop working, {{color|MediumBlue|if}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} richer.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''ti''' || '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''leui''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || ('''ti''') || '''mahu''' || ('''xu''') || ('''ene''')<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || be.PRF || move || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ICS || if.IRR || (be.PRF) || be.known || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN) || (DAT.1s.ACS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;move&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || (&quot;be finished&quot;) || &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''I would have come with you if I had known that.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Numbers===<br /> <br /> ===Quantity===<br /> <br /> ===Degree===<br /> <br /> ===Comparison===<br /> <br /> ==Pragmatics==<br /> <br /> ===Social Stratification and Language Use===<br /> <br /> Ngolu society is heavily stratified into five social divisions. These social divisions, or strata, are hierarchical and from highest to lowest are as follows.<br /> <br /> * 5. ''ju '''taqu''''' - the king<br /> * 4. ''iju '''balu''''' - the king's men<br /> * 3. ''iju '''muja''''' - initiated men<br /> * 2. ''iju '''kali''''' - free citizens<br /> * 1. ''iju '''tuva''''' - slaves and prisoners (''ixu tuva'' in the speech of '''muja''', '''balu''' and '''taqu''')<br /> <br /> Language use is, to a large extent, determined by the strata of the speaker, addressee and third person referents.<br /> <br /> ===Speech Crime===<br /> <br /> [[Category:Languages]]<br /> [[Category:Conlangs]]</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Iliaqu&diff=258020 2022-01-29T10:56:24Z

<p>Imralu: /* Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive) */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Iliaqu<br /> |nativename = iliaqu<br /> |pronunciation = [ìʎàʔú]<br /> |region = Qu<br /> |ethnicity = Ngolu / Ilaqu<br /> |speakers = {{formatnum:100,000}}<br /> |setting = [[Verse:Qu|Qu]]<br /> |fam1 = Language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2013-2020<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> {{infobox|bg=#F2DC77|native=iliaqu|in=Qu|no=100,000 (approx.)|tree=Isolate (as far as known)|wo=VSO|morph=Isolating/futional|ms=Nominative-Accusative|creator=[[User:Imralu|Imralu]]|date=2013-2014}}<br /> <br /> '''Iliaqu''' (IPA: /ˌɪljəˈʔuː/), also known as '''Ngolu''' or sometimes '''Qu''' (endonym: ''iliaqu'' IPA: [ìʎàʔú]) is a language isolate spoken throughout the known regions of the space habitat [[Verse:Qu|Qu]] by the Ngolu people, whose number is estimated to be around 100,000. As the Ngolu are almost entirely monolingual, and while voluntary travel to and from Qu remains impossible, the language is not in any danger of extinction. At this stage, little is known of dialect differences within Qu. There are estimated to be somewhere between 50 and 100 Iliaqu speakers on Earth who have simply mysteriously appeared in various locations. Small communities of Ngolu speakers been brought or have found their way together, the most well-known and well-studied of which is a group of about 15 living in and around Berlin, Germany.<br /> <br /> Iliaqu is an isolating/fusional, head-initial (right-branching) language with VSO word order and nominative-accusative alignment. Verbs (verbals) make up the only open class of word, with nouns (nominals) constituting a closed class of heavily fusional words that fill the roll of pronouns and articles in other languages, marking grammatical person, number, definiteness and specificity, gender, accessibility, and case.<br /> <br /> ==Terminology==<br /> There appear to have been fewer than ten isolated instances of non-Ngolu people arriving in Qu and there are no other cultures or languages known to exist in Qu. In such a linguistically and culturally homogenous environment, the Ngolu have had no need for endonyms for their culture, people or language. Traditionally, they have described their language simply as '''ilia''' [ìʎá] 'speech', themselves as '''golu''' [ŋòlú] 'people', and their world as '''qu''' [ʔú] 'world'. <br /> <br /> With the new knowledge of other cultures and the entire universe outside of Qu, neologisms have arisen to distinguish their language and their people from those of the outsiders. For the Ngolu arrivals Earth, contact with other cultures has forced them to acknowledge that the other languages they hear must have the ability to convey information just as their language. Consequently, on Earth, the word '''ilia''' generally refers to any language. To disambiguate their own language, they may call it '''ilia qu''' [ìʎáʔú] or '''iliaqu''' [ìʎàʔú] 'Qu speech'. Non-Ngolu are still referred to as '''taia''' ('ghost', 'demon') and Earth maybe referred to as '''utaia''' [ùtàjá] 'ghost world' or a loan word such as '''hiia''', which was common among the Berlin group (from German ''hier'') although it now seems to be dying out in favour of '''utaia'''. With the acknowledgement that non-Ngolu people are also people and the consequent expansion of the term '''golu''' to include non-Ngolu, the term '''goqu''' [ŋòʔú] ('Qu people', formed by adding the human prefix '''go-''' to the word '''qu''') is gaining ground and may be contrasted with '''taia''' or '''goutaia''' [ŋòu̯tàjá].<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !VOWELS<br /> !Front<br /> !Central<br /> !Back<br /> |-<br /> !High<br /> |'''i''' ‹i›<br /> |<br /> |'''u''' ‹u›<br /> |-<br /> !Mid<br /> |'''e''' ‹e›<br /> |<br /> |'''o''' ‹o›<br /> |-<br /> !Low<br /> |<br /> |'''a''' ‹a›<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Each vowel may be 'strong' or 'weak'. These are essentially stressed and unstressed. There is only ever one 'strong' vowel per word and it is nearly always the final vowel. Where it is not, it is always the penultimate vowel and the in that case the final vowel is always /i/ or /u/. Non-final strong vowels are indicated in the romanisation using an acute accent, ‹áéíóú›.<br /> <br /> The realisation of strong vowels varies across accents. There appears to be a cline ranging from a pitch-based pronunciation to a weight-based pronunciation (used chiefly by men). At the pitch-based end of the spectrum, 'strong' vowels are pronounced with a high tone and 'weak' vowels with a low-tone. At the end of a non-interrogative utterance, a high-tone becomes a falling tone. At the end of a question, a high tone may be lengthened and/or undergo an additional rise. At the weight-based extreme, strong vowels cause gemination of the following consonant but are pronounced as long themselves when the following sound is (1) a vowel, (2) a consonant cluster or (3) an already geminated consonant. Utterance finally, strong vowels are generally neither pronounced with a high tone nor lengthened but are usually pronounced slightly louder. <br /> <br /> The high vowels, /i/ and /u/, when 'weak' and adjacent to another vowel are pronounced non-syllabically as [i̯~j] and [u̯~w]). Non-syllabic /i/ merges with and palatalises any preceding dental/alveolar consonant.<br /> <br /> In these two word examples, the pitch-based pronunciation is given before the weight-based pronunciation.<br /> <br /> :*'''ju muja''' [ʒúmùʒâ] ~ [ʒumːuˈʒa]<br /> :*'''ju aio''' [ʒúàjô] ~ [ʒuːaˈjo]<br /> :*'''ju uaia''' [ʒúwàjâ] [ʒuːwaˈja]<br /> :*'''ju ntu''' [ʒúntû] ~ [ʒu:nˈtu]<br /> :*'''ju lleue''' [ʒúlːèwê] ~ [ʒuːlːeˈwe]<br /> <br /> ===Consonants===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !CONSONANTS<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Dental/Alveolar<br /> !Post-alveolar<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> | '''m''' ‹m›<br /> | <br /> | '''n''' ‹n›<br /> |<br /> | '''ŋ''' ‹g›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> | '''b''' ‹b›<br /> |<br /> | '''t''' ‹t›<br /> |<br /> | '''k''' ‹k›<br /> | '''ʔ''' ‹q›<br /> |-<br /> !Ejective<br /> |<br /> | <br /> | '''tʼ''' ‹tt›<br /> |<br /> | '''kʼ''' ‹kk›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiced Fricative<br /> | <br /> | '''v''' ‹v›<br /> | '''z''' ‹z›<br /> | '''ʒ''' ‹j›<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiceless Fricative<br /> | <br /> | <br /> | '''s''' ‹s›<br /> | '''ʃ''' ‹x›<br /> | <br /> | '''h''' ‹h›<br /> |-<br /> !Tap<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''ɾ''' ‹r› <br /> |<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''l''' ‹l› <br /> |<br /> |<br /> | <br /> |}<br /> <br /> * The nasal consonants /m n ŋ/, unlike other consonants, may occur before another consonant and then assimilate in place of articulation to that consonant. For this reason, many authors posit the archiphoneme /N/. /N/ may be syllabic post pausa, carrying a low tone. Before /l/, /N/ assimilates to [l̪] or [l̪̩]. Before /v/, it is pronounced as [ɱ] or [ɱ̩].<br /> * The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental [n̪ t̪ t̪ʼ ɾ̪ l̪]. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears. Some speakers palatalise /t/ and /d/ to [t͡ʃ] and [d͡ʒ] respectively. The ejective /tʼ/, however, is rarely or never palatalised as [t͡ʃʼ].<br /> * /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive [d̪].<br /> * Geminate /m/, /n/ and /l/ (resulting from /Nm/, /Nn/ and /Nl/) may be pronounced as [m̩b], [n̪̩d̪] and [l̪̩d̪] respectively, particularly by men and particularly post pausa.<br /> * /s/ and /z/ are normally alveolar. When followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are not distinguished from /ʃ ʒ/. <br /> * /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ cannot be followed by non-syllabic /i/.<br /> * The phonemes /s/ and /ɾ/ do not occur at the beginning of a word.<br /> * The glottal stop /ʔ/ and the ejective consonants /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ are restricted to positions immediately before a 'strong' vowel, although there may be an intervening non-syllabic 'weak' /i/ or /u/ after the ejectives. At the beginning of a 'weak' syllable, ejective consonants become pronounced as their equivalent plain plosive and the glottal stop disappears. For example, ''kka'' [kʼá] and ''kkue'' [kʷʼé] are allowed while expected ''*kkina'' (derived from ''kka'' plus the infix ''-in-'') is instead present as ''kina'' [kì.ná]. In connected speech, /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ may be pronounced as [t̚ʔ k̚ʔ] or even [tː kː]. However, a strong ejective pronunciation is always heard post pausa.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> Phonemically, a syllable may be '''((N)C)V''', where '''V''' is a vowel '''(C)''' an optional consonant and '''(N)''' an optional nasal which assimilates to its following consonant in its point of articulation. <br /> <br /> Phonetically, syllables may be more complex. '''(N)''' is pronounced syllabically post pausa and otherwise is pronounced in the coda of the preceding syllable. The non-syllabic pronunciations of /i/ and /u/ mean that a syllable can be (C)(S)V(S)(N), where '''(S)''' is a semivowel.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::'''nxua intaneti'''<br /> ::/Nʃu.á.i.Nta.ne.tí/<br /> ::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí]<br /> ::''is on the internet''<br /> <br /> ===Epenthetic /s/===<br /> <br /> An epenthetic /s/ sometimes appears between words when the second word begins with a vowel. In the romanisation used here, the /s/ is written on the end of the preceding word. The rules are somewhat complex and are best shown as a table. The final vowels of preceding words are shown vertically on the left. Initial vowels of the following word are shown along the top. An epenthetic /s/ doesn't appear before '''i''' and '''u''' when a syllabic vowel (V) immediately follows within the same word. In the table, the word borders are shown with an '''s''' indicating where the epenthetic /s/ always appears. In other positions in the table, the epenthetic /s/ can still appear in very clear emphatic speech.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''i(V)-'' || ''u(V)-'' || ''i-'' || ''u-'' || ''e-'' || ''o-'' || ''a-''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-i'' || '''-i i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i e-''' || '''-i o-''' || '''-i a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-u'' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u u-''' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} u-''' || '''-u e-''' || '''-u o-''' || '''-u a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-e'' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-o'' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-a'' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ua''' || [è.né.wá] || '''u''' followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} u''' || [è.né.sú] || '''u''' not followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ima''' || [è.néj.má] || '''i''' is weak and can become non-syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} eme''' || [è.né.sè.mé] || '''e''' is always syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni ua''' || [è.ní.wá] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni u''' || [è.ní.ú] || final '''i''' before syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni iu''' || [è.ní.jú] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni{{color|MediumBlue|s}} iui''' || [è.ní.sì.wí] || final '''i''' before initial syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene iui''' || [è.néj.wí] || final '''e''' followed by 'weak' '''i''' which becomes non-syllabic<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> There are four classes of words in Ngolu. Ngolu is a very verb-heavy language, with verbals making up the only truly open word class.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''Nominals''': closed<br /> :* '''Verbals''': open<br /> :* '''Particles''': closed<br /> :* '''Interjections''': closed (mostly)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Nominals===<br /> Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of nominals, the &lt;u&gt;pronominals&lt;/u&gt;, are essentially the equivalent of pronouns and articles in other languages, inflecting for number, grammatical person, definiteness, specificity, gender, case and an inflectional dimension unique to Iliaqu, ''accessibility''. Pronominals can appear on their own or can be followed by a verbal or verbal phrase. When followed by a verbal, they can be regarded as the head of an underlying relative clause which nominalises the verbal and allows it to function as an argument in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> :As a pronoun:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|it}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :As an article:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|the}} house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In addition to the pronominals, there are two &lt;u&gt;complementisers&lt;/u&gt; which are essentially subordinating conjunctions which inflect for case. '''Zuo''' can be thought of as roughly equivalent to the English subordinating conjunction 'that' and '''kuo''' can be thought of as 'the time when'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''olos''' || '''ene''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''g-ixi''' || '''ja''' || '''nana''' || '''g-uje''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.strange || DAT.1s.ACS || NOM.C || be.not || COP-DAT.3s.INAN.DEF || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.father || COP-GEN.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is strange&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;is not&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the one who&quot; || &quot;is father&quot; || &quot;is hers/his&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I think it's strange {{color|MediumBlue|that}} his / her father didn't go / wasn't there.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Number====<br /> Pronominals indicate two numbers, singular and plural. Plural is marked by the prefix '''i-''', which occurs before some case prefixes and after others (see [[Ngolu#Case|Case]] below for more information).<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The singular is used before quantifiers indicating a specific plural quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a group of two&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|two}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> When the plural is used, this indicates multiples of the indicated quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are groups of two&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|pairs of}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Many words denoting powders and granular substances are used in the plural with the singular referring to an individual grain.<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a grain of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the grain of sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are grains of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the (grain{{color|MediumBlue|s}} of) sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Water referred to as '''hunia''', potable water, is indicated in the plural as well when it is a quantity larger than what one person can drink in one sitting. <br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (large quantity of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (serving of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Gender====<br /> In the third person, nominals distinguish between animate and inanimate referents. When it comes to animals, the use of the genders depends on the speaker's [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]]. ''Kali'' (women, children and uninitiated men) and ''tuva'' (slaves) refer to all motile animals in the animate gender, generally as inaccessible although pets may be accessible. ''Muja'' (initiated men) refer to animals other than pets in the inanimate gender. The Ngolu believe this allows ''muja'' to hunt without remorse.<br /> <br /> The following examples illustrate the difference. Examples which are specific to the rank of the speaker or the listener will be marked as such after the translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The interplay between a speaker and listener's rank is complex and may result in unexpected gender choices. For example, a slave must refer to him- or herself in the third person inanimate gender when speaking to ''balu'' and above unless specifically given permission otherwise. To read more about this, see [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|Social Stratification and Language Use]].<br /> <br /> ====Person====<br /> Three grammatical persons are marked by pronominals. The first person pronominals contain '''n'''. The second person pronominals contain a non-syllabic '''u''' (realised as '''v''' before '''u'''). In the third person, '''j''', '''x''', '''m''', '''z''', '''k''' and Ø appear depending on gender, definiteness and specificity.<br /> <br /> =====Clusivity=====<br /> The plural forms of all the basic pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness. <br /> <br /> The first person inclusive (second plus first persons) may be indicated by compound pronominals, the dual forms (&quot;you, one person, and I&quot;) being '''uana''', '''uanu''', '''vuna''', '''vunu''' and the plural forms being '''iuana''', '''iuanu''', '''ivuna''', '''ivunu'''. Which of the four options is used depends on [[#accessibility|accessibility]]. These compound forms are not used universally and many speakers use juxtaposition of pronouns, such as '''vu nu''' instead of '''vunu''' or '''iua na''' or '''iua ina''' instead of '''iuana'''.<br /> <br /> Even addressing people in the second person, should the group include third persons who are not being addressed, many speakers will make note of these separately, for example '''ju vu''' (gloss: NOM.3s.ICS.DEF NOM.2s.ICS) and this is somewhat prescriptively enforced. The nominal '''ivu''' (gloss: NOM.2p.ICS), for example, is recommended only for use to address two or more people when all are present or when the message is at the very least expected to be passed onto those who are not present. <br /> <br /> The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person. The compound 2nd+1st person pronouns are not subject to this ordering rule.<br /> <br /> Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive.<br /> <br /> ====Definiteness and Specificity====<br /> <br /> In the third person, pronominals indicate definiteness (whether the listener knows which individual) and specificity (whether the speaker knows which individual).<br /> <br /> =====Definite=====<br /> The Definite (+specific, +definite) is used when the listener is assumed to know which specific individual or individuals the speaker is referring to. In the following examples, '''ji ala''' (or just '''ji''') refers to a specific bird which the listener is assumed to be already aware of, possibly because it is already been mentioned.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|the bird}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|it}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Specific=====<br /> The Specific (+specific, -definite) is used when the speaker has a specific individual or individuals in mind but the listener is not assumed to know which one(s). In the following examples, '''mi ala''' (or '''mi''') refers to a specific bird but not one which the speaker expects the listener to know of.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a (particular) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|one (in particular)}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Non-Specific=====<br /> The Non-Specific (or General) does not refer to any specific individual(s) but to the abstract idea of a member or members of a particular class, any individual of which could be described. It often used when talking about desires or in negative sentences. In the examples below, '''i ala''' refers to any bird.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a(ny) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|anyone}}.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Accessibility====<br /> Accessibility is a concept integral to Ngolu culture. Outside of the third person non-specific, all animate nominals have two forms, one ''accessible'' (gloss: ACS) and one ''inaccessible'' (gloss: ICS). Accessible nominals have a low vowel,'''a''' in the nominative stem, '''e''' in the accusative stem, and these correspond to the high vowels '''u''' and '''i''' respectively in inaccessible nominals. Accessibility is typically explained as an indication of whether physical contact is permitted or not, however it is more generally a means of conveying social closeness or distance even when no actual touching is involved.<br /> <br /> In the first person, the English word ''I'' can be translated as either '''na''' (NOM.1s.ACS) or '''nu''' (NOM.1s.ICS). Using '''na''' signals to the listener &quot;I am accessible to you.&quot; This means the speaker feels close and emotionally open to the listener and physical contact is permitted or even welcome. Using '''nu''' informs the listener that physical contact is not welcome at the current time. This is typically because of emotional distance, such as when talking to strangers, casual acquaintances or people whom the speaker does not like, but it may also signal an unwillingness to be touched for other, often fleeting reasons, such as illness, pain or emotional tension. Between close friends and lovers, suddenly switching to '''nu''' may indicate that the speaker has taken offence at something.<br /> <br /> In the second and third persons, accessibility indicates the the referent's ''perceived'' accessibility ''to the speaker''. Using '''ua''' (NOM.2s.ACS) indicates that the speaker assumes he or she may touch the listener. Using '''vu''' (NOM.2s.ICS) indicates either a more respectful or colder social distance (cf. French &quot;vous&quot;, which, coincidentally, sounds identical). In the third person, '''ja''' (NOM.3s.ACS.DEF) and '''ju''' (NOM.3s.ICS.DEF) indicate the speaker's relationship to the referent. In plural, accessible indicates that ''all'' members of the group are accessible. Even one individual who the speaker regards as inaccessible, will cause the group to be marked as inaccessible. Inaccessibility is thus the 'default' and when speaking of generic or unknown individuals, these will be indicated with inaccessible nominals.<br /> <br /> Accessibility produces four speech modes or 'stances'. In situations between peers of equal rank, generally the speech mode with either be accessible (using accessible nominals in both first and second persons) or inaccessible (using inaccessible nominals in both). In situations of unequal dominance, which generally, but do not always, run along lines of rank, the dominant party speaks in the dominant mode, using inaccessible first person nominals and accessible second person nominals. The subordinate party speaks in the subordinate or submissive mode, using the reverse.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | speech mode || first person || second person || meaning<br /> |-<br /> | accessible mode (ACS) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may touch me. I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | inaccessible mode (ICS) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may not touch me. I may not touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | dominant mode (DOM) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may not touch me but I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | submissive mode (SUB) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may touch me but I may not touch you.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The speech mode used depends not only on who the speaker and listener are to one another, but how they feel about each other in that moment. A friend or lover who is deeply offended may suddenly switch to the inaccessible or dominant mode to indicate that they are now not happy and had better not be touched until the offence is resolved. The submissive mode may be used in order to flirt with an acquaintance. Flirting may be met with the accessible or inaccessible modes, which essentially give an answer. No answer (yet) is signalled by the adoption of the dominant mode. Smooth social interactions are ensured by the concordance of speech modes, ACS↔ACS, ICS↔ICS, DOM↔SUB. Conflict is often caused by the refusal to agree or by physical contact with someone marked in speech as inaccessible.<br /> <br /> Examples of the four speech modes in use.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ICS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Case====<br /> Ngolu possesses 14 grammatical cases. The nominative and accusative case appear to be the oldest and all other forms appear to derive from the agglomeration of adpositions onto them. The first group (accusative, dative, ablative, locative, genitive and possessive) appear to be relatively old. At some point after these adpositions fused onto the nominals, the plural marker '''i-''' also became a prefix. For example '''''i-e-ji''''' 'to them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;PL-DAT-ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;. The second group of derived cases (vocative, causal, benefactive, instrumental, comitative, topical, essive) appear to have developed more recently from prepositions added to either the nominative or the accusative case as the plural marker '''i-''' is sandwiched in the middle. For example '''''te-i-ji''''' 'about them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;because.of-PL.ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;.<br /> <br /> =====Nominative=====<br /> The nominative case indicates the grammatical subject of a verb. The nominative case is always formed with a back vowel, '''u''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''a''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''u''' shows animate and '''a''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''muja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|na}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.initiated.man || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be an initiated man&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} am an initiated man.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''loe''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || sleep || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} is not sleeping. / {{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} didn't sleep.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|He}} killed / murdered something / someone''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good || NOM.C || be.not || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It's good {{color|MediumBlue|that}} it's not raining.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zoua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuo}}''' || '''tavi''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ja}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.difficult || NOM.TEMP.C || be.child || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;the time when&quot; || &quot;be child&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He had a difficult childhood.<br /> (≈ {{color|MediumBlue|The time when}} {{color|MediumBlue|s/he}} was a child was difficult.)''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Accusative=====<br /> The accusative case indicates the grammatical object of a verb. The accusative case is formed with a front vowel, '''i''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''e''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''i''' represents animate and '''e''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''. The complementisers are '''jo''' and '''kio'''<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''ti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.PRF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;have finished&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Someone murdered {{color|MediumBlue|him}} / {{color|MediumBlue|He}} was murdered.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jave''' || '''ja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kivo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | throw || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF || ACC.3s.INAN.DEF || be.rock<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;throw&quot; || &quot;the being&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be rock&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''He threw {{color|MediumBlue|the rock}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jo}}''' || '''vai''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.C || stay || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; |''I want you {{color|MediumBlue|to}} stay. (≈ I want {{color|MediumBlue|that}} you stay.)'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In informal speech, the accusative case may replace the dative case when it indicates an experiencer. This does not occur with verbs that also have an accusative role and use the dative case to indicate a recipient.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ine}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || ACC.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Dative=====<br /> The dative case indicates an indirect object of the verb, a destination or goal of a movement or an experiencer. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'to' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''e(r)-''' ('''ie(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volos''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ene}}''' || '''izi''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || DAT.1s.ACS || ACC.3p.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;some things that&quot; || &quot;be water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} was given water. / Someone gave {{color|MediumBlue|me}} water.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|iene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || '''uana'''<br /> |-<br /> | JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM.1+2DU.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go - to them&quot; || &quot;you and I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''vais''' || '''inu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekio}}''' || '''loe''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF || stay || NOM.1p.ICS || DAT.TEMP.C || sleep || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;we&quot; || &quot;until&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''We stayed {{color|MediumBlue|until}} they slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Ablative=====<br /> The ablative case is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'from' in English. It is formed by suffixing '''-i''' to a nominative nominal. The complementisers are '''zuio''' and '''kuio''' in the ablative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Kuaqa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mala}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-uni}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.distant || NOM.1s.ICS || ABL.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || COP-GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be far&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;from the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm far away {{color|MediumBlue|from my home}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go - from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Get away {{color|MediumBlue|from me}}!'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || '''xuua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuio}}''' || '''iti''' || ('''ju''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;to her/him&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;since&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || (&quot;s/he&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Locative=====<br /> The locative case indicates a location. It is more or less equivalent to the prepositions 'in', 'on' and 'at' in English. It is also used to replace the verb &quot;have&quot; when indicating immediate possession as in &quot;to have something on one's person&quot;. It is formed by suffixing '''-a''' to a nominative nominal in the inaccessible and inanimate and prefixing '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ia(r)-''') to an accessible nominative nominal. The prefixed form is also used for the non-specific animate and inanimate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''bani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ana}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.money || LOC.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be money&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I don't have any money (with me). (≈ There is no money {{color|MediumBlue|at me}}.)'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|xua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mo}}''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.what || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be what&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Where are you?'' (≈ You are {{color|MediumBlue|at the what}}?) — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''iio''' || '''jas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azuo}}''' || '''muana''' || '''iti''' || '''exi''' || '''muana''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.fish || NOM.3s.ACS || LOC.C || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.small || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; || &quot;he&quot; || &quot;where&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || &quot;to the thing that&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be big&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''He's fishing {{color|MediumBlue|where}} the stream flows into the river.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || '''xuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;begin&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be yours&quot; || &quot;when&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || (&quot;to the inaccessible one&quot;) || &quot;that thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Genitive=====<br /> The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''egio''' || '''tani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|une}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.threesome || be.sibling || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a group of three&quot; || &quot;be siblings&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I have three siblings.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tta''' || '''xu''' || '''gula''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|uji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tio}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.large || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.pair.of.arms || COP-GEN.3s.DEF.ICS || be.that.3<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be large&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of arms&quot; || &quot;be of the person who&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|That person over there}} has big arms. / The arms {{color|MediumBlue|of that person over there}} are big.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Possessive=====<br /> The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) but to a nominative nominal rather than an accusative one.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || POS.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;owned by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} have / own a house.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It should be noted that, although in many languages, the genitive or possessive case is usually adnominal, referring to an immediately adjacent noun phrase, in Iliaqu, all nominals, regardless of case, refer to the predicate in their clause unless verbalised with the [[#Nominal_to_Verbal|copular prefix]]. Compare the following sentences.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || COP-POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in {{color|MediumBlue|my}} boot.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in the boot {{color|MediumBlue| and it's mine}}.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|I own}} a snake which is in the boot. — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the second sentence, the lack of the copula on '''une''' indicates that it represents an argument of the predicate ('''masa''' 'there is a snake'), meaning that it is the snake which belongs to the speaker, not the boot. The word order, placing the unadorned possessive argument ('''une''') after the much heavier locative argument ('''xua xa buja''') is heavily marked, placing focus on the fact that the snake is the speaker's legal possession.<br /> <br /> Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, ''ataiva'', the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for ''ataiva'' to avoid the possessive case entirely in favour of the genitive case.<br /> <br /> =====Vocative=====<br /> The vocative case is used to address someone or attract their attention. It is formed by adding '''e(r)-''' ('''ei-''' in plural) to a nominative nominal. <br /> <br /> The most common greeting words for most uses are simply vocative nominals. They must reflect the number and accessibility of the addressee(s). <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is common for inaccessibles to be greeted in the third person, with '''eju''' frequently replacing '''evu'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Third person definite forms, however, may also be used with accessibles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eja}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh he who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Among accessibles, the '''e-''' prefix may be added directly to a personal name. This and the predicate prefix '''i-''' are the only example of verbals (as all names are verbals) taking a non-derivational affix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|e}}-xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | hey-be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey - be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hey}} Xagu!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the indefinite, the vocative can be used to summon help from non-specific people.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eru}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when one person's assistance is enough.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3p.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when more than one person's assistance is required.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative complementiser '''ezuo''' is used to mean 'if only' or 'I wish'. It is also used for making polite requests. Literally, it's something like 'o that'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezuo}}''' || '''hunia''' || '''nua'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.C || be.potable || LOC.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if only&quot; || &quot;be beverage&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''May I have some water please? ({{color|MediumBlue|If only}} I had some water.)'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative temporal complementiser '''ekuo''' is used to express nostalgia about a past time or anticipation for a future time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || '''ata''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh for the time when&quot; || &quot;be adult&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I can't wait till}} I'm grown up.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Causal=====<br /> The causal case describes a cause. It is equivalent to the English &quot;because of&quot;. It is formed by prefixing '''te(r)-''' (plural: '''tei-''') to the accusative nominals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zaxa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.sick || NOM.1s.ICS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am sick&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm ill {{color|MediumBlue|because of you}}. / You made me ill.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ezo''' || '''zouas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tejo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''mala''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.now || be.difficult || DAT.1s.ICS || CAU.C || be.not || be.house || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;because&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''Things are tough for me at the moment {{color|MediumBlue|because}} I don't have a house..'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Benefactive=====<br /> The benefactive case indicates either a beneficiary or benefactor of an action or situation or a goal. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'for'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''kua(r)-''' (plural: '''kuai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.this.1 || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;there is this, by me&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''This is {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}. (≈ There's this {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.)'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bioi''' || '''vaia''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.willing || do.everything || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;would&quot; || &quot;do everything&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I would do anything {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''etie''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''leu''' || '''ue''' || '''veji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || move.to.here.1 || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.C || rescue || ACC.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;finish&quot; || &quot;come here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;rescue&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;about the person&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; |''I came here {{color|MediumBlue|(in order) to}} save you from him/her.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''naxe''' || '''molu''' || '''iu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''mue''' || '''lau''' || '''iu''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | must || be.dead || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || BEN.C || be.able || be.alive || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;must&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;can&quot; || &quot;live&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates that&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; |''Some must die {{color|MediumBlue|so that}} others may live.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kuas''' || '''enies''' || '''e''' || '''kueta''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuakio}}''' || '''gehuo''' || '''ua''' || '''ji''' || '''uako'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || carry || ACC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.hunting.knife || BEN.TEMP.C || encounter || NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.enemy<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;carry&quot; || &quot;a non-specific thing which&quot; || &quot;be a hunting knife&quot; || &quot;in case&quot; || &quot;encounter&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''Carry a knife {{color|MediumBlue|in case}} you cross paths with enemies.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Instrumental=====<br /> The instrumental case describes the means or method by which something is done. It is equivalent to the English preposition &quot;with&quot; when it means &quot;using&quot;. It is formed by adding the prefix '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''vuja''' || '''zi''' || '''vaku''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kueta}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || hunt || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.babirusa || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.hunting.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;deliberately killed&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;hunts&quot; || &quot;a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a babirusa&quot; || &quot;using a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a hunting knife&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''The hunter killed the babirusa {{color|MediumBlue|with a hunting knife}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g-iara''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC.3p.NSPC.INAN || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;certain people&quot; || &quot;by&quot; || &quot;wait&quot; || &quot;at anything which&quot; || &quot;is bushes&quot; || &quot;be-at any things which&quot; || &quot;be drinking water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Comitative=====<br /> The comitative case indicates an accompanying person or thing. It is equivalent to 'with' in English when it means 'along with' or 'accompanied by'. It is formed by prefixing '''le(r)-''' (plural: '''lei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''ja''' || '''meha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|leje}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jalu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Meha || COM.3s.DEF.ACS || Jalu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is hunting&quot; || &quot;the person who&quot; || &quot;is Meha&quot; || &quot;with the person who&quot; || &quot;is Jalu&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''Meha is hunting {{color|MediumBlue|with Jalu}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''hu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || move.PFV || COM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come/go&quot; || &quot;with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Come {{color|MediumBlue|with me}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bata''' || '''ja''' || '''umatu''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lejo'''}} || '''buga''' || '''taba''' || '''iju''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | dance || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Umatu || COM.C || hit || be.drum || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;dance&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be Umatu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;be drum&quot; || &quot;the beings who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Umatu danced {{color|MediumBlue|while}} the others played the drums.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Topical=====<br /> The topical case indicates the topic or theme of an act of communication and in many instances also something which is kept in mind when a particular action is performed. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'about'. It is formed by prefixing '''ve(r)-''' (plural '''vei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''ila''' || '''na''' || '''leue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vezi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|valo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || speak || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.interesting<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;speak&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;about something that&quot; || &quot;is interesting&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to talk to you {{color|MediumBlue|about something interesting}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''teuas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vexi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiau}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | thank || DAT.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.food<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;thank&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;about the thing that&quot; || &quot;is food&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Thanks {{color|MediumBlue|for the food}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''malemale''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''moio''' || '''iu''' || '''azo''' || '''lo''' || '''zola''' || '''iu''' || '''babo'''<br /> |-<br /> | gossip || TOP.C || do.what || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other || ADV || be.solely || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;gossip&quot; || &quot;about the fact that&quot; || &quot;do what&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be only&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Only unintelligent people gossip {{color|MediumBlue|about}} what other people do.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Essive=====<br /> The essive case indicates the role of something in the sentence. It is roughly equivalent to the English words 'as' or 'like'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''o(r)-''' (plural: '''oi-''') to the nominative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''atia''' || '''nas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|omas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ali}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.there.2 || NOM.1s.ACS || ESS.3s.SPEC.ACS || be.same.rank.friend || COP-DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;as a person who&quot; || &quot;be a friend of the same rank&quot; || &quot;be to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm here {{color|MediumBlue|as your friend}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ozuo}}''' || '''ka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.visible || ESS.C || be.going.to || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;appear&quot; || &quot;as if&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It looks {{color|MediumBlue|like}} it's going to rain.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Tables====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Simple pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | na<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | nu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ina<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | inu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate specific<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ma<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | mu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ima<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | imu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate definite<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate specific<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | izu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | a<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ia<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> animate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> inanimate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Compound pronominals<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dominant<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dual<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Complimentisers<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | temporal<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====First Person=====<br /> First person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''nu''' || '''inu''' || '''na''' || '''ina'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ni''' || '''ini''' || '''ne''' || '''ine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''nua''' || '''inua''' || '''ana''' || '''iana''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uni''' || '''iuni''' || '''une''' || '''iune'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''unu''' || '''iunu''' || '''una''' || '''iuna'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''enu''' || '''einu''' || '''ena''' || '''eina''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teni''' || '''teini''' || '''tene''' || '''teine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuani''' || '''kuaini''' || '''kuane''' || '''kuaine''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ani''' || '''aini''' || '''ane''' || '''aine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leni''' || '''leini''' || '''lene''' || '''leine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veni''' || '''veini''' || '''vene''' || '''veine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''onu''' || '''oinu''' || '''ona''' || '''oina''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS.SG || ICS:PL || ACS.SG || ACS.PL<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ue''' || '''iue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eui''' || '''ieui''' || '''eue''' || '''ieue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''vui''' || '''ivui''' || '''uai''' || '''iuai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''vua''' || '''ivua''' || '''aua''' || '''iaua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uui''' || '''iuui''' || '''uue''' || '''iuue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uvu''' || '''iuvu''' || '''uua''' || '''iuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''evu''' || '''eivu''' || '''eua''' || '''eiua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teui''' || '''teiui''' || '''teue''' || '''teiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiui''' || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaiue''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aui''' || '''aiui''' || '''aue''' || '''aiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leui''' || '''leiui''' || '''leue''' || '''leiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veui''' || '''veiui''' || '''veue''' || '''veiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ovu''' || '''oivu''' || '''oua''' || '''oiua''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || ICS.DU<br /> || ACS.DU<br /> || DOM.DU<br /> || SUB.DU<br /> || ICS.PL<br /> || ACS.PL<br /> || DOM.PL<br /> || SUB.PL<br /> |-<br /> || Nominative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Accusative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Dative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvuna<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''ju''' || '''iju''' || '''ja''' || '''ija''' || '''xu''' || '''ixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ji''' || '''iji''' || '''je''' || '''ije''' || '''xi''' || '''ixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jui''' || '''ijui''' || '''jai''' || '''ijai''' || '''xui''' || '''ixui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''jua''' || '''ijua''' || '''aja''' || '''iaja''' || '''xua''' || '''ixua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uji''' || '''iuji''' || '''uje''' || '''iuje''' || '''uxi''' || '''iuxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uju''' || '''iuju''' || '''uja''' || '''iuja''' || '''*uxu''' || '''*iuxu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eju''' || '''eiju''' || '''eja''' || '''eija''' || '''exu''' || '''eixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teji''' || '''teiji''' || '''teje''' || '''teije''' || '''texi''' || '''teixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaiji''' || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuaixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aji''' || '''aiji''' || '''aje''' || '''aije''' || '''axi''' || '''aixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leji''' || '''leiji''' || '''leje''' || '''leije''' || '''lexi''' || '''leixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veji''' || '''veiji''' || '''veje''' || '''veije''' || '''vexi''' || '''veixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oju''' || '''oiju''' || '''oja''' || '''oija''' || '''oxu''' || '''oixu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''mu''' || '''imu''' || '''ma''' || '''ima''' || '''zu''' || '''izu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''mi''' || '''imi''' || '''me''' || '''ime''' || '''zi''' || '''izi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''emi''' || '''iemi''' || '''eme''' || '''ieme''' || '''ezi''' || '''iezi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mui''' || '''imui''' || '''mai''' || '''imai''' || '''zui''' || '''izui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''mua''' || '''imua''' || '''ama''' || '''iama''' || '''zua''' || '''izua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''umi''' || '''iumi''' || '''ume''' || '''iume''' || '''uzi''' || '''iuzi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''umu''' || '''iumu''' || '''uma''' || '''iuma''' || '''*uzu''' || '''*iuzu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''emu''' || '''eimu''' || '''ema''' || '''eima''' || '''ezu''' || '''eizu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''temi''' || '''teimi''' || '''teme''' || '''teime''' || '''tezi''' || '''teizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuami''' || '''kuaimi''' || '''kuame''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuazi''' || '''kuaizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ami''' || '''aimi''' || '''ame''' || '''aime''' || '''azi''' || '''aizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lemi''' || '''leimi''' || '''leme''' || '''leime''' || '''lezi''' || '''leizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vemi''' || '''veimi''' || '''veme''' || '''veime''' || '''vezi''' || '''veizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''omu''' || '''oimu''' || '''oma''' || '''oima''' || '''ozu''' || '''oizu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ANIM Sg. || ANIM Pl. || INAN Sg. || INAN Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''u''' || '''iu''' || '''a''' || '''ia'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''i''' || '''iri''' || '''e''' || '''ie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eri''' || '''ieri''' || '''ere''' || '''iere'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ai''' || '''iai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''iaru''' || '''ara''' || '''iara'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''iuri''' || '''ure''' || '''iure'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''iuru''' || '''ura'''* || '''iura'''*<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu''' || '''era''' || '''eia''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' || '''tere''' || '''teie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' || '''kuare''' || '''kuaie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' || '''are''' || '''aie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' || '''lere''' || '''leie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veri''' || '''veiri''' || '''vere''' || '''veie''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu''' || '''ora''' || '''oia'''<br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> =====Complementisers=====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''jo''' || 'that' || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''ejo''' || 'to the place where' || '''ekio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || *'''uzuo''' || || *'''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vejo''' || 'about V-ing' || '''vekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |}<br /> ::&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Verbals===<br /> <br /> Verbals constitute the only open class of words in Ngolu. They are essentially content words, equivalent to what in other languages are verbs ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''loe''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to sleep' || [NOM] sleeps<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kau''' || 'to eat' || [NOM] eats [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to hunt' (= 'to be a hunter') || [NOM] hunts [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''volo''' || 'to give' || [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mahu''' || 'to know' || [DAT] knows [NOM] = [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ila''' || 'to speak/talk' || [NOM] speaks [ACC]/[INS] (= language) to [DAT]/[COM] about [TOP]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mue''' || 'to be able to' || [NOM] can / is able to […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... nouns ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''iio''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be a fish' || [NOM] is a fish of [GEN] belonging to [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to be a hunter' (= 'to hunt') || [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person<br /> |-<br /> |• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of a different rank)' || [NOM] is a friend of [DAT], lover of [GEN] and concubine of [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ilia''' || 'to be speech/language' || [NOM] is the speech/language of [GEN]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... adjectives ... <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''tta''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be large' || [NOM] is large<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kaiu''' || 'to be edible' ('to be food') || [NOM] is edible to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kuaqa''' || 'to be far/distant' || [NOM] is far from [ABL]/[DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''xeva''' || 'to be visible' (= 'to see') || [NOM is visible to [DAT]; [DAT] sees [NOM]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lau''' || 'to be alive' (= 'to live', 'to be a living being') || [NOM] is alive<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lubi''' || 'to be closed/shut' || [NOM] is closed/shut to [DAT]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... and adverbs.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''jau''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to intentionally ...' || [NOM] is intentionally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mola''' || 'to be merely ...' (= 'to be insignificant') || [NOM] is just/only/merely […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> They are generally thought of as 'content words' but even many grammatical functions are expressed by verbals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''kka''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be not ...' || [NEGATIVE] || [NOM] is not […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hua''' || 'to be always ...', 'to be eternally ...' || [GNOMIC] || [NOM] is eternally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hau''' || 'to be defined by being ...' || [ESSENTIAL] || [NOM] is essentially […] by definition<br /> |-<br /> |• '''he''' || 'to undergo' || [PASSIVE] || [NOM] undergoes […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''eti''' || 'to have previously done ...' || [PAST] || [NOM] did […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Regardless of the verbal's semantic meaning and which part of speech carries the bulk of the meaning when translated into another language, each verbal can be used in the same syntactic positions as any other verbal. All verbals can appear as a predicate, an argument (when preceded by a nominal) or as a modifier to another, preceding verbal. Compare the following two sentences which show how a semantically verb-like verbal, '''gahu''' ('to howl'), and a semantically more noun-like verbal, '''zagua''' ('to be a gibbon') can simply be swapped. Both can appear in the predicate, both can appear in an argument and neither needs to be inflected to take on either role.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{|<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || scope=&quot;col&quot; width=&quot;10&quot; | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''gahu''' || || '''ju''' || '''zagua'''<br /> |-<br /> | howl || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.gibbon<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;howls&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a gibbon&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''The gibbon howls.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |- style=&quot;height: 2em;&quot;<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''zagua''' || || '''ju''' || '''gahu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.gibbon || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is a gibbon&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;howls&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''What howls is a gibbon.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Argument Structure====<br /> <br /> Verbals each have an inherent argument structure, controlling which case are used for which role. Dictionaries, and the examples above, mark the meanings of each relevant case when used with each verbal.<br /> <br /> Many argument structures are as would be expected.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''volo''' = [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> :* '''vuja''' = [NOM] hunts [ACC]; [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]<br /> :* '''akku''' = [NOM] is blood; [NOM] is the blood of [GEN]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volo''' || '''na''' || '''xi''' || '''eje'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to him&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I give it to him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is a tendency for experiencers to be in the dative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''hualo''' = [DAT] loves/cares about [NOM]; [NOM] is loved by [DAT]<br /> :* '''xeva''' = [DAT] sees [NOM]; [NOM] is seen by [DAT]<br /> :* '''zoua''' = [NOM] is difficult for [DAT]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''eni''' || '''ju''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was seen&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I saw the king.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Although that is not always the case, as this pair of opposites shows.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''mahu''' = [DAT] knows [NOM]; [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> :* '''zau''' = [NOM] doesn't know about [TOP]; [NOM] is ignorant of [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mahu''' || '''eni''' || ('''xu''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.1s.ICS || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || (&quot;it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zau''' || '''nu''' || ('''vexi''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || (TOP.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || (&quot;about it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I don't know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also an unusual class of verbals where the nominative role usually refers to a body part, the genitive refers to the possessor and when there is an accusative argument, the whole thing refers to an action performed (with the body part) by the possessor.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bale''' = [NOM] is a fist of [GEN]; [GEN] punches [ACC]<br /> :* '''bane''' = [NOM] is a hand of [GEN]; [GEN] holds, grasps, clutches [ACC]<br /> :* '''buja''' = [NOM] is a heavy boot of [GEN]; [GEN] crushes [ACC] under his boot<br /> :* '''gula''' = [NOM] is the pair of arms of [GEN]; [GEN] hugs [ACC]<br /> :* '''juaza''' = [NOM] is the penis of [GEN]; [GEN] fucks [ACC] (vulgar!)<br /> :* '''kanu''' = [NOM] is the nose of [GEN]; [GEN] sniffs [ACC]<br /> :* '''kula''' = [NOM] is the pair of ears of [GEN]; [GEN] listens to [ACC]<br /> :* '''mama''' = [NOM] is the pair of breasts of [GEN]; [GEN] breast-feeds [ACC]<br /> :* '''miva''' = [NOM] is a finger of [GEN]; [GEN] touches, feels [ACC]<br /> :* '''musari''' = [NOM] is a molar of [GEN]; [GEN] chews [ACC]<br /> :* '''omo''' = [NOM] is the pair of eyes of [GEN]; [GEN] looks at [ACC]<br /> :* '''umakka''' = [NOM] is a tooth (incisor, canine) of [GEN]; [GEN] bites [ACC]<br /> :* '''zuru''' = [NOM] is a war against [ACC]; [GEN] wages war on [ACC]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I have eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xu''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || be.this.1<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is this, here by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''These are my eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xi''' || '''masa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || be.snake<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a snake&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking at the snake'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The verbal '''lama''' is somewhat similar, although it may simply be understood through an idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''lama''' = [NOM] is a tear of [GEN]/[LOC]; [GEN]/[LOC] weeps (silently) about [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lama''' || '''ana''' || '''teui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is (a) tear(s)&quot; || &quot;at him/her&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The above sentence may also be translated as &quot;There are tears on him/her because of you,&quot; or &quot;S/He has tears because of you,&quot; making it less clear as to whether this is a good example of an apparent non-nominative subject.<br /> <br /> There is a proposed additional place within the argument structure of many verbals, that of a following modifier. A following modifier may mark a specific role which may either be marked by another case or may only be filled by a following modifier. The notation used here indicates a following modifier with […].<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''maue''' = [NOM] is a group of seven […]<br /> :* '''kka''' = [NOM] is not […]<br /> :* '''mia''' = [NOM] approaches [DAT]/[…]<br /> :* '''tehi''' = [NOM] is possibly […]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''mala''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | approach || be.house || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''iju''' || '''exi''' || '''mala''' <br /> |-<br /> | approach || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN || be.house <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;they&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Derivation of Verbals====<br /> <br /> There are two kinds of derivational affixes, one which converts a nominal into a verbal and many others which convert a verbal into another verbal with a different meaning.<br /> <br /> =====Nominal to Verbal=====<br /> All nominals can be converted into a verbal by adding a copula prefix. The copula prefix is '''g-''' before a vowel, '''k''' or '''g''', '''m-''' before '''m''', '''b''' and '''v''', '''l-''' before '''l''' and '''n-''' before all other consonants. The copula prefix essentially prevents a nominal from signalling the start of an argument. Used with the dative or ablative case, the meaning may be interpreted as a verb of motion.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nu''' 'I' [NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}nu''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} me' [COP-NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''eni''' 'to me' [DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}eni''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} to me', '{{color|MediumBlue|to come}} to me' [COP-DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''xu mala''' 'the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xu mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} the house'<br /> :* '''xua mala''' 'at the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xua mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} at the house'<br /> :* '''kuaini''' 'for us' [BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}kuaini''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} for us' [COP-BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> <br /> <br /> Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}nu''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-NOM.1s.ICS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be I&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I{{color|MediumBlue|'m}} me.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}xuas''' || '''azikuo''' || '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.≈school || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a school for adolescent boys&quot; || &quot;s/he&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} not at school.'' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} to me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|l-}}lene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;be with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} with me. / {{color|MediumBlue|Be}} with me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''nini''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}une''' || '''ja''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.mother || COP-GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.this<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be this&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''This is my mother.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Verbal to Verbal=====<br /> <br /> A far more common means of derivation is from verbal to verbal. This is chiefly done by means of infixing although prefixes and suffixes also exist.<br /> <br /> ======Collective======<br /> <br /> The collective infix '''-ig-''' indicates a group of the named entity.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''ala''' 'to be a bird'<br /> ::→ '''al{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}a''' 'to be {{color|MediumBlue|a flock}} of bird{{color|MediumBlue|s}}'<br /> :* '''balu''' 'to be a royal guardsman'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to be the royal guard'<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to eat {{color|MediumBlue|together}}'<br /> :* '''uttia''' 'to be a tree'<br /> ::→ '''ut{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}ia''' 'to be a forest'<br /> <br /> <br /> ======Gerundive======<br /> <br /> The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something. The accusative role is promoted to the nominative role, as with the passive construction with '''he''', but in addition the assertion is made that this is a good or customary use for the referent in question.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''huna''' 'to drink'<br /> ::→ '''hun{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a''' 'to be (fresh) water', 'to be potable', 'to be drinkable' (to be something to be drunk)<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular)<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular)<br /> :* '''jalo''' 'to welcome', 'to receive', 'to accept (into a place)'<br /> ::→ '''jal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a guest' (one who is to be welcomed)<br /> :* '''asu''' 'to be seated', 'to be sitting'<br /> ::→ '''a{{color|MediumBlue|x}}u''' 'to be a chair', 'to be a seat' (to be something to be sat on) [''*asiu'' → ''axu'']<br /> :* '''ila''' 'to speak', 'to talk'<br /> ::→ '''il{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a'''' 'to be language' (to be something to be spoken)<br /> :* '''zoi''' 'to say', 'to tell'<br /> ::→ '''zo{{color|MediumBlue|j}}i''' 'to be worth saying', 'to be fitting/appropriate' (to be something to be said) [''*zoii'' → ''zoji'']<br /> :* '''go''' 'to do something', 'to act'<br /> ::→ '''g{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a duty', 'to be an obligation', 'to be a good idea' (to be something to be done)<br /> :* '''mue''' 'to be able', 'to be capable'<br /> ::→ '''m{{color|MediumBlue|i}}ue''' 'to be a required skill' (to be something that someone should be able to do)<br /> :* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes'; (with genitive subject) 'to look at'<br /> ::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at)<br /> :* '''bale''' 'to be a fist'; (with genitive subject) 'to punch'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}e''' 'to be punchable', 'to have a punchable face' (to be one who ought to be punched, a common pejorative word)<br /> :* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', (with genitive subject) 'to crush under a boot'<br /> ::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot) [''*bujia'' → ''buji'']<br /> :* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter'<br /> ::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted) [''*vujia'' → ''vuji'']<br /> <br /> ======Locative======<br /> <br /> The prefix '''a-''' indicates being at a particular place.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''tio''' 'to be that'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}tio''' 'to be there' (≈ 'to be at that')<br /> :* '''mala''' 'to be a house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}mala''' 'to be at home' (≈ 'to be at house')<br /> <br /> ======Ornative======<br /> <br /> The ornative prefix '''o-''' indicates having or being equipped with something.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bani''' 'to be money'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money')<br /> :* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with room(s)')<br /> :* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair')<br /> :* '''ulu''' 'to be muscle'<br /> ::→ '''u{{color|MediumBlue|o}}lu''' 'to be muscular' (≈ 'to be with muscle', with metathesis turning /ou/ into /uo/)<br /> <br /> ====Verbals with inherent gender / rank distinctions====<br /> <br /> Many verbals semantically encode gender within their meaning. In some cases, there are pairs of words, such as the following.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nini''' 'to be a mother / aunt'<br /> :* '''nana''' 'to be a father / uncle'<br /> <br /> <br /> In this instance, the divide along genders is easy for non-Ngolu to conceptualise. However many other concepts are also divided by gender, or, more accurately, rank, and this frequently has to do with the Ngolu's strict cultural taboos around gender and rank. For example, Ngolu men and women are expected to sing, dance, dress and urinate differently.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''laha''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''kali'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''lasa''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''kali'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''miia''' 'to wear' (of a ''kali'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''kele''' 'to urinate' (of a ''kali'', to urinate while sitting or squatting)<br /> <br /> :* '''uaie''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''muja'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''bata''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''muja'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''uara''' 'to wear' (of a ''muja'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''zatu''' 'to urinate' (of a ''muja'', to urinate while standing)<br /> <br /> <br /> In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank.<br /> <br /> Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha'''' ('to fight physically'), '''aiuo''' ('to shoot').<br /> <br /> Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word.<br /> <br /> Verbals may also specify the gender/rank of an argument other than the nominal. For example, the word ''bale'' means 'to be a fist', specifying a ''muja'' in the role of the genitive possessor. Similarly, items of clothing specific to one gender can only appear with possessors in the corresponding gender.<br /> <br /> When a subject (or another argument) does not match the gender/rank specified in the verbal, there must be paraphrasing. There are generally two ways this is done, with '''ko''' and with '''hui'''.<br /> <br /> =====Ko=====<br /> <br /> '''Ko''' is a verbal meaning 'to be similar'. It can be placed before a gendered verbal when the subject (or other relevant argument) does not match. For example, the word for ''enemy'' is '''uako'''. It is a ''muja'' verb, perhaps best translated as 'to be a ''muja'' enemy'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.enemy || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is no direct equivalent for a ''kali'' who is an enemy. To express the idea of a ''kali'' being an enemy, what is essentially said is &quot;S/he is ''like'' an enemy.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.similar || be.enemy.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be.like&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The closest analogue in English would be with words such as 'midwife', which has no easy male equivalent. In Ngolu, it is as though one simply says 'He's like a midwife.' Similarly, in the following example, there is no word equivalent to a woman's fist, only a man's fist. Therefore, she made something ''like'' a man's fist.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''li''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|bale}}''' || '''uji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || begin || be.similar || be.MUJA.fist || GEN.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;start&quot; || &quot;be like&quot; || &quot;be a (man's) fist&quot; || &quot;of the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She made {{color|MediumBlue|a fist}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Hui=====<br /> <br /> '''Hui''' is similar to '''ko''' except it is filled with contempt and criticism. It is a verbal which could be translated as 'to shamefully break gender taboos by approximating |…|'. There is essentially no grammatical difference between '''ko''' and '''hui''' - the former is simply neutral and the later conveys strong condemnation of breaking taboos.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || sing.KALI<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;sing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|There's a man (shamefully) trying to sing like a woman}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ttio}}''' || '''ju''' || '''je'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || strike || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Particles and Grammatical Affixes===<br /> <br /> Particles are words which cannot be classified as either nominals or verbals. Most of them are equivalent to conjunctions, introducing clauses. In many cases, the line between verb and particle is a little blurred and difficult to find and research is still ongoing.<br /> <br /> ====''Au''====<br /> <br /> ====''Au'' and ''teu''====<br /> <br /> '''Au''' and '''teu''' are used to order the events multiple clause sentence. '''Au''' introduces the clause in which the first action took place and is thus roughly equivalent to 'first' or 'after' whereas '''teu''' introduces a later action and is thus equivalent to 'then' or 'before'. They are usually used as correlative conjunctions, with both present in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | first;after|| eat || NOM.1s.ICS || second;before || sleep || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|First}} I ate, {{color|MediumBlue|then}} I slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I ate {{color|MediumBlue|before}} I slept.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|After}} I ate, I slept.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The order of the clauses can be reversed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | second/before || sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Before}} I slept, I ate.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Sometimes the first of the two conjunctions is omitted.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''— [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept, {{color|MediumBlue|but first}}, I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> '''Au''' is also a verbal occa<br /> <br /> ====''Ha''====<br /> <br /> '''Ha''' forms polar (yes/no) questions. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Polar_Questions|Polar Questions]]<br /> <br /> It also introduces the protasis of realis conditional sentences, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Hai''====<br /> <br /> '''Hai''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Haizuo''====<br /> <br /> '''Haizuo''' is an emphatic form of '''hai'''. It introduces the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''I-''====<br /> <br /> The clitic particle '''i-''' appears on the beginning of any part of the predicate when it is preceded in a sentence by any non-predicate element. For example, in the following sentence, '''hu mala''' is the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''mala''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || be.house || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Topicalised arguments can be brought forward in the sentence to before the verb phrase. The verb phrase must now be marked with '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;As for me&lt;/u&gt;, I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The predicate phrase can even be split, with arguments appearing inside it.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;I&lt;/u&gt;'m going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In extreme cases, there can even be more than one split in a predicate phrase, with '''i-''' necessary each time the predicate is resumed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''leuis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || COM.2s.ICS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I want to go home with you.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Of that last example, the normal word order would be '''bio hu mala na leui'''.<br /> <br /> When added to words beginning with a syllabic '''i''', the prefix '''i-''' becomes '''j-''' ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|j}}-iio'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.this.1 || PRED-be.fish<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be this&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''This, well, this is a fish!'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... but before a non-syllabic '''i''', it remains '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''omo''' || '''g-unis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}iaha'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3S.DEF.INAN || be.pair.of.eyes || COP-GEN.1s.ICS || PRED-be.painful<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;hurt&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''As for my eyes, they're sore.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Lo''====<br /> <br /> '''Lo''' appears to be a short form of the comitative complementiser '''lejo'''. It introduces an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> ====''Mie''====<br /> <br /> ====''Teuo''====<br /> <br /> ====''To''====<br /> <br /> ''To'' generally introduces consequences. It often roughly means 'so' or 'therefore'. In these cases, it may replaced by the more emphatic '''toua'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ba''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(ua)}}''' || '''ka''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''muanaiti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || rain || therefore || be.PROS || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.stream<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;so&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be stream&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''It's raining hard, so the streams are going to swell.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is used in conjunction with '''ha''' (and sometimes '''hai''' or '''haizuo''') to form conditional clauses where it introduces the apodosis. See [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]] for examples.<br /> <br /> It is also frequently used to replace '''i-''' in introducing a main clause after a subordinate clause other than a conditional clause.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''enio'''<br /> |-<br /> | LOC.TEMP.C || rain || then || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.plant<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;when&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be plant&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|When}} it rains{{color|MediumBlue|, (then)}} the plants grow.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Toi''====<br /> <br /> '''Toi''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Toua''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xe''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xue''====<br /> <br /> ===Interjections===<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> <br /> ===Phrase Structure===<br /> <br /> ====Verbal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A verbal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL ...]]]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> When multiple verbals are stacked one after the other, the head is on the left and modifiers on the right.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a large house / are large houses''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jiio''' || '''ttiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | run || be.quick<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;run&quot; || &quot;be fast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''runs quickly / run quickly''<br /> ''is a fast runner / are fast runners''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''hunts birds / hunt birds''<br /> ''is a bird hunter / are bird hunters''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In many cases, verbals with more grammatical than semantic content are followed by much more semantically rich modifying verbals. In these cases, the preceding words are nevertheless heads and the following words modifiers.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bas''' || '''ali''' || '''g-eji''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || be.friend.(of.the.same.sex) || COP-DAT.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;be friend&quot; || &quot;be to inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;be the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a good friend / are good friends of the king''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''huna'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || drink<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;drink&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''drank / has drunk / have drunk''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''toto''' || '''kas''' || '''euo''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.really || be.PROS || be.pair || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be in fact&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''are actually going to be two big ones''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''buua''' || '''tio''' || '''vaxu''' || '''zara'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.on.top.of || be.that.3 || be.table || write<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be one top of&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot; || &quot;be a table&quot; || &quot;write&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''is / are on top of that desk over there''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Each complex verbal phrase comprised of more than one verbal has its own case structure which defines how the cases are used in a sentence. The case structure is determined by the rightmost verbal which shares the same nominative argument as the leftmost verbal in the phrase.<br /> <br /> $$$$$$$ [examples to come]<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A nominal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''NOMINAL [VERBAL PHRASE]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> An unadorned nominal on its own functions as a pronoun.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''he'', ''she''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''its''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> Adorned nominal phrases consist of a nominal followed by a verbal phrase. In this case, the nominal acts as the head of a relative clause in which the verbal phrase sits.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju''' || '''xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || execute<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;execute&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the executioner''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi''' || '''tukaue'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.collar.indicating.the.owner.of.a.slave<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a slave's collar&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''of the slave's collar''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Structure===<br /> <br /> With unmarked word order, a clause generally has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''[PARTICLE] PREDICATE [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] ...'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> A &lt;tt&gt;'''PREDICATE'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a verbal phrase and an &lt;tt&gt;'''ARGUMENT'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a nominal phrase or a subordinate clause.<br /> <br /> In many cases, one or more arguments may precede the predicate or may even appear in the middle of the predicate, dividing it into two or more pieces.<br /> <br /> Unmarked word order:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental)<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau''' || '''azi''' || '''akuala''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; || &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''I ate food with a knife.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted, nominal argument partially fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || Pred... || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || ...icate || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''nu''' || '''i-kau''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || NOM.1s.ICS || eat || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Predicate-Only Clauses====<br /> <br /> The simplest clauses in Ngolu consist of nothing but a verbal or a verbal phrase used as the predicate. There are no obligatory arguments in Ngolu and all may be omitted from the clause and left to context, even the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's raining. / It rains.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's good.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> A verbal with no arguments indicates an activity or state without specifying the identity of any participants. Essentially, Ngolu is a pro-drop language. With prior context, omitted arguments can be understood as referring to someone or something already discussed. With no prior context, however, verbal-only sentences are simply understood with a &quot;someone or something&quot; as the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kau'''<br /> |-<br /> | eat<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;eats&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He, she or it is eating. (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Something or someone is eating.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He or it is hunting. / He or it is a hunter.'' (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''Something or someone is hunting. / There's a hunter.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Simple declarative or existential statements are frequently verbal-only.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.fire<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a fire&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's a fire. / There's a fire. / Fire!''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====One-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Multi-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Subordinate Clauses====<br /> <br /> =====Complementiser Clauses=====<br /> <br /> =====Adverbial Clauses=====<br /> <br /> Adverbial clauses are introduced by the particle '''lo''', which may be derived from '''lejo''', the comitative case of the copula 'zuo'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''lo''' || '''juo''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | want || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ADV || be.outside || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be outside&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to eat outside.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Relative Clauses=====<br /> <br /> ===Topic and Focus===<br /> <br /> ===Affirmation and Negation===<br /> <br /> The verbals '''ahe''' and '''kka''' indicate polarity, being positive and negative respectively. On their own, they are roughly equivalent to 'yes' and 'no'. <br /> <br /> Positive sentences are generally unmarked and '''ahe''' generally appears only for emphasis.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || '''bo''' || '''xu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.indeed || be.wanted || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;be wanted&quot; || &quot;the thing&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|do}} want it.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation is performed by means of '''kka'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xua''' || '''uttia'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be tree&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''S/He{{color|MediumBlue|'s not}} at the tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''mula''' || '''ju''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.liked || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be liked&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|don't}} like him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> After a negative question or statement, '''ahe''' indicates a contradictory, positive answer whereas '''kka''' indicates a negative answer in agreement.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.not || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be.not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Is{{color|MediumBlue|n't}} it raining?''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.indeed || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be indeed&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Yes, it is}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.not || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be not&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No, it's not}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation (as well as affirmation) is generally performed in the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''xeva''' || '''ju''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|eri}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.seen || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;to anyone who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No one else}} saw her.'' (Literally: ''{{color|MediumBlue|Anyone else didn't}} see her.'')<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> To negate or affirm an argument, it is placed within an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || '''los''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''ahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV || be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV || be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Both '''kka''' and '''ahe''' have equivalent adverbial forms, '''kku''' and '''lahe''' respectively, which do not require the use of '''lo''' when negating or affirming an argument. The previous sentence may be expressed as follows.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kku}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV.be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV.be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Interrogation===<br /> <br /> ====Polar Questions====<br /> <br /> Polar questions are indicated with '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} raining{{color|MediumBlue|?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Do}} you love me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Ha''' can occur at the end of a sentence, where it functions as a question tag.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | rain || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot; || Q<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''It's raining, {{color|MediumBlue|isn't it?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;?&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''You love me, {{color|MediumBlue|don't you?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Individual arguments in a sentence may be called into question by placing them inside an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]] introduced by '''lo'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} me who you love{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''na''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || ADV || Q || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} you who loves me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Alternative Questions====<br /> <br /> Alternative questions use two or more instances of '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Bio''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''kau''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''huna''' || '''vu'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || Q || eat || Q || drink || NOM.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;or&quot; || &quot;drink&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''Would you like anything to {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} eat {{color|MediumBlue|or}} drink{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Xevu''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ja''' || '''mahu''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ju''' || '''laiuiie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mahu || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Laiuiie<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Mahu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Laiuiie&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''Have you seen {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} Mahu {{color|MediumBlue|or}} Laiuiie{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Content Questions====<br /> <br /> ====Embedded Questions====<br /> <br /> Any type of question may be embedded inside a complementiser phrase.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Zau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ti''' || '''uaizue''' || '''ji''' || '''tavi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || TOP.C || Q || be.PRF || find || ACC.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.child<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;about that&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || be.PRF || &quot;find&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I don't know {{color|MediumBlue|if}} the child has been found.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Voice===<br /> <br /> ===Time===<br /> <br /> Marking of time (tense and aspect) is not obligatory in Ngolu and may always be left up to context. For our purposes here, we shall not distinguish between actions (e.g. ''kill'') and states (e.g. ''want'', ''be a house'') as temporal marking is identical for both. The word ''action'' will be used henceforth and should be understood to mean &quot;action or state&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Relative tenses====<br /> When time needs to be indicated, it is most often done by means of a verbal indicating a &quot;relative tense&quot; (aspect). These are relative to a contextually understood time in question, the &quot;reference time&quot;. The three basic &quot;relative tense&quot; markers are ... <br /> <br /> <br /> *'''ti''' &quot;perfect&quot; (PRF), indicating an action that occurred before the reference time<br /> *'''zo''' &quot;progressive&quot; (PROG), indicating an action underway at the reference time<br /> *'''ka''' &quot;prospective (PROS), indicating an action occurring after the reference time<br /> <br /> <br /> By default, the reference is the present, the time in which the utterance is made. However, if another time is contextually understood, any of these may refer to events in the past, present or future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|zo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROG || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be underway&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Absolute tenses====<br /> The prefix '''e-''' attached to the beginning of any of these aspect markers creates an absolute tense marker. The '''e-''' sets the reference time to the current moment in which the utterance is made. This is usually only used to disambiguate or to emphasise a time frame.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''eti''' &quot;past&quot; (PST), indicating an action that occurred in the past<br /> *'''ezo''' &quot;present&quot; (PRES), indicating an action underway in the present<br /> *'''eka''' &quot;future (FUT), indicating an action that will occur in the future<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be earlier&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRES || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Continuation====<br /> There are also compounds formed from two time words that indicate continuation from one time frame to another using a linking ''-e-''. This linking ''-e-'' is probably not related to the ''e-'' of absolute temporal reference, but to the ''e-'' prefix of dative case nominals and the derivation prefix ''e-'' that can be added to verbals indicating motion towards something.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''tiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that starting before the reference time and continuing up to it<br /> *'''zueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action continuing from the reference time and extending to a later time<br /> *'''etiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that started in the past and continues to the present<br /> *'''ezueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action that starts in the present and will continue into the future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezos}}''' || '''oila''' || '''na''' || '''xiies''' || '''oge'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF.PROG|| read || NOM.1S.ACS || ACC.3S.DEF.INAN.PROX || be.book<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have been doing&quot; || &quot;read&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;this thing which&quot; || &quot;is a book&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|have been}} read{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} this book.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Perfective and imperfective====<br /> In addition, the word '''bie''' contrasts with '''zo'''. Whereas '''zo''' specifies that an action is underway at the reference time, essentially taking a &quot;snapshot&quot; of the interior of an action, after its beginning and before its completion, '''bie''' specifies perfectivity, metaphorically painting a picture of the whole completed action without permitting a look inside. On its own, it does not specify whether the completed action occurs before or after the reference time, but it does explicitly specify that the action is ''not'' underway at the reference time. <br /> <br /> Both ''bie'' and ''zo'' may be suffixed to other verbals indicating time in order to explicitly distinguish the imperfective (progressive) aspect from the perfective aspect, while also specifying time.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfectivity:<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | imperfective (progressive)<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfective<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | bie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | relative time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kabie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | absolute time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekabie<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Note that '''zo''' appears twice in the table although it really only has one function; it specifies an action underway at the reference time (i.e. concurrent with it), which itself may be unspecified.<br /> <br /> The reduplicated forms '''zozo''' ('these days', 'in those days') and '''ezozo''' ('these days') do not appear in the above table as they indicate a loosening of the bounds of the reference time or current time. The reference or current time can be tightened or emphasised with '''bazo''' ('right now', 'right then', 'at that/this very moment') or '''ebazo''' ('right now', 'at this very moment').<br /> <br /> ====Resultative perfect====<br /> The word '''bue''' indicates a ''resultative perfect'', functioning similarly to '''ti''' in that it describes an action occurring prior to the reference time, however the focus of '''bue''' is not on the action itself, but on the resulting post-action state at the reference time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|bue}}''' || '''kaxa''' || '''xu''' || '''giloxuo'''<br /> |-<br /> | RES.PRF|| break(INTR) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || window.pane<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is in the resulting state&quot; || &quot;break&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a window pane&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''The window {{color|MediumBlue|is}} br{{color|MediumBlue|o}}k{{color|MediumBlue|en}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bue''' is frequently prefixed to the following word (for example ''buekaxa'' instead of ''bue kaxa''). Its passive equivalent '''hi-''' is always prefixed.<br /> <br /> ====Time word stacking====<br /> More than one time word can be used together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT|| be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will&quot; || &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST|| be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;will&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> These are usually compounded together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekati}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|etika}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST-PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Distance from reference time====<br /> The precise distance from the reference time can be indicated using adverbial clauses with '''lo''' followed by the unit of time, '''(e)ti''' or '''(e)ka''' and an ordinal number, which begins with ''t-''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''zaxa''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teuo}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.ill || ADV || be.year || be.PRF || be.second<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;becomes&quot; || &quot;is ill&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;is earlier&quot; || &quot;is second&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he fell ill {{color|MediumBlue|two years before/ago}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> This sentence could be translated somewhat more literally as &quot;S/he fell ill while there was the second previous year.&quot; Note that replacing '''ti''' with '''eti''' would force the interpretation with &quot;ago&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || Bie || bilo || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tahu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PFV || die || ADV || be.month || be.PROS || be.first<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is completed&quot; || &quot;dies&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;is about to&quot; || &quot;is first&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he died {{color|MediumBlue|one month later}}. / S/he will die {{color|MediumBlue|in one month}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A more literally translation could be &quot;S/he died while there was the second coming year.&quot; Note again that replacing '''ka''' with '''eka''' would force the interpretation with &quot;in one month&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment. <br /> <br /> In the following example, in which a duration is specified rather than a specific time, the adverbial clause contains only the length of time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS || ADV || be.five || be.year<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another means of conveying the same information is to place the time specifiers after the tense or aspect marker and then introducing the rest of the sentence with '''to'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''li''' || '''zaxa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || be.two || be.year || thus || begin || be.ill<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become&quot; || &quot;be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Two years ago,}} s/he fell ill.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || ... || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''bilo'''<br /> |-<br /> | || be.going.to || be.one || be.month || thus || die<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;is going to&quot; || &quot;is one&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;die&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|One month later,}} s/he died.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.five || be.year || thus || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Miscellaneous time words====<br /> There are a range of other verbals which indicate time in a similar way. Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> ''Days''<br /> * '''ariu''' &quot;yesterday&quot;<br /> * '''aku''' &quot;today&quot;<br /> * '''anu''' &quot;tomorrow&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Lighting''<br /> * '''auo''' &quot;by day&quot;<br /> * '''eio''' &quot;by night&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Distance in time''<br /> * '''ttie''' / '''ettie''' &quot;just&quot; (similar to '''ti''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''tieka''' / '''etieka''' &quot;about to&quot; (similar to '''ka''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''ti ti''' / '''eti ti''' &quot;a long time ago&quot; (reduplication for distance into the past)<br /> * '''ka ka''' / '''eka ka''' &quot;eventually&quot; (reduplication for distance into the future)<br /> <br /> ''Other aspectual differences''<br /> * '''hua''' &quot;always&quot;, &quot;permanently&quot; [gnomic]<br /> * '''niu''' &quot;habitually&quot; [habitual]<br /> * '''guegue''' &quot;repeatedly&quot;, &quot;again and again&quot; [iterative]<br /> * '''egue''' &quot;again&quot;<br /> * '''tara''' &quot;suddenly&quot;<br /> * '''li''' &quot;starts&quot;, &quot;begins&quot;, &quot;commences&quot;<br /> * '''bi''' &quot;stops&quot;, &quot;ceases&quot;<br /> * '''ligue''' &quot;resumes&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Demonstratives===<br /> <br /> Demonstratives distinguish three degrees of distance associated with the three grammatical persons.<br /> <br /> * '''''tie''''' 'this' or 'these' near the speaker [1st person - proximal]<br /> * '''''tia''''' 'that' or 'those' near the listener [2nd person - medial]<br /> * '''''tio''''' 'that' or 'those' away from both speaker and listener [3rd person - distal]<br /> <br /> When speaking to someone of the same or higher rank and referring to the something that is close to both speaker and listener (such as a house that both are inside), the 2nd person '''''tia''''' 'that' is used. Only persons of higher rank may use the first person form '''''tie''''' in such situations.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.MED || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.PROX || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The association between the grammatical persons and the demonstratives is strong, with words, statements and actions made by a person frequently being referred to using the appropriate demonstrative. For example, a commonly used phrase for &quot;therefore&quot; is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}'' (literally 'because of this (by me)') when the reasoning is based on what the speaker just said, but when the reasoning is based on what their interlocutor just said, this phrase is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}'' (literally 'because of that (by you)').<br /> <br /> ====Contractions====<br /> <br /> The demonstrative verbals '''''tie''''', '''''tia''''' and '''''tio''''' form very common contractions with third person definite nominals, transforming the above examples as follows:<br /> <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tia}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}} mala''''' 'this house' / 'that house' (by you) <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tie}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}} mala''''' 'this house' (by me)<br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what I said' <br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what you said' <br /> <br /> Here is a table of forms:<br /> <br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Proximal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Medial || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Distal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Proximal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''|| '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Medial || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Distal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Proximal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Medial || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Distal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Proximal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Medial || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Distal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Proximal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Medial || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Distal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Proximal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Medial || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Distal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Proximal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Medial || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Distal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Proximal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Medial || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Distal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Proximal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Medial || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Distal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Proximal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Medial || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Distal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Proximal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Medial || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Distal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Proximal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Medial || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Distal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Proximal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Medial || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Distal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Essive Proximal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Medial || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Distal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Location===<br /> <br /> ===Movement===<br /> <br /> Movement is expressed in a variety of ways in Ngolu. <br /> <br /> One of the most common methods for talking about movement is using the words '''hu''' and '''mia'''. There is no distinction between coming and going but rather a distinction between the perfective '''hu''', meaning 'come' or 'go', and the imperfective '''mia''', 'be one one's way', 'be coming', 'be going'. The destination may be indicated by a subsequent modifying verbal or by a dative argument. The origin is indicated by an ablative argument.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nu''' || '''exi''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || NOM.1s.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|mia}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.IPFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be on the way&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|'m going / on my way}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || move.PFV || ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Please {{color|MediumBlue|get}} away from me.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another method for expressing movement is to affix the copula prefix '''g-''', '''m-''', '''n-''' to a dative or ablative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-exi}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to you&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'll {{color|MediumBlue|come to you}}.'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Get away from me}}!'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The third way to express movement is to use an inceptive (inchoative) morpheme in conjunction with a word indicating location. For example, the verbal '''xa''' means 'to be inside' and the verbal '''atio''' means 'to be there (away from us)' - adding the infix '''-in-''' (perfective inceptive) or '''-ij-''' (imperfective inceptive) gives '''xina''' ('to go in', 'to enter') and '''xija''' ('to be on the way in'), '''atinio''' ('to go there') and '''atijo''' ('to be on the way there'). The free standing verbal '''li''' ('to begin, start, commence') may also be used, with '''li xa''' and '''li atio''' being equivalent to '''xina''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xina}}''' || '''iju''' || '''i-oba''' || '''loe'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || enter.PFV || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || PRED-be.room || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;enter&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible ones&quot; || &quot;be room&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''They {{color|MediumBlue|went into}} the bedroom.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bios''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|atinio}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || go.there.3 || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''S/He wants {{color|MediumBlue|to go there}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The inceptive infixes are frequently used with the verbals denoting location in the four cardinal directions: '''la''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' ('to be in the east', 'to be in the west', 'to be in the north', 'to be in the south' respectively) creating the perfective forms '''lina''', '''tina''', '''ginio''' and '''vino''' and the imperfective forms '''lija''', '''tija''', '''gijo''' and '''vijo'''. Direction within Qu, with its noticeable tube shape (with 'east/west' pointing along the tube and 'north/south' going around the circumference), is a much more salient feature than on Earth and referencing direction with motion is common. In certain circumstances, describing movement without reference to direction is regarded as too imprecise, such as when men are discussing hunting in the forest where there may be no obvious landmarks to identify as the destination of a movement.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''La''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' may be used to modify another verb of motion with or without taking an inceptive infix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|lina}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|gio}}''' || '''inais''' || '''ixi''' || '''vaku'''<br /> |-<br /> | go.east.PFV || be.in.the.north || ABL.1p.ACS || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.babirusa<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go east&quot; || &quot;be in the north&quot; || &quot;from us&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be babirusa&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''The babirusas {{color|MediumBlue|moved (east)-northeast}} away from us.'' — '''muja''' [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Additionally, there is yet another prefix '''e-''' which may be related to the '''e-''' prefix at the beginning of nominals in the dative case. Words with this prefix indicate perfective movement and include '''etie''' ('to come here') '''etia''' ('to go/come there/here by you') and '''etio''' ('to go there'). These words are slightly more commonly used than their equivalents '''atinie''', '''atinia''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> ===Causes===<br /> <br /> ===Goals===<br /> <br /> ===Conditionals===<br /> <br /> Conditional sentences in Ngolu use particles to indicate the condition clause (protasis) and the result clause (apodosis). These particles differ depending on whether the condition is possible (realis) or hypothetical (irrealis).<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''PROTASIS'' || ''APODOSIS''<br /> |-<br /> | ''REALIS'' || '''ha''' || '''to'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''IRREALIS'' || '''hai''' &lt;br&gt; '''haizuo''' (emphatic) || '''toi''' &lt;br&gt; '''to''' (possible only when apodosis clause appears second)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Realis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''anu''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''kka''' || '''vuja''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | if || be.tomorrow || rain || then || be.not || hunt.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if&quot; || &quot;be tomorrow&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} it rains tomorrow, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} he won't hunt.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ('''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''') || '''ttio''' || '''nu''' || '''ue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''vai''' || '''tiaia'''<br /> |-<br /> | (then) || hit || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.2s.ACS || if || stay || do.that.2<br /> |-<br /> | (&quot;then&quot;) || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;if&quot; || &quot;keep&quot; || &quot;do that which you are doing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I'll hit you {{color|MediumBlue|if}} you keep doing that.'' — '''muja''' [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Irrealis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''g-ua''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(i)}}''' || '''hales''' || '''eji''' || '''jo''' || '''nio'''|| '''mo'''<br /> |-<br /> | if.IRR || be-NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ACS || then.(would) || ask || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.C || happen || be.what<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;imagine if&quot; || &quot;be you&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then (would)&quot; || &quot;ask&quot; || &quot;(to) the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;happen&quot; || &quot;be what&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} you, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} I{{color|MediumBlue|'d}} ask him/her what happened.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || '''abani'''<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;stop&quot; || &quot;work&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || &quot;be more&quot; || &quot;be rich&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|would}} stop working, {{color|MediumBlue|if}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} richer.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''ti''' || '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''leui''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || ('''ti''') || '''mahu''' || ('''xu''') || ('''ene''')<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || be.PRF || move || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ICS || if.IRR || (be.PRF) || be.known || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN) || (DAT.1s.ACS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;move&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || (&quot;be finished&quot;) || &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''I would have come with you if I had known that.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Numbers===<br /> <br /> ===Quantity===<br /> <br /> ===Degree===<br /> <br /> ===Comparison===<br /> <br /> ==Pragmatics==<br /> <br /> ===Social Stratification and Language Use===<br /> <br /> Ngolu society is heavily stratified into five social divisions. These social divisions, or strata, are hierarchical and from highest to lowest are as follows.<br /> <br /> * 5. ''ju '''taqu''''' - the king<br /> * 4. ''iju '''balu''''' - the king's men<br /> * 3. ''iju '''muja''''' - initiated men<br /> * 2. ''iju '''kali''''' - free citizens<br /> * 1. ''iju '''tuva''''' - slaves and prisoners (''ixu tuva'' in the speech of '''muja''', '''balu''' and '''taqu''')<br /> <br /> Language use is, to a large extent, determined by the strata of the speaker, addressee and third person referents.<br /> <br /> ===Speech Crime===<br /> <br /> [[Category:Languages]]<br /> [[Category:Conlangs]]</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Iliaqu&diff=258019 2022-01-29T10:55:55Z

<p>Imralu: /* First Person */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Iliaqu<br /> |nativename = iliaqu<br /> |pronunciation = [ìʎàʔú]<br /> |region = Qu<br /> |ethnicity = Ngolu / Ilaqu<br /> |speakers = {{formatnum:100,000}}<br /> |setting = [[Verse:Qu|Qu]]<br /> |fam1 = Language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2013-2020<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> {{infobox|bg=#F2DC77|native=iliaqu|in=Qu|no=100,000 (approx.)|tree=Isolate (as far as known)|wo=VSO|morph=Isolating/futional|ms=Nominative-Accusative|creator=[[User:Imralu|Imralu]]|date=2013-2014}}<br /> <br /> '''Iliaqu''' (IPA: /ˌɪljəˈʔuː/), also known as '''Ngolu''' or sometimes '''Qu''' (endonym: ''iliaqu'' IPA: [ìʎàʔú]) is a language isolate spoken throughout the known regions of the space habitat [[Verse:Qu|Qu]] by the Ngolu people, whose number is estimated to be around 100,000. As the Ngolu are almost entirely monolingual, and while voluntary travel to and from Qu remains impossible, the language is not in any danger of extinction. At this stage, little is known of dialect differences within Qu. There are estimated to be somewhere between 50 and 100 Iliaqu speakers on Earth who have simply mysteriously appeared in various locations. Small communities of Ngolu speakers been brought or have found their way together, the most well-known and well-studied of which is a group of about 15 living in and around Berlin, Germany.<br /> <br /> Iliaqu is an isolating/fusional, head-initial (right-branching) language with VSO word order and nominative-accusative alignment. Verbs (verbals) make up the only open class of word, with nouns (nominals) constituting a closed class of heavily fusional words that fill the roll of pronouns and articles in other languages, marking grammatical person, number, definiteness and specificity, gender, accessibility, and case.<br /> <br /> ==Terminology==<br /> There appear to have been fewer than ten isolated instances of non-Ngolu people arriving in Qu and there are no other cultures or languages known to exist in Qu. In such a linguistically and culturally homogenous environment, the Ngolu have had no need for endonyms for their culture, people or language. Traditionally, they have described their language simply as '''ilia''' [ìʎá] 'speech', themselves as '''golu''' [ŋòlú] 'people', and their world as '''qu''' [ʔú] 'world'. <br /> <br /> With the new knowledge of other cultures and the entire universe outside of Qu, neologisms have arisen to distinguish their language and their people from those of the outsiders. For the Ngolu arrivals Earth, contact with other cultures has forced them to acknowledge that the other languages they hear must have the ability to convey information just as their language. Consequently, on Earth, the word '''ilia''' generally refers to any language. To disambiguate their own language, they may call it '''ilia qu''' [ìʎáʔú] or '''iliaqu''' [ìʎàʔú] 'Qu speech'. Non-Ngolu are still referred to as '''taia''' ('ghost', 'demon') and Earth maybe referred to as '''utaia''' [ùtàjá] 'ghost world' or a loan word such as '''hiia''', which was common among the Berlin group (from German ''hier'') although it now seems to be dying out in favour of '''utaia'''. With the acknowledgement that non-Ngolu people are also people and the consequent expansion of the term '''golu''' to include non-Ngolu, the term '''goqu''' [ŋòʔú] ('Qu people', formed by adding the human prefix '''go-''' to the word '''qu''') is gaining ground and may be contrasted with '''taia''' or '''goutaia''' [ŋòu̯tàjá].<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !VOWELS<br /> !Front<br /> !Central<br /> !Back<br /> |-<br /> !High<br /> |'''i''' ‹i›<br /> |<br /> |'''u''' ‹u›<br /> |-<br /> !Mid<br /> |'''e''' ‹e›<br /> |<br /> |'''o''' ‹o›<br /> |-<br /> !Low<br /> |<br /> |'''a''' ‹a›<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Each vowel may be 'strong' or 'weak'. These are essentially stressed and unstressed. There is only ever one 'strong' vowel per word and it is nearly always the final vowel. Where it is not, it is always the penultimate vowel and the in that case the final vowel is always /i/ or /u/. Non-final strong vowels are indicated in the romanisation using an acute accent, ‹áéíóú›.<br /> <br /> The realisation of strong vowels varies across accents. There appears to be a cline ranging from a pitch-based pronunciation to a weight-based pronunciation (used chiefly by men). At the pitch-based end of the spectrum, 'strong' vowels are pronounced with a high tone and 'weak' vowels with a low-tone. At the end of a non-interrogative utterance, a high-tone becomes a falling tone. At the end of a question, a high tone may be lengthened and/or undergo an additional rise. At the weight-based extreme, strong vowels cause gemination of the following consonant but are pronounced as long themselves when the following sound is (1) a vowel, (2) a consonant cluster or (3) an already geminated consonant. Utterance finally, strong vowels are generally neither pronounced with a high tone nor lengthened but are usually pronounced slightly louder. <br /> <br /> The high vowels, /i/ and /u/, when 'weak' and adjacent to another vowel are pronounced non-syllabically as [i̯~j] and [u̯~w]). Non-syllabic /i/ merges with and palatalises any preceding dental/alveolar consonant.<br /> <br /> In these two word examples, the pitch-based pronunciation is given before the weight-based pronunciation.<br /> <br /> :*'''ju muja''' [ʒúmùʒâ] ~ [ʒumːuˈʒa]<br /> :*'''ju aio''' [ʒúàjô] ~ [ʒuːaˈjo]<br /> :*'''ju uaia''' [ʒúwàjâ] [ʒuːwaˈja]<br /> :*'''ju ntu''' [ʒúntû] ~ [ʒu:nˈtu]<br /> :*'''ju lleue''' [ʒúlːèwê] ~ [ʒuːlːeˈwe]<br /> <br /> ===Consonants===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !CONSONANTS<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Dental/Alveolar<br /> !Post-alveolar<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> | '''m''' ‹m›<br /> | <br /> | '''n''' ‹n›<br /> |<br /> | '''ŋ''' ‹g›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> | '''b''' ‹b›<br /> |<br /> | '''t''' ‹t›<br /> |<br /> | '''k''' ‹k›<br /> | '''ʔ''' ‹q›<br /> |-<br /> !Ejective<br /> |<br /> | <br /> | '''tʼ''' ‹tt›<br /> |<br /> | '''kʼ''' ‹kk›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiced Fricative<br /> | <br /> | '''v''' ‹v›<br /> | '''z''' ‹z›<br /> | '''ʒ''' ‹j›<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiceless Fricative<br /> | <br /> | <br /> | '''s''' ‹s›<br /> | '''ʃ''' ‹x›<br /> | <br /> | '''h''' ‹h›<br /> |-<br /> !Tap<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''ɾ''' ‹r› <br /> |<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''l''' ‹l› <br /> |<br /> |<br /> | <br /> |}<br /> <br /> * The nasal consonants /m n ŋ/, unlike other consonants, may occur before another consonant and then assimilate in place of articulation to that consonant. For this reason, many authors posit the archiphoneme /N/. /N/ may be syllabic post pausa, carrying a low tone. Before /l/, /N/ assimilates to [l̪] or [l̪̩]. Before /v/, it is pronounced as [ɱ] or [ɱ̩].<br /> * The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental [n̪ t̪ t̪ʼ ɾ̪ l̪]. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears. Some speakers palatalise /t/ and /d/ to [t͡ʃ] and [d͡ʒ] respectively. The ejective /tʼ/, however, is rarely or never palatalised as [t͡ʃʼ].<br /> * /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive [d̪].<br /> * Geminate /m/, /n/ and /l/ (resulting from /Nm/, /Nn/ and /Nl/) may be pronounced as [m̩b], [n̪̩d̪] and [l̪̩d̪] respectively, particularly by men and particularly post pausa.<br /> * /s/ and /z/ are normally alveolar. When followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are not distinguished from /ʃ ʒ/. <br /> * /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ cannot be followed by non-syllabic /i/.<br /> * The phonemes /s/ and /ɾ/ do not occur at the beginning of a word.<br /> * The glottal stop /ʔ/ and the ejective consonants /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ are restricted to positions immediately before a 'strong' vowel, although there may be an intervening non-syllabic 'weak' /i/ or /u/ after the ejectives. At the beginning of a 'weak' syllable, ejective consonants become pronounced as their equivalent plain plosive and the glottal stop disappears. For example, ''kka'' [kʼá] and ''kkue'' [kʷʼé] are allowed while expected ''*kkina'' (derived from ''kka'' plus the infix ''-in-'') is instead present as ''kina'' [kì.ná]. In connected speech, /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ may be pronounced as [t̚ʔ k̚ʔ] or even [tː kː]. However, a strong ejective pronunciation is always heard post pausa.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> Phonemically, a syllable may be '''((N)C)V''', where '''V''' is a vowel '''(C)''' an optional consonant and '''(N)''' an optional nasal which assimilates to its following consonant in its point of articulation. <br /> <br /> Phonetically, syllables may be more complex. '''(N)''' is pronounced syllabically post pausa and otherwise is pronounced in the coda of the preceding syllable. The non-syllabic pronunciations of /i/ and /u/ mean that a syllable can be (C)(S)V(S)(N), where '''(S)''' is a semivowel.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::'''nxua intaneti'''<br /> ::/Nʃu.á.i.Nta.ne.tí/<br /> ::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí]<br /> ::''is on the internet''<br /> <br /> ===Epenthetic /s/===<br /> <br /> An epenthetic /s/ sometimes appears between words when the second word begins with a vowel. In the romanisation used here, the /s/ is written on the end of the preceding word. The rules are somewhat complex and are best shown as a table. The final vowels of preceding words are shown vertically on the left. Initial vowels of the following word are shown along the top. An epenthetic /s/ doesn't appear before '''i''' and '''u''' when a syllabic vowel (V) immediately follows within the same word. In the table, the word borders are shown with an '''s''' indicating where the epenthetic /s/ always appears. In other positions in the table, the epenthetic /s/ can still appear in very clear emphatic speech.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''i(V)-'' || ''u(V)-'' || ''i-'' || ''u-'' || ''e-'' || ''o-'' || ''a-''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-i'' || '''-i i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i e-''' || '''-i o-''' || '''-i a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-u'' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u u-''' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} u-''' || '''-u e-''' || '''-u o-''' || '''-u a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-e'' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-o'' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-a'' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ua''' || [è.né.wá] || '''u''' followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} u''' || [è.né.sú] || '''u''' not followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ima''' || [è.néj.má] || '''i''' is weak and can become non-syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} eme''' || [è.né.sè.mé] || '''e''' is always syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni ua''' || [è.ní.wá] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni u''' || [è.ní.ú] || final '''i''' before syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni iu''' || [è.ní.jú] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni{{color|MediumBlue|s}} iui''' || [è.ní.sì.wí] || final '''i''' before initial syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene iui''' || [è.néj.wí] || final '''e''' followed by 'weak' '''i''' which becomes non-syllabic<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> There are four classes of words in Ngolu. Ngolu is a very verb-heavy language, with verbals making up the only truly open word class.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''Nominals''': closed<br /> :* '''Verbals''': open<br /> :* '''Particles''': closed<br /> :* '''Interjections''': closed (mostly)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Nominals===<br /> Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of nominals, the &lt;u&gt;pronominals&lt;/u&gt;, are essentially the equivalent of pronouns and articles in other languages, inflecting for number, grammatical person, definiteness, specificity, gender, case and an inflectional dimension unique to Iliaqu, ''accessibility''. Pronominals can appear on their own or can be followed by a verbal or verbal phrase. When followed by a verbal, they can be regarded as the head of an underlying relative clause which nominalises the verbal and allows it to function as an argument in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> :As a pronoun:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|it}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :As an article:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|the}} house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In addition to the pronominals, there are two &lt;u&gt;complementisers&lt;/u&gt; which are essentially subordinating conjunctions which inflect for case. '''Zuo''' can be thought of as roughly equivalent to the English subordinating conjunction 'that' and '''kuo''' can be thought of as 'the time when'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''olos''' || '''ene''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''g-ixi''' || '''ja''' || '''nana''' || '''g-uje''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.strange || DAT.1s.ACS || NOM.C || be.not || COP-DAT.3s.INAN.DEF || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.father || COP-GEN.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is strange&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;is not&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the one who&quot; || &quot;is father&quot; || &quot;is hers/his&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I think it's strange {{color|MediumBlue|that}} his / her father didn't go / wasn't there.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Number====<br /> Pronominals indicate two numbers, singular and plural. Plural is marked by the prefix '''i-''', which occurs before some case prefixes and after others (see [[Ngolu#Case|Case]] below for more information).<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The singular is used before quantifiers indicating a specific plural quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a group of two&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|two}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> When the plural is used, this indicates multiples of the indicated quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are groups of two&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|pairs of}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Many words denoting powders and granular substances are used in the plural with the singular referring to an individual grain.<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a grain of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the grain of sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are grains of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the (grain{{color|MediumBlue|s}} of) sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Water referred to as '''hunia''', potable water, is indicated in the plural as well when it is a quantity larger than what one person can drink in one sitting. <br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (large quantity of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (serving of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Gender====<br /> In the third person, nominals distinguish between animate and inanimate referents. When it comes to animals, the use of the genders depends on the speaker's [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]]. ''Kali'' (women, children and uninitiated men) and ''tuva'' (slaves) refer to all motile animals in the animate gender, generally as inaccessible although pets may be accessible. ''Muja'' (initiated men) refer to animals other than pets in the inanimate gender. The Ngolu believe this allows ''muja'' to hunt without remorse.<br /> <br /> The following examples illustrate the difference. Examples which are specific to the rank of the speaker or the listener will be marked as such after the translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The interplay between a speaker and listener's rank is complex and may result in unexpected gender choices. For example, a slave must refer to him- or herself in the third person inanimate gender when speaking to ''balu'' and above unless specifically given permission otherwise. To read more about this, see [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|Social Stratification and Language Use]].<br /> <br /> ====Person====<br /> Three grammatical persons are marked by pronominals. The first person pronominals contain '''n'''. The second person pronominals contain a non-syllabic '''u''' (realised as '''v''' before '''u'''). In the third person, '''j''', '''x''', '''m''', '''z''', '''k''' and Ø appear depending on gender, definiteness and specificity.<br /> <br /> =====Clusivity=====<br /> The plural forms of all the basic pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness. <br /> <br /> The first person inclusive (second plus first persons) may be indicated by compound pronominals, the dual forms (&quot;you, one person, and I&quot;) being '''uana''', '''uanu''', '''vuna''', '''vunu''' and the plural forms being '''iuana''', '''iuanu''', '''ivuna''', '''ivunu'''. Which of the four options is used depends on [[#accessibility|accessibility]]. These compound forms are not used universally and many speakers use juxtaposition of pronouns, such as '''vu nu''' instead of '''vunu''' or '''iua na''' or '''iua ina''' instead of '''iuana'''.<br /> <br /> Even addressing people in the second person, should the group include third persons who are not being addressed, many speakers will make note of these separately, for example '''ju vu''' (gloss: NOM.3s.ICS.DEF NOM.2s.ICS) and this is somewhat prescriptively enforced. The nominal '''ivu''' (gloss: NOM.2p.ICS), for example, is recommended only for use to address two or more people when all are present or when the message is at the very least expected to be passed onto those who are not present. <br /> <br /> The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person. The compound 2nd+1st person pronouns are not subject to this ordering rule.<br /> <br /> Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive.<br /> <br /> ====Definiteness and Specificity====<br /> <br /> In the third person, pronominals indicate definiteness (whether the listener knows which individual) and specificity (whether the speaker knows which individual).<br /> <br /> =====Definite=====<br /> The Definite (+specific, +definite) is used when the listener is assumed to know which specific individual or individuals the speaker is referring to. In the following examples, '''ji ala''' (or just '''ji''') refers to a specific bird which the listener is assumed to be already aware of, possibly because it is already been mentioned.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|the bird}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|it}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Specific=====<br /> The Specific (+specific, -definite) is used when the speaker has a specific individual or individuals in mind but the listener is not assumed to know which one(s). In the following examples, '''mi ala''' (or '''mi''') refers to a specific bird but not one which the speaker expects the listener to know of.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a (particular) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|one (in particular)}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Non-Specific=====<br /> The Non-Specific (or General) does not refer to any specific individual(s) but to the abstract idea of a member or members of a particular class, any individual of which could be described. It often used when talking about desires or in negative sentences. In the examples below, '''i ala''' refers to any bird.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a(ny) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|anyone}}.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Accessibility====<br /> Accessibility is a concept integral to Ngolu culture. Outside of the third person non-specific, all animate nominals have two forms, one ''accessible'' (gloss: ACS) and one ''inaccessible'' (gloss: ICS). Accessible nominals have a low vowel,'''a''' in the nominative stem, '''e''' in the accusative stem, and these correspond to the high vowels '''u''' and '''i''' respectively in inaccessible nominals. Accessibility is typically explained as an indication of whether physical contact is permitted or not, however it is more generally a means of conveying social closeness or distance even when no actual touching is involved.<br /> <br /> In the first person, the English word ''I'' can be translated as either '''na''' (NOM.1s.ACS) or '''nu''' (NOM.1s.ICS). Using '''na''' signals to the listener &quot;I am accessible to you.&quot; This means the speaker feels close and emotionally open to the listener and physical contact is permitted or even welcome. Using '''nu''' informs the listener that physical contact is not welcome at the current time. This is typically because of emotional distance, such as when talking to strangers, casual acquaintances or people whom the speaker does not like, but it may also signal an unwillingness to be touched for other, often fleeting reasons, such as illness, pain or emotional tension. Between close friends and lovers, suddenly switching to '''nu''' may indicate that the speaker has taken offence at something.<br /> <br /> In the second and third persons, accessibility indicates the the referent's ''perceived'' accessibility ''to the speaker''. Using '''ua''' (NOM.2s.ACS) indicates that the speaker assumes he or she may touch the listener. Using '''vu''' (NOM.2s.ICS) indicates either a more respectful or colder social distance (cf. French &quot;vous&quot;, which, coincidentally, sounds identical). In the third person, '''ja''' (NOM.3s.ACS.DEF) and '''ju''' (NOM.3s.ICS.DEF) indicate the speaker's relationship to the referent. In plural, accessible indicates that ''all'' members of the group are accessible. Even one individual who the speaker regards as inaccessible, will cause the group to be marked as inaccessible. Inaccessibility is thus the 'default' and when speaking of generic or unknown individuals, these will be indicated with inaccessible nominals.<br /> <br /> Accessibility produces four speech modes or 'stances'. In situations between peers of equal rank, generally the speech mode with either be accessible (using accessible nominals in both first and second persons) or inaccessible (using inaccessible nominals in both). In situations of unequal dominance, which generally, but do not always, run along lines of rank, the dominant party speaks in the dominant mode, using inaccessible first person nominals and accessible second person nominals. The subordinate party speaks in the subordinate or submissive mode, using the reverse.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | speech mode || first person || second person || meaning<br /> |-<br /> | accessible mode (ACS) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may touch me. I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | inaccessible mode (ICS) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may not touch me. I may not touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | dominant mode (DOM) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may not touch me but I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | submissive mode (SUB) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may touch me but I may not touch you.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The speech mode used depends not only on who the speaker and listener are to one another, but how they feel about each other in that moment. A friend or lover who is deeply offended may suddenly switch to the inaccessible or dominant mode to indicate that they are now not happy and had better not be touched until the offence is resolved. The submissive mode may be used in order to flirt with an acquaintance. Flirting may be met with the accessible or inaccessible modes, which essentially give an answer. No answer (yet) is signalled by the adoption of the dominant mode. Smooth social interactions are ensured by the concordance of speech modes, ACS↔ACS, ICS↔ICS, DOM↔SUB. Conflict is often caused by the refusal to agree or by physical contact with someone marked in speech as inaccessible.<br /> <br /> Examples of the four speech modes in use.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ICS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Case====<br /> Ngolu possesses 14 grammatical cases. The nominative and accusative case appear to be the oldest and all other forms appear to derive from the agglomeration of adpositions onto them. The first group (accusative, dative, ablative, locative, genitive and possessive) appear to be relatively old. At some point after these adpositions fused onto the nominals, the plural marker '''i-''' also became a prefix. For example '''''i-e-ji''''' 'to them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;PL-DAT-ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;. The second group of derived cases (vocative, causal, benefactive, instrumental, comitative, topical, essive) appear to have developed more recently from prepositions added to either the nominative or the accusative case as the plural marker '''i-''' is sandwiched in the middle. For example '''''te-i-ji''''' 'about them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;because.of-PL.ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;.<br /> <br /> =====Nominative=====<br /> The nominative case indicates the grammatical subject of a verb. The nominative case is always formed with a back vowel, '''u''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''a''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''u''' shows animate and '''a''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''muja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|na}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.initiated.man || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be an initiated man&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} am an initiated man.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''loe''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || sleep || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} is not sleeping. / {{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} didn't sleep.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|He}} killed / murdered something / someone''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good || NOM.C || be.not || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It's good {{color|MediumBlue|that}} it's not raining.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zoua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuo}}''' || '''tavi''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ja}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.difficult || NOM.TEMP.C || be.child || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;the time when&quot; || &quot;be child&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He had a difficult childhood.<br /> (≈ {{color|MediumBlue|The time when}} {{color|MediumBlue|s/he}} was a child was difficult.)''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Accusative=====<br /> The accusative case indicates the grammatical object of a verb. The accusative case is formed with a front vowel, '''i''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''e''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''i''' represents animate and '''e''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''. The complementisers are '''jo''' and '''kio'''<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''ti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.PRF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;have finished&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Someone murdered {{color|MediumBlue|him}} / {{color|MediumBlue|He}} was murdered.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jave''' || '''ja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kivo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | throw || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF || ACC.3s.INAN.DEF || be.rock<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;throw&quot; || &quot;the being&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be rock&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''He threw {{color|MediumBlue|the rock}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jo}}''' || '''vai''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.C || stay || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; |''I want you {{color|MediumBlue|to}} stay. (≈ I want {{color|MediumBlue|that}} you stay.)'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In informal speech, the accusative case may replace the dative case when it indicates an experiencer. This does not occur with verbs that also have an accusative role and use the dative case to indicate a recipient.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ine}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || ACC.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Dative=====<br /> The dative case indicates an indirect object of the verb, a destination or goal of a movement or an experiencer. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'to' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''e(r)-''' ('''ie(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volos''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ene}}''' || '''izi''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || DAT.1s.ACS || ACC.3p.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;some things that&quot; || &quot;be water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} was given water. / Someone gave {{color|MediumBlue|me}} water.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|iene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || '''uana'''<br /> |-<br /> | JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM.1+2DU.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go - to them&quot; || &quot;you and I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''vais''' || '''inu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekio}}''' || '''loe''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF || stay || NOM.1p.ICS || DAT.TEMP.C || sleep || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;we&quot; || &quot;until&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''We stayed {{color|MediumBlue|until}} they slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Ablative=====<br /> The ablative case is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'from' in English. It is formed by suffixing '''-i''' to a nominative nominal. The complementisers are '''zuio''' and '''kuio''' in the ablative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Kuaqa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mala}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-uni}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.distant || NOM.1s.ICS || ABL.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || COP-GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be far&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;from the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm far away {{color|MediumBlue|from my home}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go - from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Get away {{color|MediumBlue|from me}}!'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || '''xuua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuio}}''' || '''iti''' || ('''ju''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;to her/him&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;since&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || (&quot;s/he&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Locative=====<br /> The locative case indicates a location. It is more or less equivalent to the prepositions 'in', 'on' and 'at' in English. It is also used to replace the verb &quot;have&quot; when indicating immediate possession as in &quot;to have something on one's person&quot;. It is formed by suffixing '''-a''' to a nominative nominal in the inaccessible and inanimate and prefixing '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ia(r)-''') to an accessible nominative nominal. The prefixed form is also used for the non-specific animate and inanimate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''bani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ana}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.money || LOC.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be money&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I don't have any money (with me). (≈ There is no money {{color|MediumBlue|at me}}.)'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|xua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mo}}''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.what || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be what&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Where are you?'' (≈ You are {{color|MediumBlue|at the what}}?) — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''iio''' || '''jas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azuo}}''' || '''muana''' || '''iti''' || '''exi''' || '''muana''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.fish || NOM.3s.ACS || LOC.C || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.small || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; || &quot;he&quot; || &quot;where&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || &quot;to the thing that&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be big&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''He's fishing {{color|MediumBlue|where}} the stream flows into the river.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || '''xuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;begin&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be yours&quot; || &quot;when&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || (&quot;to the inaccessible one&quot;) || &quot;that thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Genitive=====<br /> The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''egio''' || '''tani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|une}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.threesome || be.sibling || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a group of three&quot; || &quot;be siblings&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I have three siblings.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tta''' || '''xu''' || '''gula''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|uji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tio}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.large || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.pair.of.arms || COP-GEN.3s.DEF.ICS || be.that.3<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be large&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of arms&quot; || &quot;be of the person who&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|That person over there}} has big arms. / The arms {{color|MediumBlue|of that person over there}} are big.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Possessive=====<br /> The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) but to a nominative nominal rather than an accusative one.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || POS.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;owned by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} have / own a house.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It should be noted that, although in many languages, the genitive or possessive case is usually adnominal, referring to an immediately adjacent noun phrase, in Iliaqu, all nominals, regardless of case, refer to the predicate in their clause unless verbalised with the [[#Nominal_to_Verbal|copular prefix]]. Compare the following sentences.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || COP-POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in {{color|MediumBlue|my}} boot.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in the boot {{color|MediumBlue| and it's mine}}.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|I own}} a snake which is in the boot. — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the second sentence, the lack of the copula on '''une''' indicates that it represents an argument of the predicate ('''masa''' 'there is a snake'), meaning that it is the snake which belongs to the speaker, not the boot. The word order, placing the unadorned possessive argument ('''une''') after the much heavier locative argument ('''xua xa buja''') is heavily marked, placing focus on the fact that the snake is the speaker's legal possession.<br /> <br /> Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, ''ataiva'', the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for ''ataiva'' to avoid the possessive case entirely in favour of the genitive case.<br /> <br /> =====Vocative=====<br /> The vocative case is used to address someone or attract their attention. It is formed by adding '''e(r)-''' ('''ei-''' in plural) to a nominative nominal. <br /> <br /> The most common greeting words for most uses are simply vocative nominals. They must reflect the number and accessibility of the addressee(s). <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is common for inaccessibles to be greeted in the third person, with '''eju''' frequently replacing '''evu'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Third person definite forms, however, may also be used with accessibles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eja}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh he who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Among accessibles, the '''e-''' prefix may be added directly to a personal name. This and the predicate prefix '''i-''' are the only example of verbals (as all names are verbals) taking a non-derivational affix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|e}}-xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | hey-be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey - be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hey}} Xagu!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the indefinite, the vocative can be used to summon help from non-specific people.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eru}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when one person's assistance is enough.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3p.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when more than one person's assistance is required.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative complementiser '''ezuo''' is used to mean 'if only' or 'I wish'. It is also used for making polite requests. Literally, it's something like 'o that'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezuo}}''' || '''hunia''' || '''nua'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.C || be.potable || LOC.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if only&quot; || &quot;be beverage&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''May I have some water please? ({{color|MediumBlue|If only}} I had some water.)'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative temporal complementiser '''ekuo''' is used to express nostalgia about a past time or anticipation for a future time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || '''ata''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh for the time when&quot; || &quot;be adult&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I can't wait till}} I'm grown up.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Causal=====<br /> The causal case describes a cause. It is equivalent to the English &quot;because of&quot;. It is formed by prefixing '''te(r)-''' (plural: '''tei-''') to the accusative nominals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zaxa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.sick || NOM.1s.ICS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am sick&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm ill {{color|MediumBlue|because of you}}. / You made me ill.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ezo''' || '''zouas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tejo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''mala''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.now || be.difficult || DAT.1s.ICS || CAU.C || be.not || be.house || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;because&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''Things are tough for me at the moment {{color|MediumBlue|because}} I don't have a house..'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Benefactive=====<br /> The benefactive case indicates either a beneficiary or benefactor of an action or situation or a goal. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'for'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''kua(r)-''' (plural: '''kuai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.this.1 || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;there is this, by me&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''This is {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}. (≈ There's this {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.)'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bioi''' || '''vaia''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.willing || do.everything || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;would&quot; || &quot;do everything&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I would do anything {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''etie''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''leu''' || '''ue''' || '''veji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || move.to.here.1 || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.C || rescue || ACC.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;finish&quot; || &quot;come here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;rescue&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;about the person&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; |''I came here {{color|MediumBlue|(in order) to}} save you from him/her.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''naxe''' || '''molu''' || '''iu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''mue''' || '''lau''' || '''iu''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | must || be.dead || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || BEN.C || be.able || be.alive || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;must&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;can&quot; || &quot;live&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates that&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; |''Some must die {{color|MediumBlue|so that}} others may live.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kuas''' || '''enies''' || '''e''' || '''kueta''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuakio}}''' || '''gehuo''' || '''ua''' || '''ji''' || '''uako'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || carry || ACC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.hunting.knife || BEN.TEMP.C || encounter || NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.enemy<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;carry&quot; || &quot;a non-specific thing which&quot; || &quot;be a hunting knife&quot; || &quot;in case&quot; || &quot;encounter&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''Carry a knife {{color|MediumBlue|in case}} you cross paths with enemies.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Instrumental=====<br /> The instrumental case describes the means or method by which something is done. It is equivalent to the English preposition &quot;with&quot; when it means &quot;using&quot;. It is formed by adding the prefix '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''vuja''' || '''zi''' || '''vaku''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kueta}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || hunt || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.babirusa || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.hunting.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;deliberately killed&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;hunts&quot; || &quot;a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a babirusa&quot; || &quot;using a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a hunting knife&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''The hunter killed the babirusa {{color|MediumBlue|with a hunting knife}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g-iara''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC.3p.NSPC.INAN || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;certain people&quot; || &quot;by&quot; || &quot;wait&quot; || &quot;at anything which&quot; || &quot;is bushes&quot; || &quot;be-at any things which&quot; || &quot;be drinking water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Comitative=====<br /> The comitative case indicates an accompanying person or thing. It is equivalent to 'with' in English when it means 'along with' or 'accompanied by'. It is formed by prefixing '''le(r)-''' (plural: '''lei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''ja''' || '''meha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|leje}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jalu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Meha || COM.3s.DEF.ACS || Jalu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is hunting&quot; || &quot;the person who&quot; || &quot;is Meha&quot; || &quot;with the person who&quot; || &quot;is Jalu&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''Meha is hunting {{color|MediumBlue|with Jalu}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''hu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || move.PFV || COM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come/go&quot; || &quot;with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Come {{color|MediumBlue|with me}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bata''' || '''ja''' || '''umatu''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lejo'''}} || '''buga''' || '''taba''' || '''iju''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | dance || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Umatu || COM.C || hit || be.drum || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;dance&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be Umatu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;be drum&quot; || &quot;the beings who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Umatu danced {{color|MediumBlue|while}} the others played the drums.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Topical=====<br /> The topical case indicates the topic or theme of an act of communication and in many instances also something which is kept in mind when a particular action is performed. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'about'. It is formed by prefixing '''ve(r)-''' (plural '''vei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''ila''' || '''na''' || '''leue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vezi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|valo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || speak || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.interesting<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;speak&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;about something that&quot; || &quot;is interesting&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to talk to you {{color|MediumBlue|about something interesting}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''teuas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vexi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiau}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | thank || DAT.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.food<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;thank&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;about the thing that&quot; || &quot;is food&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Thanks {{color|MediumBlue|for the food}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''malemale''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''moio''' || '''iu''' || '''azo''' || '''lo''' || '''zola''' || '''iu''' || '''babo'''<br /> |-<br /> | gossip || TOP.C || do.what || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other || ADV || be.solely || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;gossip&quot; || &quot;about the fact that&quot; || &quot;do what&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be only&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Only unintelligent people gossip {{color|MediumBlue|about}} what other people do.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Essive=====<br /> The essive case indicates the role of something in the sentence. It is roughly equivalent to the English words 'as' or 'like'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''o(r)-''' (plural: '''oi-''') to the nominative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''atia''' || '''nas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|omas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ali}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.there.2 || NOM.1s.ACS || ESS.3s.SPEC.ACS || be.same.rank.friend || COP-DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;as a person who&quot; || &quot;be a friend of the same rank&quot; || &quot;be to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm here {{color|MediumBlue|as your friend}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ozuo}}''' || '''ka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.visible || ESS.C || be.going.to || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;appear&quot; || &quot;as if&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It looks {{color|MediumBlue|like}} it's going to rain.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Tables====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Simple pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | na<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | nu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ina<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | inu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate specific<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ma<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | mu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ima<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | imu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate definite<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate specific<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | izu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | a<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ia<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> animate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> inanimate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Compound pronominals<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dominant<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dual<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Complimentisers<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | temporal<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====First Person=====<br /> First person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''nu''' || '''inu''' || '''na''' || '''ina'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ni''' || '''ini''' || '''ne''' || '''ine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''nua''' || '''inua''' || '''ana''' || '''iana''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uni''' || '''iuni''' || '''une''' || '''iune'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''unu''' || '''iunu''' || '''una''' || '''iuna'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''enu''' || '''einu''' || '''ena''' || '''eina''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teni''' || '''teini''' || '''tene''' || '''teine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuani''' || '''kuaini''' || '''kuane''' || '''kuaine''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ani''' || '''aini''' || '''ane''' || '''aine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leni''' || '''leini''' || '''lene''' || '''leine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veni''' || '''veini''' || '''vene''' || '''veine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''onu''' || '''oinu''' || '''ona''' || '''oina''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS.SG || ICS:PL || ACS.SG || ACS.PL<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ue''' || '''iue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eui''' || '''ieui''' || '''eue''' || '''ieue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''vui''' || '''ivui''' || '''uai''' || '''iuai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''vua''' || '''ivua''' || '''aua''' || '''iaua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uui''' || '''iuui''' || '''uue''' || '''iuue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uvu''' || '''iuvu''' || '''uua''' || '''iuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''evu''' || '''eivu''' || '''eua''' || '''eiua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teui''' || '''teiui''' || '''teue''' || '''teiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiui''' || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaiue''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aui''' || '''aiui''' || '''aue''' || '''aiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leui''' || '''leiui''' || '''leue''' || '''leiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veui''' || '''veiui''' || '''veue''' || '''veiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ovu''' || '''oivu''' || '''oua''' || '''oiua''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || ICS.DU<br /> || ACS.DU<br /> || DOM.DU<br /> || SUB.DU<br /> || ICS.PL<br /> || ACS.PL<br /> || DOM.PL<br /> || SUB.PL<br /> |-<br /> || Nominative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Accusative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Dative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvuna<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''ju''' || '''iju''' || '''ja''' || '''ija''' || '''xu''' || '''ixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ji''' || '''iji''' || '''je''' || '''ije''' || '''xi''' || '''ixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jui''' || '''ijui''' || '''jai''' || '''ijai''' || '''xui''' || '''ixui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''jua''' || '''ijua''' || '''aja''' || '''iaja''' || '''xua''' || '''ixua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uji''' || '''iuji''' || '''uje''' || '''iuje''' || '''uxi''' || '''iuxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uju''' || '''iuju''' || '''uja''' || '''iuja''' || '''*uxu''' || '''*iuxu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eju''' || '''eiju''' || '''eja''' || '''eija''' || '''exu''' || '''eixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teji''' || '''teiji''' || '''teje''' || '''teije''' || '''texi''' || '''teixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaiji''' || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuaixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aji''' || '''aiji''' || '''aje''' || '''aije''' || '''axi''' || '''aixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leji''' || '''leiji''' || '''leje''' || '''leije''' || '''lexi''' || '''leixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veji''' || '''veiji''' || '''veje''' || '''veije''' || '''vexi''' || '''veixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oju''' || '''oiju''' || '''oja''' || '''oija''' || '''oxu''' || '''oixu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''mu''' || '''imu''' || '''ma''' || '''ima''' || '''zu''' || '''izu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''mi''' || '''imi''' || '''me''' || '''ime''' || '''zi''' || '''izi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''emi''' || '''iemi''' || '''eme''' || '''ieme''' || '''ezi''' || '''iezi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mui''' || '''imui''' || '''mai''' || '''imai''' || '''zui''' || '''izui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''mua''' || '''imua''' || '''ama''' || '''iama''' || '''zua''' || '''izua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''umi''' || '''iumi''' || '''ume''' || '''iume''' || '''uzi''' || '''iuzi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''umu''' || '''iumu''' || '''uma''' || '''iuma''' || '''*uzu''' || '''*iuzu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''emu''' || '''eimu''' || '''ema''' || '''eima''' || '''ezu''' || '''eizu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''temi''' || '''teimi''' || '''teme''' || '''teime''' || '''tezi''' || '''teizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuami''' || '''kuaimi''' || '''kuame''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuazi''' || '''kuaizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ami''' || '''aimi''' || '''ame''' || '''aime''' || '''azi''' || '''aizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lemi''' || '''leimi''' || '''leme''' || '''leime''' || '''lezi''' || '''leizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vemi''' || '''veimi''' || '''veme''' || '''veime''' || '''vezi''' || '''veizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''omu''' || '''oimu''' || '''oma''' || '''oima''' || '''ozu''' || '''oizu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ANIM Sg. || ANIM Pl. || INAN Sg. || INAN Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''u''' || '''iu''' || '''a''' || '''ia'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''i''' || '''iri''' || '''e''' || '''ie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eri''' || '''ieri''' || '''ere''' || '''iere'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ai''' || '''iai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''iaru''' || '''ara''' || '''iara'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''iuri''' || '''ure''' || '''iure'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''iuru''' || '''ura'''* || '''iura'''*<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu''' || '''era''' || '''eia''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' || '''tere''' || '''teie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' || '''kuare''' || '''kuaie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' || '''are''' || '''aie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' || '''lere''' || '''leie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veri''' || '''veiri''' || '''vere''' || '''veie''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu''' || '''ora''' || '''oia'''<br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> =====Complementisers=====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''jo''' || 'that' || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''ejo''' || 'to the place where' || '''ekio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || *'''uzuo''' || || *'''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vejo''' || 'about V-ing' || '''vekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |}<br /> ::&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Verbals===<br /> <br /> Verbals constitute the only open class of words in Ngolu. They are essentially content words, equivalent to what in other languages are verbs ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''loe''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to sleep' || [NOM] sleeps<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kau''' || 'to eat' || [NOM] eats [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to hunt' (= 'to be a hunter') || [NOM] hunts [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''volo''' || 'to give' || [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mahu''' || 'to know' || [DAT] knows [NOM] = [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ila''' || 'to speak/talk' || [NOM] speaks [ACC]/[INS] (= language) to [DAT]/[COM] about [TOP]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mue''' || 'to be able to' || [NOM] can / is able to […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... nouns ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''iio''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be a fish' || [NOM] is a fish of [GEN] belonging to [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to be a hunter' (= 'to hunt') || [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person<br /> |-<br /> |• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of a different rank)' || [NOM] is a friend of [DAT], lover of [GEN] and concubine of [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ilia''' || 'to be speech/language' || [NOM] is the speech/language of [GEN]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... adjectives ... <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''tta''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be large' || [NOM] is large<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kaiu''' || 'to be edible' ('to be food') || [NOM] is edible to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kuaqa''' || 'to be far/distant' || [NOM] is far from [ABL]/[DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''xeva''' || 'to be visible' (= 'to see') || [NOM is visible to [DAT]; [DAT] sees [NOM]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lau''' || 'to be alive' (= 'to live', 'to be a living being') || [NOM] is alive<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lubi''' || 'to be closed/shut' || [NOM] is closed/shut to [DAT]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... and adverbs.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''jau''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to intentionally ...' || [NOM] is intentionally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mola''' || 'to be merely ...' (= 'to be insignificant') || [NOM] is just/only/merely […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> They are generally thought of as 'content words' but even many grammatical functions are expressed by verbals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''kka''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be not ...' || [NEGATIVE] || [NOM] is not […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hua''' || 'to be always ...', 'to be eternally ...' || [GNOMIC] || [NOM] is eternally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hau''' || 'to be defined by being ...' || [ESSENTIAL] || [NOM] is essentially […] by definition<br /> |-<br /> |• '''he''' || 'to undergo' || [PASSIVE] || [NOM] undergoes […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''eti''' || 'to have previously done ...' || [PAST] || [NOM] did […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Regardless of the verbal's semantic meaning and which part of speech carries the bulk of the meaning when translated into another language, each verbal can be used in the same syntactic positions as any other verbal. All verbals can appear as a predicate, an argument (when preceded by a nominal) or as a modifier to another, preceding verbal. Compare the following two sentences which show how a semantically verb-like verbal, '''gahu''' ('to howl'), and a semantically more noun-like verbal, '''zagua''' ('to be a gibbon') can simply be swapped. Both can appear in the predicate, both can appear in an argument and neither needs to be inflected to take on either role.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{|<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || scope=&quot;col&quot; width=&quot;10&quot; | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''gahu''' || || '''ju''' || '''zagua'''<br /> |-<br /> | howl || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.gibbon<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;howls&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a gibbon&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''The gibbon howls.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |- style=&quot;height: 2em;&quot;<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''zagua''' || || '''ju''' || '''gahu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.gibbon || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is a gibbon&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;howls&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''What howls is a gibbon.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Argument Structure====<br /> <br /> Verbals each have an inherent argument structure, controlling which case are used for which role. Dictionaries, and the examples above, mark the meanings of each relevant case when used with each verbal.<br /> <br /> Many argument structures are as would be expected.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''volo''' = [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> :* '''vuja''' = [NOM] hunts [ACC]; [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]<br /> :* '''akku''' = [NOM] is blood; [NOM] is the blood of [GEN]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volo''' || '''na''' || '''xi''' || '''eje'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to him&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I give it to him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is a tendency for experiencers to be in the dative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''hualo''' = [DAT] loves/cares about [NOM]; [NOM] is loved by [DAT]<br /> :* '''xeva''' = [DAT] sees [NOM]; [NOM] is seen by [DAT]<br /> :* '''zoua''' = [NOM] is difficult for [DAT]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''eni''' || '''ju''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was seen&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I saw the king.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Although that is not always the case, as this pair of opposites shows.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''mahu''' = [DAT] knows [NOM]; [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> :* '''zau''' = [NOM] doesn't know about [TOP]; [NOM] is ignorant of [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mahu''' || '''eni''' || ('''xu''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.1s.ICS || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || (&quot;it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zau''' || '''nu''' || ('''vexi''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || (TOP.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || (&quot;about it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I don't know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also an unusual class of verbals where the nominative role usually refers to a body part, the genitive refers to the possessor and when there is an accusative argument, the whole thing refers to an action performed (with the body part) by the possessor.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bale''' = [NOM] is a fist of [GEN]; [GEN] punches [ACC]<br /> :* '''bane''' = [NOM] is a hand of [GEN]; [GEN] holds, grasps, clutches [ACC]<br /> :* '''buja''' = [NOM] is a heavy boot of [GEN]; [GEN] crushes [ACC] under his boot<br /> :* '''gula''' = [NOM] is the pair of arms of [GEN]; [GEN] hugs [ACC]<br /> :* '''juaza''' = [NOM] is the penis of [GEN]; [GEN] fucks [ACC] (vulgar!)<br /> :* '''kanu''' = [NOM] is the nose of [GEN]; [GEN] sniffs [ACC]<br /> :* '''kula''' = [NOM] is the pair of ears of [GEN]; [GEN] listens to [ACC]<br /> :* '''mama''' = [NOM] is the pair of breasts of [GEN]; [GEN] breast-feeds [ACC]<br /> :* '''miva''' = [NOM] is a finger of [GEN]; [GEN] touches, feels [ACC]<br /> :* '''musari''' = [NOM] is a molar of [GEN]; [GEN] chews [ACC]<br /> :* '''omo''' = [NOM] is the pair of eyes of [GEN]; [GEN] looks at [ACC]<br /> :* '''umakka''' = [NOM] is a tooth (incisor, canine) of [GEN]; [GEN] bites [ACC]<br /> :* '''zuru''' = [NOM] is a war against [ACC]; [GEN] wages war on [ACC]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I have eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xu''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || be.this.1<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is this, here by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''These are my eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xi''' || '''masa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || be.snake<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a snake&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking at the snake'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The verbal '''lama''' is somewhat similar, although it may simply be understood through an idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''lama''' = [NOM] is a tear of [GEN]/[LOC]; [GEN]/[LOC] weeps (silently) about [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lama''' || '''ana''' || '''teui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is (a) tear(s)&quot; || &quot;at him/her&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The above sentence may also be translated as &quot;There are tears on him/her because of you,&quot; or &quot;S/He has tears because of you,&quot; making it less clear as to whether this is a good example of an apparent non-nominative subject.<br /> <br /> There is a proposed additional place within the argument structure of many verbals, that of a following modifier. A following modifier may mark a specific role which may either be marked by another case or may only be filled by a following modifier. The notation used here indicates a following modifier with […].<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''maue''' = [NOM] is a group of seven […]<br /> :* '''kka''' = [NOM] is not […]<br /> :* '''mia''' = [NOM] approaches [DAT]/[…]<br /> :* '''tehi''' = [NOM] is possibly […]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''mala''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | approach || be.house || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''iju''' || '''exi''' || '''mala''' <br /> |-<br /> | approach || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN || be.house <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;they&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Derivation of Verbals====<br /> <br /> There are two kinds of derivational affixes, one which converts a nominal into a verbal and many others which convert a verbal into another verbal with a different meaning.<br /> <br /> =====Nominal to Verbal=====<br /> All nominals can be converted into a verbal by adding a copula prefix. The copula prefix is '''g-''' before a vowel, '''k''' or '''g''', '''m-''' before '''m''', '''b''' and '''v''', '''l-''' before '''l''' and '''n-''' before all other consonants. The copula prefix essentially prevents a nominal from signalling the start of an argument. Used with the dative or ablative case, the meaning may be interpreted as a verb of motion.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nu''' 'I' [NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}nu''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} me' [COP-NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''eni''' 'to me' [DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}eni''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} to me', '{{color|MediumBlue|to come}} to me' [COP-DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''xu mala''' 'the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xu mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} the house'<br /> :* '''xua mala''' 'at the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xua mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} at the house'<br /> :* '''kuaini''' 'for us' [BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}kuaini''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} for us' [COP-BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> <br /> <br /> Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}nu''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-NOM.1s.ICS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be I&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I{{color|MediumBlue|'m}} me.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}xuas''' || '''azikuo''' || '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.≈school || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a school for adolescent boys&quot; || &quot;s/he&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} not at school.'' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} to me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|l-}}lene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;be with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} with me. / {{color|MediumBlue|Be}} with me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''nini''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}une''' || '''ja''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.mother || COP-GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.this<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be this&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''This is my mother.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Verbal to Verbal=====<br /> <br /> A far more common means of derivation is from verbal to verbal. This is chiefly done by means of infixing although prefixes and suffixes also exist.<br /> <br /> ======Collective======<br /> <br /> The collective infix '''-ig-''' indicates a group of the named entity.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''ala''' 'to be a bird'<br /> ::→ '''al{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}a''' 'to be {{color|MediumBlue|a flock}} of bird{{color|MediumBlue|s}}'<br /> :* '''balu''' 'to be a royal guardsman'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to be the royal guard'<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to eat {{color|MediumBlue|together}}'<br /> :* '''uttia''' 'to be a tree'<br /> ::→ '''ut{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}ia''' 'to be a forest'<br /> <br /> <br /> ======Gerundive======<br /> <br /> The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something. The accusative role is promoted to the nominative role, as with the passive construction with '''he''', but in addition the assertion is made that this is a good or customary use for the referent in question.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''huna''' 'to drink'<br /> ::→ '''hun{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a''' 'to be (fresh) water', 'to be potable', 'to be drinkable' (to be something to be drunk)<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular)<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular)<br /> :* '''jalo''' 'to welcome', 'to receive', 'to accept (into a place)'<br /> ::→ '''jal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a guest' (one who is to be welcomed)<br /> :* '''asu''' 'to be seated', 'to be sitting'<br /> ::→ '''a{{color|MediumBlue|x}}u''' 'to be a chair', 'to be a seat' (to be something to be sat on) [''*asiu'' → ''axu'']<br /> :* '''ila''' 'to speak', 'to talk'<br /> ::→ '''il{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a'''' 'to be language' (to be something to be spoken)<br /> :* '''zoi''' 'to say', 'to tell'<br /> ::→ '''zo{{color|MediumBlue|j}}i''' 'to be worth saying', 'to be fitting/appropriate' (to be something to be said) [''*zoii'' → ''zoji'']<br /> :* '''go''' 'to do something', 'to act'<br /> ::→ '''g{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a duty', 'to be an obligation', 'to be a good idea' (to be something to be done)<br /> :* '''mue''' 'to be able', 'to be capable'<br /> ::→ '''m{{color|MediumBlue|i}}ue''' 'to be a required skill' (to be something that someone should be able to do)<br /> :* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes'; (with genitive subject) 'to look at'<br /> ::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at)<br /> :* '''bale''' 'to be a fist'; (with genitive subject) 'to punch'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}e''' 'to be punchable', 'to have a punchable face' (to be one who ought to be punched, a common pejorative word)<br /> :* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', (with genitive subject) 'to crush under a boot'<br /> ::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot) [''*bujia'' → ''buji'']<br /> :* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter'<br /> ::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted) [''*vujia'' → ''vuji'']<br /> <br /> ======Locative======<br /> <br /> The prefix '''a-''' indicates being at a particular place.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''tio''' 'to be that'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}tio''' 'to be there' (≈ 'to be at that')<br /> :* '''mala''' 'to be a house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}mala''' 'to be at home' (≈ 'to be at house')<br /> <br /> ======Ornative======<br /> <br /> The ornative prefix '''o-''' indicates having or being equipped with something.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bani''' 'to be money'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money')<br /> :* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with room(s)')<br /> :* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair')<br /> :* '''ulu''' 'to be muscle'<br /> ::→ '''u{{color|MediumBlue|o}}lu''' 'to be muscular' (≈ 'to be with muscle', with metathesis turning /ou/ into /uo/)<br /> <br /> ====Verbals with inherent gender / rank distinctions====<br /> <br /> Many verbals semantically encode gender within their meaning. In some cases, there are pairs of words, such as the following.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nini''' 'to be a mother / aunt'<br /> :* '''nana''' 'to be a father / uncle'<br /> <br /> <br /> In this instance, the divide along genders is easy for non-Ngolu to conceptualise. However many other concepts are also divided by gender, or, more accurately, rank, and this frequently has to do with the Ngolu's strict cultural taboos around gender and rank. For example, Ngolu men and women are expected to sing, dance, dress and urinate differently.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''laha''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''kali'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''lasa''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''kali'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''miia''' 'to wear' (of a ''kali'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''kele''' 'to urinate' (of a ''kali'', to urinate while sitting or squatting)<br /> <br /> :* '''uaie''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''muja'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''bata''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''muja'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''uara''' 'to wear' (of a ''muja'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''zatu''' 'to urinate' (of a ''muja'', to urinate while standing)<br /> <br /> <br /> In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank.<br /> <br /> Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha'''' ('to fight physically'), '''aiuo''' ('to shoot').<br /> <br /> Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word.<br /> <br /> Verbals may also specify the gender/rank of an argument other than the nominal. For example, the word ''bale'' means 'to be a fist', specifying a ''muja'' in the role of the genitive possessor. Similarly, items of clothing specific to one gender can only appear with possessors in the corresponding gender.<br /> <br /> When a subject (or another argument) does not match the gender/rank specified in the verbal, there must be paraphrasing. There are generally two ways this is done, with '''ko''' and with '''hui'''.<br /> <br /> =====Ko=====<br /> <br /> '''Ko''' is a verbal meaning 'to be similar'. It can be placed before a gendered verbal when the subject (or other relevant argument) does not match. For example, the word for ''enemy'' is '''uako'''. It is a ''muja'' verb, perhaps best translated as 'to be a ''muja'' enemy'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.enemy || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is no direct equivalent for a ''kali'' who is an enemy. To express the idea of a ''kali'' being an enemy, what is essentially said is &quot;S/he is ''like'' an enemy.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.similar || be.enemy.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be.like&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The closest analogue in English would be with words such as 'midwife', which has no easy male equivalent. In Ngolu, it is as though one simply says 'He's like a midwife.' Similarly, in the following example, there is no word equivalent to a woman's fist, only a man's fist. Therefore, she made something ''like'' a man's fist.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''li''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|bale}}''' || '''uji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || begin || be.similar || be.MUJA.fist || GEN.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;start&quot; || &quot;be like&quot; || &quot;be a (man's) fist&quot; || &quot;of the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She made {{color|MediumBlue|a fist}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Hui=====<br /> <br /> '''Hui''' is similar to '''ko''' except it is filled with contempt and criticism. It is a verbal which could be translated as 'to shamefully break gender taboos by approximating |…|'. There is essentially no grammatical difference between '''ko''' and '''hui''' - the former is simply neutral and the later conveys strong condemnation of breaking taboos.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || sing.KALI<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;sing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|There's a man (shamefully) trying to sing like a woman}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ttio}}''' || '''ju''' || '''je'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || strike || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Particles and Grammatical Affixes===<br /> <br /> Particles are words which cannot be classified as either nominals or verbals. Most of them are equivalent to conjunctions, introducing clauses. In many cases, the line between verb and particle is a little blurred and difficult to find and research is still ongoing.<br /> <br /> ====''Au''====<br /> <br /> ====''Au'' and ''teu''====<br /> <br /> '''Au''' and '''teu''' are used to order the events multiple clause sentence. '''Au''' introduces the clause in which the first action took place and is thus roughly equivalent to 'first' or 'after' whereas '''teu''' introduces a later action and is thus equivalent to 'then' or 'before'. They are usually used as correlative conjunctions, with both present in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | first;after|| eat || NOM.1s.ICS || second;before || sleep || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|First}} I ate, {{color|MediumBlue|then}} I slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I ate {{color|MediumBlue|before}} I slept.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|After}} I ate, I slept.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The order of the clauses can be reversed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | second/before || sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Before}} I slept, I ate.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Sometimes the first of the two conjunctions is omitted.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''— [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept, {{color|MediumBlue|but first}}, I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> '''Au''' is also a verbal occa<br /> <br /> ====''Ha''====<br /> <br /> '''Ha''' forms polar (yes/no) questions. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Polar_Questions|Polar Questions]]<br /> <br /> It also introduces the protasis of realis conditional sentences, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Hai''====<br /> <br /> '''Hai''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Haizuo''====<br /> <br /> '''Haizuo''' is an emphatic form of '''hai'''. It introduces the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''I-''====<br /> <br /> The clitic particle '''i-''' appears on the beginning of any part of the predicate when it is preceded in a sentence by any non-predicate element. For example, in the following sentence, '''hu mala''' is the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''mala''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || be.house || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Topicalised arguments can be brought forward in the sentence to before the verb phrase. The verb phrase must now be marked with '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;As for me&lt;/u&gt;, I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The predicate phrase can even be split, with arguments appearing inside it.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;I&lt;/u&gt;'m going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In extreme cases, there can even be more than one split in a predicate phrase, with '''i-''' necessary each time the predicate is resumed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''leuis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || COM.2s.ICS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I want to go home with you.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Of that last example, the normal word order would be '''bio hu mala na leui'''.<br /> <br /> When added to words beginning with a syllabic '''i''', the prefix '''i-''' becomes '''j-''' ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|j}}-iio'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.this.1 || PRED-be.fish<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be this&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''This, well, this is a fish!'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... but before a non-syllabic '''i''', it remains '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''omo''' || '''g-unis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}iaha'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3S.DEF.INAN || be.pair.of.eyes || COP-GEN.1s.ICS || PRED-be.painful<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;hurt&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''As for my eyes, they're sore.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Lo''====<br /> <br /> '''Lo''' appears to be a short form of the comitative complementiser '''lejo'''. It introduces an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> ====''Mie''====<br /> <br /> ====''Teuo''====<br /> <br /> ====''To''====<br /> <br /> ''To'' generally introduces consequences. It often roughly means 'so' or 'therefore'. In these cases, it may replaced by the more emphatic '''toua'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ba''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(ua)}}''' || '''ka''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''muanaiti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || rain || therefore || be.PROS || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.stream<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;so&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be stream&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''It's raining hard, so the streams are going to swell.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is used in conjunction with '''ha''' (and sometimes '''hai''' or '''haizuo''') to form conditional clauses where it introduces the apodosis. See [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]] for examples.<br /> <br /> It is also frequently used to replace '''i-''' in introducing a main clause after a subordinate clause other than a conditional clause.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''enio'''<br /> |-<br /> | LOC.TEMP.C || rain || then || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.plant<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;when&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be plant&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|When}} it rains{{color|MediumBlue|, (then)}} the plants grow.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Toi''====<br /> <br /> '''Toi''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Toua''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xe''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xue''====<br /> <br /> ===Interjections===<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> <br /> ===Phrase Structure===<br /> <br /> ====Verbal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A verbal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL ...]]]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> When multiple verbals are stacked one after the other, the head is on the left and modifiers on the right.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a large house / are large houses''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jiio''' || '''ttiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | run || be.quick<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;run&quot; || &quot;be fast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''runs quickly / run quickly''<br /> ''is a fast runner / are fast runners''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''hunts birds / hunt birds''<br /> ''is a bird hunter / are bird hunters''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In many cases, verbals with more grammatical than semantic content are followed by much more semantically rich modifying verbals. In these cases, the preceding words are nevertheless heads and the following words modifiers.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bas''' || '''ali''' || '''g-eji''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || be.friend.(of.the.same.sex) || COP-DAT.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;be friend&quot; || &quot;be to inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;be the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a good friend / are good friends of the king''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''huna'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || drink<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;drink&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''drank / has drunk / have drunk''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''toto''' || '''kas''' || '''euo''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.really || be.PROS || be.pair || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be in fact&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''are actually going to be two big ones''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''buua''' || '''tio''' || '''vaxu''' || '''zara'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.on.top.of || be.that.3 || be.table || write<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be one top of&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot; || &quot;be a table&quot; || &quot;write&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''is / are on top of that desk over there''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Each complex verbal phrase comprised of more than one verbal has its own case structure which defines how the cases are used in a sentence. The case structure is determined by the rightmost verbal which shares the same nominative argument as the leftmost verbal in the phrase.<br /> <br /> $$$$$$$ [examples to come]<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A nominal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''NOMINAL [VERBAL PHRASE]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> An unadorned nominal on its own functions as a pronoun.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''he'', ''she''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''its''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> Adorned nominal phrases consist of a nominal followed by a verbal phrase. In this case, the nominal acts as the head of a relative clause in which the verbal phrase sits.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju''' || '''xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || execute<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;execute&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the executioner''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi''' || '''tukaue'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.collar.indicating.the.owner.of.a.slave<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a slave's collar&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''of the slave's collar''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Structure===<br /> <br /> With unmarked word order, a clause generally has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''[PARTICLE] PREDICATE [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] ...'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> A &lt;tt&gt;'''PREDICATE'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a verbal phrase and an &lt;tt&gt;'''ARGUMENT'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a nominal phrase or a subordinate clause.<br /> <br /> In many cases, one or more arguments may precede the predicate or may even appear in the middle of the predicate, dividing it into two or more pieces.<br /> <br /> Unmarked word order:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental)<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau''' || '''azi''' || '''akuala''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; || &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''I ate food with a knife.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted, nominal argument partially fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || Pred... || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || ...icate || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''nu''' || '''i-kau''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || NOM.1s.ICS || eat || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Predicate-Only Clauses====<br /> <br /> The simplest clauses in Ngolu consist of nothing but a verbal or a verbal phrase used as the predicate. There are no obligatory arguments in Ngolu and all may be omitted from the clause and left to context, even the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's raining. / It rains.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's good.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> A verbal with no arguments indicates an activity or state without specifying the identity of any participants. Essentially, Ngolu is a pro-drop language. With prior context, omitted arguments can be understood as referring to someone or something already discussed. With no prior context, however, verbal-only sentences are simply understood with a &quot;someone or something&quot; as the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kau'''<br /> |-<br /> | eat<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;eats&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He, she or it is eating. (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Something or someone is eating.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He or it is hunting. / He or it is a hunter.'' (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''Something or someone is hunting. / There's a hunter.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Simple declarative or existential statements are frequently verbal-only.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.fire<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a fire&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's a fire. / There's a fire. / Fire!''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====One-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Multi-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Subordinate Clauses====<br /> <br /> =====Complementiser Clauses=====<br /> <br /> =====Adverbial Clauses=====<br /> <br /> Adverbial clauses are introduced by the particle '''lo''', which may be derived from '''lejo''', the comitative case of the copula 'zuo'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''lo''' || '''juo''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | want || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ADV || be.outside || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be outside&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to eat outside.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Relative Clauses=====<br /> <br /> ===Topic and Focus===<br /> <br /> ===Affirmation and Negation===<br /> <br /> The verbals '''ahe''' and '''kka''' indicate polarity, being positive and negative respectively. On their own, they are roughly equivalent to 'yes' and 'no'. <br /> <br /> Positive sentences are generally unmarked and '''ahe''' generally appears only for emphasis.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || '''bo''' || '''xu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.indeed || be.wanted || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;be wanted&quot; || &quot;the thing&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|do}} want it.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation is performed by means of '''kka'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xua''' || '''uttia'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be tree&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''S/He{{color|MediumBlue|'s not}} at the tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''mula''' || '''ju''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.liked || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be liked&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|don't}} like him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> After a negative question or statement, '''ahe''' indicates a contradictory, positive answer whereas '''kka''' indicates a negative answer in agreement.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.not || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be.not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Is{{color|MediumBlue|n't}} it raining?''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.indeed || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be indeed&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Yes, it is}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.not || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be not&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No, it's not}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation (as well as affirmation) is generally performed in the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''xeva''' || '''ju''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|eri}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.seen || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;to anyone who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No one else}} saw her.'' (Literally: ''{{color|MediumBlue|Anyone else didn't}} see her.'')<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> To negate or affirm an argument, it is placed within an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || '''los''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''ahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV || be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV || be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Both '''kka''' and '''ahe''' have equivalent adverbial forms, '''kku''' and '''lahe''' respectively, which do not require the use of '''lo''' when negating or affirming an argument. The previous sentence may be expressed as follows.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kku}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV.be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV.be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Interrogation===<br /> <br /> ====Polar Questions====<br /> <br /> Polar questions are indicated with '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} raining{{color|MediumBlue|?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Do}} you love me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Ha''' can occur at the end of a sentence, where it functions as a question tag.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | rain || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot; || Q<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''It's raining, {{color|MediumBlue|isn't it?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;?&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''You love me, {{color|MediumBlue|don't you?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Individual arguments in a sentence may be called into question by placing them inside an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]] introduced by '''lo'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} me who you love{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''na''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || ADV || Q || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} you who loves me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Alternative Questions====<br /> <br /> Alternative questions use two or more instances of '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Bio''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''kau''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''huna''' || '''vu'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || Q || eat || Q || drink || NOM.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;or&quot; || &quot;drink&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''Would you like anything to {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} eat {{color|MediumBlue|or}} drink{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Xevu''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ja''' || '''mahu''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ju''' || '''laiuiie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mahu || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Laiuiie<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Mahu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Laiuiie&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''Have you seen {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} Mahu {{color|MediumBlue|or}} Laiuiie{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Content Questions====<br /> <br /> ====Embedded Questions====<br /> <br /> Any type of question may be embedded inside a complementiser phrase.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Zau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ti''' || '''uaizue''' || '''ji''' || '''tavi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || TOP.C || Q || be.PRF || find || ACC.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.child<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;about that&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || be.PRF || &quot;find&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I don't know {{color|MediumBlue|if}} the child has been found.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Voice===<br /> <br /> ===Time===<br /> <br /> Marking of time (tense and aspect) is not obligatory in Ngolu and may always be left up to context. For our purposes here, we shall not distinguish between actions (e.g. ''kill'') and states (e.g. ''want'', ''be a house'') as temporal marking is identical for both. The word ''action'' will be used henceforth and should be understood to mean &quot;action or state&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Relative tenses====<br /> When time needs to be indicated, it is most often done by means of a verbal indicating a &quot;relative tense&quot; (aspect). These are relative to a contextually understood time in question, the &quot;reference time&quot;. The three basic &quot;relative tense&quot; markers are ... <br /> <br /> <br /> *'''ti''' &quot;perfect&quot; (PRF), indicating an action that occurred before the reference time<br /> *'''zo''' &quot;progressive&quot; (PROG), indicating an action underway at the reference time<br /> *'''ka''' &quot;prospective (PROS), indicating an action occurring after the reference time<br /> <br /> <br /> By default, the reference is the present, the time in which the utterance is made. However, if another time is contextually understood, any of these may refer to events in the past, present or future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|zo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROG || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be underway&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Absolute tenses====<br /> The prefix '''e-''' attached to the beginning of any of these aspect markers creates an absolute tense marker. The '''e-''' sets the reference time to the current moment in which the utterance is made. This is usually only used to disambiguate or to emphasise a time frame.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''eti''' &quot;past&quot; (PST), indicating an action that occurred in the past<br /> *'''ezo''' &quot;present&quot; (PRES), indicating an action underway in the present<br /> *'''eka''' &quot;future (FUT), indicating an action that will occur in the future<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be earlier&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRES || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Continuation====<br /> There are also compounds formed from two time words that indicate continuation from one time frame to another using a linking ''-e-''. This linking ''-e-'' is probably not related to the ''e-'' of absolute temporal reference, but to the ''e-'' prefix of dative case nominals and the derivation prefix ''e-'' that can be added to verbals indicating motion towards something.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''tiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that starting before the reference time and continuing up to it<br /> *'''zueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action continuing from the reference time and extending to a later time<br /> *'''etiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that started in the past and continues to the present<br /> *'''ezueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action that starts in the present and will continue into the future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezos}}''' || '''oila''' || '''na''' || '''xiies''' || '''oge'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF.PROG|| read || NOM.1S.ACS || ACC.3S.DEF.INAN.PROX || be.book<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have been doing&quot; || &quot;read&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;this thing which&quot; || &quot;is a book&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|have been}} read{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} this book.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Perfective and imperfective====<br /> In addition, the word '''bie''' contrasts with '''zo'''. Whereas '''zo''' specifies that an action is underway at the reference time, essentially taking a &quot;snapshot&quot; of the interior of an action, after its beginning and before its completion, '''bie''' specifies perfectivity, metaphorically painting a picture of the whole completed action without permitting a look inside. On its own, it does not specify whether the completed action occurs before or after the reference time, but it does explicitly specify that the action is ''not'' underway at the reference time. <br /> <br /> Both ''bie'' and ''zo'' may be suffixed to other verbals indicating time in order to explicitly distinguish the imperfective (progressive) aspect from the perfective aspect, while also specifying time.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfectivity:<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | imperfective (progressive)<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfective<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | bie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | relative time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kabie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | absolute time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekabie<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Note that '''zo''' appears twice in the table although it really only has one function; it specifies an action underway at the reference time (i.e. concurrent with it), which itself may be unspecified.<br /> <br /> The reduplicated forms '''zozo''' ('these days', 'in those days') and '''ezozo''' ('these days') do not appear in the above table as they indicate a loosening of the bounds of the reference time or current time. The reference or current time can be tightened or emphasised with '''bazo''' ('right now', 'right then', 'at that/this very moment') or '''ebazo''' ('right now', 'at this very moment').<br /> <br /> ====Resultative perfect====<br /> The word '''bue''' indicates a ''resultative perfect'', functioning similarly to '''ti''' in that it describes an action occurring prior to the reference time, however the focus of '''bue''' is not on the action itself, but on the resulting post-action state at the reference time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|bue}}''' || '''kaxa''' || '''xu''' || '''giloxuo'''<br /> |-<br /> | RES.PRF|| break(INTR) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || window.pane<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is in the resulting state&quot; || &quot;break&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a window pane&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''The window {{color|MediumBlue|is}} br{{color|MediumBlue|o}}k{{color|MediumBlue|en}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bue''' is frequently prefixed to the following word (for example ''buekaxa'' instead of ''bue kaxa''). Its passive equivalent '''hi-''' is always prefixed.<br /> <br /> ====Time word stacking====<br /> More than one time word can be used together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT|| be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will&quot; || &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST|| be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;will&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> These are usually compounded together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekati}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|etika}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST-PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Distance from reference time====<br /> The precise distance from the reference time can be indicated using adverbial clauses with '''lo''' followed by the unit of time, '''(e)ti''' or '''(e)ka''' and an ordinal number, which begins with ''t-''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''zaxa''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teuo}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.ill || ADV || be.year || be.PRF || be.second<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;becomes&quot; || &quot;is ill&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;is earlier&quot; || &quot;is second&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he fell ill {{color|MediumBlue|two years before/ago}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> This sentence could be translated somewhat more literally as &quot;S/he fell ill while there was the second previous year.&quot; Note that replacing '''ti''' with '''eti''' would force the interpretation with &quot;ago&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || Bie || bilo || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tahu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PFV || die || ADV || be.month || be.PROS || be.first<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is completed&quot; || &quot;dies&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;is about to&quot; || &quot;is first&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he died {{color|MediumBlue|one month later}}. / S/he will die {{color|MediumBlue|in one month}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A more literally translation could be &quot;S/he died while there was the second coming year.&quot; Note again that replacing '''ka''' with '''eka''' would force the interpretation with &quot;in one month&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment. <br /> <br /> In the following example, in which a duration is specified rather than a specific time, the adverbial clause contains only the length of time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS || ADV || be.five || be.year<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another means of conveying the same information is to place the time specifiers after the tense or aspect marker and then introducing the rest of the sentence with '''to'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''li''' || '''zaxa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || be.two || be.year || thus || begin || be.ill<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become&quot; || &quot;be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Two years ago,}} s/he fell ill.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || ... || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''bilo'''<br /> |-<br /> | || be.going.to || be.one || be.month || thus || die<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;is going to&quot; || &quot;is one&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;die&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|One month later,}} s/he died.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.five || be.year || thus || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Miscellaneous time words====<br /> There are a range of other verbals which indicate time in a similar way. Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> ''Days''<br /> * '''ariu''' &quot;yesterday&quot;<br /> * '''aku''' &quot;today&quot;<br /> * '''anu''' &quot;tomorrow&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Lighting''<br /> * '''auo''' &quot;by day&quot;<br /> * '''eio''' &quot;by night&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Distance in time''<br /> * '''ttie''' / '''ettie''' &quot;just&quot; (similar to '''ti''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''tieka''' / '''etieka''' &quot;about to&quot; (similar to '''ka''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''ti ti''' / '''eti ti''' &quot;a long time ago&quot; (reduplication for distance into the past)<br /> * '''ka ka''' / '''eka ka''' &quot;eventually&quot; (reduplication for distance into the future)<br /> <br /> ''Other aspectual differences''<br /> * '''hua''' &quot;always&quot;, &quot;permanently&quot; [gnomic]<br /> * '''niu''' &quot;habitually&quot; [habitual]<br /> * '''guegue''' &quot;repeatedly&quot;, &quot;again and again&quot; [iterative]<br /> * '''egue''' &quot;again&quot;<br /> * '''tara''' &quot;suddenly&quot;<br /> * '''li''' &quot;starts&quot;, &quot;begins&quot;, &quot;commences&quot;<br /> * '''bi''' &quot;stops&quot;, &quot;ceases&quot;<br /> * '''ligue''' &quot;resumes&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Demonstratives===<br /> <br /> Demonstratives distinguish three degrees of distance associated with the three grammatical persons.<br /> <br /> * '''''tie''''' 'this' or 'these' near the speaker [1st person - proximal]<br /> * '''''tia''''' 'that' or 'those' near the listener [2nd person - medial]<br /> * '''''tio''''' 'that' or 'those' away from both speaker and listener [3rd person - distal]<br /> <br /> When speaking to someone of the same or higher rank and referring to the something that is close to both speaker and listener (such as a house that both are inside), the 2nd person '''''tia''''' 'that' is used. Only persons of higher rank may use the first person form '''''tie''''' in such situations.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.MED || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.PROX || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The association between the grammatical persons and the demonstratives is strong, with words, statements and actions made by a person frequently being referred to using the appropriate demonstrative. For example, a commonly used phrase for &quot;therefore&quot; is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}'' (literally 'because of this (by me)') when the reasoning is based on what the speaker just said, but when the reasoning is based on what their interlocutor just said, this phrase is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}'' (literally 'because of that (by you)').<br /> <br /> ====Contractions====<br /> <br /> The demonstrative verbals '''''tie''''', '''''tia''''' and '''''tio''''' form very common contractions with third person definite nominals, transforming the above examples as follows:<br /> <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tia}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}} mala''''' 'this house' / 'that house' (by you) <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tie}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}} mala''''' 'this house' (by me)<br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what I said' <br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what you said' <br /> <br /> Here is a table of forms:<br /> <br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Proximal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Medial || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Distal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Proximal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''|| '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Medial || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Distal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Proximal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Medial || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Distal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Proximal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Medial || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Distal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Proximal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Medial || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Distal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Proximal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Medial || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Distal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Proximal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Medial || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Distal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Proximal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Medial || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Distal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Proximal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Medial || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Distal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Proximal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Medial || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Distal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Proximal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Medial || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Distal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Proximal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Medial || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Distal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Proximal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Medial || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Distal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Essive Proximal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Medial || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Distal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Location===<br /> <br /> ===Movement===<br /> <br /> Movement is expressed in a variety of ways in Ngolu. <br /> <br /> One of the most common methods for talking about movement is using the words '''hu''' and '''mia'''. There is no distinction between coming and going but rather a distinction between the perfective '''hu''', meaning 'come' or 'go', and the imperfective '''mia''', 'be one one's way', 'be coming', 'be going'. The destination may be indicated by a subsequent modifying verbal or by a dative argument. The origin is indicated by an ablative argument.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nu''' || '''exi''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || NOM.1s.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|mia}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.IPFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be on the way&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|'m going / on my way}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || move.PFV || ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Please {{color|MediumBlue|get}} away from me.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another method for expressing movement is to affix the copula prefix '''g-''', '''m-''', '''n-''' to a dative or ablative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-exi}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to you&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'll {{color|MediumBlue|come to you}}.'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Get away from me}}!'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The third way to express movement is to use an inceptive (inchoative) morpheme in conjunction with a word indicating location. For example, the verbal '''xa''' means 'to be inside' and the verbal '''atio''' means 'to be there (away from us)' - adding the infix '''-in-''' (perfective inceptive) or '''-ij-''' (imperfective inceptive) gives '''xina''' ('to go in', 'to enter') and '''xija''' ('to be on the way in'), '''atinio''' ('to go there') and '''atijo''' ('to be on the way there'). The free standing verbal '''li''' ('to begin, start, commence') may also be used, with '''li xa''' and '''li atio''' being equivalent to '''xina''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xina}}''' || '''iju''' || '''i-oba''' || '''loe'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || enter.PFV || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || PRED-be.room || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;enter&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible ones&quot; || &quot;be room&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''They {{color|MediumBlue|went into}} the bedroom.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bios''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|atinio}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || go.there.3 || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''S/He wants {{color|MediumBlue|to go there}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The inceptive infixes are frequently used with the verbals denoting location in the four cardinal directions: '''la''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' ('to be in the east', 'to be in the west', 'to be in the north', 'to be in the south' respectively) creating the perfective forms '''lina''', '''tina''', '''ginio''' and '''vino''' and the imperfective forms '''lija''', '''tija''', '''gijo''' and '''vijo'''. Direction within Qu, with its noticeable tube shape (with 'east/west' pointing along the tube and 'north/south' going around the circumference), is a much more salient feature than on Earth and referencing direction with motion is common. In certain circumstances, describing movement without reference to direction is regarded as too imprecise, such as when men are discussing hunting in the forest where there may be no obvious landmarks to identify as the destination of a movement.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''La''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' may be used to modify another verb of motion with or without taking an inceptive infix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|lina}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|gio}}''' || '''inais''' || '''ixi''' || '''vaku'''<br /> |-<br /> | go.east.PFV || be.in.the.north || ABL.1p.ACS || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.babirusa<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go east&quot; || &quot;be in the north&quot; || &quot;from us&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be babirusa&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''The babirusas {{color|MediumBlue|moved (east)-northeast}} away from us.'' — '''muja''' [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Additionally, there is yet another prefix '''e-''' which may be related to the '''e-''' prefix at the beginning of nominals in the dative case. Words with this prefix indicate perfective movement and include '''etie''' ('to come here') '''etia''' ('to go/come there/here by you') and '''etio''' ('to go there'). These words are slightly more commonly used than their equivalents '''atinie''', '''atinia''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> ===Causes===<br /> <br /> ===Goals===<br /> <br /> ===Conditionals===<br /> <br /> Conditional sentences in Ngolu use particles to indicate the condition clause (protasis) and the result clause (apodosis). These particles differ depending on whether the condition is possible (realis) or hypothetical (irrealis).<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''PROTASIS'' || ''APODOSIS''<br /> |-<br /> | ''REALIS'' || '''ha''' || '''to'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''IRREALIS'' || '''hai''' &lt;br&gt; '''haizuo''' (emphatic) || '''toi''' &lt;br&gt; '''to''' (possible only when apodosis clause appears second)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Realis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''anu''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''kka''' || '''vuja''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | if || be.tomorrow || rain || then || be.not || hunt.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if&quot; || &quot;be tomorrow&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} it rains tomorrow, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} he won't hunt.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ('''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''') || '''ttio''' || '''nu''' || '''ue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''vai''' || '''tiaia'''<br /> |-<br /> | (then) || hit || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.2s.ACS || if || stay || do.that.2<br /> |-<br /> | (&quot;then&quot;) || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;if&quot; || &quot;keep&quot; || &quot;do that which you are doing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I'll hit you {{color|MediumBlue|if}} you keep doing that.'' — '''muja''' [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Irrealis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''g-ua''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(i)}}''' || '''hales''' || '''eji''' || '''jo''' || '''nio'''|| '''mo'''<br /> |-<br /> | if.IRR || be-NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ACS || then.(would) || ask || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.C || happen || be.what<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;imagine if&quot; || &quot;be you&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then (would)&quot; || &quot;ask&quot; || &quot;(to) the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;happen&quot; || &quot;be what&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} you, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} I{{color|MediumBlue|'d}} ask him/her what happened.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || '''abani'''<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;stop&quot; || &quot;work&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || &quot;be more&quot; || &quot;be rich&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|would}} stop working, {{color|MediumBlue|if}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} richer.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''ti''' || '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''leui''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || ('''ti''') || '''mahu''' || ('''xu''') || ('''ene''')<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || be.PRF || move || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ICS || if.IRR || (be.PRF) || be.known || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN) || (DAT.1s.ACS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;move&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || (&quot;be finished&quot;) || &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''I would have come with you if I had known that.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Numbers===<br /> <br /> ===Quantity===<br /> <br /> ===Degree===<br /> <br /> ===Comparison===<br /> <br /> ==Pragmatics==<br /> <br /> ===Social Stratification and Language Use===<br /> <br /> Ngolu society is heavily stratified into five social divisions. These social divisions, or strata, are hierarchical and from highest to lowest are as follows.<br /> <br /> * 5. ''ju '''taqu''''' - the king<br /> * 4. ''iju '''balu''''' - the king's men<br /> * 3. ''iju '''muja''''' - initiated men<br /> * 2. ''iju '''kali''''' - free citizens<br /> * 1. ''iju '''tuva''''' - slaves and prisoners (''ixu tuva'' in the speech of '''muja''', '''balu''' and '''taqu''')<br /> <br /> Language use is, to a large extent, determined by the strata of the speaker, addressee and third person referents.<br /> <br /> ===Speech Crime===<br /> <br /> [[Category:Languages]]<br /> [[Category:Conlangs]]</div>

Imralu https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Iliaqu&diff=258018 2022-01-29T10:54:57Z

<p>Imralu: /* Instrumental */</p> <hr /> <div>{{privatelang}}{{construction}}<br /> {{Infobox language<br /> |name = Iliaqu<br /> |nativename = iliaqu<br /> |pronunciation = [ìʎàʔú]<br /> |region = Qu<br /> |ethnicity = Ngolu / Ilaqu<br /> |speakers = {{formatnum:100,000}}<br /> |setting = [[Verse:Qu|Qu]]<br /> |fam1 = Language isolate<br /> |creator = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]<br /> |created = 2013-2020<br /> |script = (not created)<br /> |notice = IPA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> {{infobox|bg=#F2DC77|native=iliaqu|in=Qu|no=100,000 (approx.)|tree=Isolate (as far as known)|wo=VSO|morph=Isolating/futional|ms=Nominative-Accusative|creator=[[User:Imralu|Imralu]]|date=2013-2014}}<br /> <br /> '''Iliaqu''' (IPA: /ˌɪljəˈʔuː/), also known as '''Ngolu''' or sometimes '''Qu''' (endonym: ''iliaqu'' IPA: [ìʎàʔú]) is a language isolate spoken throughout the known regions of the space habitat [[Verse:Qu|Qu]] by the Ngolu people, whose number is estimated to be around 100,000. As the Ngolu are almost entirely monolingual, and while voluntary travel to and from Qu remains impossible, the language is not in any danger of extinction. At this stage, little is known of dialect differences within Qu. There are estimated to be somewhere between 50 and 100 Iliaqu speakers on Earth who have simply mysteriously appeared in various locations. Small communities of Ngolu speakers been brought or have found their way together, the most well-known and well-studied of which is a group of about 15 living in and around Berlin, Germany.<br /> <br /> Iliaqu is an isolating/fusional, head-initial (right-branching) language with VSO word order and nominative-accusative alignment. Verbs (verbals) make up the only open class of word, with nouns (nominals) constituting a closed class of heavily fusional words that fill the roll of pronouns and articles in other languages, marking grammatical person, number, definiteness and specificity, gender, accessibility, and case.<br /> <br /> ==Terminology==<br /> There appear to have been fewer than ten isolated instances of non-Ngolu people arriving in Qu and there are no other cultures or languages known to exist in Qu. In such a linguistically and culturally homogenous environment, the Ngolu have had no need for endonyms for their culture, people or language. Traditionally, they have described their language simply as '''ilia''' [ìʎá] 'speech', themselves as '''golu''' [ŋòlú] 'people', and their world as '''qu''' [ʔú] 'world'. <br /> <br /> With the new knowledge of other cultures and the entire universe outside of Qu, neologisms have arisen to distinguish their language and their people from those of the outsiders. For the Ngolu arrivals Earth, contact with other cultures has forced them to acknowledge that the other languages they hear must have the ability to convey information just as their language. Consequently, on Earth, the word '''ilia''' generally refers to any language. To disambiguate their own language, they may call it '''ilia qu''' [ìʎáʔú] or '''iliaqu''' [ìʎàʔú] 'Qu speech'. Non-Ngolu are still referred to as '''taia''' ('ghost', 'demon') and Earth maybe referred to as '''utaia''' [ùtàjá] 'ghost world' or a loan word such as '''hiia''', which was common among the Berlin group (from German ''hier'') although it now seems to be dying out in favour of '''utaia'''. With the acknowledgement that non-Ngolu people are also people and the consequent expansion of the term '''golu''' to include non-Ngolu, the term '''goqu''' [ŋòʔú] ('Qu people', formed by adding the human prefix '''go-''' to the word '''qu''') is gaining ground and may be contrasted with '''taia''' or '''goutaia''' [ŋòu̯tàjá].<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !VOWELS<br /> !Front<br /> !Central<br /> !Back<br /> |-<br /> !High<br /> |'''i''' ‹i›<br /> |<br /> |'''u''' ‹u›<br /> |-<br /> !Mid<br /> |'''e''' ‹e›<br /> |<br /> |'''o''' ‹o›<br /> |-<br /> !Low<br /> |<br /> |'''a''' ‹a›<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Each vowel may be 'strong' or 'weak'. These are essentially stressed and unstressed. There is only ever one 'strong' vowel per word and it is nearly always the final vowel. Where it is not, it is always the penultimate vowel and the in that case the final vowel is always /i/ or /u/. Non-final strong vowels are indicated in the romanisation using an acute accent, ‹áéíóú›.<br /> <br /> The realisation of strong vowels varies across accents. There appears to be a cline ranging from a pitch-based pronunciation to a weight-based pronunciation (used chiefly by men). At the pitch-based end of the spectrum, 'strong' vowels are pronounced with a high tone and 'weak' vowels with a low-tone. At the end of a non-interrogative utterance, a high-tone becomes a falling tone. At the end of a question, a high tone may be lengthened and/or undergo an additional rise. At the weight-based extreme, strong vowels cause gemination of the following consonant but are pronounced as long themselves when the following sound is (1) a vowel, (2) a consonant cluster or (3) an already geminated consonant. Utterance finally, strong vowels are generally neither pronounced with a high tone nor lengthened but are usually pronounced slightly louder. <br /> <br /> The high vowels, /i/ and /u/, when 'weak' and adjacent to another vowel are pronounced non-syllabically as [i̯~j] and [u̯~w]). Non-syllabic /i/ merges with and palatalises any preceding dental/alveolar consonant.<br /> <br /> In these two word examples, the pitch-based pronunciation is given before the weight-based pronunciation.<br /> <br /> :*'''ju muja''' [ʒúmùʒâ] ~ [ʒumːuˈʒa]<br /> :*'''ju aio''' [ʒúàjô] ~ [ʒuːaˈjo]<br /> :*'''ju uaia''' [ʒúwàjâ] [ʒuːwaˈja]<br /> :*'''ju ntu''' [ʒúntû] ~ [ʒu:nˈtu]<br /> :*'''ju lleue''' [ʒúlːèwê] ~ [ʒuːlːeˈwe]<br /> <br /> ===Consonants===<br /> :{| class=&quot;bluetable lightbluebg&quot;<br /> !CONSONANTS<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Dental/Alveolar<br /> !Post-alveolar<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> | '''m''' ‹m›<br /> | <br /> | '''n''' ‹n›<br /> |<br /> | '''ŋ''' ‹g›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> | '''b''' ‹b›<br /> |<br /> | '''t''' ‹t›<br /> |<br /> | '''k''' ‹k›<br /> | '''ʔ''' ‹q›<br /> |-<br /> !Ejective<br /> |<br /> | <br /> | '''tʼ''' ‹tt›<br /> |<br /> | '''kʼ''' ‹kk›<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiced Fricative<br /> | <br /> | '''v''' ‹v›<br /> | '''z''' ‹z›<br /> | '''ʒ''' ‹j›<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Voiceless Fricative<br /> | <br /> | <br /> | '''s''' ‹s›<br /> | '''ʃ''' ‹x›<br /> | <br /> | '''h''' ‹h›<br /> |-<br /> !Tap<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''ɾ''' ‹r› <br /> |<br /> | <br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral<br /> | <br /> |<br /> | '''l''' ‹l› <br /> |<br /> |<br /> | <br /> |}<br /> <br /> * The nasal consonants /m n ŋ/, unlike other consonants, may occur before another consonant and then assimilate in place of articulation to that consonant. For this reason, many authors posit the archiphoneme /N/. /N/ may be syllabic post pausa, carrying a low tone. Before /l/, /N/ assimilates to [l̪] or [l̪̩]. Before /v/, it is pronounced as [ɱ] or [ɱ̩].<br /> * The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental [n̪ t̪ t̪ʼ ɾ̪ l̪]. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears. Some speakers palatalise /t/ and /d/ to [t͡ʃ] and [d͡ʒ] respectively. The ejective /tʼ/, however, is rarely or never palatalised as [t͡ʃʼ].<br /> * /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive [d̪].<br /> * Geminate /m/, /n/ and /l/ (resulting from /Nm/, /Nn/ and /Nl/) may be pronounced as [m̩b], [n̪̩d̪] and [l̪̩d̪] respectively, particularly by men and particularly post pausa.<br /> * /s/ and /z/ are normally alveolar. When followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are not distinguished from /ʃ ʒ/. <br /> * /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ cannot be followed by non-syllabic /i/.<br /> * The phonemes /s/ and /ɾ/ do not occur at the beginning of a word.<br /> * The glottal stop /ʔ/ and the ejective consonants /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ are restricted to positions immediately before a 'strong' vowel, although there may be an intervening non-syllabic 'weak' /i/ or /u/ after the ejectives. At the beginning of a 'weak' syllable, ejective consonants become pronounced as their equivalent plain plosive and the glottal stop disappears. For example, ''kka'' [kʼá] and ''kkue'' [kʷʼé] are allowed while expected ''*kkina'' (derived from ''kka'' plus the infix ''-in-'') is instead present as ''kina'' [kì.ná]. In connected speech, /tʼ/ and /kʼ/ may be pronounced as [t̚ʔ k̚ʔ] or even [tː kː]. However, a strong ejective pronunciation is always heard post pausa.<br /> <br /> ===Phonotactics===<br /> <br /> Phonemically, a syllable may be '''((N)C)V''', where '''V''' is a vowel '''(C)''' an optional consonant and '''(N)''' an optional nasal which assimilates to its following consonant in its point of articulation. <br /> <br /> Phonetically, syllables may be more complex. '''(N)''' is pronounced syllabically post pausa and otherwise is pronounced in the coda of the preceding syllable. The non-syllabic pronunciations of /i/ and /u/ mean that a syllable can be (C)(S)V(S)(N), where '''(S)''' is a semivowel.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::'''nxua intaneti'''<br /> ::/Nʃu.á.i.Nta.ne.tí/<br /> ::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí]<br /> ::''is on the internet''<br /> <br /> ===Epenthetic /s/===<br /> <br /> An epenthetic /s/ sometimes appears between words when the second word begins with a vowel. In the romanisation used here, the /s/ is written on the end of the preceding word. The rules are somewhat complex and are best shown as a table. The final vowels of preceding words are shown vertically on the left. Initial vowels of the following word are shown along the top. An epenthetic /s/ doesn't appear before '''i''' and '''u''' when a syllabic vowel (V) immediately follows within the same word. In the table, the word borders are shown with an '''s''' indicating where the epenthetic /s/ always appears. In other positions in the table, the epenthetic /s/ can still appear in very clear emphatic speech.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''i(V)-'' || ''u(V)-'' || ''i-'' || ''u-'' || ''e-'' || ''o-'' || ''a-''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-i'' || '''-i i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} i-''' || '''-i u-''' || '''-i e-''' || '''-i o-''' || '''-i a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-u'' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u u-''' || '''-u i-''' || '''-u{{color|MediumBlue|(s)}} u-''' || '''-u e-''' || '''-u o-''' || '''-u a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-e'' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e i-''' || '''-e u-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-e{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-''' <br /> |-<br /> | ''-o'' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o i-''' || '''-o u-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-o{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''-a'' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a i-''' || '''-a u-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} e-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} o-''' || '''-a{{color|MediumBlue|s}} a-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ua''' || [è.né.wá] || '''u''' followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} u''' || [è.né.sú] || '''u''' not followed by syllabic vowel<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene ima''' || [è.néj.má] || '''i''' is weak and can become non-syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene{{color|MediumBlue|s}} eme''' || [è.né.sè.mé] || '''e''' is always syllabic<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni ua''' || [è.ní.wá] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni u''' || [è.ní.ú] || final '''i''' before syllabic '''u'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni iu''' || [è.ní.jú] || final '''i''' before non-syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''eni{{color|MediumBlue|s}} iui''' || [è.ní.sì.wí] || final '''i''' before initial syllabic '''i'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''ene iui''' || [è.néj.wí] || final '''e''' followed by 'weak' '''i''' which becomes non-syllabic<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Morphology==<br /> There are four classes of words in Ngolu. Ngolu is a very verb-heavy language, with verbals making up the only truly open word class.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''Nominals''': closed<br /> :* '''Verbals''': open<br /> :* '''Particles''': closed<br /> :* '''Interjections''': closed (mostly)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Nominals===<br /> Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of nominals, the &lt;u&gt;pronominals&lt;/u&gt;, are essentially the equivalent of pronouns and articles in other languages, inflecting for number, grammatical person, definiteness, specificity, gender, case and an inflectional dimension unique to Iliaqu, ''accessibility''. Pronominals can appear on their own or can be followed by a verbal or verbal phrase. When followed by a verbal, they can be regarded as the head of an underlying relative clause which nominalises the verbal and allows it to function as an argument in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> :As a pronoun:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|it}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :As an article:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|the}} house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In addition to the pronominals, there are two &lt;u&gt;complementisers&lt;/u&gt; which are essentially subordinating conjunctions which inflect for case. '''Zuo''' can be thought of as roughly equivalent to the English subordinating conjunction 'that' and '''kuo''' can be thought of as 'the time when'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''olos''' || '''ene''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''g-ixi''' || '''ja''' || '''nana''' || '''g-uje''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.strange || DAT.1s.ACS || NOM.C || be.not || COP-DAT.3s.INAN.DEF || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.father || COP-GEN.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is strange&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;is not&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the one who&quot; || &quot;is father&quot; || &quot;is hers/his&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I think it's strange {{color|MediumBlue|that}} his / her father didn't go / wasn't there.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Number====<br /> Pronominals indicate two numbers, singular and plural. Plural is marked by the prefix '''i-''', which occurs before some case prefixes and after others (see [[Ngolu#Case|Case]] below for more information).<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The singular is used before quantifiers indicating a specific plural quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a group of two&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|two}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> When the plural is used, this indicates multiples of the indicated quantity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.pair || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are groups of two&quot; || &quot;are houses&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''the {{color|MediumBlue|pairs of}} house{{color|MediumBlue|s}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Many words denoting powders and granular substances are used in the plural with the singular referring to an individual grain.<br /> <br /> <br /> :Singular:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a grain of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the grain of sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''bakua'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.INAN.DEF || be.grain.of.sand<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are grains of sand&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the (grain{{color|MediumBlue|s}} of) sand''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Water referred to as '''hunia''', potable water, is indicated in the plural as well when it is a quantity larger than what one person can drink in one sitting. <br /> <br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (large quantity of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> :Plural:<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the things that&quot; || &quot;are potable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''the (serving of drinkable) water''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Gender====<br /> In the third person, nominals distinguish between animate and inanimate referents. When it comes to animals, the use of the genders depends on the speaker's [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]]. ''Kali'' (women, children and uninitiated men) and ''tuva'' (slaves) refer to all motile animals in the animate gender, generally as inaccessible although pets may be accessible. ''Muja'' (initiated men) refer to animals other than pets in the inanimate gender. The Ngolu believe this allows ''muja'' to hunt without remorse.<br /> <br /> The following examples illustrate the difference. Examples which are specific to the rank of the speaker or the listener will be marked as such after the translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kulu''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xu}}''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.heard || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was heard&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The interplay between a speaker and listener's rank is complex and may result in unexpected gender choices. For example, a slave must refer to him- or herself in the third person inanimate gender when speaking to ''balu'' and above unless specifically given permission otherwise. To read more about this, see [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|Social Stratification and Language Use]].<br /> <br /> ====Person====<br /> Three grammatical persons are marked by pronominals. The first person pronominals contain '''n'''. The second person pronominals contain a non-syllabic '''u''' (realised as '''v''' before '''u'''). In the third person, '''j''', '''x''', '''m''', '''z''', '''k''' and Ø appear depending on gender, definiteness and specificity.<br /> <br /> =====Clusivity=====<br /> The plural forms of all the basic pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness. <br /> <br /> The first person inclusive (second plus first persons) may be indicated by compound pronominals, the dual forms (&quot;you, one person, and I&quot;) being '''uana''', '''uanu''', '''vuna''', '''vunu''' and the plural forms being '''iuana''', '''iuanu''', '''ivuna''', '''ivunu'''. Which of the four options is used depends on [[#accessibility|accessibility]]. These compound forms are not used universally and many speakers use juxtaposition of pronouns, such as '''vu nu''' instead of '''vunu''' or '''iua na''' or '''iua ina''' instead of '''iuana'''.<br /> <br /> Even addressing people in the second person, should the group include third persons who are not being addressed, many speakers will make note of these separately, for example '''ju vu''' (gloss: NOM.3s.ICS.DEF NOM.2s.ICS) and this is somewhat prescriptively enforced. The nominal '''ivu''' (gloss: NOM.2p.ICS), for example, is recommended only for use to address two or more people when all are present or when the message is at the very least expected to be passed onto those who are not present. <br /> <br /> The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person. The compound 2nd+1st person pronouns are not subject to this ordering rule.<br /> <br /> Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive.<br /> <br /> ====Definiteness and Specificity====<br /> <br /> In the third person, pronominals indicate definiteness (whether the listener knows which individual) and specificity (whether the speaker knows which individual).<br /> <br /> =====Definite=====<br /> The Definite (+specific, +definite) is used when the listener is assumed to know which specific individual or individuals the speaker is referring to. In the following examples, '''ji ala''' (or just '''ji''') refers to a specific bird which the listener is assumed to be already aware of, possibly because it is already been mentioned.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|the bird}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|it}}. (You know which one.)'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Specific=====<br /> The Specific (+specific, -definite) is used when the speaker has a specific individual or individuals in mind but the listener is not assumed to know which one(s). In the following examples, '''mi ala''' (or '''mi''') refers to a specific bird but not one which the speaker expects the listener to know of.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific one who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a (particular) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mi}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ICS.SPEC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;a specific being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|one (in particular)}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Non-Specific=====<br /> The Non-Specific (or General) does not refer to any specific individual(s) but to the abstract idea of a member or members of a particular class, any individual of which could be described. It often used when talking about desires or in negative sentences. In the examples below, '''i ala''' refers to any bird.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ala}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone who&quot; || &quot;is a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|a(ny) bird}}.'' — '''kali''' [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zue''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | seek || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.ANIM.NSPC<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am seeking&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;anyone&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm looking for {{color|MediumBlue|anyone}}.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Accessibility====<br /> Accessibility is a concept integral to Ngolu culture. Outside of the third person non-specific, all animate nominals have two forms, one ''accessible'' (gloss: ACS) and one ''inaccessible'' (gloss: ICS). Accessible nominals have a low vowel,'''a''' in the nominative stem, '''e''' in the accusative stem, and these correspond to the high vowels '''u''' and '''i''' respectively in inaccessible nominals. Accessibility is typically explained as an indication of whether physical contact is permitted or not, however it is more generally a means of conveying social closeness or distance even when no actual touching is involved.<br /> <br /> In the first person, the English word ''I'' can be translated as either '''na''' (NOM.1s.ACS) or '''nu''' (NOM.1s.ICS). Using '''na''' signals to the listener &quot;I am accessible to you.&quot; This means the speaker feels close and emotionally open to the listener and physical contact is permitted or even welcome. Using '''nu''' informs the listener that physical contact is not welcome at the current time. This is typically because of emotional distance, such as when talking to strangers, casual acquaintances or people whom the speaker does not like, but it may also signal an unwillingness to be touched for other, often fleeting reasons, such as illness, pain or emotional tension. Between close friends and lovers, suddenly switching to '''nu''' may indicate that the speaker has taken offence at something.<br /> <br /> In the second and third persons, accessibility indicates the the referent's ''perceived'' accessibility ''to the speaker''. Using '''ua''' (NOM.2s.ACS) indicates that the speaker assumes he or she may touch the listener. Using '''vu''' (NOM.2s.ICS) indicates either a more respectful or colder social distance (cf. French &quot;vous&quot;, which, coincidentally, sounds identical). In the third person, '''ja''' (NOM.3s.ACS.DEF) and '''ju''' (NOM.3s.ICS.DEF) indicate the speaker's relationship to the referent. In plural, accessible indicates that ''all'' members of the group are accessible. Even one individual who the speaker regards as inaccessible, will cause the group to be marked as inaccessible. Inaccessibility is thus the 'default' and when speaking of generic or unknown individuals, these will be indicated with inaccessible nominals.<br /> <br /> Accessibility produces four speech modes or 'stances'. In situations between peers of equal rank, generally the speech mode with either be accessible (using accessible nominals in both first and second persons) or inaccessible (using inaccessible nominals in both). In situations of unequal dominance, which generally, but do not always, run along lines of rank, the dominant party speaks in the dominant mode, using inaccessible first person nominals and accessible second person nominals. The subordinate party speaks in the subordinate or submissive mode, using the reverse.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | speech mode || first person || second person || meaning<br /> |-<br /> | accessible mode (ACS) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may touch me. I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | inaccessible mode (ICS) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may not touch me. I may not touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | dominant mode (DOM) || '''nu''' / '''inu''' (ICS) || '''ua''' / '''iua''' (ACS) || You may not touch me but I may touch you.<br /> |-<br /> | submissive mode (SUB) || '''na''' / '''ina''' (ACS) || '''vu''' / '''ivu''' (ICS) || You may touch me but I may not touch you.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The speech mode used depends not only on who the speaker and listener are to one another, but how they feel about each other in that moment. A friend or lover who is deeply offended may suddenly switch to the inaccessible or dominant mode to indicate that they are now not happy and had better not be touched until the offence is resolved. The submissive mode may be used in order to flirt with an acquaintance. Flirting may be met with the accessible or inaccessible modes, which essentially give an answer. No answer (yet) is signalled by the adoption of the dominant mode. Smooth social interactions are ensured by the concordance of speech modes, ACS↔ACS, ICS↔ICS, DOM↔SUB. Conflict is often caused by the refusal to agree or by physical contact with someone marked in speech as inaccessible.<br /> <br /> Examples of the four speech modes in use.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [ICS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''uas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xeva''' || '''vu''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ICS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;are seen&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I see you.'' — [SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Case====<br /> Ngolu possesses 14 grammatical cases. The nominative and accusative case appear to be the oldest and all other forms appear to derive from the agglomeration of adpositions onto them. The first group (accusative, dative, ablative, locative, genitive and possessive) appear to be relatively old. At some point after these adpositions fused onto the nominals, the plural marker '''i-''' also became a prefix. For example '''''i-e-ji''''' 'to them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;PL-DAT-ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;. The second group of derived cases (vocative, causal, benefactive, instrumental, comitative, topical, essive) appear to have developed more recently from prepositions added to either the nominative or the accusative case as the plural marker '''i-''' is sandwiched in the middle. For example '''''te-i-ji''''' 'about them' is made up of &lt;tt&gt;because.of-PL.ACC.3.ICS.DEF&lt;/tt&gt;.<br /> <br /> =====Nominative=====<br /> The nominative case indicates the grammatical subject of a verb. The nominative case is always formed with a back vowel, '''u''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''a''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''u''' shows animate and '''a''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''muja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|na}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.initiated.man || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be an initiated man&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} am an initiated man.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''loe''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || sleep || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} is not sleeping. / {{color|MediumBlue|S/he}} didn't sleep.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || NOM.3s.ICS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|He}} killed / murdered something / someone''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|zuo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good || NOM.C || be.not || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It's good {{color|MediumBlue|that}} it's not raining.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zoua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuo}}''' || '''tavi''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ja}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.difficult || NOM.TEMP.C || be.child || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;the time when&quot; || &quot;be child&quot; || &quot;the being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He had a difficult childhood.<br /> (≈ {{color|MediumBlue|The time when}} {{color|MediumBlue|s/he}} was a child was difficult.)''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Accusative=====<br /> The accusative case indicates the grammatical object of a verb. The accusative case is formed with a front vowel, '''i''' for inaccessible and inanimate, '''e''' for accessible. In the non-specific, '''i''' represents animate and '''e''' inanimate. Plural is indicated with a prefixed '''i-'''. The complementisers are '''jo''' and '''kio'''<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''uo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ji}}''' || '''ti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || deliberately.kill || ACC.3s.ICS.DEF || be.PRF<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have finished&quot; || &quot;deliberately kill&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;have finished&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Someone murdered {{color|MediumBlue|him}} / {{color|MediumBlue|He}} was murdered.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jave''' || '''ja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kivo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | throw || NOM.3s.ACS.DEF || ACC.3s.INAN.DEF || be.rock<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;throw&quot; || &quot;the being&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be rock&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''He threw {{color|MediumBlue|the rock}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jo}}''' || '''vai''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.C || stay || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; |''I want you {{color|MediumBlue|to}} stay. (≈ I want {{color|MediumBlue|that}} you stay.)'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In informal speech, the accusative case may replace the dative case when it indicates an experiencer. This does not occur with verbs that also have an accusative role and use the dative case to indicate a recipient.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ine}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || ACC.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Dative=====<br /> The dative case indicates an indirect object of the verb, a destination or goal of a movement or an experiencer. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'to' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''e(r)-''' ('''ie(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volos''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ene}}''' || '''izi''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || DAT.1s.ACS || ACC.3p.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;some things that&quot; || &quot;be water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} was given water. / Someone gave {{color|MediumBlue|me}} water.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xena''' || '''ua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|iene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || NOM.2s.ACS || DAT.1p.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be visible&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;to us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|We}} can see you.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || '''uana'''<br /> |-<br /> | JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM.1+2DU.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go - to them&quot; || &quot;you and I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''vais''' || '''inu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekio}}''' || '''loe''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF || stay || NOM.1p.ICS || DAT.TEMP.C || sleep || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;stay&quot; || &quot;we&quot; || &quot;until&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''We stayed {{color|MediumBlue|until}} they slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Ablative=====<br /> The ablative case is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'from' in English. It is formed by suffixing '''-i''' to a nominative nominal. The complementisers are '''zuio''' and '''kuio''' in the ablative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Kuaqa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mala}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-uni}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.distant || NOM.1s.ICS || ABL.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || COP-GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be far&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;from the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm far away {{color|MediumBlue|from my home}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go - from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Get away {{color|MediumBlue|from me}}!'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || '''xuua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuio}}''' || '''iti''' || ('''ju''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;to her/him&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;since&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || (&quot;s/he&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Locative=====<br /> The locative case indicates a location. It is more or less equivalent to the prepositions 'in', 'on' and 'at' in English. It is also used to replace the verb &quot;have&quot; when indicating immediate possession as in &quot;to have something on one's person&quot;. It is formed by suffixing '''-a''' to a nominative nominal in the inaccessible and inanimate and prefixing '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ia(r)-''') to an accessible nominative nominal. The prefixed form is also used for the non-specific animate and inanimate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''bani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ana}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.money || LOC.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be money&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I don't have any money (with me). (≈ There is no money {{color|MediumBlue|at me}}.)'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|xua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|mo}}''' || '''ua'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.what || NOM.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be what&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Where are you?'' (≈ You are {{color|MediumBlue|at the what}}?) — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''iio''' || '''jas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azuo}}''' || '''muana''' || '''iti''' || '''exi''' || '''muana''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.fish || NOM.3s.ACS || LOC.C || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.small || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.body.of.flowing.water || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; || &quot;he&quot; || &quot;where&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be small&quot; || &quot;to the thing that&quot; || &quot;flow&quot; || &quot;be big&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''He's fishing {{color|MediumBlue|where}} the stream flows into the river.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || '''xuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;begin&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one who&quot; || &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be yours&quot; || &quot;when&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || (&quot;to the inaccessible one&quot;) || &quot;that thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Genitive=====<br /> The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''egio''' || '''tani''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|une}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.threesome || be.sibling || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a group of three&quot; || &quot;be siblings&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''I have three siblings.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tta''' || '''xu''' || '''gula''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|uji}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tio}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.large || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.pair.of.arms || COP-GEN.3s.DEF.ICS || be.that.3<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be large&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of arms&quot; || &quot;be of the person who&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|That person over there}} has big arms. / The arms {{color|MediumBlue|of that person over there}} are big.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Possessive=====<br /> The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) but to a nominative nominal rather than an accusative one.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || POS.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a house&quot; || &quot;owned by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I}} have / own a house.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It should be noted that, although in many languages, the genitive or possessive case is usually adnominal, referring to an immediately adjacent noun phrase, in Iliaqu, all nominals, regardless of case, refer to the predicate in their clause unless verbalised with the [[#Nominal_to_Verbal|copular prefix]]. Compare the following sentences.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || COP-POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in {{color|MediumBlue|my}} boot.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || POS.1S.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a snake&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be inside&quot; || &quot;be a boot&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''There's a snake in the boot {{color|MediumBlue| and it's mine}}.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|I own}} a snake which is in the boot. — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the second sentence, the lack of the copula on '''une''' indicates that it represents an argument of the predicate ('''masa''' 'there is a snake'), meaning that it is the snake which belongs to the speaker, not the boot. The word order, placing the unadorned possessive argument ('''une''') after the much heavier locative argument ('''xua xa buja''') is heavily marked, placing focus on the fact that the snake is the speaker's legal possession.<br /> <br /> Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, ''ataiva'', the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for ''ataiva'' to avoid the possessive case entirely in favour of the genitive case.<br /> <br /> =====Vocative=====<br /> The vocative case is used to address someone or attract their attention. It is formed by adding '''e(r)-''' ('''ei-''' in plural) to a nominative nominal. <br /> <br /> The most common greeting words for most uses are simply vocative nominals. They must reflect the number and accessibility of the addressee(s). <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is common for inaccessibles to be greeted in the third person, with '''eju''' frequently replacing '''evu'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Third person definite forms, however, may also be used with accessibles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eja}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh he who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eua}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xagu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.2s.ACS || be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh you who&quot; || &quot;be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|(Oh) Xagu}}!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Among accessibles, the '''e-''' prefix may be added directly to a personal name. This and the predicate prefix '''i-''' are the only example of verbals (as all names are verbals) taking a non-derivational affix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|e}}-xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | hey-be.Xagu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey - be Xagu&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hey}} Xagu!'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In the indefinite, the vocative can be used to summon help from non-specific people.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eru}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3s.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when one person's assistance is enough.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.3p.NSPC.ANIM<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hey anybody&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Help!}}'' (Used when more than one person's assistance is required.)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative complementiser '''ezuo''' is used to mean 'if only' or 'I wish'. It is also used for making polite requests. Literally, it's something like 'o that'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezuo}}''' || '''hunia''' || '''nua'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.C || be.potable || LOC.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if only&quot; || &quot;be beverage&quot; || &quot;at me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''May I have some water please? ({{color|MediumBlue|If only}} I had some water.)'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The vocative temporal complementiser '''ekuo''' is used to express nostalgia about a past time or anticipation for a future time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || '''ata''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;oh for the time when&quot; || &quot;be adult&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|I can't wait till}} I'm grown up.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Causal=====<br /> The causal case describes a cause. It is equivalent to the English &quot;because of&quot;. It is formed by prefixing '''te(r)-''' (plural: '''tei-''') to the accusative nominals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zaxa''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.sick || NOM.1s.ICS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am sick&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm ill {{color|MediumBlue|because of you}}. / You made me ill.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ezo''' || '''zouas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tejo}}''' || '''kka''' || '''mala''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.now || be.difficult || DAT.1s.ICS || CAU.C || be.not || be.house || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;be difficult&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;because&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''Things are tough for me at the moment {{color|MediumBlue|because}} I don't have a house..'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Benefactive=====<br /> The benefactive case indicates either a beneficiary or benefactor of an action or situation or a goal. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'for'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''kua(r)-''' (plural: '''kuai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.this.1 || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;there is this, by me&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''This is {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}. (≈ There's this {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.)'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bioi''' || '''vaia''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuaue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.willing || do.everything || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;would&quot; || &quot;do everything&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;for you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''I would do anything {{color|MediumBlue|for you}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''etie''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''leu''' || '''ue''' || '''veji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || move.to.here.1 || NOM.1s.ACS || BEN.C || rescue || ACC.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;finish&quot; || &quot;come here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;rescue&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;about the person&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; |''I came here {{color|MediumBlue|(in order) to}} save you from him/her.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''naxe''' || '''molu''' || '''iu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuajo}}''' || '''mue''' || '''lau''' || '''iu''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | must || be.dead || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || BEN.C || be.able || be.alive || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;must&quot; || &quot;be dead&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates&quot; || &quot;so that&quot; || &quot;can&quot; || &quot;live&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates that&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; |''Some must die {{color|MediumBlue|so that}} others may live.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kuas''' || '''enies''' || '''e''' || '''kueta''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuakio}}''' || '''gehuo''' || '''ua''' || '''ji''' || '''uako'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || carry || ACC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.hunting.knife || BEN.TEMP.C || encounter || NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM || be.enemy<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;carry&quot; || &quot;a non-specific thing which&quot; || &quot;be a hunting knife&quot; || &quot;in case&quot; || &quot;encounter&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;some non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |''Carry a knife {{color|MediumBlue|in case}} you cross paths with enemies.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Instrumental=====<br /> The instrumental case describes the means or method by which something is done. It is equivalent to the English preposition &quot;with&quot; when it means &quot;using&quot;. It is formed by adding the prefix '''a(r)-''' (plural: '''ai-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''vuja''' || '''zi''' || '''vaku''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kueta}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || hunt || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.babirusa || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN || be.hunting.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;deliberately killed&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;hunts&quot; || &quot;a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a babirusa&quot; || &quot;using a specific thing that&quot; || &quot;is a hunting knife&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''The hunter killed the babirusa {{color|MediumBlue|with a hunting knife}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g-iara''' || '''hunia'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC.3p.NSPC.INAN || be.potable<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;certain people&quot; || &quot;by&quot; || &quot;wait&quot; || &quot;at anything which&quot; || &quot;is bushes&quot; || &quot;be-at any things which&quot; || &quot;be drinking water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Comitative=====<br /> The comitative case indicates an accompanying person or thing. It is equivalent to 'with' in English when it means 'along with' or 'accompanied by'. It is formed by prefixing '''le(r)-''' (plural: '''lei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja''' || '''ja''' || '''meha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|leje}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jalu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Meha || COM.3s.DEF.ACS || Jalu<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is hunting&quot; || &quot;the person who&quot; || &quot;is Meha&quot; || &quot;with the person who&quot; || &quot;is Jalu&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''Meha is hunting {{color|MediumBlue|with Jalu}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''hu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lene}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | IMP || move.PFV || COM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come/go&quot; || &quot;with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Come {{color|MediumBlue|with me}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bata''' || '''ja''' || '''umatu''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lejo'''}} || '''buga''' || '''taba''' || '''iju''' || '''azo'''<br /> |-<br /> | dance || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.Umatu || COM.C || hit || be.drum || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;dance&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be Umatu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;be drum&quot; || &quot;the beings who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Umatu danced {{color|MediumBlue|while}} the others played the drums.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Topical=====<br /> The topical case indicates the topic or theme of an act of communication and in many instances also something which is kept in mind when a particular action is performed. It is roughly equivalent to the English preposition 'about'. It is formed by prefixing '''ve(r)-''' (plural '''vei-''') to an accusative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''ila''' || '''na''' || '''leue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vezi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|valo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || speak || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.interesting<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;speak&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;about something that&quot; || &quot;is interesting&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to talk to you {{color|MediumBlue|about something interesting}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''teuas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vexi}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiau}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | thank || DAT.2s.ACS || TOP.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.food<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;thank&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;about the thing that&quot; || &quot;is food&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Thanks {{color|MediumBlue|for the food}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''malemale''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''moio''' || '''iu''' || '''azo''' || '''lo''' || '''zola''' || '''iu''' || '''babo'''<br /> |-<br /> | gossip || TOP.C || do.what || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other || ADV || be.solely || NOM.3p.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;gossip&quot; || &quot;about the fact that&quot; || &quot;do what&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be only&quot; || &quot;non-specific animates who&quot; || &quot;be unintelligent<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''Only unintelligent people gossip {{color|MediumBlue|about}} what other people do.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Essive=====<br /> The essive case indicates the role of something in the sentence. It is roughly equivalent to the English words 'as' or 'like'. It is formed by adding the prefix '''o(r)-''' (plural: '''oi-''') to the nominative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''atia''' || '''nas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|omas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ali}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.there.2 || NOM.1s.ACS || ESS.3s.SPEC.ACS || be.same.rank.friend || COP-DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be here&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;as a person who&quot; || &quot;be a friend of the same rank&quot; || &quot;be to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I'm here {{color|MediumBlue|as your friend}}.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ozuo}}''' || '''ka''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.visible || ESS.C || be.going.to || (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;appear&quot; || &quot;as if&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''It looks {{color|MediumBlue|like}} it's going to rain.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Tables====<br /> <br /> Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Simple pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | na<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | nu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ina<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | inu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iua<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivu<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate specific<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ma<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | mu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ima<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | imu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | animate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | u<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate definite<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu<br /> |- <br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate specific<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zu<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | izu<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inanimate generic<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | a<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ia<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Demonstrative pronominals<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | singular<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 3rd person<br /> animate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ie&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;ia&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ja&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ija&lt;u&gt;io&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iju&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 3rd person<br /> inanimate<br /> definite<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | proximate<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ue&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | medial<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;ua&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | distal<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | xu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ixu&lt;u&gt;uo&lt;/u&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Compound pronominals<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | accessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | inaccessible<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dominant<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | subordinate<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | 2nd + 1st person<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | dual<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | vuna<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | plural<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | Complimentisers<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | temporal<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | non-temporal<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | kuo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;&quot; | zuo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====First Person=====<br /> First person nominals are all definite.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''nu''' || '''inu''' || '''na''' || '''ina'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ni''' || '''ini''' || '''ne''' || '''ine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''nua''' || '''inua''' || '''ana''' || '''iana''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uni''' || '''iuni''' || '''une''' || '''iune'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''unu''' || '''iunu''' || '''una''' || '''iuna'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''enu''' || '''einu''' || '''ena''' || '''eina''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teni''' || '''teini''' || '''tene''' || '''teine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuani''' || '''kuaini''' || '''kuane''' || '''kuaine''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ani''' || '''aini''' || '''ane''' || '''aine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leni''' || '''leini''' || '''lene''' || '''leine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veni''' || '''veini''' || '''vene''' || '''veine'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''onu''' || '''oinu''' || '''ona''' || '''oina''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person=====<br /> Second person nominals are all definite and animate.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS.SG || ICS:PL || ACS.SG || ACS.PL<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ue''' || '''iue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eui''' || '''ieui''' || '''eue''' || '''ieue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''vui''' || '''ivui''' || '''uai''' || '''iuai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''vua''' || '''ivua''' || '''aua''' || '''iaua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uui''' || '''iuui''' || '''uue''' || '''iuue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uvu''' || '''iuvu''' || '''uua''' || '''iuua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''evu''' || '''eivu''' || '''eua''' || '''eiua''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teui''' || '''teiui''' || '''teue''' || '''teiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaui''' || '''kuaiui''' || '''kuaue''' || '''kuaiue''' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aui''' || '''aiui''' || '''aue''' || '''aiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leui''' || '''leiui''' || '''leue''' || '''leiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veui''' || '''veiui''' || '''veue''' || '''veiue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ovu''' || '''oivu''' || '''oua''' || '''oiua''' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====<br /> First person inclusive nominals are all definite. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.<br /> <br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> || <br /> || ICS.DU<br /> || ACS.DU<br /> || DOM.DU<br /> || SUB.DU<br /> || ICS.PL<br /> || ACS.PL<br /> || DOM.PL<br /> || SUB.PL<br /> |-<br /> || Nominative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Accusative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuine<br /> |-<br /> || Dative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ieuine<br /> |-<br /> || Ablative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuinai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainai<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuainui<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuinai<br /> |-<br /> || Locative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | vuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iauanua<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ivuana<br /> |-<br /> || Genitive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuine<br /> |-<br /> || Possessive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | uvuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | iuvuna<br /> |-<br /> || Vocative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | euanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | evuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | eivuna<br /> |-<br /> || Causal<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | teiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Benefactive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuauine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | kuaiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Instrumental<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | auine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | aiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Comitative<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | leiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Topical<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veuine<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuini<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuene<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiueni<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | veiuine<br /> |-<br /> || Essive<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ouanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | ovuna<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivunu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuana<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oiuanu<br /> | style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot; | oivuna<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Third Person=====<br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''ju''' || '''iju''' || '''ja''' || '''ija''' || '''xu''' || '''ixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''ji''' || '''iji''' || '''je''' || '''ije''' || '''xi''' || '''ixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''jui''' || '''ijui''' || '''jai''' || '''ijai''' || '''xui''' || '''ixui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''jua''' || '''ijua''' || '''aja''' || '''iaja''' || '''xua''' || '''ixua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uji''' || '''iuji''' || '''uje''' || '''iuje''' || '''uxi''' || '''iuxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uju''' || '''iuju''' || '''uja''' || '''iuja''' || '''*uxu''' || '''*iuxu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eju''' || '''eiju''' || '''eja''' || '''eija''' || '''exu''' || '''eixu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teji''' || '''teiji''' || '''teje''' || '''teije''' || '''texi''' || '''teixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuaji''' || '''kuaiji''' || '''kuaje''' || '''kuaije''' || '''kuaxi''' || '''kuaixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''aji''' || '''aiji''' || '''aje''' || '''aije''' || '''axi''' || '''aixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leji''' || '''leiji''' || '''leje''' || '''leije''' || '''lexi''' || '''leixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veji''' || '''veiji''' || '''veje''' || '''veije''' || '''vexi''' || '''veixi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oju''' || '''oiju''' || '''oja''' || '''oija''' || '''oxu''' || '''oixu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Specific'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''mu''' || '''imu''' || '''ma''' || '''ima''' || '''zu''' || '''izu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''mi''' || '''imi''' || '''me''' || '''ime''' || '''zi''' || '''izi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''emi''' || '''iemi''' || '''eme''' || '''ieme''' || '''ezi''' || '''iezi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''mui''' || '''imui''' || '''mai''' || '''imai''' || '''zui''' || '''izui'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''mua''' || '''imua''' || '''ama''' || '''iama''' || '''zua''' || '''izua'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''umi''' || '''iumi''' || '''ume''' || '''iume''' || '''uzi''' || '''iuzi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''umu''' || '''iumu''' || '''uma''' || '''iuma''' || '''*uzu''' || '''*iuzu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''emu''' || '''eimu''' || '''ema''' || '''eima''' || '''ezu''' || '''eizu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''temi''' || '''teimi''' || '''teme''' || '''teime''' || '''tezi''' || '''teizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuami''' || '''kuaimi''' || '''kuame''' || '''kuaime''' || '''kuazi''' || '''kuaizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ami''' || '''aimi''' || '''ame''' || '''aime''' || '''azi''' || '''aizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lemi''' || '''leimi''' || '''leme''' || '''leime''' || '''lezi''' || '''leizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vemi''' || '''veimi''' || '''veme''' || '''veime''' || '''vezi''' || '''veizi'''<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''omu''' || '''oimu''' || '''oma''' || '''oima''' || '''ozu''' || '''oizu''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ::'''Indefinite, Non-Specific (General)'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ANIM Sg. || ANIM Pl. || INAN Sg. || INAN Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''u''' || '''iu''' || '''a''' || '''ia'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''i''' || '''iri''' || '''e''' || '''ie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''eri''' || '''ieri''' || '''ere''' || '''iere'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''ui''' || '''iui''' || '''ai''' || '''iai'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''aru''' || '''iaru''' || '''ara''' || '''iara'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''uri''' || '''iuri''' || '''ure''' || '''iure'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || '''uru''' || '''iuru''' || '''ura'''* || '''iura'''*<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu''' || '''era''' || '''eia''' <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''teri''' || '''teiri''' || '''tere''' || '''teie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuari''' || '''kuairi''' || '''kuare''' || '''kuaie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ari''' || '''airi''' || '''are''' || '''aie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''leri''' || '''leiri''' || '''lere''' || '''leie'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''veri''' || '''veiri''' || '''vere''' || '''veie''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''oru''' || '''oiu''' || '''ora''' || '''oia'''<br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> =====Complementisers=====<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||&quot;that&quot; || rough translation || &quot;the time that&quot; || rough translation<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative || '''zuo''' || 'that' || '''kuo''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative || '''jo''' || 'that' || '''kio''' || 'the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Dative || '''ejo''' || 'to the place where' || '''ekio''' || 'until'<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative || '''zuio''' || 'from the place where' || '''kuio''' || 'since', 'after'<br /> |-<br /> | Locative || '''azuo''' || 'in the place where' || '''akuo''' || 'when' <br /> |-<br /> | Genitive || '''ujo''' || || '''ukio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive || *'''uzuo''' || || *'''ukuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Vocative || '''ezuo''' || 'if only' || '''ekuo''' || <br /> |-<br /> | Causal || '''tejo''' || 'because' || '''tekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive || '''kuajo''' || 'so that' || '''kuakio''' || 'in case' <br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental || '''ajo''' || 'by V-ing' || '''akio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative || '''lejo''' || 'while' || '''lekio''' ||<br /> |-<br /> | Topical || '''vejo''' || 'about V-ing' || '''vekio''' || 'about the time when'<br /> |-<br /> | Essive || '''ozuo''' || 'like' || '''okuo''' || <br /> |}<br /> ::&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Verbals===<br /> <br /> Verbals constitute the only open class of words in Ngolu. They are essentially content words, equivalent to what in other languages are verbs ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''loe''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to sleep' || [NOM] sleeps<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kau''' || 'to eat' || [NOM] eats [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to hunt' (= 'to be a hunter') || [NOM] hunts [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''volo''' || 'to give' || [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mahu''' || 'to know' || [DAT] knows [NOM] = [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ila''' || 'to speak/talk' || [NOM] speaks [ACC]/[INS] (= language) to [DAT]/[COM] about [TOP]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mue''' || 'to be able to' || [NOM] can / is able to […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... nouns ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''iio''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be a fish' || [NOM] is a fish of [GEN] belonging to [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''vuja''' || 'to be a hunter' (= 'to hunt') || [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]/[…]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person<br /> |-<br /> |• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of a different rank)' || [NOM] is a friend of [DAT], lover of [GEN] and concubine of [POS]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''ilia''' || 'to be speech/language' || [NOM] is the speech/language of [GEN]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... adjectives ... <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''tta''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be large' || [NOM] is large<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kaiu''' || 'to be edible' ('to be food') || [NOM] is edible to [DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''kuaqa''' || 'to be far/distant' || [NOM] is far from [ABL]/[DAT]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''xeva''' || 'to be visible' (= 'to see') || [NOM is visible to [DAT]; [DAT] sees [NOM]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lau''' || 'to be alive' (= 'to live', 'to be a living being') || [NOM] is alive<br /> |-<br /> |• '''lubi''' || 'to be closed/shut' || [NOM] is closed/shut to [DAT]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... and adverbs.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''jau''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to intentionally ...' || [NOM] is intentionally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''mola''' || 'to be merely ...' (= 'to be insignificant') || [NOM] is just/only/merely […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> They are generally thought of as 'content words' but even many grammatical functions are expressed by verbals.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;width: 50px;&quot; |• '''kka''' || style=&quot;width: 350px;&quot; |'to be not ...' || [NEGATIVE] || [NOM] is not […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hua''' || 'to be always ...', 'to be eternally ...' || [GNOMIC] || [NOM] is eternally […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''hau''' || 'to be defined by being ...' || [ESSENTIAL] || [NOM] is essentially […] by definition<br /> |-<br /> |• '''he''' || 'to undergo' || [PASSIVE] || [NOM] undergoes […]<br /> |-<br /> |• '''eti''' || 'to have previously done ...' || [PAST] || [NOM] did […]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Regardless of the verbal's semantic meaning and which part of speech carries the bulk of the meaning when translated into another language, each verbal can be used in the same syntactic positions as any other verbal. All verbals can appear as a predicate, an argument (when preceded by a nominal) or as a modifier to another, preceding verbal. Compare the following two sentences which show how a semantically verb-like verbal, '''gahu''' ('to howl'), and a semantically more noun-like verbal, '''zagua''' ('to be a gibbon') can simply be swapped. Both can appear in the predicate, both can appear in an argument and neither needs to be inflected to take on either role.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{|<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || scope=&quot;col&quot; width=&quot;10&quot; | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''gahu''' || || '''ju''' || '''zagua'''<br /> |-<br /> | howl || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.gibbon<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;howls&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is a gibbon&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''The gibbon howls.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |- style=&quot;height: 2em;&quot;<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) <br /> |-<br /> | '''zagua''' || || '''ju''' || '''gahu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.gibbon || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is a gibbon&quot; || || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;howls&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''What howls is a gibbon.'' — '''kali'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Argument Structure====<br /> <br /> Verbals each have an inherent argument structure, controlling which case are used for which role. Dictionaries, and the examples above, mark the meanings of each relevant case when used with each verbal.<br /> <br /> Many argument structures are as would be expected.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''volo''' = [NOM] gives [ACC] to [DAT]<br /> :* '''vuja''' = [NOM] hunts [ACC]; [NOM] is a hunter of [ACC]<br /> :* '''akku''' = [NOM] is blood; [NOM] is the blood of [GEN]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''volo''' || '''na''' || '''xi''' || '''eje'''<br /> |-<br /> | give || NOM.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;give&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to him&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I give it to him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is a tendency for experiencers to be in the dative case.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''hualo''' = [DAT] loves/cares about [NOM]; [NOM] is loved by [DAT]<br /> :* '''xeva''' = [DAT] sees [NOM]; [NOM] is seen by [DAT]<br /> :* '''zoua''' = [NOM] is difficult for [DAT]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xevas''' || '''eni''' || '''ju''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.1s.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was seen&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;is the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I saw the king.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Although that is not always the case, as this pair of opposites shows.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''mahu''' = [DAT] knows [NOM]; [NOM] is known to [DAT]<br /> :* '''zau''' = [NOM] doesn't know about [TOP]; [NOM] is ignorant of [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mahu''' || '''eni''' || ('''xu''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.known || DAT.1s.ICS || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || (&quot;it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''zau''' || '''nu''' || ('''vexi''')<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || (TOP.3s.DEF.INAN)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;am ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || (&quot;about it&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I don't know (it).'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also an unusual class of verbals where the nominative role usually refers to a body part, the genitive refers to the possessor and when there is an accusative argument, the whole thing refers to an action performed (with the body part) by the possessor.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bale''' = [NOM] is a fist of [GEN]; [GEN] punches [ACC]<br /> :* '''bane''' = [NOM] is a hand of [GEN]; [GEN] holds, grasps, clutches [ACC]<br /> :* '''buja''' = [NOM] is a heavy boot of [GEN]; [GEN] crushes [ACC] under his boot<br /> :* '''gula''' = [NOM] is the pair of arms of [GEN]; [GEN] hugs [ACC]<br /> :* '''juaza''' = [NOM] is the penis of [GEN]; [GEN] fucks [ACC] (vulgar!)<br /> :* '''kanu''' = [NOM] is the nose of [GEN]; [GEN] sniffs [ACC]<br /> :* '''kula''' = [NOM] is the pair of ears of [GEN]; [GEN] listens to [ACC]<br /> :* '''mama''' = [NOM] is the pair of breasts of [GEN]; [GEN] breast-feeds [ACC]<br /> :* '''miva''' = [NOM] is a finger of [GEN]; [GEN] touches, feels [ACC]<br /> :* '''musari''' = [NOM] is a molar of [GEN]; [GEN] chews [ACC]<br /> :* '''omo''' = [NOM] is the pair of eyes of [GEN]; [GEN] looks at [ACC]<br /> :* '''umakka''' = [NOM] is a tooth (incisor, canine) of [GEN]; [GEN] bites [ACC]<br /> :* '''zuru''' = [NOM] is a war against [ACC]; [GEN] wages war on [ACC]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I have eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xu''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || be.this.1<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is this, here by me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''These are my eyes.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''omo''' || '''une''' || '''xi''' || '''masa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.pair.of.eyes || GEN.1s.ACS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN || be.snake<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is the pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;my&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a snake&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I'm looking at the snake'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The verbal '''lama''' is somewhat similar, although it may simply be understood through an idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''lama''' = [NOM] is a tear of [GEN]/[LOC]; [GEN]/[LOC] weeps (silently) about [TOP]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lama''' || '''ana''' || '''teui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is (a) tear(s)&quot; || &quot;at him/her&quot; || &quot;because of you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The above sentence may also be translated as &quot;There are tears on him/her because of you,&quot; or &quot;S/He has tears because of you,&quot; making it less clear as to whether this is a good example of an apparent non-nominative subject.<br /> <br /> There is a proposed additional place within the argument structure of many verbals, that of a following modifier. A following modifier may mark a specific role which may either be marked by another case or may only be filled by a following modifier. The notation used here indicates a following modifier with […].<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''maue''' = [NOM] is a group of seven […]<br /> :* '''kka''' = [NOM] is not […]<br /> :* '''mia''' = [NOM] approaches [DAT]/[…]<br /> :* '''tehi''' = [NOM] is possibly […]<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''mala''' || '''iju'''<br /> |-<br /> | approach || be.house || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;they&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mia''' || '''iju''' || '''exi''' || '''mala''' <br /> |-<br /> | approach || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN || be.house <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;approach&quot; || &quot;they&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''They are on their way to the house.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Derivation of Verbals====<br /> <br /> There are two kinds of derivational affixes, one which converts a nominal into a verbal and many others which convert a verbal into another verbal with a different meaning.<br /> <br /> =====Nominal to Verbal=====<br /> All nominals can be converted into a verbal by adding a copula prefix. The copula prefix is '''g-''' before a vowel, '''k''' or '''g''', '''m-''' before '''m''', '''b''' and '''v''', '''l-''' before '''l''' and '''n-''' before all other consonants. The copula prefix essentially prevents a nominal from signalling the start of an argument. Used with the dative or ablative case, the meaning may be interpreted as a verb of motion.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nu''' 'I' [NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}nu''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} me' [COP-NOM.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''eni''' 'to me' [DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}eni''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} to me', '{{color|MediumBlue|to come}} to me' [COP-DAT.1s.ICS]<br /> :* '''xu mala''' 'the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xu mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} the house'<br /> :* '''xua mala''' 'at the house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|n}}xua mala''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} at the house'<br /> :* '''kuaini''' 'for us' [BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|g}}kuaini''' '{{color|MediumBlue|to be}} for us' [COP-BEN.1p.ICS]<br /> <br /> <br /> Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}nu''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-NOM.1s.ICS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be I&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''I{{color|MediumBlue|'m}} me.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kka''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-}}xuas''' || '''azikuo''' || '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || COP-LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.≈school || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a school for adolescent boys&quot; || &quot;s/he&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} not at school.'' <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;come to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} to me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|l-}}lene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;be with me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Come}} with me. / {{color|MediumBlue|Be}} with me.'' — [ACS] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''nini''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-}}une''' || '''ja''' || '''tie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.mother || COP-GEN.1s.ACS || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || be.this<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be mother&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be this&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''This is my mother.'' — [ACS/SUB] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Verbal to Verbal=====<br /> <br /> A far more common means of derivation is from verbal to verbal. This is chiefly done by means of infixing although prefixes and suffixes also exist.<br /> <br /> ======Collective======<br /> <br /> The collective infix '''-ig-''' indicates a group of the named entity.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''ala''' 'to be a bird'<br /> ::→ '''al{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}a''' 'to be {{color|MediumBlue|a flock}} of bird{{color|MediumBlue|s}}'<br /> :* '''balu''' 'to be a royal guardsman'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to be the royal guard'<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}u''' 'to eat {{color|MediumBlue|together}}'<br /> :* '''uttia''' 'to be a tree'<br /> ::→ '''ut{{color|MediumBlue|ig}}ia''' 'to be a forest'<br /> <br /> <br /> ======Gerundive======<br /> <br /> The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something. The accusative role is promoted to the nominative role, as with the passive construction with '''he''', but in addition the assertion is made that this is a good or customary use for the referent in question.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''huna''' 'to drink'<br /> ::→ '''hun{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a''' 'to be (fresh) water', 'to be potable', 'to be drinkable' (to be something to be drunk)<br /> :* '''kau''' 'to eat'<br /> ::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular)<br /> ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular)<br /> :* '''jalo''' 'to welcome', 'to receive', 'to accept (into a place)'<br /> ::→ '''jal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a guest' (one who is to be welcomed)<br /> :* '''asu''' 'to be seated', 'to be sitting'<br /> ::→ '''a{{color|MediumBlue|x}}u''' 'to be a chair', 'to be a seat' (to be something to be sat on) [''*asiu'' → ''axu'']<br /> :* '''ila''' 'to speak', 'to talk'<br /> ::→ '''il{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a'''' 'to be language' (to be something to be spoken)<br /> :* '''zoi''' 'to say', 'to tell'<br /> ::→ '''zo{{color|MediumBlue|j}}i''' 'to be worth saying', 'to be fitting/appropriate' (to be something to be said) [''*zoii'' → ''zoji'']<br /> :* '''go''' 'to do something', 'to act'<br /> ::→ '''g{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a duty', 'to be an obligation', 'to be a good idea' (to be something to be done)<br /> :* '''mue''' 'to be able', 'to be capable'<br /> ::→ '''m{{color|MediumBlue|i}}ue''' 'to be a required skill' (to be something that someone should be able to do)<br /> :* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes'; (with genitive subject) 'to look at'<br /> ::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at)<br /> :* '''bale''' 'to be a fist'; (with genitive subject) 'to punch'<br /> ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}e''' 'to be punchable', 'to have a punchable face' (to be one who ought to be punched, a common pejorative word)<br /> :* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', (with genitive subject) 'to crush under a boot'<br /> ::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot) [''*bujia'' → ''buji'']<br /> :* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter'<br /> ::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted) [''*vujia'' → ''vuji'']<br /> <br /> ======Locative======<br /> <br /> The prefix '''a-''' indicates being at a particular place.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''tio''' 'to be that'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}tio''' 'to be there' (≈ 'to be at that')<br /> :* '''mala''' 'to be a house'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|a}}mala''' 'to be at home' (≈ 'to be at house')<br /> <br /> ======Ornative======<br /> <br /> The ornative prefix '''o-''' indicates having or being equipped with something.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''bani''' 'to be money'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money')<br /> :* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with room(s)')<br /> :* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair'<br /> ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair')<br /> :* '''ulu''' 'to be muscle'<br /> ::→ '''u{{color|MediumBlue|o}}lu''' 'to be muscular' (≈ 'to be with muscle', with metathesis turning /ou/ into /uo/)<br /> <br /> ====Verbals with inherent gender / rank distinctions====<br /> <br /> Many verbals semantically encode gender within their meaning. In some cases, there are pairs of words, such as the following.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''nini''' 'to be a mother / aunt'<br /> :* '''nana''' 'to be a father / uncle'<br /> <br /> <br /> In this instance, the divide along genders is easy for non-Ngolu to conceptualise. However many other concepts are also divided by gender, or, more accurately, rank, and this frequently has to do with the Ngolu's strict cultural taboos around gender and rank. For example, Ngolu men and women are expected to sing, dance, dress and urinate differently.<br /> <br /> <br /> :* '''laha''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''kali'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''lasa''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''kali'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''miia''' 'to wear' (of a ''kali'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''kali'')<br /> :* '''kele''' 'to urinate' (of a ''kali'', to urinate while sitting or squatting)<br /> <br /> :* '''uaie''' 'to sing', 'to be a singer' (of a ''muja'', to sing in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''bata''' 'to dance', 'to be a dancer' (of a ''muja'', to dance in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''uara''' 'to wear' (of a ''muja'', to dress in the manner appropriate to ''muja'')<br /> :* '''zatu''' 'to urinate' (of a ''muja'', to urinate while standing)<br /> <br /> <br /> In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank.<br /> <br /> Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha'''' ('to fight physically'), '''aiuo''' ('to shoot').<br /> <br /> Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word.<br /> <br /> Verbals may also specify the gender/rank of an argument other than the nominal. For example, the word ''bale'' means 'to be a fist', specifying a ''muja'' in the role of the genitive possessor. Similarly, items of clothing specific to one gender can only appear with possessors in the corresponding gender.<br /> <br /> When a subject (or another argument) does not match the gender/rank specified in the verbal, there must be paraphrasing. There are generally two ways this is done, with '''ko''' and with '''hui'''.<br /> <br /> =====Ko=====<br /> <br /> '''Ko''' is a verbal meaning 'to be similar'. It can be placed before a gendered verbal when the subject (or other relevant argument) does not match. For example, the word for ''enemy'' is '''uako'''. It is a ''muja'' verb, perhaps best translated as 'to be a ''muja'' enemy'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.enemy || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is no direct equivalent for a ''kali'' who is an enemy. To express the idea of a ''kali'' being an enemy, what is essentially said is &quot;S/he is ''like'' an enemy.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|uako}}''' || '''jus''' || '''uni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.similar || be.enemy.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || GEN.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be.like&quot; || &quot;be enemy&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;my (inaccessible)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She{{color|MediumBlue|'s}} my {{color|MediumBlue|enemy}}.'' — [ICS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The closest analogue in English would be with words such as 'midwife', which has no easy male equivalent. In Ngolu, it is as though one simply says 'He's like a midwife.' Similarly, in the following example, there is no word equivalent to a woman's fist, only a man's fist. Therefore, she made something ''like'' a man's fist.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''li''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ko}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|bale}}''' || '''uji'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || begin || be.similar || be.MUJA.fist || GEN.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;start&quot; || &quot;be like&quot; || &quot;be a (man's) fist&quot; || &quot;of the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She made {{color|MediumBlue|a fist}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =====Hui=====<br /> <br /> '''Hui''' is similar to '''ko''' except it is filled with contempt and criticism. It is a verbal which could be translated as 'to shamefully break gender taboos by approximating |…|'. There is essentially no grammatical difference between '''ko''' and '''hui''' - the former is simply neutral and the later conveys strong condemnation of breaking taboos.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || sing.KALI<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;sing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|There's a man (shamefully) trying to sing like a woman}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|miia}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || wear.KALI || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;wear&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''He{{color|MediumBlue|'s (shamefully) cross-dressing}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hui}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ttio}}''' || '''ju''' || '''je'''<br /> |-<br /> | break.gender.roles || strike || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;break gender roles&quot; || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;the accessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Particles and Grammatical Affixes===<br /> <br /> Particles are words which cannot be classified as either nominals or verbals. Most of them are equivalent to conjunctions, introducing clauses. In many cases, the line between verb and particle is a little blurred and difficult to find and research is still ongoing.<br /> <br /> ====''Au''====<br /> <br /> ====''Au'' and ''teu''====<br /> <br /> '''Au''' and '''teu''' are used to order the events multiple clause sentence. '''Au''' introduces the clause in which the first action took place and is thus roughly equivalent to 'first' or 'after' whereas '''teu''' introduces a later action and is thus equivalent to 'then' or 'before'. They are usually used as correlative conjunctions, with both present in the sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | first;after|| eat || NOM.1s.ICS || second;before || sleep || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|First}} I ate, {{color|MediumBlue|then}} I slept.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I ate {{color|MediumBlue|before}} I slept.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|After}} I ate, I slept.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The order of the clauses can be reversed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | second/before || sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|Before}} I slept, I ate.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Sometimes the first of the two conjunctions is omitted.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') <br /> |-<br /> | sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;sleep&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;first&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;) <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I slept {{color|MediumBlue|after}} I ate.''— [ICS/DOM]<br /> ''I slept, {{color|MediumBlue|but first}}, I ate.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> '''Au''' is also a verbal occa<br /> <br /> ====''Ha''====<br /> <br /> '''Ha''' forms polar (yes/no) questions. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Polar_Questions|Polar Questions]]<br /> <br /> It also introduces the protasis of realis conditional sentences, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Hai''====<br /> <br /> '''Hai''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Haizuo''====<br /> <br /> '''Haizuo''' is an emphatic form of '''hai'''. It introduces the apodosis of an irrealis conditional sentence. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''I-''====<br /> <br /> The clitic particle '''i-''' appears on the beginning of any part of the predicate when it is preceded in a sentence by any non-predicate element. For example, in the following sentence, '''hu mala''' is the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''mala''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || be.house || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Topicalised arguments can be brought forward in the sentence to before the verb phrase. The verb phrase must now be marked with '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;As for me&lt;/u&gt;, I'm going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The predicate phrase can even be split, with arguments appearing inside it.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''&lt;u&gt;I&lt;/u&gt;'m going home.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In extreme cases, there can even be more than one split in a predicate phrase, with '''i-''' necessary each time the predicate is resumed.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}hu''' || '''leuis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || NOM.1s.ACS || PRED-move || COM.2s.ICS || PRED-be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I want to go home with you.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Of that last example, the normal word order would be '''bio hu mala na leui'''.<br /> <br /> When added to words beginning with a syllabic '''i''', the prefix '''i-''' becomes '''j-''' ...<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''tie''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|j}}-iio'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.this.1 || PRED-be.fish<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be this&quot; || &quot;be fish&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''This, well, this is a fish!'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ... but before a non-syllabic '''i''', it remains '''i-'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''omo''' || '''g-unis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}iaha'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3S.DEF.INAN || be.pair.of.eyes || COP-GEN.1s.ICS || PRED-be.painful<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a pair of eyes&quot; || &quot;be mine&quot; || &quot;hurt&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''As for my eyes, they're sore.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Lo''====<br /> <br /> '''Lo''' appears to be a short form of the comitative complementiser '''lejo'''. It introduces an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> ====''Mie''====<br /> <br /> ====''Teuo''====<br /> <br /> ====''To''====<br /> <br /> ''To'' generally introduces consequences. It often roughly means 'so' or 'therefore'. In these cases, it may replaced by the more emphatic '''toua'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ba''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(ua)}}''' || '''ka''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''muanaiti'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || rain || therefore || be.PROS || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.stream<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;so&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be stream&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''It's raining hard, so the streams are going to swell.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> It is used in conjunction with '''ha''' (and sometimes '''hai''' or '''haizuo''') to form conditional clauses where it introduces the apodosis. See [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]] for examples.<br /> <br /> It is also frequently used to replace '''i-''' in introducing a main clause after a subordinate clause other than a conditional clause.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tina''' || '''ixu''' || '''enio'''<br /> |-<br /> | LOC.TEMP.C || rain || then || become.large || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.plant<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;when&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become large&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be plant&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|When}} it rains{{color|MediumBlue|, (then)}} the plants grow.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Toi''====<br /> <br /> '''Toi''' is used to introduce the apodosis of an irrealis conditional. For examples, see [[Ngolu#Conditionals|Conditionals]].<br /> <br /> ====''Toua''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xe''====<br /> <br /> ====''Xue''====<br /> <br /> ===Interjections===<br /> <br /> ==Syntax==<br /> <br /> ===Phrase Structure===<br /> <br /> ====Verbal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A verbal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL [VERBAL ...]]]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> When multiple verbals are stacked one after the other, the head is on the left and modifiers on the right.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''mala''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.house || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a large house / are large houses''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''jiio''' || '''ttiu'''<br /> |-<br /> | run || be.quick<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;run&quot; || &quot;be fast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''runs quickly / run quickly''<br /> ''is a fast runner / are fast runners''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vujas''' || '''ala'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt || be.bird<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;be a bird&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''hunts birds / hunt birds''<br /> ''is a bird hunter / are bird hunters''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In many cases, verbals with more grammatical than semantic content are followed by much more semantically rich modifying verbals. In these cases, the preceding words are nevertheless heads and the following words modifiers.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bas''' || '''ali''' || '''g-eji''' || '''taqu'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.very || be.friend.(of.the.same.sex) || COP-DAT.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.king<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be very&quot; || &quot;be friend&quot; || &quot;be to inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;be the king&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''is a good friend / are good friends of the king''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''huna'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || drink<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;drink&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''drank / has drunk / have drunk''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''toto''' || '''kas''' || '''euo''' || '''tta'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.really || be.PROS || be.pair || be.large<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be in fact&quot; || &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''are actually going to be two big ones''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''buua''' || '''tio''' || '''vaxu''' || '''zara'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.on.top.of || be.that.3 || be.table || write<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be one top of&quot; || &quot;be that, over there&quot; || &quot;be a table&quot; || &quot;write&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''is / are on top of that desk over there''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Each complex verbal phrase comprised of more than one verbal has its own case structure which defines how the cases are used in a sentence. The case structure is determined by the rightmost verbal which shares the same nominative argument as the leftmost verbal in the phrase.<br /> <br /> $$$$$$$ [examples to come]<br /> <br /> ====Nominal Phrases====<br /> <br /> A nominal phrase has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''NOMINAL [VERBAL PHRASE]'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> An unadorned nominal on its own functions as a pronoun.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''he'', ''she''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''its''<br /> |} <br /> <br /> <br /> Adorned nominal phrases consist of a nominal followed by a verbal phrase. In this case, the nominal acts as the head of a relative clause in which the verbal phrase sits.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ju''' || '''xagu'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || execute<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the inaccessible being who&quot; || &quot;execute&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''the executioner''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uxi''' || '''tukaue'''<br /> |-<br /> | GEN.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.collar.indicating.the.owner.of.a.slave<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;of the thing which&quot; || &quot;be a slave's collar&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''of the slave's collar''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Clause Structure===<br /> <br /> With unmarked word order, a clause generally has the following structure:<br /> <br /> <br /> :: &lt;tt&gt; '''[PARTICLE] PREDICATE [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] [ARGUMENT] ...'''&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> A &lt;tt&gt;'''PREDICATE'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a verbal phrase and an &lt;tt&gt;'''ARGUMENT'''&lt;/tt&gt; consists of a nominal phrase or a subordinate clause.<br /> <br /> In many cases, one or more arguments may precede the predicate or may even appear in the middle of the predicate, dividing it into two or more pieces.<br /> <br /> Unmarked word order:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental)<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau''' || '''azi''' || '''akuala''' <br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food || INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; || &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''I ate food with a knife.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Predicate || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Instrumental argument fronted, nominal argument partially fronted:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Instrumental) || Pred... || Argument &lt;br&gt; (Nominative) || ...icate || colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | Argument &lt;br&gt; (Accusative) <br /> |-<br /> | '''azi''' || '''akuala''' || '''i-ti''' || '''nu''' || '''i-kau''' || '''izi''' || '''tiau'''<br /> |-<br /> | INS.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.knife || PRED-be.PRF || NOM.1s.ICS || eat || ACC.3s.SPEC.INAN.REL || be.food <br /> |-<br /> | &quot;using a thing which&quot; || &quot;be a knife&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;some things which&quot; || &quot;be food&quot; <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | ''With a knife, I ate food.'' — [ICS/DOM] <br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Predicate-Only Clauses====<br /> <br /> The simplest clauses in Ngolu consist of nothing but a verbal or a verbal phrase used as the predicate. There are no obligatory arguments in Ngolu and all may be omitted from the clause and left to context, even the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | (be).rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's raining. / It rains.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''te'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.good<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's good.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> A verbal with no arguments indicates an activity or state without specifying the identity of any participants. Essentially, Ngolu is a pro-drop language. With prior context, omitted arguments can be understood as referring to someone or something already discussed. With no prior context, however, verbal-only sentences are simply understood with a &quot;someone or something&quot; as the subject.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kau'''<br /> |-<br /> | eat<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;eats&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He, she or it is eating. (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Something or someone is eating.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''vuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | hunt<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''He or it is hunting. / He or it is a hunter.'' (with context)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |''Something or someone is hunting. / There's a hunter.'' (without context)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Simple declarative or existential statements are frequently verbal-only.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kala'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.fire<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be a fire&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''It's a fire. / There's a fire. / Fire!''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====One-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Multi-Argument Clauses====<br /> <br /> ====Subordinate Clauses====<br /> <br /> =====Complementiser Clauses=====<br /> <br /> =====Adverbial Clauses=====<br /> <br /> Adverbial clauses are introduced by the particle '''lo''', which may be derived from '''lejo''', the comitative case of the copula 'zuo'.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bio''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''lo''' || '''juo''' || ('''nu''')<br /> |-<br /> | want || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || ADV || be.outside || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be outside&quot; || (&quot;I&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''I want to eat outside.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Relative Clauses=====<br /> <br /> ===Topic and Focus===<br /> <br /> ===Affirmation and Negation===<br /> <br /> The verbals '''ahe''' and '''kka''' indicate polarity, being positive and negative respectively. On their own, they are roughly equivalent to 'yes' and 'no'. <br /> <br /> Positive sentences are generally unmarked and '''ahe''' generally appears only for emphasis.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || '''bo''' || '''xu''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.indeed || be.wanted || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;be wanted&quot; || &quot;the thing&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|do}} want it.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation is performed by means of '''kka'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xua''' || '''uttia'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || LOC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.tree<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;at the thing which&quot; || &quot;be tree&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''S/He{{color|MediumBlue|'s not}} at the tree.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''mula''' || '''ju''' || '''ene'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.liked || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be liked&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible being&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|don't}} like him.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> After a negative question or statement, '''ahe''' indicates a contradictory, positive answer whereas '''kka''' indicates a negative answer in agreement.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ha''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.not || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be.not&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Is{{color|MediumBlue|n't}} it raining?''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahe}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.indeed || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be indeed&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Yes, it is}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | → || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || ('''lalu''')<br /> |-<br /> | || be.not || (rain)<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;be not&quot; || (&quot;rain&quot;)<br /> |-<br /> | || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No, it's not}} (raining).''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Negation (as well as affirmation) is generally performed in the predicate.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''xeva''' || '''ju''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|eri}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|azo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.not || be.seen || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || DAT.3s.NSPC.ANIM.REL || be.other<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;to anyone who&quot; || &quot;be other&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|No one else}} saw her.'' (Literally: ''{{color|MediumBlue|Anyone else didn't}} see her.'')<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> To negate or affirm an argument, it is placed within an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kka}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || '''los''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''ahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV || be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV || be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Both '''kka''' and '''ahe''' have equivalent adverbial forms, '''kku''' and '''lahe''' respectively, which do not require the use of '''lo''' when negating or affirming an argument. The previous sentence may be expressed as follows.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kku}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''<br /> |-<br /> | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV.be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV.be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill deliberately&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;be.dog&quot; || &quot;while be not&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Tehi&quot; || &quot;while be indeed&quot; || &quot;the accessible being who&quot; || &quot;be Mbuja&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;11&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Interrogation===<br /> <br /> ====Polar Questions====<br /> <br /> Polar questions are indicated with '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lalu'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || rain<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;rain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} raining{{color|MediumBlue|?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | Q || be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;?&quot; || &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Do}} you love me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Ha''' can occur at the end of a sentence, where it functions as a question tag.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | rain || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;rain&quot; || Q<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''It's raining, {{color|MediumBlue|isn't it?}}''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''nas''' || '''eue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || DAT.2s.ACS || Q<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;?&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''You love me, {{color|MediumBlue|don't you?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Individual arguments in a sentence may be called into question by placing them inside an [[Ngolu#Adverbial_Clauses|adverbial clause]] introduced by '''lo'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''na'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.1s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} me who you love{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''lai''' || '''na''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''eue'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.loved || NOM.1s.ACS || ADV || Q || DAT.2s.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be loved&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;to you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} you who loves me{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Alternative Questions====<br /> <br /> Alternative questions use two or more instances of '''ha'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Bio''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''kau''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''huna''' || '''vu'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || Q || eat || Q || drink || NOM.2s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;eat&quot; || &quot;or&quot; || &quot;drink&quot; || &quot;you&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''Would you like anything to {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} eat {{color|MediumBlue|or}} drink{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Xevu''' || '''eue''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ja''' || '''mahu''' || '''lo''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ju''' || '''laiuiie'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.seen || DAT.2s.ACS || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mahu || ADV || Q || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Laiuiie<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be seen&quot; || &quot;to you&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;either&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Mahu&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || &quot;the accessible one who&quot; || &quot;be Laiuiie&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''Have you seen {{color|MediumBlue|(either)}} Mahu {{color|MediumBlue|or}} Laiuiie{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' — [ACS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Content Questions====<br /> <br /> ====Embedded Questions====<br /> <br /> Any type of question may be embedded inside a complementiser phrase.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''Zau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vejo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''ti''' || '''uaizue''' || '''ji''' || '''tavi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.ignorant || NOM.1s.ICS || TOP.C || Q || be.PRF || find || ACC.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.child<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be ignorant&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;about that&quot; || &quot;?&quot; || be.PRF || &quot;find&quot; || &quot;the being who&quot; || &quot;be child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''I don't know {{color|MediumBlue|if}} the child has been found.'' — [ICS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Voice===<br /> <br /> ===Time===<br /> <br /> Marking of time (tense and aspect) is not obligatory in Ngolu and may always be left up to context. For our purposes here, we shall not distinguish between actions (e.g. ''kill'') and states (e.g. ''want'', ''be a house'') as temporal marking is identical for both. The word ''action'' will be used henceforth and should be understood to mean &quot;action or state&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Relative tenses====<br /> When time needs to be indicated, it is most often done by means of a verbal indicating a &quot;relative tense&quot; (aspect). These are relative to a contextually understood time in question, the &quot;reference time&quot;. The three basic &quot;relative tense&quot; markers are ... <br /> <br /> <br /> *'''ti''' &quot;perfect&quot; (PRF), indicating an action that occurred before the reference time<br /> *'''zo''' &quot;progressive&quot; (PROG), indicating an action underway at the reference time<br /> *'''ka''' &quot;prospective (PROS), indicating an action occurring after the reference time<br /> <br /> <br /> By default, the reference is the present, the time in which the utterance is made. However, if another time is contextually understood, any of these may refer to events in the past, present or future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|zo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROG || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be underway&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Absolute tenses====<br /> The prefix '''e-''' attached to the beginning of any of these aspect markers creates an absolute tense marker. The '''e-''' sets the reference time to the current moment in which the utterance is made. This is usually only used to disambiguate or to emphasise a time frame.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''eti''' &quot;past&quot; (PST), indicating an action that occurred in the past<br /> *'''ezo''' &quot;present&quot; (PRES), indicating an action underway in the present<br /> *'''eka''' &quot;future (FUT), indicating an action that will occur in the future<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be earlier&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ezo}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRES || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be now&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Continuation====<br /> There are also compounds formed from two time words that indicate continuation from one time frame to another using a linking ''-e-''. This linking ''-e-'' is probably not related to the ''e-'' of absolute temporal reference, but to the ''e-'' prefix of dative case nominals and the derivation prefix ''e-'' that can be added to verbals indicating motion towards something.<br /> <br /> <br /> *'''tiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that starting before the reference time and continuing up to it<br /> *'''zueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action continuing from the reference time and extending to a later time<br /> *'''etiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that started in the past and continues to the present<br /> *'''ezueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action that starts in the present and will continue into the future.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezos}}''' || '''oila''' || '''na''' || '''xiies''' || '''oge'''<br /> |-<br /> | PRF.PROG|| read || NOM.1S.ACS || ACC.3S.DEF.INAN.PROX || be.book<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;have been doing&quot; || &quot;read&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;this thing which&quot; || &quot;is a book&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|have been}} read{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} this book.'' — [ACS/SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Perfective and imperfective====<br /> In addition, the word '''bie''' contrasts with '''zo'''. Whereas '''zo''' specifies that an action is underway at the reference time, essentially taking a &quot;snapshot&quot; of the interior of an action, after its beginning and before its completion, '''bie''' specifies perfectivity, metaphorically painting a picture of the whole completed action without permitting a look inside. On its own, it does not specify whether the completed action occurs before or after the reference time, but it does explicitly specify that the action is ''not'' underway at the reference time. <br /> <br /> Both ''bie'' and ''zo'' may be suffixed to other verbals indicating time in order to explicitly distinguish the imperfective (progressive) aspect from the perfective aspect, while also specifying time.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfectivity:<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | imperfective (progressive)<br /> | style=&quot;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | perfective<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | undefined time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | bie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | relative time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | tiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | zueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | kabie<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | absolute time<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eti<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etizo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etibie<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | past→present<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | etiezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | present→future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ezueka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | -<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | future<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | eka<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekazo<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);&quot; | ekabie<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Note that '''zo''' appears twice in the table although it really only has one function; it specifies an action underway at the reference time (i.e. concurrent with it), which itself may be unspecified.<br /> <br /> The reduplicated forms '''zozo''' ('these days', 'in those days') and '''ezozo''' ('these days') do not appear in the above table as they indicate a loosening of the bounds of the reference time or current time. The reference or current time can be tightened or emphasised with '''bazo''' ('right now', 'right then', 'at that/this very moment') or '''ebazo''' ('right now', 'at this very moment').<br /> <br /> ====Resultative perfect====<br /> The word '''bue''' indicates a ''resultative perfect'', functioning similarly to '''ti''' in that it describes an action occurring prior to the reference time, however the focus of '''bue''' is not on the action itself, but on the resulting post-action state at the reference time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|bue}}''' || '''kaxa''' || '''xu''' || '''giloxuo'''<br /> |-<br /> | RES.PRF|| break(INTR) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || window.pane<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is in the resulting state&quot; || &quot;break&quot; || &quot;the thing which&quot; || &quot;is a window pane&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''The window {{color|MediumBlue|is}} br{{color|MediumBlue|o}}k{{color|MediumBlue|en}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bue''' is frequently prefixed to the following word (for example ''buekaxa'' instead of ''bue kaxa''). Its passive equivalent '''hi-''' is always prefixed.<br /> <br /> ====Time word stacking====<br /> More than one time word can be used together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT|| be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will&quot; || &quot;be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST|| be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;will&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> These are usually compounded together.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekati}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.FUT.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;will be prior&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|etika}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST-PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was going to&quot; || &quot;kill&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;it&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Distance from reference time====<br /> The precise distance from the reference time can be indicated using adverbial clauses with '''lo''' followed by the unit of time, '''(e)ti''' or '''(e)ka''' and an ordinal number, which begins with ''t-''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''li''' || '''zaxa''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teuo}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | begin || be.ill || ADV || be.year || be.PRF || be.second<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;becomes&quot; || &quot;is ill&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;is earlier&quot; || &quot;is second&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he fell ill {{color|MediumBlue|two years before/ago}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> This sentence could be translated somewhat more literally as &quot;S/he fell ill while there was the second previous year.&quot; Note that replacing '''ti''' with '''eti''' would force the interpretation with &quot;ago&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || Bie || bilo || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tahu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PFV || die || ADV || be.month || be.PROS || be.first<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;is completed&quot; || &quot;dies&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;is about to&quot; || &quot;is first&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''S/he died {{color|MediumBlue|one month later}}. / S/he will die {{color|MediumBlue|in one month}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A more literally translation could be &quot;S/he died while there was the second coming year.&quot; Note again that replacing '''ka''' with '''eka''' would force the interpretation with &quot;in one month&quot; as it would set the reference time to the present moment. <br /> <br /> In the following example, in which a duration is specified rather than a specific time, the adverbial clause contains only the length of time.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS || ADV || be.five || be.year<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot; || &quot;while&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another means of conveying the same information is to place the time specifiers after the tense or aspect marker and then introducing the rest of the sentence with '''to'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''li''' || '''zaxa'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PST || be.two || be.year || thus || begin || be.ill<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;was&quot; || &quot;be two&quot; || &quot;be year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;become&quot; || &quot;be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Two years ago,}} s/he fell ill.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> || ... || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''bilo'''<br /> |-<br /> | || be.going.to || be.one || be.month || thus || die<br /> |-<br /> | || &quot;is going to&quot; || &quot;is one&quot; || &quot;is month&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;die&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ||colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|One month later,}} s/he died.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF-PRES || be.five || be.year || thus || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;has been till now&quot; || &quot;are five&quot; || &quot;is year&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;is known&quot; || &quot;the person&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Miscellaneous time words====<br /> There are a range of other verbals which indicate time in a similar way. Here are some examples.<br /> <br /> ''Days''<br /> * '''ariu''' &quot;yesterday&quot;<br /> * '''aku''' &quot;today&quot;<br /> * '''anu''' &quot;tomorrow&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Lighting''<br /> * '''auo''' &quot;by day&quot;<br /> * '''eio''' &quot;by night&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Distance in time''<br /> * '''ttie''' / '''ettie''' &quot;just&quot; (similar to '''ti''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''tieka''' / '''etieka''' &quot;about to&quot; (similar to '''ka''' but specifies a very short distance of time)<br /> * '''ti ti''' / '''eti ti''' &quot;a long time ago&quot; (reduplication for distance into the past)<br /> * '''ka ka''' / '''eka ka''' &quot;eventually&quot; (reduplication for distance into the future)<br /> <br /> ''Other aspectual differences''<br /> * '''hua''' &quot;always&quot;, &quot;permanently&quot; [gnomic]<br /> * '''niu''' &quot;habitually&quot; [habitual]<br /> * '''guegue''' &quot;repeatedly&quot;, &quot;again and again&quot; [iterative]<br /> * '''egue''' &quot;again&quot;<br /> * '''tara''' &quot;suddenly&quot;<br /> * '''li''' &quot;starts&quot;, &quot;begins&quot;, &quot;commences&quot;<br /> * '''bi''' &quot;stops&quot;, &quot;ceases&quot;<br /> * '''ligue''' &quot;resumes&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Demonstratives===<br /> <br /> Demonstratives distinguish three degrees of distance associated with the three grammatical persons.<br /> <br /> * '''''tie''''' 'this' or 'these' near the speaker [1st person - proximal]<br /> * '''''tia''''' 'that' or 'those' near the listener [2nd person - medial]<br /> * '''''tio''''' 'that' or 'those' away from both speaker and listener [3rd person - distal]<br /> <br /> When speaking to someone of the same or higher rank and referring to the something that is close to both speaker and listener (such as a house that both are inside), the 2nd person '''''tia''''' 'that' is used. Only persons of higher rank may use the first person form '''''tie''''' in such situations.<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.MED || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.PROX || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;the thing that&quot; || &quot;is by you&quot; || &quot;is a house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The association between the grammatical persons and the demonstratives is strong, with words, statements and actions made by a person frequently being referred to using the appropriate demonstrative. For example, a commonly used phrase for &quot;therefore&quot; is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}'' (literally 'because of this (by me)') when the reasoning is based on what the speaker just said, but when the reasoning is based on what their interlocutor just said, this phrase is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}'' (literally 'because of that (by you)').<br /> <br /> ====Contractions====<br /> <br /> The demonstrative verbals '''''tie''''', '''''tia''''' and '''''tio''''' form very common contractions with third person definite nominals, transforming the above examples as follows:<br /> <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tia}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}} mala''''' 'this house' / 'that house' (by you) <br /> * '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tie}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}} mala''''' 'this house' (by me)<br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what I said' <br /> * '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what you said' <br /> <br /> Here is a table of forms:<br /> <br /> ::'''Definite'''<br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Proximal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Medial || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Nominative Distal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Proximal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''|| '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Medial || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Accusative Distal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Proximal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Medial || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Dative Distal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Proximal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Medial || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Ablative Distal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Proximal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Medial || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Locative Distal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Proximal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Medial || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Genitive Distal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Proximal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Medial || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Possessive Distal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Proximal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Medial || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Vocative Distal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Proximal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Medial || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Causal Distal || '''teji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''texi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''teixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Proximal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Medial || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Benefactive Distal || '''kuaji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''kuaixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Proximal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Medial || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Instrumental Distal || '''aji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''axi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Proximal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Medial || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Comitative Distal || '''leji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''lexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''leixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Proximal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Medial || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | Topical Distal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> | Essive Proximal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Medial || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' <br /> |-<br /> | Essive Distal || '''oju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oiju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''oxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''oixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' <br /> |}<br /> : *rare, theoretical<br /> <br /> ===Location===<br /> <br /> ===Movement===<br /> <br /> Movement is expressed in a variety of ways in Ngolu. <br /> <br /> One of the most common methods for talking about movement is using the words '''hu''' and '''mia'''. There is no distinction between coming and going but rather a distinction between the perfective '''hu''', meaning 'come' or 'go', and the imperfective '''mia''', 'be one one's way', 'be coming', 'be going'. The destination may be indicated by a subsequent modifying verbal or by a dative argument. The origin is indicated by an ablative argument.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nu''' || '''exi''' || '''mala'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.PFV || NOM.1s.ICS || DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|mia}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | move.IPFV || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be on the way&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|'m going / on my way}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hu}}''' || '''nui'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.JUSS || move.PFV || ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;should&quot; || &quot;go&quot; || &quot;from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Please {{color|MediumBlue|get}} away from me.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Another method for expressing movement is to affix the copula prefix '''g-''', '''m-''', '''n-''' to a dative or ablative nominal.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-exi}}''' || '''mala''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.house || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to the thing which&quot; || &quot;be house&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|go / 'm going}} home.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-eue}}''' || '''nu'''<br /> |-<br /> | COP-DAT.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go to you&quot; || &quot;I&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''I'll {{color|MediumBlue|come to you}}.'' — [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''e''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|n-nui}}'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;!&quot; || &quot;go from me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Get away from me}}!'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The third way to express movement is to use an inceptive (inchoative) morpheme in conjunction with a word indicating location. For example, the verbal '''xa''' means 'to be inside' and the verbal '''atio''' means 'to be there (away from us)' - adding the infix '''-in-''' (perfective inceptive) or '''-ij-''' (imperfective inceptive) gives '''xina''' ('to go in', 'to enter') and '''xija''' ('to be on the way in'), '''atinio''' ('to go there') and '''atijo''' ('to be on the way there'). The free standing verbal '''li''' ('to begin, start, commence') may also be used, with '''li xa''' and '''li atio''' being equivalent to '''xina''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''ti''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|xina}}''' || '''iju''' || '''i-oba''' || '''loe'''<br /> |-<br /> | be.PRF || enter.PFV || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS || PRED-be.room || sleep<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;enter&quot; || &quot;the inaccessible ones&quot; || &quot;be room&quot; || &quot;sleep&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''They {{color|MediumBlue|went into}} the bedroom.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''bios''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|atinio}}''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | want || go.there.3 || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;want&quot; || &quot;go there&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''S/He wants {{color|MediumBlue|to go there}}.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The inceptive infixes are frequently used with the verbals denoting location in the four cardinal directions: '''la''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' ('to be in the east', 'to be in the west', 'to be in the north', 'to be in the south' respectively) creating the perfective forms '''lina''', '''tina''', '''ginio''' and '''vino''' and the imperfective forms '''lija''', '''tija''', '''gijo''' and '''vijo'''. Direction within Qu, with its noticeable tube shape (with 'east/west' pointing along the tube and 'north/south' going around the circumference), is a much more salient feature than on Earth and referencing direction with motion is common. In certain circumstances, describing movement without reference to direction is regarded as too imprecise, such as when men are discussing hunting in the forest where there may be no obvious landmarks to identify as the destination of a movement.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''La''', '''ta''', '''gio''', '''vo''' may be used to modify another verb of motion with or without taking an inceptive infix.<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|lina}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|gio}}''' || '''inais''' || '''ixi''' || '''vaku'''<br /> |-<br /> | go.east.PFV || be.in.the.north || ABL.1p.ACS || NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.babirusa<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;go east&quot; || &quot;be in the north&quot; || &quot;from us&quot; || &quot;the things which&quot; || &quot;be babirusa&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''The babirusas {{color|MediumBlue|moved (east)-northeast}} away from us.'' — '''muja''' [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Additionally, there is yet another prefix '''e-''' which may be related to the '''e-''' prefix at the beginning of nominals in the dative case. Words with this prefix indicate perfective movement and include '''etie''' ('to come here') '''etia''' ('to go/come there/here by you') and '''etio''' ('to go there'). These words are slightly more commonly used than their equivalents '''atinie''', '''atinia''' and '''atinio'''.<br /> <br /> ===Causes===<br /> <br /> ===Goals===<br /> <br /> ===Conditionals===<br /> <br /> Conditional sentences in Ngolu use particles to indicate the condition clause (protasis) and the result clause (apodosis). These particles differ depending on whether the condition is possible (realis) or hypothetical (irrealis).<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | || ''PROTASIS'' || ''APODOSIS''<br /> |-<br /> | ''REALIS'' || '''ha''' || '''to'''<br /> |-<br /> | ''IRREALIS'' || '''hai''' &lt;br&gt; '''haizuo''' (emphatic) || '''toi''' &lt;br&gt; '''to''' (possible only when apodosis clause appears second)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Realis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|has}}''' || '''anu''' || '''lalu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''kka''' || '''vuja''' || '''ja'''<br /> |-<br /> | if || be.tomorrow || rain || then || be.not || hunt.MUJA || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;if&quot; || &quot;be tomorrow&quot; || &quot;rain&quot; || &quot;then&quot; || &quot;be not&quot; || &quot;hunt&quot; || &quot;the accessible one&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} it rains tomorrow, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} he won't hunt.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | ('''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''') || '''ttio''' || '''nu''' || '''ue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''vai''' || '''tiaia'''<br /> |-<br /> | (then) || hit || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.2s.ACS || if || stay || do.that.2<br /> |-<br /> | (&quot;then&quot;) || &quot;hit&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;you&quot; || &quot;if&quot; || &quot;keep&quot; || &quot;do that which you are doing&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I'll hit you {{color|MediumBlue|if}} you keep doing that.'' — '''muja''' [DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Irrealis examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''g-ua''' || '''na''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to(i)}}''' || '''hales''' || '''eji''' || '''jo''' || '''nio'''|| '''mo'''<br /> |-<br /> | if.IRR || be-NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ACS || then.(would) || ask || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.C || happen || be.what<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;imagine if&quot; || &quot;be you&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;then (would)&quot; || &quot;ask&quot; || &quot;(to) the inaccessible one&quot; || &quot;that&quot; || &quot;happen&quot; || &quot;be what&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; | ''{{color|MediumBlue|If}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} you, {{color|MediumBlue|(then)}} I{{color|MediumBlue|'d}} ask him/her what happened.'' — [ACS]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || '''abani'''<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;stop&quot; || &quot;work&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || &quot;be more&quot; || &quot;be rich&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|would}} stop working, {{color|MediumBlue|if}} I {{color|MediumBlue|were}} richer.'' — [ICS/DOM]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ::{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''ti''' || '''hu''' || '''na''' || '''leui''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || ('''ti''') || '''mahu''' || ('''xu''') || ('''ene''')<br /> |-<br /> | then.would || be.PRF || move || NOM.1s.ACS || COM.2s.ICS || if.IRR || (be.PRF) || be.known || (NOM.3s.DEF.INAN) || (DAT.1s.ACS)<br /> |-<br /> | &quot;then would&quot; || &quot;be finished&quot; || &quot;move&quot; || &quot;I&quot; || &quot;with you&quot; || &quot;if would&quot; || (&quot;be finished&quot;) || &quot;be known&quot; || &quot;it&quot; || &quot;to me&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''I would have come with you if I had known that.'' — [SUB]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Numbers===<br /> <br /> ===Quantity===<br /> <br /> ===Degree===<br /> <br /> ===Comparison===<br /> <br /> ==Pragmatics==<br /> <br /> ===Social Stratification and Language Use===<br /> <br /> Ngolu society is heavily stratified into five social divisions. These social divisions, or strata, are hierarchical and from highest to lowest are as follows.<br /> <br /> * 5. ''ju '''taqu''''' - the king<br /> * 4. ''iju '''balu''''' - the king's men<br /> * 3. ''iju '''muja''''' - initiated men<br /> * 2. ''iju '''kali''''' - free citizens<br /> * 1. ''iju '''tuva''''' - slaves and prisoners (''ixu tuva'' in the speech of '''muja''', '''balu''' and '''taqu''')<br /> <br /> Language use is, to a large extent, determined by the strata of the speaker, addressee and third person referents.<br /> <br /> ===Speech Crime===<br /> <br /> [[Category:Languages]]<br /> [[Category:Conlangs]]</div>

Imralu