https://linguifex.com/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=JuhhmiLinguifex - User contributions [en]2026-04-07T02:30:39ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.43.6https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Aoma&diff=222617Aoma2021-03-13T22:43:04Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Influence */</p>
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{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Aoma<br />
|nativename = [[File:Auma_name.png|250px]]<br/>''Auma''<br />
|pronunciation = [ˈɐʊ̯mɑ]<br />
|region = North-Western Central World<br />
|states = Coast of Temples<br />
|speakers = 18,750,000 <br />
|date = 7th 622<br />
|familycolor = #fbf896<br />
|fam1 = Central-Herookuan<br />
|fam2 = western Rinapri<br />
|fam3 = Repoxian branch<br />
|creator=Ahuelni<br />
|setting=Akekata<br />
|dialects = Mikannan, Okure, Kekare, Hallure<br />
|script = [[Aoma/Script|Duutesa alphabet]]<br />
|nation = Coast of Temples<br />
|minority = Negovia, Empire of Sceptre, Eastern Empire<br />
|agency = ''Kosaa Vosaraa Aumarraa''<br/>(The Bureau of the Great Language of Aoma)<br />
|map = Aoma_regions.jpg<br />
|mapsize = 300<br />
|mapcaption = Speakers of Aoma and its dialects<br />
}}<br />
''Not to be confused with [[w:Ivbiosakon language|Ivbiosakon]] also called Aoma.''<br />
<br />
'''[[Aoma/Aoma|Auma]]''' sa vosir Aumari<br />
<br />
'''Aoma''' (''Auma'' or ''Bowombor'' Speaking of Ours) is an ''a priori'' language created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. <br />
<br />
==Dictionary==<br />
<br />
See the [[Aoma/Dictionary|dictionary]] for a sortable list of translated words.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
'''Lore''': Aoma and [[Rinap]] form the main languages of South-West-Herookuan family deriving from the ancestral [[Rinapri]]. Aoma is the official spoken and governmental language of Coast of Temples with around 19 million speakers, and it has been greatly influenced by the languages of Western Sceptre. The word ''Aoma'' seems to come from the name of eastern area with coastal temples, Kaomaago (''Kaa Omaike Hakoror'', At the Coast of Temples). The language presented here has been stitched together from various very different dialects to unify peoples of the empire so no "true Aoma" has ever existed.<br />
<br />
'''Actual''': After Rinap I wanted something with fewer k-letters and difficult diphthongs, and I had already set my old script originally for Finnish as the script of this future language. This gave birth to a project randomly named Aoma - the story came later. <br />
<br />
'''Problems''': According to my lore history, Aoma and Rinap must have begun their separation at least 3500 years ago. Since I wasn't thorough enough to create Rinapri, there is some inconsistency between the languages, especially with phonetic change and vocabulary - I was unable to achieve a realistic linguistic relationship (very similar to Romance languages deriving from Latin and slightly to the history of Finnish and Sami languages), and hence invented the fact that both languages were mere compilations of different dialects (inspired by the birth of standard Finnish here as well). And Rinapri would probably never have been truly consistent as a spoken language as it was spread to a vast region.<br />
<br />
==Basic Grammar==<br />
<br />
Aoma is a Verb-Subject-Object, agglutinative-fusional language with strong head-initial tendencies (right-branching). The language has two numbers, three persons, four genders and five (or seven) cases with nominative-accusative alignment. The formal register, with polite forms of second person pronouns, honorifics and anti-honorifics, is very important to the speakers and the society.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 68px; "|<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Nasal<br />
| m<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| ŋ<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Plosive<br />
| p b<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g<br />
| ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v<br />
| θ ð<br />
| z s<br />
| ʃ ʒ<br />
| <br />
| x <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Approximant<br />
| w<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| ɹ<br />
| <br />
| j<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Lateral app.<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In spoken language, consonants (especially nasals) are somewhat liable to external sandhi between word boundaries so that they move towards the pronunciation of following consonant: ''Tolan kush'' [to'laŋ‿kʊʃ] (I see that). More formal registers require "clear sounds", which basically means adding stops in between words thus creating a special rhythm.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 255px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 90px; "|<br />
! style="width: 55px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 55px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 55px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| i y<br />
| <br />
| u<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-Close<br />
| ɪ <br />
|<br />
| ʊ <br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-Mid<br />
| e ø<br />
|<br />
| o<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| ɛ œ <br />
|<br />
| ʌ ɔ<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
| æ <br />
| ɐ<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open <br />
| a<br />
|<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
See [[Aoma#Stress_and_Pitch|stress]] for explanations of vowel appearance.<br />
<br />
Vowels preceding ''r'' [ɹ] may appear as rhotic (especially in the genitive endings), and nasalization may occur in front of nasal consonants. <br />
<br />
Consonants, when followed by close-mid to close front vowels, appear as slightly palatalized consonants /ʲ/: ''kʲeˈkaˑ''<br />
<br />
Epenthetic vowel /ɐ/ (anaptyxis) is added in between consonant clusters especially in verbs of [[Aoma#Class_II|class IIa]].<br />
<br />
Classical Aoma distinguishes following '''diphthongs''' which have their own graphemes:<br />
* ''au'' /ɐʊ̯/<br />
* Occurring at the end of words (DAT case) with varying pronunciation: <br />
**''aee'' /aɛ:/ or /æeˑ/ <br />
**''oee'' /oe:/ or /œɛˑ/ <br />
**''uee'' /wɛ:/ or /ʊeˑ/ <br />
**''yee'' /jɛ:/ or /yɛˑ/<br />
<br />
===Stress and Pitch===<br />
<br />
Quite often Aoma places primary stress on the second syllable in words with two or more syllables unless the syllable consists only of weak ''i''. Stressed vowels appear as more open and at front with a higher pitch. <br />
*Long vowels and the diphthong ''au'' indicate that the syllable is stressed: /ˈkʊ:tu/ (tree) vs. /kuˈtʊˑ/ (torso)<br />
**If multiple long vowels occur, stress returns to the second long syllable.<br />
*In conjugated verbs, stress is placed on the last syllable.<br />
*Declined noun genitives have stress on second syllable while adjectives formed from nouns have stress on the following syllable. Noun: /ɪˈwaˑɹɪ/ vs. Adjective: /ɪwɐˈɹiˑ/<br />
**Circumfixes and certain prefixes don't alter the stress placing: ''keka'' /ke'kaˑ/→ ''Akekata'' /ɑke'kaˑtɑ/<br />
*Since stressed syllables get a slightly higher pitch, it can carry on to the next syllable in long words. The longest words might sometimes get a peculiar up-down pitch-pattern.<br />
*If many one-syllable words come after each other, the second and the last words are stressed.<br />
*When two words with two syllables follow each other, the main stress is on the last word's last syllable.<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Every syllable of Aoma requires a vowel, and most common syllables in Aoma are CV followed by CVC and V. C can be a cluster of at most two consonants, and V can be either a single or geminated vowel or a diphthong. There is always a syllable boundary between geminated consonants, contrary to long vowels. Although disyllables are most frequent, words have no limitations concerning the amount of syllables; some of the longest words are created as compounds especially with large numbers. <br />
<br />
There aren't very many restrictions, but some forms are just preferred more:<br />
*Nasals, fricatives and liquids occur at the end of words much more often that plosives (stops)<br />
*Word-final semivowel /j/ has reduced into vowel /i/ (and /w/ to /u/): ''omai'' < ''*omaj''<br />
*Two different plosives at a syllable boundary tend to be pronounced with only a geminated version of the first consonant: ''roktare'' /ɹɔ'k:aˑɹe/<br />
<br />
In 7:321, Juhmim ni-Beldo, a merchant from Eastern Empire was learning Aoman and on his way to Mikanna, he decided to count the letters in ''Duti vopiri ope'' (Small word book). Thus here are the most common sounds in the static vocabulary, descending from most common '''i''': i, e (9); u, a (7); s, o, n (6); k, m (5); y and t (4). This is a rather poor count, since it doesn't include many of the most used words such as prepositions and conjunctions (whose tables on fold-open pages Juhmim didn't notice) and it doesn't take into account the inflections or conjunctions.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
[[File:Mihkanor.JPG|300px|thumb|Old handwriting script]]<br />
<br />
Aoma uses a quite phonemic script where graphemes correlate with phonemes. The system is more consistent with consonants since vowels can undergo various changes depending on the neighbouring vowels and consonants. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
Consonants /k/, /l/, /m/, /n/, /p/, /ɹ/, /r/, /s/ and /t/ all have a geminated version which are mostly found in two-syllable verb infinite forms. The double-consonants have special marks in written Mihkanor so glottal stop is indicated by writing the consonants separately. Notice: pp /p:ʰ/, tt /tθ/.<br />
<br />
Romanization of some symbols: <br />
*š/sh /ʃ/, ng /ŋ/ and ' /ʔ/<br />
*Notice that in the beginning of words and after glottal stop c- is /kh/ while in the middle -c- is /sk/, and beginning z- is /ʒ/ while inside words -z- is /z/. <br />
*Syllables ''di'' and ''ti'' preceding vowels are pronounced as /ð/ and /θ/, respectively. The diacritic placed over ''t'' and ''d'' has probably been misinterpreted as the accent for ''i'' - thus the romanization.<br />
*One r is pronounced as /ɹ/, r'r /ɹ:/, rr /r/ and rrr /r:/.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
Similarly to consonants, vowels have geminated forms marked with special graphemes. Syllable boundary (glottal stop) can be indicated by writing short sound graphemes separately. <br />
<br />
Possible phonemes for single vowel graphemes: (stressed front vs. unstressed back)<br />
*i: /i/ /ɪ/<br />
*y: /y/ /j/<br />
*u: /u/ /ʊ/<br />
*e: /e/ /ɛ/<br />
*ö: /ø/ /œ/<br />
*ä: /æ/ /ʌ/<br />
*a: /a/ /ɐ/ /ɑ/<br />
*o: /o/ /ɔ/<br />
<br />
There is a glottal stop grapheme (') used for separating vowels. It is used especially with /i/, /æ/ and /œ/ which are written over preceding graphemes in some of the older writing systems (perhaps deriving from front vowel distinction diacritics over /e/). It should be noted that allophones of ''i'' are considered rather weak and may or may not be included in written language, often as mere diacritic grapheme.<br />
<br />
===Script===<br />
<br />
See information about the [[Aoma/Script|scripts]].<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
As an agglutinative language Aoma can have many morphemes per word and its inflections are quite regular.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
====''Personal''====<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 550px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 50px; "|<br />
! style="width: 50px; "|1SG<br />
! style="width: 50px; "|2SG<br />
! style="width: 50px; "|3SG.F<br />
! style="width: 50px; "|3SG.M<br />
! style="width: 50px; "|3SG.N<br />
! style="width: 50px; "|1PL<br />
! style="width: 50px; "|2PL<br />
! style="width: 50px; "|3PL<br />
! style="width: 50px; "|2SG.POL<br />
! style="width: 50px; "|2PL.POL<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | NOM<br />
|wa(n)a<br />
|foo<br />
|zu<br />
|shy<br />
|xi<br />
|boo<br />
|vot<br />
|sot<br />
|Nite<br />
|Wyte<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | ACC<br />
|nas<br />
|fos<br />
|zus<br />
|sysh<br />
|sish<br />
|bos<br />
|vösh<br />
|sösh<br />
|Netes<br />
|Wetes<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | DAT<br />
|naee<br />
|foee<br />
|zuee<br />
|shye<br />
|see<br />
|boee<br />
|votei<br />
|sotei<br />
|Neteki<br />
|Weteki<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | GEN<br />
|när<br />
|for<br />
|zur<br />
|shyr<br />
|sor<br />
|bor<br />
|votyr<br />
|sotyr<br />
|Nityr<br />
|Wytyr<br />
|}<br />
<br />
''Waa'' is often pronounced /va:/ after conjugated first person verbs which end in ''n''.<br />
<br />
Prepositional is ACC + ''e'', except that ''Net'''y'''se'' and ''Wet'''y'''se''.<br />
<br />
Possessive pronouns are placed after their heads and agree with all noun forms. They are inflected like adjectives ending with ''i'': ''gehi när'' (my house), ''gehesh näris'' (my houses), ''gehik närike'' (SG-ACC), and so on<br />
<br />
'''Reflexive'''<br />
<br />
While reflexive pronouns for first and second person are the same (''Ceman nas.'' "I wash myself."), third person has its own declined reflexive pronoun which refers to the subject itself. Singular nominative separates feminine and masculine.<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
!<br />
!3SG<br />
!3PL<br />
|-<br />
|NOM<br />
|uu/yy<br />
|uf<br />
|-<br />
|ACC<br />
|ys<br />
|ush<br />
|-<br />
|DAT<br />
|jee<br />
|uci<br />
|-<br />
|GEN<br />
|yr<br />
|ör<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
*''Cema sysh.'' "He washes him."<br />
**''Cema '''ys'''.'' "He washes himself."<br />
*''Danai zu duti zur.'' "She read her book." (perhaps someone else owns it)<br />
**''Danai zu duti yr.'' "She read hew own book." (definitely owned by the subject)<br />
*Nominative form is used for emphasizing the head: ''Komai yy sish.'' "He himself did it."<br />
**This also gives the meaning "by oneself" to other persons: ''Komin yy sish!'' "I did it by myself!"<br />
<br />
'''Reciprocal'''<br />
<br />
When something happens similarly between one another, preposition ''sa'' (with someone) is used with the pronoun:<br />
*''Böjomoo bos.'' "We are listening to ourselves."<br />
**''Böjomoo '''sa bor'''.'' "We are listening to one another."<br />
*''Fetus dutesh (votyr) sa votyr.'' "You share (your) books with one another." <br />
<br />
When reciprocal is the indirect object, ''sa'' is not used, only reflexive: <br />
*''Pekos dutesh uci.'' "They give books to one another." (They give books to themselves)<br />
<br />
====''Demonstrative''====<br />
<br />
Pronouns this, these and that, those are used both as demonstratives, but also in relative clause constructions. Of two listed persons (/items) ''cu'' refers to the former and ''cy'' to the latter despite gender.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
! width="80px" |<br />
! width="60px" | PROX.SG<br />
! width="60px" | PROX.PL<br />
! width="60px" | DIST.SG<br />
! width="60px" | DIST.PL<br />
|-<br />
! NOM<br />
|cy<br />
|cufo<br />
|cu<br />
|cifo<br />
|-<br />
! ACC<br />
|cys<br />
|cös<br />
|kush<br />
|kosh<br />
|-<br />
! DAT<br />
|cee<br />
|cuki<br />
|kuee<br />
|ciki<br />
|-<br />
! GEN<br />
|cyr<br />
|cör<br />
|kur<br />
|kor<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Locatives ''kyxu'' "here" and ''cuxu'' "there" can also be conjugated (''Bebi kyxuee.'' "I went there."), but it is not necessary.<br />
<br />
Declined genitive forms are used when demonstrative pronouns act as determiners: ''Ni cyy kelaree.'' vs. ''Ni kekii kelaree cyrii.'' (This is heavy. vs. This rock is heavy.)<br />
<br />
====''Interrogative''====<br />
<br />
If interrogative sentence can't be began with a verb in question form (''so'' + verb), the interrogative pronouns can be used. Often the sentence still begins with the verb or adjunct ''soni?'' "is it?", and interrogative is placed after it.<br />
<br />
''zoo?'' what<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
!|<br />
! NOM || ACC || DAT || GEN<br />
|-<br />
! SG<br />
| zoo<br />
| sos<br />
| soee<br />
| sör<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|shöö<br />
|shök<br />
|shöki<br />
|zör<br />
|}<br />
<br />
To add further meaning to this declined "what?", helping words are used and sometimes written as one word: <br />
*''zoo gy?'' (who?, what person), ''sos gys?'' (whom?), ''soee gyee'' (to whom?) and ''sör gyr?'' (whose?)<br />
*''zoo ci?'' (which place?, declinable) or ''zoxu?'' (where?, LOC)<br />
*''zoo la?'' (what time?, declinable) or ''zax?'' (when?, TEMP)<br />
<br />
Or lone question words: ''zarre?'' (why?), ''zurre?'' (how?), ''zorri?'' (what kind of?) <br />
<br />
PREP is ACC + ''e'' and prepositional expressions are placed after the verb: <br />
*''Jetytse '''kys sose gyse''' cys?'' <br />
**PERF-get-PRES.2SG from what.PREP person-PREP DEM.PROX.ACC <br />
**From whom have you got this?<br />
<br />
Verb questions can be answered either by repeating the same verb and adding the agreement/negation: ''Sovamo Aumax?'' ''Von uu./Sön vom.'' (Do you speak Aoma? I speak indeed./I don't speak.) In a more casual situation one may use short answers: ''Uu./Sö.''<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Noun declension according to two numbers and five cases correlates with the four noun genders which are indicated by the last vowel of nominative singular: <br />
*divine '''a''' <br />
*masculine '''y''' <br />
*feminine '''u''' <br />
*neuter '''i''' <br />
<br />
There are no articles (fused into prepositions), but '''definiteness''' is indicated by lengthening the last vowels: ''tymy'' (a man) → ''tymyy'' (the man). Dative is always thought as definite, but sometimes indefiniteness is emphasized by leaving the second ''e'' out.<br />
<br />
====''Declension''====<br />
<br />
The declension is shown with suffixes added to the stem gotten by removing the nominative vowel ending. Example word endings in all genders/declensions: Divine: ''eharr|a'' (god); Masculine: ''tym|y'' (man); Feminine ''hen|u'' (woman); Neuter: ''dok|i'' (object).<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 375px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 75px; "|<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| Nominative<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| Accusative<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| Dative<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| Genitive<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | D.SG<br />
|a<br />
|ax<br />
|aee<br />
|ar<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | D.PL<br />
|ol<br />
|ox<br />
|oee<br />
|or<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | M.SG<br />
|y<br />
|ys<br />
|yee<br />
|yr<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | M.PL<br />
|uvo<br />
|ösh<br />
|uhee<br />
|ör<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | F.SG<br />
|u<br />
|us<br />
|uee<br />
|ur<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | F.PL<br />
|ivo<br />
|osh<br />
|ihee<br />
|oir<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | N.SG<br />
|i<br />
|ik<br />
|ee<br />
|ir<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | N.PL<br />
|esh<br />
|ek<br />
|ei<br />
|er<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Prepositional''' case is formed by adding ''e'' to the accusative. <br />
<br />
Declensions of Aoma are also called genders although there are some nouns with gender different from declension: ''öhaly'' (night; temporal declension).<br />
<br />
Genitive forms of nouns also agree with all of their heads' forms (compare with [[Aoma#Adjectives|adjectives]]): ''nyy henuur'''yy''' ''(boy of the woman), ''kakky nyyry henuu'''rr'''yy'' (dog of the woman's boy), ''xorri kakkyri nyyrry henuurryy'' (bone of the dog...)<br />
<br />
If a noun stem ends with a vowel, dative endings for SG & PL are the following: ''näe'' & ''nöe'' (Div), ''wie'' & ''yhee'' (M), ''wee'' & ''uhee'' (F), ''jee'' & ''jei'' (N). ''Oma|i'' (coast), ''omajee'' (DAT to the coast) to avoid confucion with other genders. Feminine plural genitive ending is ''wur''.<br />
<br />
On top of the five basic [[Aoma#Case|cases]], Aoma has got two partial cases, locative and temporal, often considered as clitics since they are used with verb infinitives as well.<br />
<br />
=====Plural=====<br />
<br />
Most nouns of any of the four gender have regular plural forms. If a noun happens to be ''plurale tantum'', gender-agreeing ''josh*'' (many) can be used to indicate a larger amount: ''kevol'' (empire) → ''kevol joshol'' (many empires).<br />
<br />
Many animal groups have additional plural forms in nominative (ending added to root):<br />
*Flock of avian creatures: ''eno'': ''nemeno'' (flock of birds)<br />
*School of marine creatures: ''olo'': ''mo'olo'' (school of fish)<br />
*Herd of land creatures: ''epo'': ''pevepo'' (herd of antelopes)<br />
*Swarm of fire creatures: ''iro'': ''nyrriro'' (swarm of nires)<br />
*Flight of light beings: ''ifo'': ''ungarifo'' (flight of yules; northern lights)<br />
*Horde of shadow beings: ''öno'': ''xeföno'' (horde of hums)<br />
*Shoal of spirits: ''ago'': ''iwago'' (shoal of free spirits)<br />
Plural forms of verbs are used with these groups: ''Pep'''ös''' pevepoo hy sakakysee.'' (The herd of antelopes is roaming on the grasslands.)<br />
<br />
=====Case=====<br />
<br />
Collection of case usage:<br />
*'''Nominative''' (NOM): subject of clause<br />
*'''Accusative''' (ACC): direct object of transitive verbs<br />
**Personal passive<br />
*'''Prepositional''' (PREP; from ACC): only with prepositions<br />
*'''Dative''' (DAT): indirect object (for/to)<br />
**Allative (movement to)<br />
**Noun similarity (adjective in NOM)<br />
**With verbs in permissive mood<br />
**Verb constructions e.g. ''wappe töshee'' (to go to war)<br />
*'''Genitive''' (GEN): possession <br />
**Possessive pronouns always agree with their heads but nowadays genitive noun forms rarely agree. However, the formal register reguires complete declension e.g. "woman's objects" ''dokesh henuresh'', ''dokei henurei'' and so forth.<br />
**With many prepositions <br />
**Objects of non-finite verb forms<br />
**Noun comparison with adjectives (comparative)<br />
**Derivation of adjectives<br />
*'''Locative''' (LOC): place<br />
**Mostly with common expressions such as ''gehixu'' (in the house), ''ketyxu'' (in the town).<br />
**There is also a form ''ogehixu'' which means "outside the house"<br />
**Also for more abstract "regarding": ''Aumaxu'' (in Aoma)<br />
*'''Temporal''' (TEMP): time<br />
**Used adverbially to express the moment of time. Mostly occurs in proper temporal nouns although the divine gender shares forms (thus confusing). <br />
**To [[Aoma#Adverbial clauses|adverbialize]] verb infinites<br />
**See [[Aoma#Temporal expressions|expressions of time]]<br />
** Endings: <br />
{|class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!NOM<br />
!ACC<br />
!DAT<br />
!GEN<br />
!TEMP<br />
|-<br />
!SG<br />
|a<br />
|ak<br />
|aee<br />
|ang<br />
|ax<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|ol<br />
|ok<br />
|oee<br />
|ong<br />
|ox<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Compound nouns=====<br />
<br />
Using genitive or dative cases is the most common way of creating compound words, but they can be joined together as well. The strong right-branching of Aoma is visible in the compounds in such manner that, when words are joined together, the head noun stays on the left while modifiers and the origin-suffix ''s*'' with correct head gender succeed it.<br />
*Genitive: ''heshii geedyrii'' "the top of a mountain"<br />
*Dative: ''heshii geedyee'' "the top for the mountain"<br />
*Joined: ''heshigeedysi'' top-mountain-N<br />
**compare English "mountaintop"<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives of Aoma are inflected according to the case and definiteness of their head noun. Most adjectives can be recognised from their ''re'' or ''ri'' ending since they are formed from nouns simply by adding ''e'' to the genitive case. This is sometimes called the adjective case or adjective form of a noun. <br />
<br />
====''Declension''====<br />
<br />
Last vowel remains when declined since it changes the meaning.<br />
<br />
''ire'' (good):<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 300px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 60px; "|<br />
! style="width: 60px; "| NOM<br />
! style="width: 60px; "| ACC<br />
! style="width: 60px; "| DAT<br />
! style="width: 60px; "| GEN<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | SG<br />
|ire<br />
|ireke<br />
|ireki<br />
|irre<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | PL<br />
|ires<br />
|irece<br />
|ireci<br />
|irres<br />
|}<br />
<br />
When the adjective root ends in a consonant different than ''r'', genitive case is created by duplicating the last consonant: ''henu dele'' (beautiful woman), ''gehi henurii de'''ll'''ee'' (house of the beautiful woman). Voiced consonants are reduced to voiceless unless the word might be confused with another. In genitive, the semivowels ''j'' and ''w'' become ''ji'' and ''wu'' respectively.<br />
<br />
Genitive forms of adjectives remain uninflected.<br />
<br />
====''Adverbs''====<br />
<br />
Adverbs, which aren't inflected, are formed from adjectives' SG-GEN forms by changing the last vowel ''e''→''ä'' and ''i''→''a'': ''efire'' → ''efirre'' → ''efirrä'' (happy → of happy → happily). If the last vowel is not ''e'' or ''i'', the adverb is created by adding ''ee'' to the genitive case: ''geeda'' → ''geettaee'' (high → highly)<br />
<br />
====''Comparison''====<br />
<br />
When positive-form adjectives are used as '''predicatives''', they can be placed after nouns, as if common attributes, if there are no other adjectives. The adjective case corresponds with the case of (pro)nouns being referred to: ''Ni dokii kelaree.'' (The object is heavy.); ''Jussa nas efireke'' (It made me happy.) <br />
*However, adjectives usually appear before the noun to clarify the meaning, especially with multiple adjectives: ''Ni kelaree dokii gesharii. Sö milarii.'' (The yellow object is heavy. Not the blue one.)<br />
<br />
'''Adjectives' comparative''' is formed by geminating the ending vowel of SG-GEN, and '''superlative''' by adding ''a(n)'' prefix and ''te'' suffix to the SG-GEN: ''milare'' → ''milarre'''e''''' → '''''a'''milarre'''te''''' (cold, colder, the coldest)<br />
*When two nouns are compared, genitive case is used with the second: ''Nu efirree shyr.'' (She is happier than him.) <br />
*Similarity is shown with adjective in nominative, ''mini'' (SJV it were) and dative: ''Mene geshare mini binuee foreki.'' (You're as lively as your mother.)<br />
<br />
'''Adverbs' comparative''' is formed similarly through vowel lengthening and '''superlative''' by changing the last vowel of corresponding adjective superlative: ''efirrä'' → ''efirrää'' → ''anefirret'''ä''''', (happily → more happily → most happily)<br />
*Adverbs are added directly after the verb they modify: ''Efas efirrä kyy ketysee.'' (They live happily in the town.)<br />
<br />
Negative forms can be created with ''o(w)'' prefix: ''oware'' (non-divine, mundane from ''are'' meaning divine)<br />
<br />
===Table of Correlatives===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!rowspan="2"|Interrogative<br />
!colspan="2"|Demonstrative<br />
!colspan="5"|Quantifier<br />
|-<br />
!Proximal !! Distal !! Existential !! Elective !! Universal !! Negatory !! Alternative<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Determiner<br />
| sör* (SG)<br />zör* (PL) || cyr* (SG)<br />cör* (PL) || kur* (SG)<br />kor* (PL) || jas* (some) || ozis* (any) || rros* (every, all)|| sö* (no) || sod* (another)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3"| Pronoun<br />
!Human<br />
| zoo gy || cy (gy)<br />cufo || cu<br />cifo || sadyy<br />jonu || ozitii || rromaa || södi'ii<br />cysö || soduu<br />jonu sodu<br />
|-<br />
!Non-human <br />
| [[Aoma#Interrogative|zoo]]<br />shöö || cy<br />cufo || cu<br />cifo || sady || oziti || rroma (everything)<br />rromare (all) || södi || sodu<br />
|-<br />
!Out of many<br />
|zoo (of many)<br />¤zosh (of two) || cy latuxu || cu latuxu || ibani<br />sadi || ozosh || rromi (each, all)<br />rromash (both) || zoisö<br />¤zosisö (of two) || soda<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="7"|Pro-adverb<br />
!Locative<br />
| zoxu<br />zoo ci || kyxu || cuxu || saxu || ozoxu || rromaxu || zoxö || soduxu<br />
|-<br />
!Goal<br />
|soee || cee (DAT)<br />kyxuee (LAT) || kuee<br />cuxuee || sadyke || oziteke || rromike || ösoee || soduee<br />
|-<br />
!Temporal<br />
| zax<br />zoo la || fuu || fii || sax || ozax || rromax || özax || sodax<br />
|-<br />
!Prepositional<br />
| sose || cyse || kushe || sadyse || ozitte || rromaxe || söse || soduse<br />
|-<br />
!Manner<br />
| zurre || cyrkoi || kurkoi || sadyrkoi || ozirkoi || rromirkoi || zurköi || sodarkoi<br />
|-<br />
!Reason<br />
| zarre || cyrros || kurros || dyt sansadyre || dut sanozire || dut sanromire || ödut sanike || dut sanike sodike<br />
|-<br />
!Kind of<br />
| zorri (what kind of || cyrre || kurre || sadyre || ozire || rromire || zörri || sodure<br />
|}<br />
* Final * indicates gender agreement: ''mila jas'''a''''' (some water)<br />
*¤-words are not used anymore<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
In Aoma, fusional prepositions also convey the word gender and definiteness through vowel change. Same prepositional stems have different ending consonants which give new meanings together with the case of the following word. Only prepositional and genitive cases are used. Masculine vowel is always ''y'' and feminine & neuter vowel is ''u'' → Dictionary form is divine since it can have either ''a'' or ''o''.<br />
*(NEG +) stem + D/F&N/M + endings '''+''' cases <br />
*''k + a + s'' '''+''' PREP = from: ''kas eharroxe'' (from gods)<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|-<br />
!Stem<br />
| colspan="3" |k<br />
| colspan="2" |w<br />
|ow<br />
| colspan="3" |h<br />
|öw<br />
|s<br />
|os<br />
| colspan="3" |b<br />
| colspan="2" |r<br />
| colspan="2" |n<br />
| colspan="2" |d<br />
|t<br />
|p<br />
|-<br />
!Div<br />
| colspan="3" |a<br />
| colspan="2" |a<br />
|o<br />
| colspan="3" |a<br />
|o<br />
|a<br />
|o<br />
| colspan="3" |o<br />
| colspan="2" |o<br />
| colspan="2" |a<br />
| colspan="2" |o<br />
|a<br />
|o<br />
|-<br />
!Ending<br />
|k<br />
| <br />
|s<br />
|<br />
|t<br />
|t<br />
|e<br />
|<br />
|s<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|l<br />
|it<br />
|t<br />
|t<br />
|l<br />
|t<br />
|l<br />
|t<br />
|l<br />
|s<br />
|k<br />
|-<br />
!Case<br />
| G<br />
| colspan="2" | P<br />
|G<br />
|P<br />
|P<br />
|G<br />
|colspan="2" |P<br />
|G<br />
|G<br />
|G<br />
|G<br />
|PL.P<br />
|P<br />
|P<br />
|G<br />
|P<br />
|G<br />
|P<br />
|G<br />
|P<br />
|P<br />
|-<br />
!Meaning<br />
|into, towards<br />
|at, near<br />
|from, away<br />
|as<br />
|inside<br />
|outside<br />
|over<br />
|on<br />
|about<br />
|under<br />
|with someone<br />
|without<br />
|during<br />
|in the middle of<br />
|between<br />
|in front of<br />
|before<br />
|behind<br />
|after<br />
|with (instrument)<br />
|along<br />
|across, opposite<br />
|through<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In casual language, the consonant endings are often omitted if the case differs: ''ku gehike'' (near the house) and ''kuk gehir'' (into the house) which becomes ''ku gehir'' (to the house), but still ''kus gehike'' (from the house). It is also possible to use dative ''gehee'' for "to the house".<br />
<br />
Bare, ''r''-ending genitive is used with prepositions.<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs are conjugated according to person, number, tense, aspect, mood which are indicated by suffixes, prefixes and reduplication. <br />
<br />
====''Conjugation Tables''====<br />
<br />
The conjugation stem is received by removing the last syllable, and then endings are added to its place. Vowel preserved in conjugation is bolded.<br />
<br />
=====Class I=====<br />
<br />
Verbs whose infinite ends in vowel ''a'', ''o'' or ''e''.<br />
<br />
'''Ia)''' last vowel ''a/o'': ''tol|l'''a''''' (see)<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 75px; "|<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG.POL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL.POL<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | Present simple<br />
|tol'''a'''n<br />
|tolu<br />
|tol'''a'''<br />
|tolom <br />
|tolus<br />
|tolos<br />
|toltu<br />
|toltus<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | Past simple<br />
|tolin<br />
|tolui<br />
|tol'''a'''i<br />
|tolimo<br />
|toluis<br />
|tolosi<br />
|tolti<br />
|toltis<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | Future<br />
|tol'''a'''ran<br />
|tolrau<br />
|tol'''a'''s<br />
|tolramo<br />
|tolrus<br />
|tol'''a'''ros<br />
|toltaru<br />
|toltarus<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Ib)''' last vowel ''e'', often intransitive (& anticausative): e.g. ''rok|ke'' (run):<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 75px; "|<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG.POL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL.POL<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | Present simple<br />
| rokeng<br />
|roke<br />
|rok<br />
| rokem<br />
| rokes<br />
|rokös<br />
|rokite<br />
|rokites<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | Past simple<br />
| roking<br />
| rokei<br />
| roki<br />
|rokim<br />
| rokis<br />
|rokösi<br />
| roketi<br />
|roketis<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | Future<br />
| rokeran<br />
| rokraa<br />
| rokase<br />
| rokrom<br />
|rokres<br />
| rokrös<br />
|roktare<br />
|roktares<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Words of conjugations '''Ia''' & '''Ib''' often come in transitive-intransitive pairs so that switching the last vowel from ''a/o'' to ''e'' gives anticausative meaning: ''Ema sish'' (He moves it <''emma'') to ''Em xi'' (It moves <''emme'')<br />
<br />
=====Class II=====<br />
<br />
The only Aoman verbs whose infinite forms end in consonants ''m'' or ''s''.<br />
<br />
'''IIa)''' last consonant ''m'': ''s'''u'''m'' (eat) (''a'' in parenthesis is added in difficult pronunciation e.g. with plosive consonants)<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 75px; "|<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG.POL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL.POL<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | Present simple<br />
|s'''u'''n<br />
|s(a)m'''u'''<br />
| s'''u'''<br />
| s'''u'''mo(o)<br />
|s(a)m'''u'''s<br />
|s'''u'''s<br />
|s'''u'''tu<br />
|s(a)m'''u'''tu<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | Past simple<br />
|s'''u'''in<br />
|s(a)m'''u'''i<br />
| s'''u'''i<br />
| s'''u'''im<br />
|s(a)m'''u'''is<br />
|s'''u'''is<br />
|s'''u'''tti<br />
|s(a)m'''u'''tti<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | Future<br />
| s'''u'''ran<br />
|s'''u'''ra<br />
| s'''u'''as<br />
| s'''u'''rom<br />
|s'''u'''rus<br />
|s'''u'''ros<br />
|s'''u'''rta<br />
|s'''u'''rasa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''IIb)''' last syllable ''tes''/''kes''/''hes'' (→ z, x, sh) e.g. ''ty|tes'' (get):<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 75px; "|<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG.POL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL.POL<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | Present simple<br />
| tyten<br />
|tytse=tyze<br />
|tyte<br />
| tytöm<br />
| tyzes<br />
|tytös<br />
|tyzite<br />
|tyzites<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | Past simple<br />
| tyt(e)in<br />
| tyzei<br />
| tytei<br />
| tytöim<br />
|tyzeis<br />
| tytöis<br />
|tyzeti<br />
|tyzetis<br />
|-<br />
! style="" | Future<br />
| tyteran<br />
| tyzera<br />
| tytas<br />
| tyterom<br />
|tyzerus<br />
| tyteros<br />
|tyzare<br />
|tyzares<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Passive forms of verbs are also conjugated as the IIa. Noun-based verbs which carry the meaning of "turning something into..." get the ''hes'' ending.<br />
<br />
=====Class III=====<br />
<br />
Small class of verbs with last vowel ''u'', and in future tense, their vowel-consonant-cluster is swapped as in class II. <br />
<br />
'''IIIa)''' no ''y'' in declension: ''t'''os'''|su'' (to encounter)<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
! width="80px" |<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG.POL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL.POL<br />
|-<br />
! PRES<br />
|tosun <br />
|tosu <br />
|tos <br />
|tosumu <br />
|tosus <br />
|tostus <br />
|tositu <br />
|tosutus<br />
|-<br />
! PST<br />
|toisun<br />
|tousi<br />
|tosi<br />
|tosimu<br />
|tosis<br />
|tostis<br />
|tosuti<br />
|tosutis<br />
|-<br />
!FUT<br />
|tu'''so'''run<br />
|tusoru<br />
|tusos<br />
|tusormu<br />
|tusorus<br />
|tustorus<br />
|tusiru<br />
|tusurus<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''IIIb)''' ''y'' appears in future and polite: ''t'''el'''|lu'' (to have)<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
! width="80px" |<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG.POL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL.POL<br />
|-<br />
! PRES<br />
|telun <br />
|telu <br />
|tel <br />
|telumu <br />
|telus <br />
|teltus <br />
|telitu <br />
|telytys<br />
|-<br />
! PST<br />
|teil<br />
|teuli<br />
|teli<br />
|telimu<br />
|telis<br />
|teltis<br />
|teluti<br />
|telytis<br />
|-<br />
!FUT<br />
|ty'''le'''run<br />
|tyleru<br />
|tylus<br />
|tylermu<br />
|tylerus<br />
|tylterus<br />
|tyliru<br />
|tylyrus<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Class IIII=====<br />
<br />
The '''irregular''' class has verbs with multiple forms often deriving from suppletion (use of other words in conjugation) or through phonemic changes occurred during long history. <br />
<br />
'''''men|na''''' (to be); 3SG PRES makes a distinction between genders and animacy, and formal situations require longer forms (in parentheses).<br />
* Indicative<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible" style="width: 580px; text-align: center"<br />
! width="100px" |<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG.POL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL.POL<br />
|-<br />
! PRES<br />
|(a)ma(n)<br />
|(me)ne<br />
|ny/nu/ni<br />
|anem<br />
|mete<br />
|niso<br />
|Menite<br />
|Mewyte<br />
|-<br />
! PRES PERF<br />
|nang<br />
|namet<br />
|nait<br />
|naom<br />
|namest<br />
|narast<br />
|nantet<br />
|nautest<br />
|-<br />
! PST<br />
|mi(n)<br />
|meni<br />
|nii<br />
|nomi<br />
|meti<br />
|nisi<br />
|mite<br />
|myti<br />
|-<br />
! PST IPFV<br />
|bomiin<br />
|bomeen<br />
|bonnii<br />
|bonoomi<br />
|bomeeti<br />
|bomiisi<br />
|bomiite<br />
|bomyyte<br />
|-<br />
! PST PERF<br />
|mamin<br />
|mameni<br />
|manit<br />
|manomit<br />
|mametit<br />
|manisit<br />
|mamitet<br />
|mamytit<br />
|-<br />
! FUT<br />
|moraa<br />
|mere<br />
|mes<br />
|moram<br />
|meret<br />
|meras<br />
|merte<br />
|merety<br />
|-<br />
! FUT IPFV<br />
|boraa<br />
|bomeere<br />
|bomees<br />
|boram<br />
|bomereet<br />
|bomeraas<br />
|bomertee<br />
|bomerati<br />
|-<br />
! FUT PERF<br />
|jemorat<br />
|jemeret<br />
|jemest<br />
|jemorant<br />
|jemereti<br />
|jemerast<br />
|jemerteki<br />
|jemeretyki<br />
|}<br />
* Conditional<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width: 580px; text-align: center"<br />
! width="100px" |<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG.POL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL.POL<br />
|-<br />
! PRES<br />
|eman<br />
|emane<br />
|enni<br />
|menam<br />
|menate<br />
|mennais<br />
|Menante<br />
|Menantys<br />
|-<br />
! PST<br />
|menain<br />
|menani<br />
|mennii<br />
|menaim<br />
|menati<br />
|menanis<br />
|mennate<br />
|mennyti<br />
|-<br />
! FUT<br />
|menera<br />
|menare<br />
|meras<br />
|meneram<br />
|menares<br />
|menaros<br />
|menerte<br />
|menerty<br />
|}<br />
* Present and present imperfective are the same<br />
* Subjunctive: ''me'' + IND for 1st and 2nd person, but ''mi'' + IND for 3rd person<br />
* Eventive: ''em'' + COND<br />
* Gerund (being): ''benimi''<br />
* Present active participle (being): ''menamo''<br />
* Past passive participle (been): ''mai''<br />
<br />
'''''wap|pe''''' (to go)<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width: 580px; text-align: center"<br />
! width="80px" |<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3SG<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3PL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2SG.POL<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2PL.POL<br />
|-<br />
! PRES<br />
|wapeng<br />
|wape<br />
|wap<br />
|wapemo<br />
|wapes<br />
|wapos<br />
|Poweti<br />
|Powyty<br />
|-<br />
! PST<br />
|bebing<br />
|bebee<br />
|bebi<br />
|bebimo<br />
|bebis<br />
|bebosi<br />
|beneti<br />
|benyty<br />
|-<br />
! PST IMPV<br />
|bobing<br />
|bobei<br />
|bobii<br />
|bobimo<br />
|bobiis<br />
|boboosi<br />
|boletii<br />
|bolytyy<br />
|-<br />
! FUT<br />
|paran<br />
|paraa<br />
|pas<br />
|parom<br />
|pares<br />
|paros<br />
|patare<br />
|patarys<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====''Aspects''====<br />
<br />
'''Imperfective''' (continuous) is formed by adding prefixes ''bo'' for Ia & IIa or ''be'' for the others to the conjugated form and often also lengthening the last vowel: ''Pekin''→''Bopekiin'' (I gave → I was giving)<br />
<br />
'''Perfect''' (rather tense-like) prefixes: ''ju'' for Ia & IIIa, ''ma'' for IIa & IIII and ''je'' for Ib & IIb & IIIb: ''Roke'' → ''Jeroke'' (You run → You have run). Combines tense and aspects <br />
<br />
Ancestral past in the third person is used when discussing ancient historical events and it is formed by adding the prefix ''ne'' to pluperfect (past perfect) form: ''Komai sish.'' → ''Jukomai sish.'' → ''Nejukomai sish.'' (He did it. → He had done it. → He had done it a long time ago. / It was done eons ago.)<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Present !! Past !! Future<br />
|-<br />
!Simple <br />
| leteng (I walk) || leting (I walked) || leteran (I'll walk)<br />
|-<br />
! Imperfective <br />
| beleteng (I'm walking) || beleting (I was walking) || beleteran (I'll be walking)<br />
|-<br />
! Perfect <br />
| jeleteng (I've walked) || jeleting (I had walked) || jeleteran (I will have walked)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====''Moods''====<br />
<br />
Neutral '''indicative''' is shown in the tables above and other moods are derived from it:<br />
*Plain '''imperative''' (suprahortative) is simply the PRES.2SG form: ''Roke!'' (Run!)<br />
**Longer imperative is formed by using the indicative PRES.3SG verb form together with a pronoun: '''''Peko foo''' sish naee!'' (You give it to me!)<br />
**'''Prohibitive''' is formed similarly with negative verb [[Aoma#Negation|''söm'']] and infinite of the main verb.<br />
*'''Optative''' (cohortative; imprecative with ''söm'') is used for requests and as a polite imperative (precative). It is formed by joining PRES.3SG and conjugated ''komma'' (to do): ''Peko'''komu''' sish naee.'' (Could you give it to me.)<br />
**'''Permissive''' is used by those with higher social status for giving permissions to members of lower social classes. It is formed by using optative 3SG with second person pronoun datives: ''Rokkoma votei.'' (You all are allowed to run.) With 1st person datives it is antihonorific while with 3rd person datives it expresses indifference: ''Wapkoma shye.'' (It doesn't matter if he goes.)<br />
**'''Volitive''' is intended for wishes and created by using honorifics ''haa/hää'' (SG/PL) with optative 3SG and (polite) datives: ''Hää'ijikoma Iwaa Weteki!'' (May the Light shine for all of You!)<br />
*'''Conditional''' of conditional sentence apodoses is formed through final right-to-left reduplication and then conjugated normally: ''pekkokko'', ''vomvom'', ''tyte(s)tes'' so that ''Pekkokom'' means "We would give".<br />
*'''Subjunctive''' (potential), which is used to express possibility as well as in some dependent clauses, is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication, but always with CV or VC parts of the first syllable: ''pepekko'', ''vovom'', ''tytytes'', ''ejejom''<br />
**Double reduplication (subjunctive+conditional) gives a mood similar to '''eventive''' and it is used in conditional sentence protasis and speculatives: ''Pekkokoran '''tetellulun'''.'' (I would give '''if I had'''.) (notice also the future tense of apodosis)<br />
*'''Interrogative''' is the question form of verbs which is created by adding the prefix ''so'': ''Vamo Vosokusik.'' → ''Sovamo Aumax?'' (You speak English. → Do you speak Aoma?) Stress remains on the verb but pitch rises towards the end.<br />
**Combination of interrogative and subjunctive gives indirect '''propositive''': ''Sowawapemo?'' (Should we go? It might be time for us to go...)<br />
**See the [[Aoma#Interrogative|interrogative pronouns]]<br />
<br />
====''Negation''====<br />
<br />
Aoma has a conjugated negative verb '''''söm''''' which is otherwise conjugation IIa, but has special forms for future and polite 2nd person (present, past, future): <br />
*Future: sörön, sörö, sör, söröm, sörys, sörös<br />
*2SG.POL: suvannoo, suvennoi, suvannaa<br />
*2PL.POL: suvummoo, suvimmoi, suvummaa<br />
Notice how ''suvan'' also means "I'm sorry".<br />
<br />
''Söm'' is used as an auxiliary together with the infinite form of a verb: ''Soleran.'' (I will come.) → ''Sörön solle.'' (I won't come.)<br />
<br />
''Sö'' also means "no".<br />
<br />
====''Non-finite forms''====<br />
<br />
'''Infinitive''' is the dictionary form of verbs in Aoma which is used in [[Aoma#Dependent|subordinate clauses]] and with auxiliary verbs: ''danna'' (to read) → ''jun danna'' (I can read).<br />
*Declension: vowel-ending forms follow temporal declension; infinites with ''s'' or ''m'' ending use their PRES.3SG forms: ''sum'' → ''sux'' (to eat → while eating) <br />
<br />
'''Gerund''' which describes the act of doing: (''ba(')'' +) INF + ''mi''<br />
*The gerund is inflected according to neuter gender: ''Bodenan '''ba'ysollomik'''.'' (I enjoy '''drawing''')<br />
**Direct objects of gerund get genitive case: ''Bodenan ba'ysollomik koser.'' (I enjoy drawing buildings)<br />
<br />
'''Present active participle''' as an attribute: INF + ''po''<br />
*Attributes follow their heads, and objects of participle get a bare genitive case: ''gy '''dannapo''' duter'' (a book-'''reading''' person)<br />
**Adjective-like inflection: ''dutesh gör '''dannappo''' duter'' (books of book-reading people)<br />
*If the head is possessed, the genitive comes between the head noun and the verb participle with its object: ''tymy '''henury''' musihespo musir'' (food-cooking man of a woman)<br />
**Compare with ''tymy henuryy musihe'''ss'''oo musiir'' (a man of the food-cooking woman) where definiteness and genitive declension have been used to change the meaning.<br />
<br />
'''Past passive participle''': INF + ''na'' or INF + ''ma'' for IIa<br />
*Attributive: ''duti '''duutesna''' cerra'' (slowly '''written''' book)<br />
**Divine gender inflection: ''Bodanan essä dutiik duutesnax cerra.'' (I'm reading the slowly written book fast.)<br />
<br />
====Passive Voice====<br />
<br />
In Aoma, there are ways for creating passive voices:<br />
*'''1st Passive''' (Impersonal): Passive infinite and derived forms: ''rokke'' → '''''bu'''rokke'''m''''', ''nyhe'''s''''' → ''bunyhe'''m'''''<br />
**Present tense for general truths: ''Buefam ketixu.'' (Cities are lived in.)<br />
**Imperfective aspect may show current conditions (notice the IIa conjugation morpheme): ''Bu'''bo'''rokkem ogehixu bor.'' (Some people are running outside our house.)<br />
**Perfect aspect may indicate how things used to be: ''Bu'''na'''kommam irrä.'' (Things used to be done well.)<br />
**Subjunctive mood for how things could be: ''Bu'''ef'''efam kyxu.'' (Here could one live.)<br />
*'''2nd Passive''' (Personal): Conjugated construct from the 1st passive (with accusative pronoun): ''Tolla'' → ''Butollam'' → ''Butollan.'' (I am seen.) and ''Sum'' → ''Busumum'' → ''Busumu musik.'' (Food is eaten.)<br />
**Can be thought as present passive participle after nominative noun: ''musi busumu'' (eatable food)<br />
**"Be made/forced to do something" with imperfective aspect and accusative: ''Buborokkein nas.'' (I was forced to run.)<br />
**Gives verbs other meanings as well (deponent verbs): ''Jussa'' (make, cause to be) → ''Bujussam'' (become) → ''Bujussa shy tööreke.'' (He became angry.)<br />
*'''Past passive participle''' with nouns (see non-finite forms above): ''Gehish '''gollanol''' irrä'' (Houses '''been built''' well.)<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
<br />
In Aoma, there are only modal auxiliary verbs which are followed by verb infinites. Only the auxiliaries are conjugated, conveying the tense, aspect and mood as well.<br />
<br />
Basic verbs include: ''jum'' (can, be able to), ''nom'' (must, need to), ''gam'' (be going to)<br />
<br />
===Derivational Morphology===<br />
<br />
Aoma uses suffixes, gemination and apophony to create new words from existing ones. Same noun stems often occur in all four genders. Most important are the eight elemental nouns, for example ''gesha'' (life):<br />
*(divine noun, verb, (secondary verb,) masculine, feminine, neuter, adjective form, colour form)<br />
*''gesha'' (life), ''gesse'' (live), ''geshy'' (brain), ''geshu'' (heart), ''geshi'' (nature), ''geshare'' (lively, active), ''geshari'' (yellow)<br />
<br />
This is taken even further when adjectives are derived from the already derived nouns in other genders, for example ''mily'' (sailor) → ''milyre'' (wet, "sailor-like")<br />
<br />
====Suffixes====<br />
<br />
'''Verb → Noun''' (endings to PRES.3SG)<br />
*Abstract, happening: ''si'': ''mille'' (to rain) → ''mil'' (it rains) → ''mil'''si''''' (rain)<br />
*Doer, cause: ''(a)ky/ku/ki'': ''duuteku'' (woman writer, authoress), ''ket'''a'''ki'' (thrower) <br />
<br />
'''Verb → Adjective''' (from INF)<br />
*[[Aoma#Non-finite_forms|Participles]]<br />
*Doable: ''(j)e'': ''nirrraje'' (burnable), ''sume'' (eatable)<br />
*Tendency: ''pi'': ''ijempi'' (creative)<br />
<br />
'''Adjective → Verb''' (from NOM)<br />
*Turn something into (TR): ''mma'': ''xaremma'' (strengthen as in "I shall strengthen it")<br />
*Turn oneself into (INTR, INCH): ''mme'': ''iwaremme'' (brighten as in "it is brightening")<br />
<br />
'''Adjective → Adjective'''<br />
*Slightly: ''ni'': ''ennarini'' (greenish)<br />
*Becoming: combining ''mme'' + ''pi'': ''ohaasa kelarim(me)pi'' (reddening evening)<br />
<br />
'''Adjective → Noun'''<br />
*Concept, quality: ''su'': ''iresu'' (goodness)<br />
<br />
'''Noun → Verb''' (from NOM)<br />
*Tool, characteristic way: ''m'': ''bemim'' (ride boat), ''önym'' (hunt)<br />
*Turn something into, add: ''hes'': ''zykihes'' (turn into field, plough), ''musihes'' (turn into food, cook)<br />
<br />
'''Noun → Adjective''' (endings to SG-GEN)<br />
*Similarity, having something: ''e'': ''ennare'' (airy)<br />
*Abstraction, colour: ''i'': ''ennari'' (green)<br />
*Origin: INF + ''si'': ''Herookusi'' (Herookuan, from Herooku)<br />
*Material: ''o'': ''kuuturo'' (wooden) (ultima stressed)<br />
*Full of, having something: ''ro'': ''kuutur'ro'' (full of trees) (penult stressed), ''döpir'ro'' (poisonous)<br />
*Absence: ''ö''+ N-SG-GEN +''ö'': ''ökuuturö'' (treeless)<br />
<br />
'''Noun → Noun''' (to INF; ''i''-ending might be omitted if the suffix and root consonants are the same)<br />
*Place, region, collection: ''tu'': ''dutitu''/''duttu'' (library), ''miinutu'' (archipelago)<br />
**More geographical: ''cu'': ''Okucu'' (Northern Land)<br />
*Large collection, throng:'' (')ivo'': ''acoxivo'' (bank); *X > M.PL, F.PL, *thymy'ivo > tymuvo<br />
**See also the irregular [[Aoma#Plural|plurals]].<br />
*Relation, emotional attitude (+DAT): ''cy'': ''copucy'' (friendship), ''Ny nyshacy naee.'' (He is my loved one.), ''Nu tööcy naee!'' (She is the cause of my anger!)<br />
*Origin (as above), person: ''sa/sy/su/si'': ''Herookusy'' (Herookuan man)<br />
*Diminutive: ''ni'': ''kuutuni'' (bush)<br />
**Sometimes ''a'' → ''y'' → ''u'' → ''i'': ''eharry'' (deity), ''eharru'' (saint), ''eharri'' (priest, devout worshiper)<br />
*Augmentative: ''a(')''+ N +''ta'': ''ahenuta'' (matriarch)<br />
**Often to emphasize the elements and gods: ''A'iwata'' (Element of Light, God Light of all lightlisteners), ''Ahallata'' (Sun God Halla of believers of Halla in the east)<br />
**Or opposite to diminutive letter change ("up the ladder"): ''keku'' (stone), ''keky'' (bedrock), ''keka'' (continent; foundation (mainly abstract)), ''Akekata'' (Grundet (material))<br />
<br />
====Prefixes==== <br />
<br />
Originating from prepositions; can be combined with nouns, verbs and adjectives.<br />
*Negative, opposite (especially with adjectives & adverbs): ''o(w)'': ''oxare'' (weak)<br />
**Also ''ö'': ''ökevi'' (night sky)<br />
*Again, repeat, re-: ''sa'': ''samillo'' (irrigate, remoisten)<br />
*Together, com-: ''su'': ''sumenne'' (consist)<br />
*Internal, into, intra-: ''fa'': ''faketyre'' (inside town walls, urban)<br />
*External, out, extra-: ''vo'': ''vokevore'' (outside empire borders, foreign)<br />
*Between, middle, inter-: ''po'': ''porranol'' (between Grundet and Spiritual World or planets, intermundane)<br />
*Around, circum-: ''ke'': ''ke'cala'' (circumstellar)<br />
*Across, trans-: ''ta'': ''tamilire'' (transoceanic)<br />
*Over, above, high, super-: ''au'': ''auga'' (spellcaster; < *augam "who thinks highly")<br />
**Also ''(h)a'': ''hakora'' (temple, high-shrine)<br />
*Under, below, low, sub-: ''wö'': ''wökelare'' (subterranean)<br />
*Preceding, pre-: ''ro'': ''rotolla'' (foresee)<br />
*Succeeding, post-: ''na'': ''natöshi'' (postwar period)<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
Nowadays, numbers use decimal system, but according to Mikannan academy, the system was originally of base twelve also known as dozenal (''12 nasos, 24 nonnanos''), even though there was a special mark for twelve which is still used. Arruumunian school of numerologists has proposed that six was the ancient base just as in Rinap (''6 mausol, 36 mamasos''), while Eetioshians claim it was eight (''8 nowol, 16 nosos''), the number of all elements when they separated light and darkness from life and death in favour of Lightlisteners' beliefs. According to Memerrian scholars of Negovia, six is the true base of our universe and must have been the original. Use of eight came later from coastal peoples of Sceptre. When all of this is combined, a quite difficult system arises.<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|+Cardinal Numbers<br />
|-<br />
|1||ibani||11||mawis||21||notesbanis||||||||<br />
|-<br />
|2||noris||12||nasos||22||notesnoris||||||200||nori(co)totesh<br />
|-<br />
|3||conis||13||macis||23||notesconis||36||mamasos||300||coni(co)totesh<br />
|-<br />
|4||toris||14||mathis||24||nonnasos||40||vorwesh||400||tori(co)totesh<br />
|-<br />
|5||fonis||15||mafis||25||notesfonis||50||fomesh||500||foni(co)totesh<br />
|-<br />
|6||mausol||16||nonos||26||notesmasis||60||mausesh||600||mautosh<br />
|-<br />
|7||mabis||17||mopis||27||notesmabis||70||mabesh||700||mabi(co)totesh<br />
|-<br />
|8||nowol||18||casos||28||notesnovis||80||nowolesh||800||nowo(co)totesh<br />
|-<br />
|9||noltis||19||cashis||29||notesnoltis||90||noltesh||900||nolti(co)totesh<br />
|-<br />
|10||metesh||20||notesh||30||vimesh||100||totesh||1000||mopesh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Other numerals====<br />
*''Or'' (0), ''meemopesh'' (10 000), ''toomopesh'' (100 000), ''hammesh'' (1 000 000) and ''meeresh'' (1 000 000 000).<br />
*When used in larger numbers, ''ibani'', ''mausos'' and ''nowol'' turn into ''banis'', ''masis'' and ''novis'': ''notesbanis'' "twenty-one"<br />
*As a multiplier for powers of ten, the cardinal number gets a ''co'' (/skɔ/ though sometimes reduced into /kɔ/) ending seen in the table above, though in casual language ''co'' is elided. ''Mauco'' is that of six: ''maucomeemopesh'' (sixty thousand), but '''''muuposh''''' (six thousand)<br />
**Also alone: ''banico'' "once", ''norico'' "twice" and so on<br />
*When added together, the /ʃ/-ending of large numbers changes to simple /s/: ''ni vimesh i ibani a vimesbanis'' "thirty plus one is thirty-one"<br />
*In large numbers, stops can be used to separate the powers of ten except in numbers smaller than hundred: ''fonicomopes'fonicototes'fomesfonis'' "5555"<br />
*Notice that in text, beginning of hundred (10-) may be written the special mark ([[media:Bocoere.JPG|chart]]) for ten with a dot overhead up to 112 as it is used especially for marking years in decorational calendars. Same goes for thousand, but the vertical line is doubled.<br />
<br />
====Ordinal Numbers====<br />
*''Waci'' "first", ''nohi'' "second", ''wauti'' "sixth", ''nousti'' "eigth", ''meeshti'' "tenth" which are used in larger ordinal numbers as wel.<br />
* Others are created by adding ''te'' (and changing /ʃ/ to /s/) to the powers of ten (before stops) and the last single cardinal (or changing it to corresponding ordinal): ''coniste'' "3rd", ''toteste''' "100th", ''noteswaci'' "21st", ''conicototeste'vorwes(te)wausti'' "346", ''noricomopeste'noricototeste'notesnohi'' "2222th"<br />
** With growing popularity, keeping /ʃ/ can be used to indicate that the number is ordinal: ''mopeshtoteshmawiste'' "1111th" instead of ''mopeste'toteste'mawiste''<br />
*In texts, ordinal indicator ''.e'' is used only for longer ordinal numbers and special forms are always written: ''hala nohi'' (second day), ''hala 15.e'' (15th day)<br />
<br />
====Fractions====<br />
*''noti'' "one half", ''cotu'' "one third", ''tootu'' "one quarter", ''footu'' "one fifth", ''muutu'' "one sixth" and ''nototu'' "one eighth"<br />
*With others, ''tu'' is added to the cardinal number: ''metesh'' → ''meteshtu'' (one tenth) (sometimes the endings ''eshtu'' → ''essu'' and ''eshtivo'' → ''essivo'')<br />
*Larger parts are created with the ''co'' multiplier form (explained in the "Other numerals" section), stop and plural: ''norico'cotivo'' "two thirds", ''mabico'meteshtivo'' or ''mabimetessivo'' (seven tenths)<br />
*In case of declension: ''pati '''notiri''' sinirri'' (juice of half a lemon)<br />
<br />
====Declension====<br />
Numerals always agree with their heads' case, and while cardinal numbers always preceed it, ordinal numbers are often placed after the head:<br />
*''i'' ending ''ibani'' is singular and follows neuter gender declination unless used as an attributive when it also change gender: ''ibanyee tymyee'' (for one man), ''ibanuee henuee'' (for one woman). Notice plural use: ''Ibanivo saucivo rromaee!'' (One beer for each and everyone!)<br />
**special ordinal numbers such as ''nohi'' are in this group as well: ''halax '''wautax''' nirrarex'' (on the sixth hot day)<br />
*''is'' ending plural numbers follow related adjective declension: ''dyt '''norice''' pamöshe xarece'' (with two strong hands)<br />
**''os'' decline similarly: ''nasoci guhee'' (for twelve people)<br />
*''ol'' indicates divine gender plural forms: ''mausol bebiwalol'' (six astrological ritual days)<br />
*''esh'' ending numbers are declined according to neuter plural declension: ''gehii '''meterii''' görii'' (the house of ten people) <br />
*''osh'' final ''mautosh'' and ''muuposh'' are as feminine gender in their forms: ''nal muupor jeelong'' (after six thousand years)<br />
*''e'' ending ordinals follow the common adjective declension: ''has Taulaxe 7.eke'' (about Taula VII)<br />
*Temporal case is created by changing cardinal number ''s/sh''-ending into ''x'' or with ordinals simply by adding ''x''.<br />
<br />
====Arithmetic operations====<br />
*''Peko'' (get) is used for "equals". Although grammatically numbers should be in accusative, they are kept in nominative case.<br />
*Addition, conjugated ''fatto'' (add) with ''i'' (and): ''Fato ibani i noris, peko conis.'' (Add one and two, get three.), or simply ''Noris i noris peko toris.'' (two plus two is four)<br />
*Substraction, conjugated ''vonetto'' (remove) with ''kus'' (from): ''Voneto ibani kus norice, peko ibani.'' (Remove one from two, get one.), or without the ''voneto''<br />
*Multiplication, number and "how many times": ''Noris conico, peko mausol.'' (Two thrice, get six.)<br />
*Division, number in locative fraction (see above) or fraction multiplied: ''Noris tootuxu, peko noti.''/''Tootuxu norico, peko noti.'' (Two in one quarter,/ Two times one quarter, gives one half.)<br />
*Exponent, ''ne'' (take), ''jee'' (for itself) and "how many times": ''Ne noris jee conico, peko nowol.'' (Take two for itself thrice, get eigth.)<br />
<br />
===Temporal expressions===<br />
<br />
Temporal case is used for expressing that something happens during or around a specific point in time: ''anasax'' (in the morning), ''halaax'' (today, on this day), ''jeelax'' (this year). Plural temporal forms by themselves indicate habitual behavior: ''haloox'' (every day, during daytime), ''jeelox'' (every year).<br />
<br />
It can be combined with plural dative and genitive cases: <br />
*TEMP+case: ''norix haloxaee'' (in two days' time) and ''conix jeelox(ang)'' (for three years)<br />
*case+TEMP: ''norix haloeex'' (next two days) and ''conix jeelongx'' /jɛ:lɔŋs/ (three years ago)<br />
*case+TEMP+case: ''conix jeelongxaee'' /jɛ:lɔŋksæeˑ/ (for last three years)<br />
<br />
The use of following temporal determiners is however more commonplace:<br />
*''wanga'' (last, before present): ''Soling kyxuee jeelax wangax.'' (I came here last year.), ''wangaax'' (last time)<br />
**''rowanga'' (previous, preceding an moment in past or future): ''Bomiin ösumyre rolax ros masöin sum irrä halax rowangax.'' (I was hungry yesterday for I hadn't eaten well on the previous day.)<br />
*''zuupa'' (next, after present): ''hezalax zuupax'' (during next month), ''zuupaax'' (next time)<br />
**''nazuupa'' (following, succeeding an moment in past or future): ''Lehen bebosi halax nazuupax.'' (I know they left on the following day.)<br />
*''dola'' (since): ''dolax jeelax wangax'' (since last year)<br />
*''banico'' (once): ''banicox hezalax'' (once in a month) also ''hezalox'' (monthly)<br />
<br />
In polite language, ordinal [[Aoma#Numerals|numbers]] of dates also receive an ''x''-ending: ''(halax) casoste'''x''' hezalax Reetyr'' (on the 18th (day) of Horse month). Cardinal numbers get a temporal case through final ''s/sh'' being changed into ''x'': ''noris halol'' (two days) → ''norix halox'' (for two days).<br />
<br />
See the description of [[Aoma/Calendar|calendar system]].<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
A few topics about sentence construction not properly discussed above.<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
*Preposition (agrees with gender) <br />
*Cardinal number (agrees with all) <br />
*'''Head noun''' & declension & definiteness <br />
*Ordinal number (agrees with all) <br />
*Adjectives (all agree with case, and some with gender as well)<br />
*Genitive noun (agrees all)<br />
*Possessive pronoun (agrees all)<br />
*Participle & its objects<br />
<br />
<br />
Simple sentences have Verb-Subject-Object order. Since the verbs are conjugated, pronoun dropping is common unless required by the verb structure.<br />
*Negative verb comes before the head verb.<br />
*Questions may begin with interrogative words instead of verbs, but in those cases there is still tendency to begin with adjunct ''soni'' (is it?).<br />
*Adverbs come straight after their head verb (even with non-finite form).<br />
*Dependent clauses are usually located at the end of the main clause unless other information (such as time and location) of the main clause requires space.<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
<br />
====Independent====<br />
<br />
Independent clauses follow the rules mentioned above and<br />
*Nominative-accusative alignment: subject in nominative and direct object in accusative<br />
*Indirect object in dative: ''Pekoran waa sish '''shye'''.'' (I'll give it '''to him'''.)<br />
<br />
====Conjuntion====<br />
<br />
Coordinating conjunctions: <br />
*''I'' (and) is often omitted and replaced with a short pause indicated with comma: ''Bebing rolax (kuk) cuxu, (i) tola shy nas lettepo.'' (I went there yesterday, and he saw me walking.)<br />
*''Is'' (but): Bomiin cuxu, is söin tolla sysh.'' (I was there, but I didn't see him.)<br />
*''Ros'' (for), indicating reason: ''Sui zu, ros nii musi josi cuxu.'' (She ate, for there was much food.). <br />
**Can be used together with ''i'', but then ''ros'' is placed after the first verb: ''Sui zu, i nii ros musi josi cuxu.''<br />
*''Naas'' (so) indicates consequence and works similarly to ''ros'': ''Tös bibinu, naas bomiin özore.'' (Grandmother died, so I was sad.)<br />
*''Tas'' (or): ''Sol foo kyxu, tas soleran cuxu!'' (Come here, or I will come there!)<br />
<br />
Some of these conjunctions can be used by themselves after the first verb as adverbs:<br />
*''i'' (and, also, as well): ''Jun danna, (i) duutes Mihkanorike. Jun i irrä jassä ysollo.'' (I can read and write Mihkanor. I can also draw quite well.)<br />
*''is'' (however): ''Ijen vosek. Sön is jum vom sösh.'' (I create languages. However, I can't speak them.)<br />
<br />
====Noun clauses====<br />
<br />
Similarly to English, simple noun clauses do not require the introductory word: ''Tolin nii zu cuxu.'' (I saw (that) she was there.), ''Ejoin manit kyxu.'' (I heard (/was told that) she had been here.)<br />
*Demonstrative pronouns are used to clarify relations: ''cu'' (that) refers to the former and ''cy'' (this) to the latter: ''Nisi Roody i Saahy cuxu. Tolai cu bebi cy i bebi i.'' (Roody and Saahy were there. Former saw that latter left and left as well.)<br />
<br />
Different forms:<br />
*For present and future: PRESP(-ACC): ''Tolan gesepik '''lettepoke'''.'' ("I see a walking animal." I see that an animal walks.) <br />
**Subject being the same, reflexive pronouns are used: ''Pi ys lettepoke nalax.'' ("He says himself walking tomorrow." He says that he'll walk tomorrow.)<br />
*For preceding events (compare [[w:Accusative and infinitive|ACI]]): SBJ.ACC + ''ju''+INF(Ia/IIIa)/ ''ma''+INF(IIa/IIII)/ ''je''+INF(Ib/IIb/IIIb): ''Ejoin '''mamenna zus''' gehixu.'' (I heard been her at home." I heard that she had been at home.)<br />
*For passive forms: PPP: ''Leshei dutiik '''dannanax''''' ("You knew the book been read." You knew that the book had been read.)<br />
<br />
'''Interrogative''' (indirect questions):<br />
*Corresponding to actual [[Aoma#Interrogative|questions]], but with verb in subjunctive: ''Sön lehes zax '''be'''bebosi.'' (I don't know when they left.)<br />
<br />
====Adverbial clauses====<br />
<br />
Clauses behaving as adverbs can be created either with coordinating conjunctions, or with conjugated verb infinites or gerunds in temporal/locative or with prepositions:<br />
*To indicate "when/while": INF-TEMP: ''Efi lettex.'' ("She laughed during walk." She laughed while walking.)<br />
**Also with longer GER-TEMP: ''Leti ba'efimmix.'' ("She walked during the the act of laughing." i.e. She walked while laughing.)<br />
*To indicate "after" in the future: INF-TEMP-DAT: ''Soleran mennaxaee ketyxu.'' (I'll come after being in the town.)<br />
**Also with PREP + GER (+POS): ''Soling nal benimir (närir) cuxu.'' (I came after being there.)<br />
**Compare past "having done something": ''Soling '''mamennaxaee''' wat kosikee kelarikee.'' (I came having been inside the red building.)<br />
*For "since": PST-INF-GEN.TEMP: ''Jetelun gesepek joshek mamennangx ny puure.'' (I've had many animals since I was a young boy.)<br />
*Indicating "where": GER-LOC (+POS): ''Niso özore baferammixu ör.'' (They are sad where they live.)<br />
<br />
====Indirect speech====<br />
<br />
Subjunctive is used in reported, questionable information:<br />
*''Pii totolai uu amys.'' (She said she saw a lion with her own eyes.)<br />
*If it's doubted by the speaker, eventive may be used: ''Pii totollalai yy ungarifo.'' (He said he saw a flight of yules with his own eyes.)<br />
<br />
====Relative====<br />
<br />
There are no proper relative pronouns in Aoma so other ways of joining clauses are in use. The word order can be changed into VOS to separate the referent, demonstrative pronouns are added or clauses are expressed with participles: <br />
<br />
Intransitive verb, relative clause object → using demonstrative pronouns: <br />
: "The man, whom I saw yesterday, will come tomorrow."<br />
: ''Solase nalax tymy, tolin (sysh/cy) rolax.'' <br />
: <small>come-FUT.3SG tomorrow-TEMP man-NOM, see-PST.1SG (PN.3SG.M.ACC) yesterday-TEMP</small> <br />
: ''Tolin tymys rolax, solase cy nalax.'' <br />
: <small>see-PST.1SG man-NOM yesterday-TEMP, come-FUT.3SG DEM.PROX tomorrow-TEMP</small> <br />
<br />
Transitive verb → using either finite or non-finite clauses: <br />
: "Woman, who owns the object, gives it to her."<br />
: ''Peko dokiik zuee henu tel sish.'' / ''Peko dokiik zuee henu tellupo sor.'' <br />
: <small>give-3SG object-ACC PN.3SG.F.DAT woman-NOM have.3SG PN.3SG.N.ACC / have-PRESP PN.3SG.N.GEN</small><br />
: ''Peko henu tellupo dokiir sish zuee.'' / ''Peko henu tel dokiik sish zuee.''<br />
: <small>give-3SG woman-NOM have-PRESP object-GEN PN.3SG.N.ACC PN.3SG.F.DAT / have.3SG object-ACC</small><br />
<br />
Relative possession → possession: <br />
: "I encountered the girl whose house had burned.''<br />
: ''Tois muus gehirus nirrrenarus.''<br />
: <small>encounter.PST.1SG girl-DEF.ACC house-GEN-F-ACC burn-PPP-GEN-F-ACC</small><br />
:: "I encountered the girl of the burned house."<br />
<br />
Referring to a sentence by plural proximate demonstrative pronoun: "The child travelled to the north which angered his parents.<br />
: ''Beleti puu okuee, tööhei cufo rrikosh shyrosh.''<br />
: <small>IPFV-walk-PST.3SG child north-DAT anger.PST.3SG DEM.PROX.PL parent-PL PN.3SG.M.GEN-F.PL</small><br />
<br />
====Conditional====<br />
<br />
A mix of moods is used to indicate protases and apodoses so there is no need for "if". Both clauses are began with the verb and separated with a short pause (comma).<br />
<br />
General truths and high probabilities are indicated with conditional in protasis (if-clause of condition) and indicative in apodosis (the consequence) both using the same tense: ''Millel, bujussa kela milyreke.'' (If it rains, the earth will become wet.) Another yet rarer option for factual conditional sentences is imperative (simply 3SG) and 2nd passive: ''Ni öhaly, busömö tolla Halla.'' ((If) it's night, the Sun is not seen.) Present tense is used for logical implications and future for predictive sentences.<br />
<br />
For contrafactual conditional sentences, Aoma uses eventive (EVE = eventive mood) in protasis and either subjunctive (for hightly unlikely) or conditional mood in apodosis: <br />
<br />
: "I would be happy, if you were here."<br />
: ''Eman efire, ememane kyxu.'' <br />
: <small>COND-be.PRES.1SG happy, EVE-be.COND.PRES.2SG DEM.PROX.LOC</small> <br />
<br />
: "If I were a soldier, I would go to war."<br />
: ''Emenan töshy, paparan töshee.'' <br />
: <small>EVE-be.COND.PRES.1SG soldier, SUBJ-leave.FUT.1SG war-DAT</small><br />
<br />
==Dialects==<br />
<br />
Most simple and neutral versions (approximately close to some synonym in all dialects) of words were chosen from different dialects, which had developed differently from Western Rinapri and Repoxian (sound changes).<br />
<br />
===Mikannan===<br />
<br />
The Mikannan dialect also called Coastal Aoma is closest to the standard. The dialect contains loan words due to cultural mix in the capital city of Mikanna.<br />
<br />
===Northern===<br />
<br />
Gave the word-initial voiced consonants to the lexicon<br />
<br />
===Inland===<br />
<br />
Gave dry fricatives ''s'' and ''sh'' when compared to the moist consonants of coastal dialects. (Compare Keethan languages)<br />
<br />
===Southern===<br />
<br />
Sceptrian and Negovian influence strong<br />
<br />
===Influence===<br />
<br />
====Sceptrian====<br />
<br />
Temporal declension, <br />
<br />
====Negovian====<br />
<br />
Some voicing?<br />
<br />
==Society==<br />
<br />
===Registers===<br />
<br />
In different situations, it is appropriate to use language best suitable to the surroundings. Following levels of formality have been attested by scholars of Aoma:<br />
<br />
'''''Gehiisi'''''<br />
*"From home" language and dialects used with family and friends. It contains lots of ellipsis in language and variation in pronunciation such as elision. <br />
<br />
''Pan uu! Doo!'' "Going now! Bye!"<br />
<br />
'''''Ketysi'''''<br />
*"From town" language spoken with less familiar people and in casual conversations. Mainly the basic form of Aoma perhaps with a couple of informalities.<br />
<br />
''Paran fuu. Tolramo sau!'' "I'll go now! We'll see again! (Until we meet again!)"<br />
<br />
'''''Faar'ro'''''<br />
*"Honouring", polite language is used when discussing (after being allowed to discuss) with someone who is older or member of a higher social class, it is very important to use polite verbs and pronouns as well as full word forms. Polite forms of addressing: ''Nidaa'' ("Your Shine" with religious people), ''Niduu'' (Madam) and ''Nidyy'' (Sir).<br />
<br />
''Suvako. Sovokoman Neteki?'' "Excuse me. May I speak to You?"<br />
<br />
'''''Hakorasa'''''<br />
*"Templar" language, the most formal form, in which use of polite language, personal pronouns and optative requests is required, and permissive mood is often used by higher people.<br />
*'''Honorific''' clitics ''haa' ''+ verb-2SG.POL and ''hää' ''+ verb-2PL.POL are used in front of the verb and/or pronoun to emphasize the status of addressed: ''Sosoltare haaNite?'' (Will You come?) Notice also the lower and upper case letters.<br />
*'''Anti-honorific''' ''öö' '' clitic might be used if the higher person is disappointed at you. Sometimes it is used after first person verb as self-anti-honorific together with second person honorifics to express respect even more strongly: <br />
<br />
''Zaurrkomaran, is sovokomanöö wana haaNeteki?'' <br />
: bother.3SG-OPT-1SG INT-speak.3SG-OPT-1SG-AntiHON PN.1SG.FORM HON-PN.2SG.POL.DAT<br />
: "Pardon me, but may I address Your highness."<br />
<br />
===Adulthood===<br />
<br />
Adulthood in western parts of Eastern Empire was defined by Kaomaago Bureau of Legislation in the year 700 of 7th era as follows:<br />
<br />
Age of majority grants a citizen the rights to devote themself to serving Light in a monastery or temple, vote regional members to Sajaazy, travel without a permission from their parents, control their wealth by themself, receive an occupation, establish a business, marry a person from another class, raise children by themself. When a high class child reaches the age of 16 (sixteen), a woman reaches the age of 18 (eighteen) or a male reaches the age of 20 (twenty) they are considered being of the age of majority. However, one may acquire a permission to vote, travel and control their wealth by showing maturity through one of the following ways: one year of military service, two years of work since the beginning of apprenticeship, one year after purchasing and keeping a house, one year after the birth of firstborn with the approval of mother's mother. <br />
<br />
The lowest class and the unclean are not allowed to vote. The following cases form an exception: adult servants who have been freed of labour by their owners, and foreigners who have lived at least two years in the Eastern Empire and shown maturity. Permission to vote is suspended for at least one year, and always for the time of punishment and time in jail after committing a crime. Person may not vote for one year after being possessed or visiting Aweroot.<br />
<br />
===Naming===<br />
<br />
====Child name====<br />
<br />
People of the Coast of Temples give their children a well-chosen first name during the first sunbathing ceremony or name them after the birth hezala (month). The name is two-part and consists of an often nature-themed first name and a family name which is formed by adding ''nyy'' (son), ''muu'' (daughter), ''puu'' (child) or ''pupuu'' (grandchild) to the adult name of the parent or grandparent who is high in the social hierarchy. Sometimes suffixes ''-ta, -jy, -wu'' and ''-ji'' are added to further indicate the class. Great names are deserved for children with high class origins, and are often kept for a whole lifetime. High class owners may also name the children of their servants.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+ Common first name bases<br />
|-<br />
! Great names<br />
|Amanoory<br/>(two-headed lion cub)<br />
|Aru<br/>(lamb)<br />
|Augy<br/>(young spellcaster)<br />
|Calu<br/>(small star)<br />
|Cena<br>(type of eagle)<br />
|Edu<br>(topaz)<br />
|Iwipuu <br/>(shine-child)<br />
|Iware <br/>(bright)<br />
|Lengu<br/>(blue stone)<br />
|Muwu<br>(sapphire)<br />
|Pata<br>(pearl)<br />
|Rala<br>(type of shark)<br />
|Tomu <br/>(little lobster)<br />
|Udotu <br/>(rainbow)<br />
|Voja<br>(type of antelope)<br />
|-<br />
! Boy names<br />
|Ami<br/>(lion cub)<br />
|Bely<br>(a perch-like fish)<br />
|Dyy<br/>(brother)<br />
|Enni<br/>(wind)<br />
|Etty <br/>(archer)<br />
|Geedi <br/>(little mountain)<br />
|Gepu<br/>(sprout)<br />
|Liku <br/>(sprig)<br />
|Mely<br>(type of halophyte)<br />
|Nosa<br>(beach sand)<br />
|Pashu<br/>(fruit)<br />
|Tery<br>(sandstone)<br />
|Woly<br>(type of fish)<br />
|Xanummi <br/>(little rhinoceros)<br />
|Ywy<br>(decorational carving)<br />
|-<br />
! Girl names<br />
|Buru<br>(puppy)<br />
|Duu<br/>(sister)<br />
|Ennu<br/>(cloud)<br />
|Kuuti <br/>(small tree)<br />
|Lui<br/>(berry)<br />
|Mala<br>(type of fruit)<br />
|Miini <br/>(little island)<br />
|Mysu<br>(kitten)<br />
|Navu <br/>(flower)<br />
|Onu <br/>(flower bud)<br />
|Pati <br/>(juice)<br />
|Peti <br/>(flower nectar)<br />
|Soli<br>(type of fish)<br />
|Tanu<br>(type of bird)<br />
|Xupuu <br/>(eagle)<br />
|-<br />
! Servant names<br />
|Ebi<br/>(small eye)<br />
|Geshare <br/>(lively)<br />
|Heki <br/>(sand)<br />
|Helli <br/>(clay)<br />
|Hofi<br/>(ash)<br />
|Keli<br/>(soil)<br />
|Kuvi<br>(chick)<br />
|Luti<br>(maid)<br />
|Nifi<br>(drizzle)<br />
|Orshupuu <br/>(snake-child)<br />
|Puhu<br/>(down feather)<br />
|Pämi<br/>(small hand)<br />
|Reetypuu <br/>(horse-child)<br />
|Sisi<br>(small grasshopper)<br />
|Öshupuu <br/>(raven-child)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Adult name====<br />
<br />
When a child becomes an adult, and they are allowed to vote for regional members for Sajaazy, they can take a new name at ''Kosa Zuhar'', the Bureau of People (or of Censuses). They decide (or are helped to decide) which name they wish to carry, while the child name is kept as a second name. If the person has moved, they may create an origin name by adding ''sa/su/sy'' to the place name, e.g. ''Mikannasy'' (man from Mikanna).<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+ Adult names<br />
|-<br />
!High class<br />
|Akere<br/>(clean)<br />
|Amanoora <br/>(two-headed lion)<br />
|Cala<br/>(star)<br />
|Cora<br/>(yellow topaz)<br />
|Geeda<br/>(great)<br />
|Hima<br/>(silver)<br />
|Imika <br/>(lightning)<br />
|Iwa <br/>(light)<br />
|Karrasa <br/>(thunder)<br />
|Loza<br>(type of marble)<br />
|Mana<br>(achievement)<br />
|Meta<br>(type of hawk)<br />
|Peta<br/>(honey)<br />
|Telala<br/>(has gold)<br />
|Ungaja<br>(ruby)<br />
|-<br />
!Middle class<br />
|Amy<br/>(lion)<br />
|Bulu<br/>(type of shark)<br />
|Dele<br/>(beautiful)<br />
|Demuufu<br/>(song)<br />
|Du<br/>(muse)<br />
|Fömy<br/>(ink)<br />
|Gylane<br/>(nice person)<br />
|Hakkuku<br/>(blade-user)<br />
|Jöcy <br/>(small meteor)<br />
|Mongo<br/>(type of antelope)<br />
|Ofyre<br/>(bearded)<br />
|Penniky <br/>(pen-user)<br />
|Yky <br/>(wolf)<br />
|Ysolu<br/>(artist)<br />
|Önuku<br/>(dreamer)<br />
|-<br />
!Low class <br />
|Emare <br/>(hard-working)<br />
|Enny<br/>(storm)<br />
|Felu<br/>(type of dog)<br />
|Guku<br/>(horn)<br />
|Hakkyky <br/>(axe-user)<br />
|Jummire <br/>(skillful)<br />
|Kaspa <br/>(free)<br />
|Keki<br/>(rock)<br />
|Mete<br/>(type of tree)<br />
|Ngutyky<br/>(swordsman)<br />
|Pucu<br>(granite)<br />
|Surru<br/>(knot)<br />
|Xare<br/>(strong)<br />
|Yngiiri <br/>(fox)<br />
|Öny<br/>(hunter)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Diminutive====<br />
<br />
In daily, casual usage, diminutives are used to express close relationship and to distinguish between people with same names (if occupations are unknown). Common ways of forming diminutives include:<br />
*Lengthening the first syllable vowel and removing geminated sounds from latter syllables. Removing final vowels or replacing them with ''o'' is also common: ''Ofyre'' → ''Oofyr'', ''Oofre'', ''Oofer'', ''Oofo''; ''Hakkuku'' → ''Haakuk'', ''Haako''<br />
**Final plosive consonant may be turned into the best corresponding fricative or nasal: ''Haakuk'' → ''Haakuh'' or ''Haakung''<br />
*Removing the first syllable or other non-stressed syllable: ''Hakkyky'' → ''Ky(y)ky''; ''Geedy'' → ''Gee''<br />
*Changing first consonant to the same as the second or simply geminating the stressed syllable: ''Navu'' → ''Vavu'', ''Vuvu''<br />
<br />
====Family names====<br />
<br />
Some high class family names derive from ancient bloodlines and their family status is protected by law. Such include:<br />
*''Tauxa'', the family of political and financial power<br />
*''Hasai'', the family of religious and political power<br />
*''Otakys'', wealthy owners of several gun foundries such as ''EPAM: Etturol Pares Mikannaxu'' (Long Cannons in Mikanna)<br />
*''Kellas'', the banking dynasty<br />
*''Tantoxa'', owners of the notable trading company ''Bocuvo Gehiryy Ennarrii'' (Merchants of the Green House) which specializes in importing comestibles from the north and exporting local goods<br />
*''Pacunta'', owners of another trading company ''Äci Wohaluri'' (Eastern Path) which does most of its business with Eastern Empire and specializes in mining products<br />
*''Mukena'', controlling the healing business in large towns<br />
*''Saasta'', owners of well-known breweries ''Melyy Alaroo'' (The Golden Tumbler)<br />
<br />
====Famous people====<br />
<br />
*''Mana Edujy Himanyy'', gifted spellmaster who is the current head of ''Rojutaa Auguwaraa Mikannaxu'' (Academy of Magic in Mikanna)<br />
*''Ikau'' or ''Iwa Kuutia Corapupuu'', ceremonial master of Emperor Hakarrasa II and the most talented player of spiritual bowls alive. Providing harmony every ''wyla'' at ''Apatettaa Mikannaraa'' (Grand Theatre of Mikanna).<br />
*''Sol'' or ''Ysolu Puhu Milari'', the painter known throughout Carranu.<br />
<br />
==Translations==<br />
<br />
===The universal declaration of human rights===<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Bavompekkomii caxoirii pooirruu Iwarruu Akekataxu<br />
|IPA = /bɑˈvoˑmpek:ɔˌmi: kxɑkˈsoˑiɹi: po:iˌrʊ: ɪˈwaˑˌrʊ: ɑkeˈkaˑtɑkˌsʊ/<br />
| morphemes = ba-vompekko-mi-i cax-oir-i-i po-oir-r-u-u iwa-r-r-u-u akekata-xu<br />
| gloss = GER-declare-CIRC-DEF right-F.PL.GEN-NEUT-DEF child-F.PL.GEN-ADJ.GEN-F-DEF light-AGR Akekata-LOC<br />
| translation = The declaration of the rights of the children of Light on Akekata<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Kiru waci''''' (First part)<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Ilös piivo Iwarivo rrosol wa kasppas i sa ärrar i caxoir ännis.<br />
|IPA = /ɪˈlœˑs pi:vɔ ɪˈwaˑɹɪvo rɔˈsoˑl wɑ kɑspˈpas iˑ sɑ ʌˈraˑɹ ɪ kxɑkˈsoˑiɹ ʌn:iˑs/ <br />
| morphemes = il-ös pi-ivo iwa-r-ivo rros-ol wa kasp-pas i sa ärr-ar i cax-oir än-nis<br />
| gloss = be.born-PRES.3PL children-F.PL light-D.GEN-F.PL all-D.PL as free-D.PL.GEN and with value-D.GEN and right-F.PL.GEN same-ADJ.PL.GEN<br />
| translation = All children of Light (human beings) are born (as) free and with same value and rights.<br />
}}<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Niso pekkona sotei sanax i ysfännax, nos pumetes sa sotyr dyzycyrrä.<br />
|IPA = /nɪsoˑ pek:oˑnɑ sɔteiˑ sɑˈnaˑks ɪ ysˈfæˑn:ɑks nos puˈmɛˑtes sɑ sɔˈtyˑɹ dyˈzyˑskyˌræˑ/<br />
| morphemes = niso pekko-na sot-ei sana-x i ysfänna-x, no-s pumetes sa sot-yr dyzy-cy-rrä<br />
| gloss = be.PRES.3PL give-PPP P.3PL-DAT reason-D.ACC and conscience-D.ACC (pause) must-PRES.3PL treat with they.GEN brother-hood-ADJ.SEMBL.ADVZ<br />
| translation = To them are given reason and conscience, and they must treat each other in a brotherhoodlike way.<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Original: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<br />
<br />
===Featured banner===<br />
<br />
''Buhamai vosiik banicox. Bumaponeme sish ros tel kejusosh iwirece, mottajesus i kahesjesus ire.''<br />
<br />
The language was praised once. It has been selected for it has shiny details, believability and good usability.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[:Category:Aoma literature|Aoman literature]]<br />
**[[Literature:Hymn_of_Light/Aoma|Hymn of Light in Aoma]]<br />
*[http://juhhmi.deviantart.com/art/Eastern-Empire-Social-Structure-422564922 Social structure of the Eastern Empire]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{List subpages|caption=Related pages with more information}}<br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Languages]][[Category:Aoma]][[Category:Featured]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Juhhmi&diff=184841User:Juhhmi2020-02-14T11:01:31Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Projects */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Template:Medal/featured|language=Aoma}}<br />
<br />
[http://juhhmi.deviantart.com/ My DeviantArt Page]<br />
<br />
''juhhmi'' may be pronounced simply as /juhmɪ/ with /h/ often varying between /x/ and /χ/. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
*Age: <30 years<br />
*Homeland: Finland <br />
*Mother tongue: Finnish<br />
*Other real-world languages studied or wanting to: English, Russian, Swedish,,, German, Latin, Dutch, Japanese, ...<br />
*University studies: High-energy astrophysics<br />
<br />
==Interests==<br />
<br />
*Neurology, consciousness, the origins of languages<br />
*Architecture: always enjoyed building in the Sims 2 and Simcity 4 as well as Cities Skylines; Neo-Gothic and Art Nouveau are some of my favourite styles<br />
*Arts: drawing, calligraphy (especially Western medieval), aquarelle painting, photography<br />
*Fantasy and Science Fiction: always enjoyed reading as well as watching films, while playing Skyrim probably got me into worldbuilding<br />
*Worldbuilding, Akekata: conlanguages, scripts, cartography, environments, history, cultures, religions, magic, technology, ... Planning on using the world as a setting for my stories (mostly in Finnish)<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
<br />
My Akekata project has been on a break but I've recently started to work on it again. I'll be updating many things here in the (near) future.<br />
<br />
[[User:Juhhmi/Useful|Useful things.]]<br />
<br />
[[User:Juhhmi/Random]]<br />
<br />
My latest and greatest project is [http://juhhmi.deviantart.com/gallery/41388532 Akekata] and its [http://juhhmi.deviantart.com/gallery/42429210 Conlangs]:<br />
<br />
Note, the world has somewhat changed and a new map will be ready at some point.<br />
<br />
[[File:AkekataRegions2.png|thumb|1000px|center]]<br />
<br />
===Languages===<br />
<br />
====Progress====<br />
I've decided that these previously created languages might be proto-languages or the reworked world. <br />
*[[Rinap]] (Golden Islet = Laha)<br />
*[[Aoma]] (Coast of Temples = Kaomaago)<br />
*[[Sceptrian]] (Western Sceptre)<br />
<br />
====Ideas==== <br />
(often from scripts)<br />
*[[Rinapri]] (Ancient Herooku)<br />
*[[Pokutii]] (Agurnum & Dowè dialect)<br />
*[[Khesify Roha]] (Windy Island/Coast)<br />
*[[Khattish]] (Khat region & Guard dialect)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Kher|Kher]] as a minority language of Khat Region (formerly Kher), descendants on Border Chain and north-western coast of Cold Sea<br />
*[[Thoschian]] (Kchnosh in Eastern Herooku & related Saravosian)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Aei|Aei]] (protolanguage in south-western Ocean of Isles)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Pewu|Pewu]] (Pewuty peninsula in northern Land of Rain)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Ljopva|Ljopva]] (spellcasters of Twin Islands)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Irbel|Irbel]] (one of the isolates of Western Kingdoms)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Lethusian|Classical Lethusian]] (proto-language for many languages now spoken in south-western Land of Rain)<br />
<br />
====Magical====<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Lordlang|Lordlang]] (polysynthetic telepathic communication with the Lords, vowel-element-correspondence)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Godlang|Godlang]] (spoken version of the polysynthetic lordlang, favoured by gods, taught to men)<br />
**Magical writing technique revolving around hexagons<br />
*Spellang (corrupted godlang with symbol script → spellmarks)<br />
**Aeropendogyrograph (? = mind-controlled spinning top which is made to spin around its axis, hovering over a paper and (burning?) writing onto it, jumping from mark to mark)<br />
<br />
====Later====<br />
*Centre Creole (from Auma, Lusha, Pókutìi and Westlang; used by the spellcaster nation)<br />
*Kher-descendant (on the yet nameless large island between the Khat coast and Guard)<br />
*Alihian (Round Waters; related to Jindwan)<br />
*Jindwan<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Lethusian|Lethusian]]<br />
*Motish<br />
*Nendian (related to Ljopva)<br />
<br />
A language tree which will be chopped soon:<br />
{{clade<br />
|label1=Proto-Herookuan|state1=dashed<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1=Proto-Central-Herookuan<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1=Öiniomma...'''[[Rinapri]]'''<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1=Western Rinapri<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1=Repoxian<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1=High Aoma<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=Coastal '''[[Aoma]]'''<br />
|label2=dialectal<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=Northern Aoma<br />
|2=Inland Aoma<br />
|3=Southern Aoma<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|label2=Maulish<br />
|2=Keethan languages<br />
}}<br />
|label2=Eastern Rinapri<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|label1=High Rinap<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=Gold '''[[Rinap]]'''<br />
|label2=dialectal<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=Silver Rinap<br />
|2=Coast Rinap<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|label2=Low Rinap<br />
|2=Elulekian<br />
}}<br />
|label3=Southern Rinapri<br />
|3={{clade<br />
|1=Central Negovian<br />
|label2=dialectal<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=East Negovian<br />
|2=West Negovian<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|label2=Grassland languages<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=Gedhan languages<br />
|2=Mibjan languages<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|label2=Proto-West-Herookuan...|state2=dashed<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|label1=Lutian<br />
|1='''[[Sceptrian]]'''<br />
|2=Guddean <br />
|3= '''[[Khattish]]'''|state3=dashed<br />
}}<br />
|label3=Proto-East-Herookuan...|state3=dashed<br />
|3={{clade<br />
|label1=Kchnoschugean<br />
|1='''[[Thoschian]]'''<br />
|label2=Northern<br />
|2=Kruhtuan<br />
|label3=Insular<br />
|3=Saravosian<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Juhhmi&diff=184840User:Juhhmi2020-02-14T11:00:35Z<p>Juhhmi: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Template:Medal/featured|language=Aoma}}<br />
<br />
[http://juhhmi.deviantart.com/ My DeviantArt Page]<br />
<br />
''juhhmi'' may be pronounced simply as /juhmɪ/ with /h/ often varying between /x/ and /χ/. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
*Age: <30 years<br />
*Homeland: Finland <br />
*Mother tongue: Finnish<br />
*Other real-world languages studied or wanting to: English, Russian, Swedish,,, German, Latin, Dutch, Japanese, ...<br />
*University studies: High-energy astrophysics<br />
<br />
==Interests==<br />
<br />
*Neurology, consciousness, the origins of languages<br />
*Architecture: always enjoyed building in the Sims 2 and Simcity 4 as well as Cities Skylines; Neo-Gothic and Art Nouveau are some of my favourite styles<br />
*Arts: drawing, calligraphy (especially Western medieval), aquarelle painting, photography<br />
*Fantasy and Science Fiction: always enjoyed reading as well as watching films, while playing Skyrim probably got me into worldbuilding<br />
*Worldbuilding, Akekata: conlanguages, scripts, cartography, environments, history, cultures, religions, magic, technology, ... Planning on using the world as a setting for my stories (mostly in Finnish)<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
<br />
My Akekata project has been on a break but I've recently started to work on it again. I'll be updating many things here in the (near) future.<br />
<br />
[[User:Juhhmi/Useful|Useful things.]]<br />
<br />
[[User:Juhhmi/Random]]<br />
<br />
My latest and greatest project is [http://juhhmi.deviantart.com/gallery/41388532 Akekata] and its [http://juhhmi.deviantart.com/gallery/42429210 Conlangs]:<br />
<br />
[[File:AkekataRegions2.png|thumb|1000px|center]]<br />
<br />
===Languages===<br />
<br />
====Progress====<br />
I've decided that these previously created languages might be proto-languages or the reworked world. <br />
*[[Rinap]] (Golden Islet = Laha)<br />
*[[Aoma]] (Coast of Temples = Kaomaago)<br />
*[[Sceptrian]] (Western Sceptre)<br />
<br />
====Ideas==== <br />
(often from scripts)<br />
*[[Rinapri]] (Ancient Herooku)<br />
*[[Pokutii]] (Agurnum & Dowè dialect)<br />
*[[Khesify Roha]] (Windy Island/Coast)<br />
*[[Khattish]] (Khat region & Guard dialect)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Kher|Kher]] as a minority language of Khat Region (formerly Kher), descendants on Border Chain and north-western coast of Cold Sea<br />
*[[Thoschian]] (Kchnosh in Eastern Herooku & related Saravosian)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Aei|Aei]] (protolanguage in south-western Ocean of Isles)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Pewu|Pewu]] (Pewuty peninsula in northern Land of Rain)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Ljopva|Ljopva]] (spellcasters of Twin Islands)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Irbel|Irbel]] (one of the isolates of Western Kingdoms)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Lethusian|Classical Lethusian]] (proto-language for many languages now spoken in south-western Land of Rain)<br />
<br />
====Magical====<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Lordlang|Lordlang]] (polysynthetic telepathic communication with the Lords, vowel-element-correspondence)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Godlang|Godlang]] (spoken version of the polysynthetic lordlang, favoured by gods, taught to men)<br />
**Magical writing technique revolving around hexagons<br />
*Spellang (corrupted godlang with symbol script → spellmarks)<br />
**Aeropendogyrograph (? = mind-controlled spinning top which is made to spin around its axis, hovering over a paper and (burning?) writing onto it, jumping from mark to mark)<br />
<br />
====Later====<br />
*Centre Creole (from Auma, Lusha, Pókutìi and Westlang; used by the spellcaster nation)<br />
*Kher-descendant (on the yet nameless large island between the Khat coast and Guard)<br />
*Alihian (Round Waters; related to Jindwan)<br />
*Jindwan<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Lethusian|Lethusian]]<br />
*Motish<br />
*Nendian (related to Ljopva)<br />
<br />
A language tree which will be chopped soon:<br />
{{clade<br />
|label1=Proto-Herookuan|state1=dashed<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1=Proto-Central-Herookuan<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1=Öiniomma...'''[[Rinapri]]'''<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1=Western Rinapri<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1=Repoxian<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1=High Aoma<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=Coastal '''[[Aoma]]'''<br />
|label2=dialectal<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=Northern Aoma<br />
|2=Inland Aoma<br />
|3=Southern Aoma<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|label2=Maulish<br />
|2=Keethan languages<br />
}}<br />
|label2=Eastern Rinapri<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|label1=High Rinap<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=Gold '''[[Rinap]]'''<br />
|label2=dialectal<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=Silver Rinap<br />
|2=Coast Rinap<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|label2=Low Rinap<br />
|2=Elulekian<br />
}}<br />
|label3=Southern Rinapri<br />
|3={{clade<br />
|1=Central Negovian<br />
|label2=dialectal<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=East Negovian<br />
|2=West Negovian<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|label2=Grassland languages<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=Gedhan languages<br />
|2=Mibjan languages<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|label2=Proto-West-Herookuan...|state2=dashed<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|label1=Lutian<br />
|1='''[[Sceptrian]]'''<br />
|2=Guddean <br />
|3= '''[[Khattish]]'''|state3=dashed<br />
}}<br />
|label3=Proto-East-Herookuan...|state3=dashed<br />
|3={{clade<br />
|label1=Kchnoschugean<br />
|1='''[[Thoschian]]'''<br />
|label2=Northern<br />
|2=Kruhtuan<br />
|label3=Insular<br />
|3=Saravosian<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Juhhmi&diff=43436User:Juhhmi2015-12-12T11:13:52Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Progress */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Template:Medal/featured|language=Aoma}}<br />
<br />
[http://juhhmi.deviantart.com/ My DeviantArt Page]<br />
<br />
''juhhmi'' may be pronounced simply as /juhmɪ/ with /h/ often varying between /x/ and /χ/. You can also call me ''Johnny''.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
*Age: >20 years<br />
*Homeland: Finland <br />
*Mother tongue: Finnish<br />
*Other real-world languages: English, Swedish,,, German, Latin, Russian (in the order of descending skill level) (to my mind too Indo-European)<br />
*University studies: Physics (Astronomy), second year now behind<br />
<br />
==Interests==<br />
<br />
*Nature: from micro to macro<br />
*Technology: futuristic dreams: transhumanism and artificial intelligence<br />
*Architecture: enjoyed building in the Sims 2 and Simcity 4 <br />
*Arts: drawing, calligraphy (especially Western medieval), aquarelle painting, photography<br />
*Fantasy and Science Fiction: playing Skyrim probably got me into worldbuilding and here I still am<br />
*Worldbuilding, Akekata: conlanguages, scripts, cartography, environments, religions, history, writing ...<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
<br />
The current [http://juhhmi.deviantart.com/gallery/48949658/History year] in Akekata is 7:750.<br />
<br />
[[User:Juhhmi/Useful|Useful things.]]<br />
<br />
[[User:Juhhmi/Random]]<br />
<br />
My latest and greatest project is [http://juhhmi.deviantart.com/gallery/41388532 Akekata] and its [http://juhhmi.deviantart.com/gallery/42429210 Conlangs]:<br />
<br />
[[File:AkekataRegions2.png|thumb|1000px|center]]<br />
<br />
===Languages===<br />
====Decided====<br />
*Westlang (=English; in Western Kingdoms)<br />
**Mixed with the Lost Speech (=Greek+Latin→loan-words)<br />
*Norrtal (=Svenska; i Norra Monarkin)<br />
*(extinct Gesprochen (German of nomads) mentioned in "Grundet and her nations") <br />
<br />
====Progress====<br />
I've decided all of these languages are the classical versions. After I've derived their predecessors and updated the vocabulary into a consistent one, I will continue from them to make modern languages.<br />
*[[Rinap]] (Golden Islet = Laha)<br />
*[[Aoma]] (Coast of Temples = Kaomaago)<br />
*[[Sceptrian]] (Western Sceptre)<br />
<br />
====Ideas==== <br />
(often from scripts)<br />
*[[Rinapri]] (Ancient Herooku)<br />
*[[Pokutii]] (Agurnum & Dowè dialect)<br />
*[[Khesify Roha]] (Windy Island/Coast)<br />
*[[Khattish]] (Khat region & Guard dialect)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Kher|Kher]] as a minority language of Khat Region (formerly Kher), descendants on Border Chain and north-western coast of Cold Sea<br />
*[[Thoschian]] (Kchnosh in Eastern Herooku & related Saravosian)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Aei|Aei]] (protolanguage in south-western Ocean of Isles)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Pewu|Pewu]] (Pewuty peninsula in northern Land of Rain)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Ljopva|Ljopva]] (spellcasters of Twin Islands)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Irbel|Irbel]] (one of the isolates of Western Kingdoms)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Lethusian|Classical Lethusian]] (proto-language for many languages now spoken in south-western Land of Rain)<br />
<br />
====Magical====<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Lordlang|Lordlang]] (polysynthetic telepathic communication with the Lords, vowel-element-correspondence)<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Godlang|Godlang]] (spoken version of the polysynthetic lordlang, favoured by gods, taught to men)<br />
**Magical writing technique revolving around hexagons<br />
*Spellang (corrupted godlang with symbol script → spellmarks)<br />
**Aeropendogyrograph (? = mind-controlled spinning top which is made to spin around its axis, hovering over a paper and (burning?) writing onto it, jumping from mark to mark)<br />
<br />
====Later====<br />
*Centre Creole (from Auma, Lusha, Pókutìi and Westlang; used by the spellcaster nation)<br />
*Kher-descendant (on the yet nameless large island between the Khat coast and Guard)<br />
*Alihian (Round Waters; related to Jindwan)<br />
*Jindwan<br />
*[[User:Juhhmi/Lethusian|Lethusian]]<br />
*Motish<br />
*Nendian (related to Ljopva)<br />
<br />
Language tree:<br />
{{clade<br />
|label1=Proto-Herookuan|state1=dashed<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1=Proto-Central-Herookuan<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1=Öiniomma...'''[[Rinapri]]'''<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1=Western Rinapri<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1=Repoxian<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1=High Aoma<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=Coastal '''[[Aoma]]'''<br />
|label2=dialectal<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=Northern Aoma<br />
|2=Inland Aoma<br />
|3=Southern Aoma<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|label2=Maulish<br />
|2=Keethan languages<br />
}}<br />
|label2=Eastern Rinapri<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|label1=High Rinap<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=Gold '''[[Rinap]]'''<br />
|label2=dialectal<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=Silver Rinap<br />
|2=Coast Rinap<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|label2=Low Rinap<br />
|2=Elulekian<br />
}}<br />
|label3=Southern Rinapri<br />
|3={{clade<br />
|1=Central Negovian<br />
|label2=dialectal<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=East Negovian<br />
|2=West Negovian<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|label2=Grassland languages<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=Gedhan languages<br />
|2=Mibjan languages<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|label2=Proto-West-Herookuan...|state2=dashed<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|label1=Lutian<br />
|1='''[[Sceptrian]]'''<br />
|2=Guddean <br />
|3= '''[[Khattish]]'''|state3=dashed<br />
}}<br />
|label3=Proto-East-Herookuan...|state3=dashed<br />
|3={{clade<br />
|label1=Kchnoschugean<br />
|1='''[[Thoschian]]'''<br />
|label2=Northern<br />
|2=Kruhtuan<br />
|label3=Insular<br />
|3=Saravosian<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Linguifex_Relay&diff=37586Fourth Linguifex Relay2015-07-26T20:39:48Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Sceptrian */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Relay_navigation_sidebar}}<br />
<br />
The '''Fourth Linguifex Relay''' was a conlang relay, a game of conlingual telephone, on Linguifex. The relay text was written in [[Wiobian]] by the relaymaster [[User:IlL|IlL]]. The text passed through eight translations before being retranslated into Wiobian.<br />
<br />
==Texts==<br />
The original text was provided by [[User:IlL|IlL]] in his conlang the [[Wiobian]] language. The text is a religious poem, written after a devastating tsunami, describing the impermanence of worldly matters and exhorting the audience to be charitable.<br />
<br />
:'''''ei! jån' kähne Jündemruoger''''' - O how quickly the sculpture of life<br />
:*''[[Fourth Linguifex Relay/Wiobian|Wiobian]]''<br />
:*''[[Fourth Linguifex Relay/Sceptrian|Sceptrian]]''<br />
:*''[[Fourth Linguifex Relay/Van|Van]]''<br />
:*''[[Fourth Linguifex Relay/Kandi|Kandi]]''<br />
:*''[[Fourth Linguifex Relay/Alaia|Alaia]]''<br />
:*''[[Fourth Linguifex Relay/Dyrel|Dyrel]]''<br />
:*''[[Fourth Linguifex Relay/Minhast|Minhast]]''<br />
:*''[[Fourth Linguifex Relay/I Kronurum|I Kronurum]]''<br />
:*''[[Fourth Linguifex Relay/Rennic|Rennic]]''<br />
:*''[[Fourth Linguifex Relay/Wiobian retranslated|Wiobian retranslated]]''<br />
<br />
The relay ran from July 8<sup>th</sup> until July 24<sup>th</sup>, and included 9 languages on the wiki (''[[Wiobian]]'', ''[[Sceptrian]]'', ''[[Van]]'', ''[[Kandi]]'', ''[[Alaia]]'', ''[[Dyrel]]'', ''[[Minhast]]'', ''[[I Kronurum]]'' and ''[[Rennic]]'').<br />
<br />
==Original text==<br />
<center><br />
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" align="center"<br />
! Original [[Wiobian]] !! IPA !! English </noinclude><br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<poem><br />
''ei! jån' kähne Jündemruoger''<br />
''snirre ure nungnung Troh;''<br />
''Sioner röbes ƕieme Puoger',''<br />
''ind' enwülze Þafte quoh'.''<br />
''ei! lind mause bückne mungel,''<br />
''Wiote-Wuzes duoɟ niens Kliten',''<br />
''ionem' ƕind Benußes zungel;''<br />
''Kuobs mes pepen, Ƕeiges miten.''<br />
</poem><br />
| <poem><br />
/ʔei jɔn ˈkɛːnə ˈjyndəmˌruogər/<br />
/ˈçnirːə ˈuːrə ˈnuŋnuŋ troːx/<br />
/çionərːrøːbəç xʷiemə ˈpuogər/<br />
/ʔind ʔənˈwylcə ˈsaftə kʷoːx/<br />
/ʔei lind mauʝə ˈbyknə ˈmuŋːəl/<br />
/ˈwiotə ˈwuːcəç duoɟ nienç ˈkliːtən/<br />
/ˈʔionəm xʷind bəˈnusːəç ˈcuŋːəl/<br />
/kuobç meç ˈpeːpən ˈxʷeigəç ˈmiːtən/<br />
</poem><br />
| <poem><br />
O how quickly the sculpture of life<br />
Shatters into tiny little fragments!<br />
The splendor of the king on his throne<br />
Is completely swept away by sea-waves.<br />
Ye who have come hither stationed here,<br />
By Heaven's grace ye are guests,<br />
Just like us, ye act in order to be judged;<br />
Therefore let us be generous to the pauper, and give to our neighbor.<br />
</poem><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
</center><br />
<br />
==Sceptrian==<br />
<center><br />
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" align="center"<br />
! [[Sceptrian]] !! IPA !! English </noinclude><br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<poem><br />
''Léhkodé pai ko qhóqhøkos,<br />
''keewesht mjulan oil qotitlóo;<br />
''darema soi slopapu'os,<br />
''jak rajidhé mitupurpóo.<br />
''Péma saitush_q'papa sekhe,<br />
''jevaa hifthilan gat'tishh'i,<br />
''moŕ ól dorahpipi qóphe;<br />
''mutshos tslarmak jódish b'shiit'sji.<br />
</poem><br />
| <poem><br />
/ˈlɛxkədɛ päɪ̯ kə χɔχœkəs/<br />
</poem><br />
| <poem><br />
<br />
</poem><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
</center><br />
<br />
==Van==<br />
<center><br />
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" align="center"<br />
! [[Van]] !! English </noinclude><br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<poem><br />
''varaske ha-vavaralas halov ha-sotsorite<br />
''ha-lisat, nome ras, sere ha-seralas ras<br />
''veńavaj mir valo ta<br />
''tavańa mir ha-livav nomete<br />
''vańa vańa sataka mir jan vańa tan<br />
''ha-koralas, mare mir, nivańa nonete mir ras, netesi rase<br />
</poem><br />
| <poem><br />
</poem><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
</center><br />
<br />
==Kandi==<br />
<center><br />
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" align="center"<br />
! [[Kandi]] !! English </noinclude><br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<poem><br />
''Išayyi yūngikīrra ya kūsikka ařīr kraš''<br />
''wa yānayyantšiy''<br />
''wākka kayūlunnayi ǧāmmam.''<br />
''Kin ixaye omōkkiřeh yiřam,''<br />
''kin hamūrreh wīnni yiřam,''<br />
''kin tatšūyyim assanūyunga wušuyyima tārrim.''<br />
</poem><br />
| <poem><br />
The web of life is quickly torn into pieces,<br />
When you the magnificent king<br />
Come from the far-away sea.<br />
You will make the skies' bidding,<br />
You will make laws for us,<br />
You are the saviour who will bring prosperity to the poor.<br />
</poem><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
</center><br />
<br />
==Alaia==<br />
<center><br />
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" align="center"<br />
! [[Alaia]] !! English </noinclude><br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<poem><br />
''girna xaltei iarsu accatulaxar prinas kreuis''<br />
''adduki oua kivure janagirnai''<br />
''gadeikandena luidremme zëittes''<br />
<br />
''sursudeigirnu fuinu adrasaulis''<br />
''nirpattart deilu glerbrunis'''<br />
''mustasanshille aierumeimrattu deinulet ittes''<br />
</poem><br />
| <poem><br />
The great garden of life swiftly broke harmony<br />
when you, O great king,<br />
did not come to our distant sea.<br />
<br />
Of course, then you made a wish to the Goddess,<br />
and imposed [new] laws for us,<br />
and so with prosperity you came as a savior to the poor.<br />
</poem><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
</center><br />
<br />
==Dyrel==<br />
<center><br />
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" align="center"<br />
! [[Dyrel]] !! English </noinclude><br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<poem><br />
'''Osorvel resverí, resver uveson nadeí ysdarel aldoasmasar''<br />
''paly suŕy adyr mased molinud iveí alsuredmarpan.''<br />
<br />
''Allamanaren, niumenŕy resver uledenśa almavelor''<br />
''lav adalŕy dasver iveśa aldoalansar''<br />
''dem ysaradalynduŕy erosnepanśa erosńe almaredmar.''<br />
</poem><br />
| <poem><br />
O Monarch of Greatness, the great garden of life has broken the harmony<br />
when you had not come to our faraway ocean.<br />
<br />
As expected, the spirit has requested of the great deity<br />
and the hand has placed the law upon us<br />
therefore the savior has come with silver to the silverless.<br />
</poem><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
</center><br />
<br />
==Minhast==<br />
<center><br />
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" align="center"<br />
! [[Minhast]] !! English </noinclude><br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<poem><br />
''Ikkūne kuriktahan iħyitahammā,''<br />
''Duħtaniktaharu, ittaħyamekan,''<br />
''Hakkumman.''<br />
<br />
''Taħ watturħa kungatarabammā, ikšākarampā''<br />
''Wahēk, šuxtān min turħa kurganaft, dutikšakinnarumā,''<br />
''Wahēk, duħtiptayyariknenaru.''<br />
<br />
''Ra'e, wattā' hittanankūyaranaft keħredāš tadammantankūyismattabu''<br />
''Wašia wakayyunar intakahešnuktararampi, wammīn.''<br />
</poem><br />
| <poem><br />
You are the supreme and most powerful chieftain,<br />
You came to me, across my seas which are distant.<br />
<br />
<br />
You are the one whom the spirit was looking for, and he made a request,<br />
He made a request to the Great Spirit of the Heavens,<br />
And then he gave me (this) **custom; <br />
<br />
But take heed, the one who pays with silver shall not be protected from death.<br />
All of this has happened because that tree had toppled everything around it there.<br />
<br />
(**Note: there is no differentiation from "custom" and "law" in tribal Minhast society)<br />
</poem><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
</center><br />
<br />
==I Kronurum==<br />
<center><br />
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" align="center"<br />
! [[I Kronurum]] !! IPA !! English </noinclude><br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<poem><br />
''Dafríra, ibóðr iknegór nonteþini.''<br />
''Tró angr sóraftó jaŕaftó jóherjoneþan''<br />
<br />
''Tró jalíŕihirum ó þetren alastur.''<br />
''Hurman, ána, pórhaŕa tró pórja uŕójubskenis ankjurini,''<br />
''won tró esta angris hajana-ini.''<br />
<br />
''Tró śetr órusmarken ehajuri tró istojti finta rengodånere.''<br />
''Nog tró śéðŕó faga detŕó þar jójagrénturan.''<br />
</poem><br />
|<poem><br />
/ˈdɑf.rei̯.ɾɐ ʔi.ˈbu̜.ðɾ̩ ʔi.ˈkne̞.gu̹ɾ ˈno̞n.tɛ.ˌθi.ni/<br />
/ˈtɾu̹ ˈʔɑŋ.gr̩ su̜ɾ.af.ˈtu̹ jɑ.raf.ˈtu̹ ju̜.he̞.ˈɾjo̞.nɛ.ˌθɐn/<br />
<br />
/ˈtɾu̹ ˈjɑ.lei̯.ŕi.hi.ɾum ˈʔu̹ ˈθe̞.tɾɘn ʔɑ.ˈlas.tuɾ/<br />
/huɾ.ˈmɑn ˈʔɑi̯.nɐ ˈpu̜ɾ.ha.rɐ ˈtɾu̹ ˈpu̜.ɾjɐ ˈʔo̞.ru̹.ˌjuβs.ke̞.nis ˈʔɑn.kju.ɾi.ni/<br />
/ˈwo̞n ˈtɾu̹ ˈʔe̞s.tɐ ˈʔɑŋ.gɾis ˈhɑ.ja.nɐ ˈʔi.ni/<br />
<br />
/ˈtɾu̹ ˈʃe̞.tr̩ ˈʔu̹.ɾus.maɾ.ke̞n ˈʔe.hɑ.ju.ɾi ˈtɾu̹ ʔi.ˈsto̞j.ti ˈfin.tɐ ˈre̞n ˈgo.dɑ.ne.ɾɘ/<br />
/ˈno̞x ˈtɾu̹ ˈʃei̯.ðɾu̹ ˈfɑ.gɐ ˈde̞t.ru̹ ˈθɑɾ ju̜.jɑ.ˈgɾɛi̯n.tu.ɾɐn/<br />
</poem><br />
| <poem><br />
Lord, high and strong,<br />
you who came to me in the far sea<br />
<br />
I heed to your desire<br />
So, to the sky-spirit I asked him for<br />
And he gave me<br />
<br />
you know a silver offering<br />
against death won’t protect him.<br />
That’s why yonder tree was thoroughly destroyed<br />
</poem><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
</center><br />
<br />
==Rennic==<br />
<center><br />
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" align="center"<br />
! [[Rennic]] !! English </noinclude><br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<poem><br />
''Adwa, to'ambara brannan ath alda<br />
''To'vyendadran amo tothelan<br />
''To'vyendadran amo an fo'maram<br />
''Yav'praxumo nokwelam fan tolo<br />
''Fardhan, dhran wi kavanno dhanas an nothdhos dwi so<br />
''Dho dimath amo<br />
''An tolo, ari kurudran dw'arjanto<br />
''Navko some protegasa dru' moro<br />
''Dho tutumu mbala fo'arbo hi. <br />
</poem><br />
| <poem><br />
</poem><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
</center><br />
==Retranslated text==<br />
<center><br />
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" align="center"<br />
! [[Wiobian]] retranslated !! IPA !! English (literal) </noinclude><br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<poem><br />
''ei Wiot', I ƕiens Beskäme guole''<br />
''je Hüzze bückne gu mekern!''<br />
''ƕind Ie bemizzem hel besruole.''<br />
''gan ube, Swip, ƕind Ies deßɟer'm:''<br />
''ƕiens Fröck' & Feil' mit''<br />
''bar Hon-Snieks gnit''<br />
''ƕind teipem spang ahn Pörzembern.''<br />
</poem><br />
| <poem><br />
/ʔei ˈwiot ʔiː xʷienç bəˈçkɛːmə ˈguolə/<br />
/jə ˈxycːə ˈbykːnə guː məˈkern/<br />
/xʷind ʔie bəˈmicːəm xeːl bəˈʝruolə/<br />
/gan ˈʔuːbə çwiːp xʷind ʔieç dəsˈɟeːrm/<br />
/xʷienç ˈfrøkːˌfeil miːt/<br />
/baːr ˈxoːnˌçniekç gniːt/<br />
/xʷind ˈteipəm çpaŋ ʔaːn ˈpørcəmˌbeːrn/<br />
</poem><br />
| <poem><br />
O Heaven, Who grantest us strength<br />
and ordainest triumph from far above,<br />
We wait upon Thee with longing.<br />
Thus now, O Lord, we entreat Thee:<br />
Give us the means<br />
So that we death unfearing<br />
May break asunder those wooden idols.<br />
</poem><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
</center><br />
[[Category:Relays]][[Category:Linguifex relays]]<br />
{{archive}}</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Khattish&diff=36669Khattish2015-07-15T19:14:53Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Verb */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{construction}}<br />
{{TOC right}}<br />
<br />
'''Khattish''' ''Zupett'' [zɯpət'] is the language of Khat region in Grundet. Khattish derives from Proto-West-Herookuan languages. Although Khattish is a cousin language of [[Sceptrian]], the strong influence from Kher languages has made it hard to recognize the shared traits.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
The IPA symbol is shown after the romanization if they aren't the same.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! colspan="2" |<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Alveolar<br />
!Postalveolar<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| '''n''' <br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' ŋ<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p <br />
| '''t <br />
|<br />
| '''k <br />
| '''kg''' q<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
|'''b<br />
|'''d<br />
|<br />
|'''g<br />
|'''gg''' ɢ<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''f''' ɸ~f<br />
| '''s''' <br />
| '''ss''' ʃ<br />
| '''h''' x<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''v''' β~v<br />
| '''z''' <br />
| '''zz''' ʒ<br />
| '''x''' ɣ<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Ejective<br />
|'''pp''' p'<br />
|'''tt''' t'<br />
|<br />
|'''kk''' k'<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Affricate<br />
| '''pf''' pɸ<br />
| '''c''' t͡s <br />
|'''cc''' t͡ʃ <br />
| '''kh''' kx<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| '''pr''' ʙ<br />
| '''r'''<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''rr''' ʀ <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Approximant<br />
| '''w''' w~ʋ<br />
|<br />
|'''l''' ɹ~l<br />
| '''j''' ɰ~j<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
*/f/, /v/ and /ʋ/ are allophones of /ɸ/, /β/ and /w/ with close vowels<br />
*/l/ and /j/ come with front vowels while /ɹ/ and /ɰ/ are used with back vowels<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! colspan="2"|<br />
! Front<br />
! Central<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Close<br />
!Unrounded<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''u''' ɯ<br />
|-<br />
!Rounded<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''ú''' u<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" |Mid<br />
|'''é''' e<br />
|'''e''' ə~ɵ<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Open-mid<br />
!Unrounded<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''a''' ʌ <br />
|-<br />
!Rounded<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''á''' ɔ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'vowels can be long: ''aa'' /ʌ:/, ''áa'' /ɔ:/<br />
**If diacriticts are marked in the native abjad, long vowels are shown simply with double marks.<br />
*/ɵ/ appears as an allophone of /ə/ after voiced consonants<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Word-final schwa is not pronounced, unless preceded by an approximant<br />
<br />
*Onset<br />
*Nucleus<br />
*Coda<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Cekara.JPG|500px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
===Orthography===<br />
<br />
Formal Khattish uses [[w:Featural_alphabet|featural]] [[w:Abjad|abjad]] script Cekara shown above with its romanization. Diacritics are marked in educational materials and words out of context, sometimes in place names as well. Older systems indicated stress with "strong" diacritic dashes as opposed to dot-like "weak" diacritics. The diacritics have evolved into elaborate decorations in the Razáfian calligraphy.<br />
<br />
There is some controversy of the creator of Khattish script due to a great loss of historical records during the years under Western Tyranny of the sixth era: <br />
<br />
Lightlisteners name shinesharer saint Gunda Tliwirshu as the designer, based on the remaining parts of his chronicles written on the island of Guard already in the third era, around 470. They claim that she had to create a translation of the Book of Light and even a new script "for those living in the darkness; poor natives to whom, alas, our beautiful language [Rinapri] is nothing but birds' singing". <br />
<br />
Since the language has changed much during these millennia, supporters of the Lafan school believe that the script was coined in 4th era around year 400 by Narrif Tsero, one of the most productive Khat linguists, who used Kher and Northern runic scripts (not used anymore) as the base. The new script managed to spread just in time before the decline of Khat culture and was finally revived after the of the collapse of Western Tyranny in the sixth era more than two thousand years later by Teke Kále. Much later, in the seventh era 290, the founder of New Khat Empire, Sekkute I, used the script as a national romantic example of pure Khattish culture, not contaminated by this Westlang.<br />
<br />
See also the [http://juhhmi.deviantart.com/art/Cekara-Lafenu-450846925 modern script] whose one variation uses β-grapheme for ''v'' and its left-mirrored version for ''f'', 8-grapheme for ''pf'', b-grapheme for ''z'' and d-grapheme for ''s''.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
*roots slightly similar to [[w:Semitic_root|semitic roots]]: voiceless bi- and triliterals (while Kher have only quadriliteral roots)<br />
**voiceless→voiced & ejective→affricate & voiced→approximant as one derivation process: √p-p → ''b-p'' and ''p-b''<br />
**derivation with affixes as well<br />
<br />
===Pronoun===<br />
<br />
<br />
===Noun===<br />
<br />
Nouns of Khattish have two grammatical genders, animate (AN) and inanimate (IN), which are characteristic to words and not explicitly shown. Animate class contains all living creatures and their body parts while inanimate<br />
<br />
Nouns have two numbers, singular and plural, and the plural is formed by voicing the consonant of the stressed syllable (second or last).<br />
<br />
====Case====<br />
<br />
Noun cases:<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Subject of intransitive verbs and direct object of transitive ones<br />
**base form (consonants and medial schwas)<br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agent of transitive verbs (before object); causative (after object)<br />
**final ''ée''<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect objects; for the benefit of (BEN)<br />
**final ''u'' with AN and ''k'' with IN<br />
*Genitive (GEN): possession ('''his''' head); with most adpositions; adjective-forming<br />
**last syllable nuclaus = syllabic ''l'' <br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS-COM): using something or in company of someone (compare "with"); adjacent location (ADE) <br />
**final ''s'' with AN and ''h'' with IN<br />
<br />
===Adjective===<br />
<br />
*noun GEN where the last internal ''e'' becomes ''a''<br />
*agree with gender: ''na''-suffix with animate nouns<br />
*only agrees with ergative case: ''-áa'' for AN and ''-é'' for IN<br />
<br />
<br />
===Verb===<br />
<br />
*partially conjugated for subject/object person & number (1SG, 1PL) <br />
*rather small set of auxiliary clitics for tense & aspect<br />
** developed similarly to Sanskrit participial periphrastic phrases<br />
**"he cat see-touch" (he is watching a cat), "he dog see-leave" (he saw a dog), "he horse see-meet" (he will see a horse)<br />
*apophony for negation <br />
*first consonant voicing for subjunctive mood<br />
*stress changes for other moods<br />
<br />
===Adposition===<br />
<br />
postpositions and circumpositions<br />
<br />
<br />
===Derivational morphology===<br />
<br />
Suffixes:<br />
*''-enú'' origin, characteristic<br />
<br />
<br />
===Numeral===<br />
<br />
decimal base<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
ergative-absolutive alignment, word order SV, AOV, OAV or O<sub>1</sub>AO<sub>2</sub>V (verb-final), head-medial<br />
<br />
Antipassive construction uses SV(O)<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ideas]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Khattish&diff=36668Khattish2015-07-15T19:09:26Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Orthography */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{construction}}<br />
{{TOC right}}<br />
<br />
'''Khattish''' ''Zupett'' [zɯpət'] is the language of Khat region in Grundet. Khattish derives from Proto-West-Herookuan languages. Although Khattish is a cousin language of [[Sceptrian]], the strong influence from Kher languages has made it hard to recognize the shared traits.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
The IPA symbol is shown after the romanization if they aren't the same.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! colspan="2" |<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Alveolar<br />
!Postalveolar<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| '''n''' <br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' ŋ<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p <br />
| '''t <br />
|<br />
| '''k <br />
| '''kg''' q<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
|'''b<br />
|'''d<br />
|<br />
|'''g<br />
|'''gg''' ɢ<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''f''' ɸ~f<br />
| '''s''' <br />
| '''ss''' ʃ<br />
| '''h''' x<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''v''' β~v<br />
| '''z''' <br />
| '''zz''' ʒ<br />
| '''x''' ɣ<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Ejective<br />
|'''pp''' p'<br />
|'''tt''' t'<br />
|<br />
|'''kk''' k'<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Affricate<br />
| '''pf''' pɸ<br />
| '''c''' t͡s <br />
|'''cc''' t͡ʃ <br />
| '''kh''' kx<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| '''pr''' ʙ<br />
| '''r'''<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''rr''' ʀ <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Approximant<br />
| '''w''' w~ʋ<br />
|<br />
|'''l''' ɹ~l<br />
| '''j''' ɰ~j<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
*/f/, /v/ and /ʋ/ are allophones of /ɸ/, /β/ and /w/ with close vowels<br />
*/l/ and /j/ come with front vowels while /ɹ/ and /ɰ/ are used with back vowels<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! colspan="2"|<br />
! Front<br />
! Central<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Close<br />
!Unrounded<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''u''' ɯ<br />
|-<br />
!Rounded<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''ú''' u<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" |Mid<br />
|'''é''' e<br />
|'''e''' ə~ɵ<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Open-mid<br />
!Unrounded<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''a''' ʌ <br />
|-<br />
!Rounded<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''á''' ɔ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'vowels can be long: ''aa'' /ʌ:/, ''áa'' /ɔ:/<br />
**If diacriticts are marked in the native abjad, long vowels are shown simply with double marks.<br />
*/ɵ/ appears as an allophone of /ə/ after voiced consonants<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Word-final schwa is not pronounced, unless preceded by an approximant<br />
<br />
*Onset<br />
*Nucleus<br />
*Coda<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Cekara.JPG|500px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
===Orthography===<br />
<br />
Formal Khattish uses [[w:Featural_alphabet|featural]] [[w:Abjad|abjad]] script Cekara shown above with its romanization. Diacritics are marked in educational materials and words out of context, sometimes in place names as well. Older systems indicated stress with "strong" diacritic dashes as opposed to dot-like "weak" diacritics. The diacritics have evolved into elaborate decorations in the Razáfian calligraphy.<br />
<br />
There is some controversy of the creator of Khattish script due to a great loss of historical records during the years under Western Tyranny of the sixth era: <br />
<br />
Lightlisteners name shinesharer saint Gunda Tliwirshu as the designer, based on the remaining parts of his chronicles written on the island of Guard already in the third era, around 470. They claim that she had to create a translation of the Book of Light and even a new script "for those living in the darkness; poor natives to whom, alas, our beautiful language [Rinapri] is nothing but birds' singing". <br />
<br />
Since the language has changed much during these millennia, supporters of the Lafan school believe that the script was coined in 4th era around year 400 by Narrif Tsero, one of the most productive Khat linguists, who used Kher and Northern runic scripts (not used anymore) as the base. The new script managed to spread just in time before the decline of Khat culture and was finally revived after the of the collapse of Western Tyranny in the sixth era more than two thousand years later by Teke Kále. Much later, in the seventh era 290, the founder of New Khat Empire, Sekkute I, used the script as a national romantic example of pure Khattish culture, not contaminated by this Westlang.<br />
<br />
See also the [http://juhhmi.deviantart.com/art/Cekara-Lafenu-450846925 modern script] whose one variation uses β-grapheme for ''v'' and its left-mirrored version for ''f'', 8-grapheme for ''pf'', b-grapheme for ''z'' and d-grapheme for ''s''.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
*roots slightly similar to [[w:Semitic_root|semitic roots]]: voiceless bi- and triliterals (while Kher have only quadriliteral roots)<br />
**voiceless→voiced & ejective→affricate & voiced→approximant as one derivation process: √p-p → ''b-p'' and ''p-b''<br />
**derivation with affixes as well<br />
<br />
===Pronoun===<br />
<br />
<br />
===Noun===<br />
<br />
Nouns of Khattish have two grammatical genders, animate (AN) and inanimate (IN), which are characteristic to words and not explicitly shown. Animate class contains all living creatures and their body parts while inanimate<br />
<br />
Nouns have two numbers, singular and plural, and the plural is formed by voicing the consonant of the stressed syllable (second or last).<br />
<br />
====Case====<br />
<br />
Noun cases:<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Subject of intransitive verbs and direct object of transitive ones<br />
**base form (consonants and medial schwas)<br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agent of transitive verbs (before object); causative (after object)<br />
**final ''ée''<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect objects; for the benefit of (BEN)<br />
**final ''u'' with AN and ''k'' with IN<br />
*Genitive (GEN): possession ('''his''' head); with most adpositions; adjective-forming<br />
**last syllable nuclaus = syllabic ''l'' <br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS-COM): using something or in company of someone (compare "with"); adjacent location (ADE) <br />
**final ''s'' with AN and ''h'' with IN<br />
<br />
===Adjective===<br />
<br />
*noun GEN where the last internal ''e'' becomes ''a''<br />
*agree with gender: ''na''-suffix with animate nouns<br />
*only agrees with ergative case: ''-áa'' for AN and ''-é'' for IN<br />
<br />
<br />
===Verb===<br />
<br />
*partially conjugated for subject/object person & number (1SG, 1PL) <br />
*rather small set of auxiliary clitics for tense & aspect<br />
**"he cat see-touch" (he is watching a cat), "he dog see-leave" (he saw a dog), "he horse see-meet" (he will see a horse)<br />
*apophony for negation <br />
*first consonant voicing for subjunctive mood<br />
<br />
===Adposition===<br />
<br />
postpositions and circumpositions<br />
<br />
<br />
===Derivational morphology===<br />
<br />
Suffixes:<br />
*''-enú'' origin, characteristic<br />
<br />
<br />
===Numeral===<br />
<br />
decimal base<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
ergative-absolutive alignment, word order SV, AOV, OAV or O<sub>1</sub>AO<sub>2</sub>V (verb-final), head-medial<br />
<br />
Antipassive construction uses SV(O)<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ideas]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User_talk:D%C4%93_Graut_B%CA%89r&diff=36321User talk:Dē Graut Bʉr2015-07-12T19:57:48Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Fo hoinga fatipu */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{| id="triangleintro" style="width:100%; background-size: 20%; background-repeat:no-repeat; background-position:0% 50%;" class="toccolours; width: 66%" align="center"<br />
| style="text-align:center;" |<big><big><big>'''Welcome to the LinguifexWiki!'''</big></big></big><br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:center;" |<big>A beginning language creator might want to take a look at our [[Help:Introduction|guide]].</big><br><br>If you have any questions you are welcome to leave a message at one of the [[Linguifex:Administrators|administrators]] talk pages! <br/>Just don't forget to sign your message with four tildes (<nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>)!<br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:center;" |<big><big>From all of us on the wiki:<br> '''The best of luck with your language!'''</big></big><br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Chrysophylax</span>]]''' <small>([[User:talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB;">talk</span>]])</small> [[File:Zelos.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]]&nbsp;'''[[User Talk:EmperorZelos|<span style="color:#800080;">Emperor Zelos</span>]]''' <small>([[User talk:EmperorZelos|<span style="color:#800080;">talk</span>]])</small> [[File:PMOB.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:PMOB|<span style="color:red;">Pá mamūnám</span>]] [[User:PMOB|<span style="color:red;">ontā́ bán</span>]]''' <small>([[User talk:Pá mamūnám ontā́ bán|<span style="color:red;">talk</span>]])</small> [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]]&nbsp;'''[[User Talk:Waahlis|<span style="color:orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' <small>([[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color:orange;">talk</span>]]) </small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Personal welcome==<br />
Welcome to Linguifex! :D We hope you will like it here! Just shout if you need any help getting started! [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 12:20, 7 April 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== Previous ==<br />
<br />
How much previous conlanging experience do you have? :) [[File:Zelos.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]]&nbsp;'''[[User Talk:EmperorZelos|<span style="color:#800080;">Emperor Zelos</span>]]''' 09:58, 21 April 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
I have quite some experience with conlanging, but I don't know all that linguistic terminology, so therefor I sometimes have difficulties with explaining the grammar. --[[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]] ([[User talk:Dē Graut Bʉr|talk]]) 18:55, 21 April 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== Featured language of May 2013:Nominations ==<br />
<br />
<wikiforumthread id=26 /><br />
<br />
[[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 13:21, 5 May 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== Featured language of May 2013: Voting ==<br />
<br />
<wikiforumthread id=27/><br />
<br />
[[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 20:13, 22 May 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== Nominationes! ==<br />
<br />
<wikiforumthread id=37 /><br />
:Nice to see that there's only one nomination :P [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]] ([[User talk:Dē Graut Bʉr|talk]]) 17:59, 18 August 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
==second linguifex relay==<br />
Do the thing<br />
<br />
[[User:Greatbuddha|Greatbuddha]] ([[User talk:Greatbuddha|talk]]) 23:47, 20 November 2013 (CET)<br />
<br />
== Third Linguifex Relay ==<br />
<br />
Hear ye! I am done! [[Third Linguifex Relay/Tsan]]<br />
<br />
Best of luck, [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 23:24, 17 February 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
== Gloss == <br />
<br />
There are a few missing words, as far as I can tell. I believe I know what a few of them mean but I just want to be sure:<br />
<br />
Hi - 'he'? <br><br />
Ji - 'you'? <br><br />
Ditt - 'your'? <br><br />
Jiess - 'us/you gen.'? <br> <br />
Zess - ? <br><br />
Dritiglyk - ? <br><br />
[[User:Darthme|Darthme]] ([[User talk:Darthme|talk]]) 19:18, 1 March 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
I'm sorry for the late reply, but I was on a holiday without any internet connection. I think you should be able to figure out what those words mean if you take a good look at [[Bearlandic|this page]], more specifically the sections about pronouns and adjectives. Sincerely, [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]] ([[User talk:Dē Graut Bʉr|talk]]) 19:23, 8 March 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
== Concerning the Fourth Linguifex Relay ==<br />
<br />
Hi Greatbear, the Fourth Linguifex Relay is underway and we just wanted to check that you're still active and on the game? If so, just leave a sign that you're still alive and get ready for your turn!<br />
<br />
Best regards,<br />
[[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 11:37, 8 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
===Fo hoinga fatipu===<br />
<br />
''Rótrest léhkodé [[Fourth_Linguifex_Relay/Sceptrian|khugu]], lateeprlest roi bapu!'' (You should go there quickly and dance above the words!) Hopefully, you are active.<br />
[[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 15:33, 9 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
I've now passed the relay to Chrysophylax. [[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 21:57, 12 July 2015 (CEST)</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Chrysophylax&diff=36320User talk:Chrysophylax2015-07-12T19:57:29Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Concerning the Fourth Linguifex Relay */</p>
<hr />
<div>And welcome to my talk page! I Welcome you, who has come to my talk page! Everything is possible at my talk page! The only limit is your imagination! {{archive}}<br />
<div style="width: 350px; border: 2px solid white; background: white; padding: 1em; -moz-box-shadow: 0 0 5px 5px #; -webkit-box-shadow: 0 0 3px 3px #; box-shadow: 0 0 3px 3px #;"><br />
* Please add a new topic when posting a comment. <br />
* Forget not to sign with <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki> (yes, that's four tildes.)<br />
* Keep it concise. <br />
* And for the love of me, indent when replying or commenting on a post!<br />
</div><br />
<br />
== Language infobox color ==<br />
<br />
Hello. I seem to be unable to change the color of my conlang's [[Riagi|infobox]], is there a trick to it?<br />
<br />
== Ooops! Misplaced Page==<br />
<br />
Hi Chrysophylax,<br />
<br />
Apologies, I goofed when I was making an IPA template for the vowels in Nankôre. Now when I go to the Templates page I see "Nankôre" but I don't see the name for the template, which is "Nankore_Vowels_IPA". Could you please help me and remove "Nankôre" from the Templates page and replace it with "Nankore_Vowels_IPA"? I know I successfully created the template, because it appears on my conlang's page when I call the template.<br />
<br />
Thanks!!<br />
<br />
~~Anyar~~<br />
<br />
== Subcategory for Czecklish ==<br />
<br />
Can you make a subcategory for my conlang Czecklish? I have three separate articles for it, and it's getting hard to manage them. There will likely be three or four more articles concerning Czecklish in the future. I believe it would be more convenient for Linguifex visitors and users to view Czecklish and its various articles if it had a subcategory, like Khaz or Valian.<br />
<br />
== Tagchen ==<br />
Can you delete my [[Netagin]] page and all its associated pages? Many thanks, [[User:IlL|IlL]] ([[User talk:IlL|talk]]) 21:50, 29 October 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
::- Sure! If you don't mind me asking, any particular reason why? --[[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Χρυσοφύλαξ</span>]]''' 22:02, 29 October 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
:::I decided to discontinue Netagin... it struck me as too much an ad-hoc hodgepodge. Though features from it will be absorbed into my other languages. In passing, what do you think about partaking in Linguifex Relay the Fourth (prematurely)? [[User:IlL|IlL]] ([[User talk:IlL|talk]]) 01:17, 30 October 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
::::Ah, I know that feeling. I would be okay with that! --[[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Χρυσοφύλαξ</span>]]''' 01:42, 30 October 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
== How does one even ==<br />
... make an a priori conlang they feel confident about? <span style="background:#006400">[[User:Ceige|<span style="color:#FFFFFF">'''CEIGE'''</span>]][[User talk:Ceige|<span style="color:#FFFFFF">⟨TAWK⟩</span>]]</span> 14:01, 7 December 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
== <strike>Ixnay'ed on the Acebookfay Accountway? </strike> ==<br />
<strike>It's coming up as a removed account for spam/abuse - you've got my email (somewhere maybe...? :P ) so feel free to email me mate <span style="background:#006400">[[User:Ceige|<span style="color:#FFFFFF">'''CEIGE'''</span>]][[User talk:Ceige|<span style="color:#FFFFFF">⟨TAWK⟩</span>]]</span> 13:12, 10 March 2015 (CET)</strike><br />
<br />
==Concerning the Fourth Linguifex Relay==<br />
<br />
Since Dē Graut Bʉr hasn't shown any signs of activity, I'm passing the relay to you.<br />
<br />
===Fo hoinga fatipu===<br />
<br />
''Rótrest léhkodé [[Fourth_Linguifex_Relay/Sceptrian|khugu]], lateeprlest roi bapu!'' (You should go there quickly and dance above the words!)<br />
<br />
[[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 21:57, 12 July 2015 (CEST)</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Chrysophylax&diff=36319User talk:Chrysophylax2015-07-12T19:57:10Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Concerning the Fourth Linguifex Relay */</p>
<hr />
<div>And welcome to my talk page! I Welcome you, who has come to my talk page! Everything is possible at my talk page! The only limit is your imagination! {{archive}}<br />
<div style="width: 350px; border: 2px solid white; background: white; padding: 1em; -moz-box-shadow: 0 0 5px 5px #; -webkit-box-shadow: 0 0 3px 3px #; box-shadow: 0 0 3px 3px #;"><br />
* Please add a new topic when posting a comment. <br />
* Forget not to sign with <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki> (yes, that's four tildes.)<br />
* Keep it concise. <br />
* And for the love of me, indent when replying or commenting on a post!<br />
</div><br />
<br />
== Language infobox color ==<br />
<br />
Hello. I seem to be unable to change the color of my conlang's [[Riagi|infobox]], is there a trick to it?<br />
<br />
== Ooops! Misplaced Page==<br />
<br />
Hi Chrysophylax,<br />
<br />
Apologies, I goofed when I was making an IPA template for the vowels in Nankôre. Now when I go to the Templates page I see "Nankôre" but I don't see the name for the template, which is "Nankore_Vowels_IPA". Could you please help me and remove "Nankôre" from the Templates page and replace it with "Nankore_Vowels_IPA"? I know I successfully created the template, because it appears on my conlang's page when I call the template.<br />
<br />
Thanks!!<br />
<br />
~~Anyar~~<br />
<br />
== Subcategory for Czecklish ==<br />
<br />
Can you make a subcategory for my conlang Czecklish? I have three separate articles for it, and it's getting hard to manage them. There will likely be three or four more articles concerning Czecklish in the future. I believe it would be more convenient for Linguifex visitors and users to view Czecklish and its various articles if it had a subcategory, like Khaz or Valian.<br />
<br />
== Tagchen ==<br />
Can you delete my [[Netagin]] page and all its associated pages? Many thanks, [[User:IlL|IlL]] ([[User talk:IlL|talk]]) 21:50, 29 October 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
::- Sure! If you don't mind me asking, any particular reason why? --[[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Χρυσοφύλαξ</span>]]''' 22:02, 29 October 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
:::I decided to discontinue Netagin... it struck me as too much an ad-hoc hodgepodge. Though features from it will be absorbed into my other languages. In passing, what do you think about partaking in Linguifex Relay the Fourth (prematurely)? [[User:IlL|IlL]] ([[User talk:IlL|talk]]) 01:17, 30 October 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
::::Ah, I know that feeling. I would be okay with that! --[[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Χρυσοφύλαξ</span>]]''' 01:42, 30 October 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
== How does one even ==<br />
... make an a priori conlang they feel confident about? <span style="background:#006400">[[User:Ceige|<span style="color:#FFFFFF">'''CEIGE'''</span>]][[User talk:Ceige|<span style="color:#FFFFFF">⟨TAWK⟩</span>]]</span> 14:01, 7 December 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
== <strike>Ixnay'ed on the Acebookfay Accountway? </strike> ==<br />
<strike>It's coming up as a removed account for spam/abuse - you've got my email (somewhere maybe...? :P ) so feel free to email me mate <span style="background:#006400">[[User:Ceige|<span style="color:#FFFFFF">'''CEIGE'''</span>]][[User talk:Ceige|<span style="color:#FFFFFF">⟨TAWK⟩</span>]]</span> 13:12, 10 March 2015 (CET)</strike><br />
<br />
==Concerning the Fourth Linguifex Relay==<br />
<br />
Since Dē Graut Bʉr hasn't shown any signs of activity, I'm passing the relay to you.<br />
<br />
===Fo hoinga fatipu===<br />
<br />
''Rótrest léhkodé [[Fourth_Linguifex_Relay/Sceptrian|khugu]], lateeprlest roi bapu!'' (You should go there quickly and dance above the words!)</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Juhhmi&diff=35947User talk:Juhhmi2015-07-09T21:25:23Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Greatbear */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{| id="bannerintro" style="width:100%; background-size: 20%; background-repeat:no-repeat; background-position:0% 50%;" class="toccolours; width: 66%" align="center"<br />
| style="text-align:center;" |<big><big><big>'''Welcome to the LinguifexWiki!'''</big></big></big><br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:center;" |<big>A beginning language creator might want to take a look at our [[Help:Introduction|guide]].</big><br><br>If you have any questions you are welcome to leave a message at one of the [[Linguifex:Administrators|administrators]] talk pages! <br/>Just don't forget to sign your message with four tildes (<nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>)!<br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:center;" |<big><big>From all of us on the wiki:<br> '''The best of luck with your language!'''</big></big><br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Chrysophylax</span>]]''' <small>([[User:talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB;">talk</span>]])</small> [[File:Zelos.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]]&nbsp;'''[[User Talk:EmperorZelos|<span style="color:#800080;">Emperor Zelos</span>]]''' <small>([[User talk:EmperorZelos|<span style="color:#800080;">talk</span>]])</small> [[File:PMOB.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:PMOB|<span style="color:red;">Pá mamūnám</span>]] [[User:PMOB|<span style="color:red;">ontā́ bán</span>]]''' <small>([[User talk:Pá mamūnám ontā́ bán|<span style="color:red;">talk</span>]])</small> [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]]&nbsp;'''[[User Talk:Waahlis|<span style="color:orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' <small>([[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color:orange;">talk</span>]]) </small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Personal welcome! ==<br />
<br />
''Tervetuloa''! I was just about to invite you to the site! I really do like your Grundet world! :) If you need anything, just shout! Sincerely, [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 23:06, 6 March 2013 (CET)<br />
<br />
== Tenses ==<br />
<br />
I saw your conlang and you seem to confuse tenses and aspects<br />
<br />
Imperfective is an aspect, Present is a tense. <br />
<br />
Imperfective describes a view of an event, as being unfinished, ongoing etc.<br />
<br />
Present means it happens right now, you can have imperfective past, future and present at the same time.<br />
<br />
[[File:Zelos.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]]&nbsp;'''[[User Talk:EmperorZelos|<span style="color:#800080;">Emperor Zelos</span>]]''' 22:03, 18 March 2013 (CET)<br />
<br />
# it is customary to respond on your own talk apge if I leave a message on it<br />
# Always sign with <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki><br />
# Not that I could see<br />
# Tenses and aspects are often confused, if you want I could give you a few tips on it<br />
<br />
[[File:Zelos.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]]&nbsp;'''[[User Talk:EmperorZelos|<span style="color:#800080;">Emperor Zelos</span>]]''' 19:56, 20 March 2013 (CET)<br />
<br />
Oh, that's good to know since I'm not familiar with editing wikis. And help is always appreciated :)<br />
<br />
[[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 20:50, 20 March 2013 (CET)<br />
<br />
What I suggest is doing like I did, take a bunch of tenses you want, combine them with all the aspects you want and hten go nuts on the table. For example I have inceptive (to start an action) and conitnuative/imperfective, if you start an action it will imply that you'll be doing it in the future so future continuative and present inceptive is one and the same. I also have "Causum" Which is retrospective + future/present, why? Retrospective/perfect means the action had consequences relative to a future action, why? Because for present, the event happening now, and the vent happening in the future, the consequence of this action will have to be in the future no matter what so they are one of the same in it.<br />
<br />
Best Regards<br />
<br />
[[File:Zelos.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]]&nbsp;'''[[User Talk:EmperorZelos|<span style="color:#800080;">Emperor Zelos</span>]]''' 06:20, 21 March 2013 (CET)<br />
<br />
Thank you! Those are nice ideas! I must ponder what I'll invent for my next language...<br />
<br />
[[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 20:18, 21 March 2013 (CET)<br />
<br />
You're welcome, I always suggest you think about implied meanings because those will leak over onto the real meanings, thats usually how they start replacing one another :) [[File:Zelos.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]]&nbsp;'''[[User Talk:EmperorZelos|<span style="color:#800080;">Emperor Zelos</span>]]''' 21:13, 21 March 2013 (CET)<br />
<br />
== Dictionary ==<br />
<br />
Hi Juhhmi! I would recommend you to use the nomenclature "Rinap/Dictionary" for the English-Rinap lexicon. :) [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 21:37, 3 April 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
Oh yes, sorry... But is there an easy way of changing the title or should I create a new page with the name?<br />
<br />
[[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 08:09, 4 April 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
<br />
Yup, there's an easy way: Just press the downwards arrow in the right corner and press "Move". :) [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 10:24, 4 April 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
<br />
Great! :) [[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 17:36, 4 April 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== School of Waahlis: Lesson XIV: Links ==<br />
<br />
Ciao! I noticed your link at [[Rinap/Dictionary]] to the [[Rinap]] page. The formatting was rather dA in its form; on wikis we use the format <nowiki>[[Page name]]</nowiki> for any internal links (i.e. to pages on the wiki), and the one you used for external links. In addition, we've got quick versions to Wikipedia and Wiktionary, namely <nowiki>[[w:Page name on Wikipedia]]</nowiki> and <nowiki>[[wikt:Page name on Wiktionary]]</nowiki>. <br />
<br />
Hope it helps. :) [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 20:26, 4 April 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
Aah, wonderful! :) I bet I saw it before, but completely forgot! [[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 18:56, 5 April 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== Featured language of May 2013:Nominations ==<br />
<br />
<wikiforumthread id=26 /><br />
<br />
[[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 13:22, 5 May 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== Featured language of May 2013: Voting ==<br />
<br />
<wikiforumthread id=27/><br />
<br />
[[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 20:10, 22 May 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== New language ==<br />
<br />
New language, excellent! May I recommend you to mabe not list cases and such in the text? You could make bullet lists instead? :) <br />
<br />
Sincerely, [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 16:52, 17 June 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
Yes, finally... And thanks for the tip! When I'll find time (tomorrow), I'll create subsections where those shall be listed as well as inflection tables, but I just wanted to reveal them to those who'd come across the site. :) I should also add glossing for my Rinap story (which might reveal whether I made some mistakes).<br />
<br />
[[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 20:59, 18 June 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== Productivity ==<br />
<br />
Stop being so damn productive! :P [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 17:37, 6 July 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
Yeah! You're making the rest of us look bad! :P [[File:Zelos.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]]&nbsp;'''[[User Talk:EmperorZelos|<span style="color:#800080;">Emperor Zelos</span>]]''' 07:47, 7 July 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
You especially , you haven't been around for ages! >:( [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 12:08, 7 July 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
lol I'm really surprised how quickly my mind creates all these things, edit after edit... But I do hope the quality won't suffer...<br />
[[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 16:42, 7 July 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
I have been around, i dont leave, just post less as i work on a pdf for my conlang [[File:Zelos.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]]&nbsp;'''[[User Talk:EmperorZelos|<span style="color:#800080;">Emperor Zelos</span>]]''' 19:39, 7 July 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
But I've been lonely... :( [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 20:12, 7 July 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
Go Crazy and you'll have all the friends you need! >D [[File:Zelos.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]]&nbsp;'''[[User Talk:EmperorZelos|<span style="color:#800080;">Emperor Zelos</span>]]''' 05:27, 8 July 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== Nominationes! ==<br />
<br />
<wikiforumthread id=37 /><br />
<br />
== Nominated language ==<br />
<br />
Your language, [[Aoma]], has been nominated to be '''featured'''. Please visit [http://linguifex.com/index.php?title=Special:WikiForum&thread=45 this page] to view the nominations. Also, please translate the translation banner if you have yet do so, and post it on the thread:<br />
<br />
<br />
"This language was once featured. Thanks to its level of quality, plausibility and usage capabilities, it has been voted as featured."<br />
<br />
<br />
Sincerely, [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 14:31, 3 January 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
== Congratulations! ==<br />
<br />
Congratulations! You language [[Aoma]] was voted featured! A real favourite!<br />
<br />
Please put the <nowiki>{{Template:Medal/featured|language=Aoma}}</nowiki> on your user page to show off your achievement!<br />
<br />
Sincerely, [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 20:13, 22 January 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
<br />
Wow! Great, thanks! :) [[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 16:46, 24 January 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
== Third Linguifex Relay ==<br />
<br />
Hey, I'm tentatively done with my [[Third Linguifex Relay/Alska|version!]] I'm missing a few glosses from De Graut Bur, but you should be able to at least do the first two verses! Some words may be subject to change as I did my best educated guess without a gloss to use, but I believe I'm right. [[User:Darthme|Darthme]] ([[User talk:Darthme|talk]]) 22:40, 1 March 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
== Update ==<br />
<br />
I got the glosses for the words I needed. There are three new ones in my translation:<br />
<br />
''denne'' instead of ''dit'' (l.3) <br><br />
''de' for –––– (l.24)<br><br />
''triste'' for ––––– (l.24)<br> <br />
[[User:Darthme|Darthme]] ([[User talk:Darthme|talk]]) 20:22, 9 March 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
Great! Thank you! :) [[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 15:04, 10 March 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
== Linguifex Relay the Fourth ==<br />
<br />
''Giuruone mezzes ie nior [[Fourth Linguifex Relay/Wiobian|mies Wenbings]].'' (The mission awaits you in this direction.)<br/><br />
''hiume! Wiote-Hung järse tur ien Kaus!'' (Go forth! Heaven's aid be at your side!)<br />
<br />
[[User:IlL|IlL]] ([[User talk:IlL|talk]]) 14:35, 8 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
Sorry, forgot to mention... The dative case can be used instrumentally in Classical Wiobian poetry. [[User:IlL|IlL]] ([[User talk:IlL|talk]]) 23:29, 8 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== Greatbear ==<br />
<br />
Hi Juhhmi! If Greatbear doesn't respond in two days from the 10th/of July (Finnish time), I give you the authority to pass the relay to the next one on the list!<br />
<br />
Sincerely, [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 23:05, 9 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
Understood [[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 23:24, 9 July 2015 (CEST)</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Linguifex_Relay/Sceptrian&diff=35898Fourth Linguifex Relay/Sceptrian2015-07-09T13:34:46Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Extra */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Fourth_Linguifex_Relay|Óphi fatipap Lingwifekson]] [[Sceptrian|Lushakha]]:<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
''Léhkodé pai ko qhóqhøkos,<br />
''keewesht mjulan oil qotitlóo;<br />
''darema soi slopapu'os,<br />
''jak rajidhé mitupurpóo.<br />
''Péma saitush_q'papa sekhe,<br />
''jevaa hifthilan gat'tishh'i,<br />
''moŕ ól dorahpipi qóphe;<br />
''mutshos tslarmak jódish b'shiit'sji.<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian is a head-initial, ergative-absolutive language, i.e. the word order in clauses is mostly VAO and the head of the noun phrase is followed by adjectives and demostratives. The language is fusional-agglutinative, e.g. verbs are [[Sceptrian#Affixes|conjugated]], but both prepositions and postpositions are used as well and their heads are [[Sceptrian#Cases|declined]] according to the noun class. The cases of nouns are utilized in [[Sceptrian#Derivational_Morphology|derivational morphology]] so that at first glance many verbs seem to be only inflected nouns.<br />
<br />
However, poems may have a more free word order and <!--apparently -->may omit vowels in various syllables. The apostrophe may stand for both these omissions and normal pausa.<br />
<br />
==Glossed==<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
''léhkod-é pai ko qhó~qhøk-os<br />
<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR DIST.SG SUBJ~\is_broken-3SG.INCEP</small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Particles|Verb particles]] don't always require verbs<br />
<br />
''keewesht mjula-n oil qot&lt;i&gt;~t-l-óo <br />
<small>mosaic life-GEN as rock~&lt;DIM&gt;-PL-LAT</small><br />
*See [[Sceptrian#Prepositions|prepositions]] for the effect of noun case.<br />
*Some derivations utilize both reduplication and affixing. For ''qot&lt;i&gt;~t'' an alternative gloss might be: rock&lt;DIM&gt;~NMZ<br />
<br />
''darema soi slop&lt;a&gt;~p-u-os<br />
<small>Ruler.AUG on chair~&lt;AUG&gt;-LOC-POSS.3SG.ALIEN</small><br />
*Sceptrian has several ways of indicating [[Sceptrian#Possessive|possession]]<br />
<br />
''jak rajidh-é mitup-u-r-p-óo<br />
<small>away sudden-VOC(.ADVZ) sea-LOC-VBZ.FREQ-NMZ-LAT</small><br />
*Occurrence of [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]] has certain rules <br />
<br />
''Pé=ma saitu-sh q(ó)pa-pa sek-he<br />
<small>2PL.VOC=FOC DEM.PROX.ANIM-PL act-ABL come-GNO.2PL</small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Relative_clauses|On relative clauses]] of Sceptrian<br />
*Ablative case has a causal meaning as well<br />
<br />
''jeva-a hifthila-n gat(o)ti-sh-h(e)i<br />
<small>grace-ERG heaven-GEN accommodation-INS(.VBZ)-PST.PFV.2PL </small><br />
*Agent prefixes may be omitted<br />
*Genitive forms don't agree with their heads<br />
<br />
''mo-ŕ ól dora-h-pi-pi qóp-he<br />
<small>1PL-GEN like law-COM(.VBZ)-GER-ABL act-GNO.2PL</small><br />
*It is common for Sceptrian to [[Sceptrian#Derivational_Morphology|derive]] new nouns from verbs already derived from nouns<br />
<br />
''mutsh-os tsla-r-mak-Ø jódi-sh b(a)shiit(i)s-ji <br />
<small>neighbour-INS(.COM) INCEP.1PL-HORT-give-ANTIP charity-INS poor_one-DAT </small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Irrealis|Hortative]] in Sceptrian<br />
*[[Sceptrian#Voice|Antipassive]] is formed by turning the ERG agent into ABS, removing the subject/object verb suffix and changing the subject/object case into instrumental<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Extra==<br />
<br />
*From ''leh'', ''Léh-ko-d-é'' might be glossed as ADVZ\leg-LAT-VBZ.MVT\ADJZ-VOC, but the core was translated for simplicity :)<br />
*Same for ''b(a)shi-i-t(i)-s-ji'' gloss wealth-VOC-ADJZ.ABE-NMZ.AN-DAT from ''bashi''<br />
<br />
<!--Stress is not perfect, but at least it's got some kind of a rhyme!--><br />
<br />
[[Category:Fourth Linguifex Relay]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User_talk:D%C4%93_Graut_B%CA%89r&diff=35897User talk:Dē Graut Bʉr2015-07-09T13:33:49Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Concerning the Fourth Linguifex Relay */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{| id="triangleintro" style="width:100%; background-size: 20%; background-repeat:no-repeat; background-position:0% 50%;" class="toccolours; width: 66%" align="center"<br />
| style="text-align:center;" |<big><big><big>'''Welcome to the LinguifexWiki!'''</big></big></big><br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:center;" |<big>A beginning language creator might want to take a look at our [[Help:Introduction|guide]].</big><br><br>If you have any questions you are welcome to leave a message at one of the [[Linguifex:Administrators|administrators]] talk pages! <br/>Just don't forget to sign your message with four tildes (<nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>)!<br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:center;" |<big><big>From all of us on the wiki:<br> '''The best of luck with your language!'''</big></big><br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Chrysophylax</span>]]''' <small>([[User:talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB;">talk</span>]])</small> [[File:Zelos.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]]&nbsp;'''[[User Talk:EmperorZelos|<span style="color:#800080;">Emperor Zelos</span>]]''' <small>([[User talk:EmperorZelos|<span style="color:#800080;">talk</span>]])</small> [[File:PMOB.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:PMOB|<span style="color:red;">Pá mamūnám</span>]] [[User:PMOB|<span style="color:red;">ontā́ bán</span>]]''' <small>([[User talk:Pá mamūnám ontā́ bán|<span style="color:red;">talk</span>]])</small> [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]]&nbsp;'''[[User Talk:Waahlis|<span style="color:orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' <small>([[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color:orange;">talk</span>]]) </small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Personal welcome==<br />
Welcome to Linguifex! :D We hope you will like it here! Just shout if you need any help getting started! [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 12:20, 7 April 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== Previous ==<br />
<br />
How much previous conlanging experience do you have? :) [[File:Zelos.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]]&nbsp;'''[[User Talk:EmperorZelos|<span style="color:#800080;">Emperor Zelos</span>]]''' 09:58, 21 April 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
I have quite some experience with conlanging, but I don't know all that linguistic terminology, so therefor I sometimes have difficulties with explaining the grammar. --[[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]] ([[User talk:Dē Graut Bʉr|talk]]) 18:55, 21 April 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== Featured language of May 2013:Nominations ==<br />
<br />
<wikiforumthread id=26 /><br />
<br />
[[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 13:21, 5 May 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== Featured language of May 2013: Voting ==<br />
<br />
<wikiforumthread id=27/><br />
<br />
[[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 20:13, 22 May 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== Nominationes! ==<br />
<br />
<wikiforumthread id=37 /><br />
:Nice to see that there's only one nomination :P [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]] ([[User talk:Dē Graut Bʉr|talk]]) 17:59, 18 August 2013 (CEST)<br />
<br />
==second linguifex relay==<br />
Do the thing<br />
<br />
[[User:Greatbuddha|Greatbuddha]] ([[User talk:Greatbuddha|talk]]) 23:47, 20 November 2013 (CET)<br />
<br />
== Third Linguifex Relay ==<br />
<br />
Hear ye! I am done! [[Third Linguifex Relay/Tsan]]<br />
<br />
Best of luck, [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 23:24, 17 February 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
== Gloss == <br />
<br />
There are a few missing words, as far as I can tell. I believe I know what a few of them mean but I just want to be sure:<br />
<br />
Hi - 'he'? <br><br />
Ji - 'you'? <br><br />
Ditt - 'your'? <br><br />
Jiess - 'us/you gen.'? <br> <br />
Zess - ? <br><br />
Dritiglyk - ? <br><br />
[[User:Darthme|Darthme]] ([[User talk:Darthme|talk]]) 19:18, 1 March 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
I'm sorry for the late reply, but I was on a holiday without any internet connection. I think you should be able to figure out what those words mean if you take a good look at [[Bearlandic|this page]], more specifically the sections about pronouns and adjectives. Sincerely, [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]] ([[User talk:Dē Graut Bʉr|talk]]) 19:23, 8 March 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
== Concerning the Fourth Linguifex Relay ==<br />
<br />
Hi Greatbear, the Fourth Linguifex Relay is underway and we just wanted to check that you're still active and on the game? If so, just leave a sign that you're still alive and get ready for your turn!<br />
<br />
Best regards,<br />
[[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 11:37, 8 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
===Fo hoinga fatipu===<br />
<br />
''Rótrest léhkodé [[Fourth_Linguifex_Relay/Sceptrian|khugu]], lateeprlest roi bapu!'' (You should go there quickly and dance above the words!) Hopefully, you are active.<br />
[[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 15:33, 9 July 2015 (CEST)</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Linguifex_Relay/Sceptrian&diff=35896Fourth Linguifex Relay/Sceptrian2015-07-09T13:13:18Z<p>Juhhmi: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Fourth_Linguifex_Relay|Óphi fatipap Lingwifekson]] [[Sceptrian|Lushakha]]:<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
''Léhkodé pai ko qhóqhøkos,<br />
''keewesht mjulan oil qotitlóo;<br />
''darema soi slopapu'os,<br />
''jak rajidhé mitupurpóo.<br />
''Péma saitush_q'papa sekhe,<br />
''jevaa hifthilan gat'tishh'i,<br />
''moŕ ól dorahpipi qóphe;<br />
''mutshos tslarmak jódish b'shiit'sji.<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian is a head-initial, ergative-absolutive language, i.e. the word order in clauses is mostly VAO and the head of the noun phrase is followed by adjectives and demostratives. The language is fusional-agglutinative, e.g. verbs are [[Sceptrian#Affixes|conjugated]], but both prepositions and postpositions are used as well and their heads are [[Sceptrian#Cases|declined]] according to the noun class. The cases of nouns are utilized in [[Sceptrian#Derivational_Morphology|derivational morphology]] so that at first glance many verbs seem to be only inflected nouns.<br />
<br />
However, poems may have a more free word order and <!--apparently -->may omit vowels in various syllables. The apostrophe may stand for both these omissions and normal pausa.<br />
<br />
==Glossed==<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
''léhkod-é pai ko qhó~qhøk-os<br />
<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR DIST.SG SUBJ~\is_broken-3SG.INCEP</small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Particles|Verb particles]] don't always require verbs<br />
<br />
''keewesht mjula-n oil qot&lt;i&gt;~t-l-óo <br />
<small>mosaic life-GEN as rock~&lt;DIM&gt;-PL-LAT</small><br />
*See [[Sceptrian#Prepositions|prepositions]] for the effect of noun case.<br />
*Some derivations utilize both reduplication and affixing. For ''qot&lt;i&gt;~t'' an alternative gloss might be: rock&lt;DIM&gt;~NMZ<br />
<br />
''darema soi slop&lt;a&gt;~p-u-os<br />
<small>Ruler.AUG on chair~&lt;AUG&gt;-LOC-POSS.3SG.ALIEN</small><br />
*Sceptrian has several ways of indicating [[Sceptrian#Possessive|possession]]<br />
<br />
''jak rajidh-é mitup-u-r-p-óo<br />
<small>away sudden-VOC(.ADVZ) sea-LOC-VBZ.FREQ-NMZ-LAT</small><br />
*Occurrence of [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]] has certain rules <br />
<br />
''Pé=ma saitu-sh q(ó)pa-pa sek-he<br />
<small>2PL.VOC=FOC DEM.PROX.ANIM-PL act-ABL come-GNO.2PL</small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Relative_clauses|On relative clauses]] of Sceptrian<br />
*Ablative case has a causal meaning as well<br />
<br />
''jeva-a hifthila-n gat(o)ti-sh-h(e)i<br />
<small>grace-ERG heaven-GEN accommodation-INS(.VBZ)-PST.PFV.2PL </small><br />
*Agent prefixes may be omitted<br />
*Genitive forms don't agree with their heads<br />
<br />
''mo-ŕ ól dora-h-pi-pi qóp-he<br />
<small>1PL-GEN like law-COM(.VBZ)-GER-ABL act-GNO.2PL</small><br />
*It is common for Sceptrian to [[Sceptrian#Derivational_Morphology|derive]] new nouns from verbs already derived from nouns<br />
<br />
''mutsh-os tsla-r-mak-Ø jódi-sh b(a)shiit(i)s-ji <br />
<small>neighbour-INS(.COM) INCEP.1PL-HORT-give-ANTIP charity-INS poor_one-DAT </small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Irrealis|Hortative]] in Sceptrian<br />
*[[Sceptrian#Voice|Antipassive]] is formed by turning the ERG agent into ABS, removing the subject/object verb suffix and changing the subject/object case into instrumental<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Extra==<br />
<br />
*From ''leh'', ''Léh-ko-d-é'' might be glossed as ADVZ\leg-LAT-VBZ.MVT\ADJZ-VOC, but the core was translated for simplicity :)<br />
*Same for ''b(a)shi-i-t(i)-s-ji'' gloss wealth-VOC-ADJZ.ABE-NMZ.AN-DAT from ''bashó''<br />
<br />
<!--Stress is not perfect, but at least it's got some kind of a rhyme!--><br />
<br />
[[Category:Fourth Linguifex Relay]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian/Dictionary&diff=35895Sceptrian/Dictionary2015-07-09T13:12:29Z<p>Juhhmi: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
Derived words are shown under the original word. Latin alphabet order is used to help unaccustomed users.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
|Sceptrian || Word Class || English<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===A=== <br />
|-<br />
|aktas|| n || ear <br />
|-<br />
|ala || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
| alké || part || verb permissive<br />
|-<br />
| amu || n || girl<br />
|-<br />
|ara || n ||previous day, yesterday <br />
|-<br />
| atasi || part || verb hearsay evidential<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Æ=== <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===B===<br />
|-<br />
|bak|| n || table <br />
|-<br />
|bap|| n|| word <br />
|-<br />
|baplóp || n ||sentence <br />
|-<br />
| bashi || n || wealth<br />
|-<br />
|batop|| n || language <br />
|-<br />
| berak || n || tower<br />
|-<br />
| betsla || n || effect<br />
|-<br />
| betsl || v || affect<br />
|-<br />
|birtsil || n ||fire <br />
|-<br />
| boi || prep || down <br />
|-<br />
|bó || n||lowness <br />
|-<br />
|bous || v ||goes down <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===D=== <br />
|-<br />
| darem || v || is ruled <br />
|-<br />
| daremu || n || ruler<br />
|-<br />
| dei || adj || right (side) <br />
|-<br />
| deq || n || cliff <br />
|-<br />
|dldlp|| n || bubble<br />
|-<br />
| dora || n || law<br />
|-<br />
|doth|| n || man <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===DH=== <br />
|-<br />
|dhoku || n ||head <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===E=== <br />
|-<br />
|eja || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
|eva || n ||light <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===É=== <br />
|-<br />
| éves || n || hair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===F=== <br />
|-<br />
| fas || n || finger<br />
|-<br />
|fatip||n||chain<br />
|-<br />
|fendó ||n ||death <br />
|-<br />
|firut || n || city, town<br />
|-<br />
|fkot|| n|| nest <br />
|-<br />
| fo || pro || you (singular)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===G=== <br />
|-<br />
| gana || part || verb volitive<br />
|-<br />
|gat|| n || house<br />
|-<br />
| gatoti || n || accommodation<br />
|-<br />
| gæ || part || in literature for sarcasm <br />
|-<br />
| get || n || mountain <br />
|-<br />
|glerk|| n || mace <br />
|-<br />
|gln || n ||fat <br />
|-<br />
| gót || n || table <br />
|-<br />
|guh || n ||mouth <br />
|-<br />
|gul|| n || blackness <br />
|-<br />
|guts||n||cow<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===H=== <br />
|-<br />
| hara || n || west <br />
|-<br />
| hamisi || n || one million <br />
|-<br />
| hets || v || stands<br />
|-<br />
| hi || pro || it (inanimate)<br />
|-<br />
|hifthil || n || air <br />
|-<br />
| hifthila || n || heaven<br />
|-<br />
|hil || n ||whiteness <br />
|-<br />
| hoi || prep || behind; after<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===I=== <br />
|-<br />
| i || n || concept, abstraction<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===J=== <br />
|-<br />
| jaafa || pro || something (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
|jada|| n || pleasant, nice, good <br />
|-<br />
| jak || postp || ABL away <br />
|-<br />
| jatu || n || father <br />
|-<br />
| jeva || n || grace<br />
|-<br />
|jiti|| n || smallness <br />
|-<br />
| jodhi || pro || some kind of<br />
|-<br />
| jofa || adj || some <br />
|-<br />
| jofai || pro || somehow<br />
|-<br />
| jofko || pro || sometime<br />
|-<br />
| jofku || pro || somewhere<br />
|-<br />
| jofo || pro || something (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| jofos || pro || with someone <br />
|-<br />
| jokæ || part || verb exhortative<br />
|-<br />
| jon || prep || between<br />
|-<br />
| jonfu || pro || something (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| jopi || n || number ten <br />
|-<br />
|joqó || n ||disgust <br />
|-<br />
| jov || pro || for some reason<br />
|-<br />
| jódi || n || charity<br />
|-<br />
| jø || part || in literature for verbal irony <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===K=== <br />
|-<br />
| ka || pro || this <br />
|-<br />
| kadh || pro || this kind of<br />
|-<br />
|kamps || n ||marsh, swamp <br />
|-<br />
| kap || pro || herefore<br />
|-<br />
|karon || n ||soup <br />
|-<br />
| kas || pro || with this<br />
|-<br />
|kat|| n ||knob, handle <br />
|-<br />
|katpas || n ||fern <br />
|-<br />
| keet || n || hill <br />
|-<br />
| keewesht || n || mosaic<br />
|-<br />
|kep || n ||wash, act of washing <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||is washed <br />
|-<br />
| kesl || v || bleed <br />
|-<br />
|keslań|| n || blood <br />
|-<br />
| ket || n || plate <br />
|-<br />
| keva || n || priest <br />
|-<br />
| kha || pro || now<br />
|-<br />
| khai || pro || hereby<br />
|-<br />
| khau || pro || here<br />
|-<br />
| khet || v|| must<br />
|-<br />
|kheti|| n || necessity <br />
|-<br />
| kho || pro || then<br />
|-<br />
| khoi || pro || thereby<br />
|-<br />
| khu || pro || there<br />
|-<br />
| khurd || v || dare<br />
|-<br />
|khurdi|| n || daring <br />
|-<br />
|ki || n ||shortness <br />
|-<br />
| ko || pro || that<br />
|-<br />
| kodh || pro || that kind of<br />
|-<br />
| koi || prep || per <br />
|-<br />
| kop || pro || therefore<br />
|-<br />
| kos || pro || with that<br />
|-<br />
|kos || n ||tree <br />
|-<br />
|koson || n ||wood (also kosoń) <br />
|-<br />
|ksaru || n ||guard<br />
|-<br />
|kusu|| n || friend <br />
|-<br />
|kuth|| n || dog <br />
|-<br />
| kuut || v || can, may<br />
|-<br />
|kuutó|| n || possibility <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===L=== <br />
|-<br />
| lai || adj || left (side) <br />
|-<br />
| lamat || n || field <br />
|-<br />
|latep || n ||dance <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||dances <br />
|-<br />
| leh || n || leg<br />
|-<br />
| lehkod || a || fast, quick<br />
|-<br />
| lewu || n || mother<br />
|-<br />
| loi || prep || out<br />
|-<br />
|lutu|| n || woman <br />
|-<br />
|luva || n ||pleasure <br />
|-<br />
|luwi|| n || beauty <br />
|-<br />
|lzork || n ||worm <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===M=== <br />
|-<br />
| mai || postp || ABL excluding<br />
|-<br />
| mak || postp || ABL except<br />
|-<br />
|mak || v || ABL is given to DAT by ERG <br />
|-<br />
|math || n ||cat <br />
|-<br />
| mats || postp || ABL instead of <br />
|-<br />
|mel|| n || water <br />
|-<br />
| mép || v || can, knows how to<br />
|-<br />
|mépi || n ||skill <br />
|-<br />
| mitup || n || sea, ocean <br />
|-<br />
|mjula|| n || life <br />
|-<br />
| mo || pro || we<br />
|-<br />
|mofpu|| n || lip <br />
|-<br />
| moi || prep || touching<br />
|-<br />
|mol || n ||blueness <br />
|-<br />
| mopi || n || one thousand <br />
|-<br />
| mots(i) || prep || on side<br />
|-<br />
| mowisi || n || one billion <br />
|-<br />
| mótap || n || bread<br />
|-<br />
|muf|| n || fish <br />
|-<br />
| mutsh || n || neighbour<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===N=== <br />
|-<br />
| na || pro || I<br />
|-<br />
| nam || n || food<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is eaten, used to sate<br />
|-<br />
|naméti || n || hunger<br />
|-<br />
|nang || n ||sweat <br />
|-<br />
|nat || n ||stain <br />
|-<br />
|nath|| n || beggar <br />
|-<br />
|nek||v||is taken<br />
|-<br />
| nesu || n || boy <br />
|-<br />
|nin || n ||greenness <br />
|-<br />
| Nith || pro || You (singular) <br />
|-<br />
| norka || part || verb dubitative<br />
|-<br />
|not|| n || object <br />
|-<br />
| nuhit || n || carpet <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===NG=== <br />
|-<br />
| nget || n || candle, lamp<br />
|-<br />
| ngofi || n || number thirteen<br />
|-<br />
| ngoipi || n || number nine <br />
|-<br />
| ngoki || n || number eleven <br />
|-<br />
| ngovi || n || number eight <br />
|-<br />
| ngóki || n || number fourteen <br />
|-<br />
| ngópi || n || number twelve<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===O=== <br />
|-<br />
| ofi || n || number five<br />
|-<br />
| ohu || adv || once<br />
|-<br />
| oil(i) || prep || as<br />
|-<br />
| oist(i) || prep || under<br />
|-<br />
| ok || num || three<br />
|-<br />
| okart || n || triangle<br />
|-<br />
| okhi || adj || third<br />
|-<br />
| okhu || adv || thrice<br />
|-<br />
| oki || n || number three<br />
|-<br />
| okitse || adj || threefold<br />
|-<br />
| omi || n || number seven<br />
|-<br />
| onta || pro || anything (animate) <br />
|-<br />
| ongka || pro || everything (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| op || num || two<br />
|-<br />
| opart || n || line<br />
|-<br />
| ophi || adj || second<br />
|-<br />
| ophu || adv || twice<br />
|-<br />
| ophungovi || n || number sixteen<br />
|-<br />
| opi || n || number two<br />
|-<br />
| opisi || n || pair<br />
|-<br />
| opitse || adj || twofold<br />
|-<br />
| orak || n || street, alley <br />
|-<br />
| ordhi || pro || all/every kind of<br />
|-<br />
| orka || adj || every, all <br />
|-<br />
| orkai || pro || in every way<br />
|-<br />
| orkho || pro || always<br />
|-<br />
| orkhu || pro || everywhere <br />
|-<br />
| orko || pro || everything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| orkop || pro || for every reason<br />
|-<br />
| orkos || pro || with everyone<br />
|-<br />
| ota || adj || any <br />
|-<br />
| othi || pro || any kind of <br />
|-<br />
| otko || pro || whenever<br />
|-<br />
| otku || pro || anywhere <br />
|-<br />
| oto || pro || anything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| otop || pro || for any reason<br />
|-<br />
| otos || pro || with anyone<br />
|-<br />
| oz || num || zero<br />
|-<br />
| ozhi || adj || zeroth<br />
|-<br />
| ozi || n || number zero, nought<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ó=== <br />
|-<br />
| ókart || n || hexagon<br />
|-<br />
| ókki || n || number six<br />
|-<br />
| ól || postp || GEN like <br />
|-<br />
| || adverb || similarly<br />
|-<br />
|óomi || n ||largeness <br />
|-<br />
| óp || postp || GEN about; ABL according to<br />
|-<br />
| ópart || n || square<br />
|-<br />
| ópef || n || chicken <br />
|-<br />
| óppi || n || number four <br />
|-<br />
| ótuk || n|| sign<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ø=== <br />
|-<br />
|øfkam || n || pus <br />
|-<br />
|ølep || n || fabric<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===P=== <br />
|-<br />
|paata || n ||separation <br />
|-<br />
| pai || part || verb mirative <br />
|-<br />
| || adv || how (with adj)<br />
|-<br />
| patuk || n || village <br />
|-<br />
|peki || n || enjoyment<br />
|-<br />
|petsip|| n|| clothes <br />
|-<br />
| phe || postp || LAT for the sake of<br />
|-<br />
| phó || postp || LAT along<br />
|-<br />
| pló || postp || LOC opposite to <br />
|-<br />
| po || pro || you (plural)<br />
|-<br />
|pof || n ||feather <br />
|-<br />
| poi || prep || in the middle of, among<br />
|-<br />
| poki || n ||centre <br />
|-<br />
| pón || postp || LAT through<br />
|-<br />
|pos|| n ||servant <br />
|-<br />
|prk || n ||wagon <br />
|-<br />
| puk || n || door<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===Q=== <br />
|-<br />
|qal ||n ||yellowness <br />
|-<br />
| qet || n || wall <br />
|-<br />
|qorel|| n || earth <br />
|-<br />
|qot || n ||rock <br />
|-<br />
|qotol|| n || stone <br />
|-<br />
|qóp||v||is done<br />
|-<br />
|qópa||n||act, deed <br />
|-<br />
|qut || n || room<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===QH=== <br />
|-<br />
| qheetu || n || guard <br />
|-<br />
| qhotep || n || spear<br />
|-<br />
| qhók || v || is broken, smashed<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===R=== <br />
|-<br />
| raf || n || foot<br />
|-<br />
| rajidh || a || sudden<br />
|-<br />
|ras||n||horse<br />
|-<br />
| ret || n || floor<br />
|-<br />
|rkil|| n || orange <br />
|-<br />
| roi || prep || above<br />
|-<br />
|rot || v ||leaves, goes <br />
|-<br />
|rul|| n || redness <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===S=== <br />
|-<br />
| sahul || n || beer<br />
|-<br />
| sai || postp || COM including <br />
|-<br />
| saitu || pre || this one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| sak || postp || COM concerning; ABL due to <br />
|-<br />
| sek || v || come<br />
|-<br />
| sku || pro || where<br />
|-<br />
| sko || pro || when <br />
|-<br />
| so || adj || another <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || something else<br />
|-<br />
| soi || prep || on<br />
|-<br />
| soi || pro || otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| sokho || pro || another time <br />
|-<br />
| sokhu || pro || elsewhere <br />
|-<br />
| sonop || pro || for another reason<br />
|-<br />
| sos || pro || with someone else<br />
|-<br />
| sothi || pro || of another kind<br />
|-<br />
| sós || postp || COM with; ABL without; LAT in addition to <br />
|-<br />
| souso || pro || nobody<br />
|-<br />
| soutu || pro || that one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| || pro || who? <br />
|-<br />
| spe || pro || why?<br />
|-<br />
|spii|| n || length <br />
|-<br />
|stak|| n || fence <br />
|-<br />
|su || n ||it/he? <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SH=== <br />
|-<br />
| shara || n || south <br />
|-<br />
| shi || pro || how?<br />
|-<br />
| sho || adj || which?, what? <br />
|-<br />
| shodh || pro || what kind of<br />
|-<br />
| shos || pro || with whom<br />
|-<br />
|shosleetha|| n || knight <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SL=== <br />
|-<br />
| slada || n || monastery<br />
|-<br />
| slahit || n || flour <br />
|-<br />
|slengu|| n || nose <br />
|-<br />
| slint || n || jug <br />
|-<br />
| slop || n || chair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===T=== <br />
|-<br />
| ta || part || verb conditional <br />
|-<br />
|ta'i || n ||past <br />
|-<br />
|tai || n ||for long <br />
|-<br />
|tes || n ||eye <br />
|-<br />
|tes(os)|| v || is seen <br />
|-<br />
| tesei || part || verb visual evidential<br />
|-<br />
| thol || n || liquid <br />
|-<br />
|tihtóhnah || n ||assassinator <br />
|-<br />
| tis || n || skin <br />
|-<br />
|tlaf || n ||sprig <br />
|-<br />
|tlsl || n ||shallow <br />
|-<br />
| toti || n || one hundred <br />
|-<br />
|trk || n ||smithy <br />
|-<br />
|trs || n ||smith <br />
|-<br />
|tup || n ||stick <br />
|-<br />
| tut || v || wants<br />
|-<br />
|tuta || n ||craving, wish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TH=== <br />
|-<br />
| tha || pro || it (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaka || pro || this (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaso || pro || something else (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thata || pro || anything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
| theso || pro || nothing (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thorka || pro || everything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TS=== <br />
|-<br />
|tsagadhet || n ||bureau <br />
|-<br />
| tsaka || pro || this one (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| tsalka || pro || this one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tseso || pro || neither <br />
|-<br />
|tsma || n ||doubt <br />
|-<br />
| tso || pro || other (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsoi || prep || in front of<br />
|-<br />
| tso'i || n || front<br />
|-<br />
|tsok || n ||letter <br />
|-<br />
|tsoklóp || n ||alphabet <br />
|-<br />
| tsoko || pro || that one (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolko || pro || that one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolo || pro || another (of many) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (one many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolto || pro || any (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsongko || pro || every, each<br />
|-<br />
| tsorko || pro || both <br />
|-<br />
| tsoto || pro || either one <br />
|-<br />
|tsøl || n ||purple <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSL===<br />
|-<br />
| tslap || n || window <br />
|-<br />
| tsleso || pro || none (of many)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSH===<br />
|-<br />
|tshok || n || cabinet, storage<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is stored<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===U=== <br />
|-<br />
|ukop || n ||north <br />
|-<br />
| umah || n || egg<br />
|-<br />
|ura || n ||following day, tomorrow <br />
|-<br />
| utsu || n || person <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===V=== <br />
|-<br />
|vakuh || n ||hand <br />
|-<br />
|vang || n ||throat<br />
|-<br />
|vangos || v ||is drunk, swallowed, devoured <br />
|-<br />
|vangost || n || drink<br />
|-<br />
|vangostéti || n || thirst<br />
|-<br />
|voi || prep || in<br />
|-<br />
| vop || n || roof<br />
|-<br />
|voq || n ||strange thing <br />
|-<br />
| vóna || n || east <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===W=== <br />
|-<br />
|weh||v||is born<br />
|-<br />
| With || pro || You (plural) <br />
|-<br />
| wu || n || youngster <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===Z=== <br />
|-<br />
|za || n ||height <br />
|-<br />
|zait || v ||goes up <br />
|-<br />
|zaivi|| n || song <br />
|-<br />
| ze || adj || no<br />
|-<br />
| zei || pro || in no way<br />
|-<br />
| zenep ||pro || for no reason<br />
|-<br />
| zeng || pro || never <br />
|-<br />
| zengu || pro || nowhere <br />
|-<br />
| zeos || pro || with nobody <br />
|-<br />
| zil || n || salt <br />
|-<br />
| zodhi || pro || of no kind<br />
|-<br />
| zoi || prep || up<br />
|-<br />
| zolo || pro || some, one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
|zurmu || n ||strong person<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===ZH=== <br />
|-<br />
| zhaku || n || seller, vendor <br />
|-<br />
| zho || pro || one (of two) <br />
|}</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Linguifex_Relay/Sceptrian&diff=35894Fourth Linguifex Relay/Sceptrian2015-07-09T13:11:12Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Glossed */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Fourth_Linguifex_Relay|Óphi fatipap Lingwifekson]] [[Sceptrian|Lushakha]]:<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
''Léhkodé pai ko qhóqhøkos,<br />
''keewesht mjulan oil qotitlóo;<br />
''darema soi slopapu'os,<br />
''jak rajidhé mitupurpóo.<br />
''Péma saitush_q'papa sekhe,<br />
''jevaa hifthilan gat'tishh'i,<br />
''moŕ ól dorahpipi qóphe;<br />
''mutshos tslarmak jódish b'shøt'sji.<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian is a head-initial, ergative-absolutive language, i.e. the word order in clauses is mostly VAO and the head of the noun phrase is followed by adjectives and demostratives. The language is fusional-agglutinative, e.g. verbs are [[Sceptrian#Affixes|conjugated]], but both prepositions and postpositions are used as well and their heads are [[Sceptrian#Cases|declined]] according to the noun class. The cases of nouns are utilized in [[Sceptrian#Derivational_Morphology|derivational morphology]] so that at first glance many verbs seem to be only inflected nouns.<br />
<br />
However, poems may have a more free word order and <!--apparently -->may omit vowels in various syllables. The apostrophe may stand for both these omissions and normal pausa.<br />
<br />
==Glossed==<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
''léhkod-é pai ko qhó~qhøk-os<br />
<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR DIST.SG SUBJ~\is_broken-3SG.INCEP</small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Particles|Verb particles]] don't always require verbs<br />
<br />
''keewesht mjula-n oil qot&lt;i&gt;~t-l-óo <br />
<small>mosaic life-GEN as rock~&lt;DIM&gt;-PL-LAT</small><br />
*See [[Sceptrian#Prepositions|prepositions]] for the effect of noun case.<br />
*Some derivations utilize both reduplication and affixing. For ''qot&lt;i&gt;~t'' an alternative gloss might be: rock&lt;DIM&gt;~NMZ<br />
<br />
''darema soi slop&lt;a&gt;~p-u-os<br />
<small>Ruler.AUG on chair~&lt;AUG&gt;-LOC-POSS.3SG.ALIEN</small><br />
*Sceptrian has several ways of indicating [[Sceptrian#Possessive|possession]]<br />
<br />
''jak rajidh-é mitup-u-r-p-óo<br />
<small>away sudden-VOC(.ADVZ) sea-LOC-VBZ.FREQ-NMZ-LAT</small><br />
*Occurrence of [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]] has certain rules <br />
<br />
''Pé=ma saitu-sh q(ó)pa-pa sek-he<br />
<small>2PL.VOC=FOC DEM.PROX.ANIM-PL act-ABL come-GNO.2PL</small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Relative_clauses|On relative clauses]] of Sceptrian<br />
*Ablative case has a causal meaning as well<br />
<br />
''jeva-a hifthila-n gat(o)ti-sh-h(e)i<br />
<small>grace-ERG heaven-GEN accommodation-INS(.VBZ)-PST.PFV.2PL </small><br />
*Agent prefixes may be omitted<br />
*Genitive forms don't agree with their heads<br />
<br />
''mo-ŕ ól dora-h-pi-pi qóp-he<br />
<small>1PL-GEN like law-COM(.VBZ)-GER-ABL act-GNO.2PL</small><br />
*It is common for Sceptrian to [[Sceptrian#Derivational_Morphology|derive]] new nouns from verbs already derived from nouns<br />
<br />
''mutsh-os tsla-r-mak-Ø jódi-sh b(a)shøt(i)s-ji <br />
<small>neighbour-INS(.COM) INCEP.1PL-HORT-give-ANTIP charity-INS poor_one-DAT </small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Irrealis|Hortative]] in Sceptrian<br />
*[[Sceptrian#Voice|Antipassive]] is formed by turning the ERG agent into ABS, removing the subject/object verb suffix and changing the subject/object case into instrumental<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Extra==<br />
<br />
*From ''leh'', ''Léh-ko-d-é'' might be glossed as ADVZ\leg-LAT-VBZ.MVT\ADJZ-VOC, but the core was translated for simplicity :)<br />
*Same for ''b(a)shø-t(i)-s-ji'' gloss VOC\wealth-ADJZ.ABE-NMZ.AN-DAT from ''bashó''<br />
<br />
<!--Stress is not perfect, but at least it's got some kind of a rhyme!--><br />
<br />
[[Category:Fourth Linguifex Relay]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Linguifex_Relay/Sceptrian&diff=35893Fourth Linguifex Relay/Sceptrian2015-07-09T13:00:17Z<p>Juhhmi: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Fourth_Linguifex_Relay|Óphi fatipap Lingwifekson]] [[Sceptrian|Lushakha]]:<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
''Léhkodé pai ko qhóqhøkos,<br />
''keewesht mjulan oil qotitlóo;<br />
''darema soi slopapu'os,<br />
''jak rajidhé mitupurpóo.<br />
''Péma saitush_q'papa sekhe,<br />
''jevaa hifthilan gat'tishh'i,<br />
''moŕ ól dorahpipi qóphe;<br />
''mutshos tslarmak jódish b'shøt'sji.<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian is a head-initial, ergative-absolutive language, i.e. the word order in clauses is mostly VAO and the head of the noun phrase is followed by adjectives and demostratives. The language is fusional-agglutinative, e.g. verbs are [[Sceptrian#Affixes|conjugated]], but both prepositions and postpositions are used as well and their heads are [[Sceptrian#Cases|declined]] according to the noun class. The cases of nouns are utilized in [[Sceptrian#Derivational_Morphology|derivational morphology]] so that at first glance many verbs seem to be only inflected nouns.<br />
<br />
However, poems may have a more free word order and <!--apparently -->may omit vowels in various syllables. The apostrophe may stand for both these omissions and normal pausa.<br />
<br />
==Glossed==<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
''léhkod-é pai ko qhó~qhøk-os<br />
<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR DIST.SG SUBJ~\is_broken-3SG.INCEP</small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Particles|Verb particles]] don't always require verbs<br />
<br />
''keewesht mjula-n oil qot&lt;i&gt;~t-l-óo <br />
<small>mosaic life-GEN as rock~&lt;DIM&gt;-PL-LAT</small><br />
*See [[Sceptrian#Prepositions|prepositions]] for the effect of noun case.<br />
*Some derivations utilize both reduplication and affixing. For ''qot&lt;i&gt;~t'' an alternative gloss might be: rock&lt;DIM&gt;~NMZ<br />
<br />
''darema soi slop&lt;a&gt;~p-u-os<br />
<small>Ruler.AUG on chair~&lt;AUG&gt;-LOC-POSS.3SG.ALIEN</small><br />
*Sceptrian has several ways of indicating [[Sceptrian#Possessive|possession]]<br />
<br />
''jak rajidh-é mitup-u-r-p-óo<br />
<small>away sudden-VOC(.ADVZ) sea-LOC-VBZ.FREQ-NMZ-LAT</small><br />
*Occurrence of [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]] has certain rules <br />
<br />
''Pé=ma saitu-sh q(ó)pa-pa sek-he<br />
<small>2PL.VOC=FOC DEM.PROX.ANIM-PL act-ABL come-GNO.2PL</small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Relative_clauses|On relative clauses]] of Sceptrian<br />
*Ablative case has a causal meaning as well<br />
<br />
''jeva-a hifthila-n gat(o)ti-sh-h(e)i<br />
<small>grace-ERG heaven-GEN accommodation-INS(.VBZ)-PST.PFV.2PL </small><br />
*Agent prefixes may be omitted<br />
*Genitive forms don't agree with their heads<br />
<br />
''mo-ŕ ól dora-h-pi-pi qóp-he<br />
<small>1PL-GEN like law-COM(.VBZ)-GER-ABL act-GNO.2PL</small><br />
*It is common for Sceptrian to [[Sceptrian#Derivational_Morphology|derive]] new nouns from verbs already derived from nouns<br />
<br />
''mutsh-os tsla-r-mak-Ø jódi-sh b(a)shø-t(i)-s-ji <br />
<small>neighbour-INS(.COM) INCEP.1PL-HORT-give-ANTIP charity-INS poor_one-DAT </small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Irrealis|Hortative]] in Sceptrian<br />
*[[Sceptrian#Voice|Antipassive]] is formed by turning the ERG agent into ABS, removing the subject/object verb suffix and changing the subject/object case into instrumental<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Extra==<br />
<br />
*From ''leh'', ''Léh-ko-d-é'' might be glossed as ADVZ\leg-LAT-VBZ.MVT\ADJZ-VOC, but the core was translated for simplicity :)<br />
*Same for ''b(a)shø-t(i)-s-ji'' gloss VOC\wealth-ADJZ.ABE-NMZ.AN-DAT from ''bashó''<br />
<br />
<!--Stress is not perfect, but at least it's got some kind of a rhyme!--><br />
<br />
[[Category:Fourth Linguifex Relay]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Linguifex_Relay/Sceptrian&diff=35892Fourth Linguifex Relay/Sceptrian2015-07-09T12:59:05Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Glossed */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Fourth_Linguifex_Relay|Óphi fatipap Lingwifekson]] [[Sceptrian|Lushakha]]:<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
''Léhkodé pai ko qhóqhøkos,<br />
''keewesht mjulanģ oil qotitlóo;<br />
''darema soi slopapu'os,<br />
''jak rajidhé mitupurpóo.<br />
''Péma saitush_q'papa sekhe,<br />
''jevaa hifthilan gat'tishh'i,<br />
''moŕ ól dorahpipi qóphe;<br />
''mutshos tslarmak jódish b'shøt'sji.<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian is a head-initial, ergative-absolutive language, i.e. the word order in clauses is mostly VAO and the head of the noun phrase is followed by adjectives and demostratives. The language is fusional-agglutinative, e.g. verbs are [[Sceptrian#Affixes|conjugated]], but both prepositions and postpositions are used as well and their heads are [[Sceptrian#Cases|declined]] according to the noun class. The cases of nouns are utilized in [[Sceptrian#Derivational_Morphology|derivational morphology]] so that at first glance many verbs seem to be only inflected nouns.<br />
<br />
However, poems may have a more free word order and <!--apparently -->may omit vowels in various syllables. The apostrophe may stand for both these omissions and normal pausa.<br />
<br />
==Glossed==<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
''léhkod-é pai ko qhó~qhøk-os<br />
<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR DIST.SG SUBJ~\is_broken-3SG.INCEP</small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Particles|Verb particles]] don't always require verbs<br />
<br />
''keewesht mjula-n oil qot&lt;i&gt;~t-l-óo <br />
<small>mosaic life-GEN as rock~&lt;DIM&gt;-PL-LAT</small><br />
*See [[Sceptrian#Prepositions|prepositions]] for the effect of noun case.<br />
*Some derivations utilize both reduplication and affixing. For ''qot&lt;i&gt;~t'' an alternative gloss might be: rock&lt;DIM&gt;~NMZ<br />
<br />
''darema soi slop&lt;a&gt;~p-u-os<br />
<small>Ruler.AUG on chair~&lt;AUG&gt;-LOC-POSS.3SG.ALIEN</small><br />
*Sceptrian has several ways of indicating [[Sceptrian#Possessive|possession]]<br />
<br />
''jak rajidh-é mitup-u-r-p-óo<br />
<small>away sudden-VOC(.ADVZ) sea-LOC-VBZ.FREQ-NMZ-LAT</small><br />
*Occurrence of [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]] has certain rules <br />
<br />
''Pé=ma saitu-sh q(ó)pa-pa sek-he<br />
<small>2PL.VOC=FOC DEM.PROX.ANIM-PL act-ABL come-GNO.2PL</small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Relative_clauses|On relative clauses]] of Sceptrian<br />
*Ablative case has a causal meaning as well<br />
<br />
''jeva-a hifthila-n gat(o)ti-sh-h(e)i<br />
<small>grace-ERG heaven-GEN accommodation-INS(.VBZ)-PST.PFV.2PL </small><br />
*Agent prefixes may be omitted<br />
*Genitive forms don't agree with their heads<br />
<br />
''mo-ŕ ól dora-h-pi-pi qóp-he<br />
<small>1PL-GEN like law-COM(.VBZ)-GER-ABL act-GNO.2PL</small><br />
*It is common for Sceptrian to [[Sceptrian#Derivational_Morphology|derive]] new nouns from verbs already derived from nouns<br />
<br />
''mutsh-os tsla-r-mak-Ø jódi-sh b(a)shø-t(i)-s-ji <br />
<small>neighbour-INS(.COM) INCEP.1PL-HORT-give-ANTIP charity-INS poor_one-DAT </small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Irrealis|Hortative]] in Sceptrian<br />
*[[Sceptrian#Voice|Antipassive]] is formed by turning the ERG agent into ABS, removing the subject/object verb suffix and changing the subject/object case into instrumental<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Extra==<br />
<br />
*From ''leh'', ''Léh-ko-d-é'' might be glossed as ADVZ\leg-LAT-VBZ.MVT\ADJZ-VOC, but the core was translated for simplicity :)<br />
*Same for ''b(a)shø-t(i)-s-ji'' gloss VOC\wealth-ADJZ.ABE-NMZ.AN-DAT from ''bashó''<br />
<br />
<!--Stress is not perfect, but at least it's got some kind of a rhyme!--><br />
<br />
[[Category:Fourth Linguifex Relay]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Linguifex_Relay/Sceptrian&diff=35889Fourth Linguifex Relay/Sceptrian2015-07-09T12:52:16Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Glossed */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Fourth_Linguifex_Relay|Óphi fatipap Lingwifekson]] [[Sceptrian|Lushakha]]:<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
''Léhkodé pai ko qhóqhøkos,<br />
''keewesht mjulanģ oil qotitlóo;<br />
''darema soi slopapu'os,<br />
''jak rajidhé mitupurpóo.<br />
''Péma saitush_q'papa sekhe,<br />
''jevaa hifthilan gat'tishh'i,<br />
''moŕ ól dorahpipi qóphe;<br />
''mutshos tslarmak jódish b'shøt'sji.<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian is a head-initial, ergative-absolutive language, i.e. the word order in clauses is mostly VAO and the head of the noun phrase is followed by adjectives and demostratives. The language is fusional-agglutinative, e.g. verbs are [[Sceptrian#Affixes|conjugated]], but both prepositions and postpositions are used as well and their heads are [[Sceptrian#Cases|declined]] according to the noun class. The cases of nouns are utilized in [[Sceptrian#Derivational_Morphology|derivational morphology]] so that at first glance many verbs seem to be only inflected nouns.<br />
<br />
However, poems may have a more free word order and <!--apparently -->may omit vowels in various syllables. The apostrophe may stand for both these omissions and normal pausa.<br />
<br />
==Glossed==<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
''léhkod-é pai ko qhó~qhøk-os<br />
<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR DIST.SG SUBJ~\is_broken-3SG.INCEP</small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Particles|Verb particles]] don't always require verbs<br />
<br />
''keewesht mjula-n oil qot&lt;i&gt;~t-l-óo <br />
<small>mosaic life-GEN as rock~&lt;DIM&gt;-PL-LAT</small><br />
*See [[Sceptrian#Prepositions|prepositions]] for the effect of noun case.<br />
*Some derivations utilize both reduplication and affixing<br />
<br />
''darema soi slop&lt;a&gt;~p-u-os<br />
<small>Ruler.AUG on chair~&lt;AUG&gt;-LOC-POSS.3SG.ALIEN</small><br />
*Sceptrian has several ways of indicating [[Sceptrian#Possessive|possession]]<br />
<br />
''jak rajidh-é mitup-u-r-p-óo<br />
<small>away sudden-VOC(.ADVZ) sea-LOC-VBZ.FREQ-NMZ-LAT</small><br />
*Occurrence of [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]] has certain rules <br />
<br />
''Pé=ma saitu-sh q(ó)pa-pa sek-he<br />
<small>2PL.VOC=FOC DEM.PROX.ANIM-PL act-ABL come-GNO.2PL</small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Relative_clauses|On relative clauses]] of Sceptrian<br />
*Ablative case has a causal meaning as well<br />
<br />
''jeva-a hifthila-n gat(o)ti-sh-h(e)i<br />
<small>grace-ERG heaven-GEN accommodation-INS(.VBZ)-PST.PFV.2PL </small><br />
*Agent prefixes may be omitted<br />
*Genitive forms don't agree with their heads<br />
<br />
''mo-ŕ ól dora-h-pi-pi qóp-he<br />
<small>1PL-GEN like law-COM(.VBZ)-GER-ABL act-GNO.2PL</small><br />
*It is common for Sceptrian to [[Sceptrian#Derivational_Morphology|derive]] new nouns from verbs already derived from nouns<br />
<br />
''mutsh-os tsla-r-mak-Ø jódi-sh b(a)shø-t(i)-s-ji <br />
<small>neighbour-INS(.COM) INCEP.1PL-HORT-give-ANTIP charity-INS poor_one-DAT </small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Irrealis|Hortative]] in Sceptrian<br />
*[[Sceptrian#Voice|Antipassive]] is formed by turning the ERG agent into ABS, removing the subject/object verb suffix and changing the subject/object case into instrumental<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Extra==<br />
<br />
*From ''leh'', ''Léh-ko-d-é'' might be glossed as ADVZ\leg-LAT-VBZ.MVT\ADJZ-VOC, but the core was translated for simplicity :)<br />
*Same for ''b(a)shø-t(i)-s-ji'' gloss VOC\wealth-ADJZ.ABE-NMZ.AN-DAT from ''bashó''<br />
<br />
<!--Stress is not perfect, but at least it's got some kind of a rhyme!--><br />
<br />
[[Category:Fourth Linguifex Relay]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Linguifex_Relay/Sceptrian&diff=35888Fourth Linguifex Relay/Sceptrian2015-07-09T12:51:33Z<p>Juhhmi: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Fourth_Linguifex_Relay|Óphi fatipap Lingwifekson]] [[Sceptrian|Lushakha]]:<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
''Léhkodé pai ko qhóqhøkos,<br />
''keewesht mjulanģ oil qotitlóo;<br />
''darema soi slopapu'os,<br />
''jak rajidhé mitupurpóo.<br />
''Péma saitush_q'papa sekhe,<br />
''jevaa hifthilan gat'tishh'i,<br />
''moŕ ól dorahpipi qóphe;<br />
''mutshos tslarmak jódish b'shøt'sji.<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian is a head-initial, ergative-absolutive language, i.e. the word order in clauses is mostly VAO and the head of the noun phrase is followed by adjectives and demostratives. The language is fusional-agglutinative, e.g. verbs are [[Sceptrian#Affixes|conjugated]], but both prepositions and postpositions are used as well and their heads are [[Sceptrian#Cases|declined]] according to the noun class. The cases of nouns are utilized in [[Sceptrian#Derivational_Morphology|derivational morphology]] so that at first glance many verbs seem to be only inflected nouns.<br />
<br />
However, poems may have a more free word order and <!--apparently -->may omit vowels in various syllables. The apostrophe may stand for both these omissions and normal pausa.<br />
<br />
==Glossed==<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
''léhkod-é pai ko qhó~qhøk-os<br />
<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR DIST.SG SUBJ~\is_broken-3SG.INCEP</small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Particles|Verb particles]] don't always require verbs<br />
<br />
''keewesht mjula-n oil qot&lt;i&gt;~t-l-óo <br />
<small>mosaic life-GEN as rock~&lt;DIM&gt;-PL-LAT</small><br />
*See [[Sceptrian#Prepositions|prepositions]] for the effect of noun case.<br />
*Some derivations utilize both reduplication and affixing<br />
<br />
''darema soi slop&lt;a&gt;~p-u-os<br />
<small>Ruler.AUG on chair~&lt;AUG&gt;-LOC-POSS.3SG.ALIEN</small><br />
*Sceptrian has several ways of indicating [[Scetprian#Possessive|possession]]<br />
<br />
''jak rajidh-é mitup-u-r-p-óo<br />
<small>away sudden-VOC(.ADVZ) sea-LOC-VBZ.FREQ-NMZ-LAT</small><br />
*Occurrence of [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]] has certain rules <br />
<br />
''Pé=ma saitu-sh q(ó)pa-pa sek-he<br />
<small>2PL.VOC=FOC DEM.PROX.ANIM-PL act-ABL come-GNO.2PL</small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Relative_clauses|On relative clauses]] of Sceptrian<br />
*Ablative case has a causal meaning as well<br />
<br />
''jeva-a hifthila-n gat(o)ti-sh-h(e)i<br />
<small>grace-ERG heaven-GEN accommodation-INS(.VBZ)-PST.PFV.2PL </small><br />
*Agent prefixes may be omitted<br />
*Genitive forms don't agree with their heads<br />
<br />
''mo-ŕ ól dora-h-pi-pi qóp-he<br />
<small>1PL-GEN like law-COM(.VBZ)-GER-ABL act-GNO.2PL</small><br />
*It is common for Sceptrian to [[Sceptrian#Derivational_Morphology|derive]] new nouns from verbs already derived from nouns<br />
<br />
''mutsh-os tsla-r-mak-Ø jódi-sh b(a)shø-t(i)-s-ji <br />
<small>neighbour-INS(.COM) INCEP.1PL-HORT-give-ANTIP charity-INS poor_one-DAT </small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Irrealis|Hortative]] in Sceptrian<br />
*[[Sceptrian#Voice|Antipassive]] is formed by turning the ERG agent into ABS, removing the subject/object verb suffix and changing the subject/object case into instrumental<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Extra==<br />
<br />
*From ''leh'', ''Léh-ko-d-é'' might be glossed as ADVZ\leg-LAT-VBZ.MVT\ADJZ-VOC, but the core was translated for simplicity :)<br />
*Same for ''b(a)shø-t(i)-s-ji'' gloss VOC\wealth-ADJZ.ABE-NMZ.AN-DAT from ''bashó''<br />
<br />
<!--Stress is not perfect, but at least it's got some kind of a rhyme!--><br />
<br />
[[Category:Fourth Linguifex Relay]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Linguifex_Relay/Sceptrian&diff=35880Fourth Linguifex Relay/Sceptrian2015-07-09T10:13:03Z<p>Juhhmi: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Fourth_Linguifex_Relay|Óphi fatipap Lingwifekson]] [[Sceptrian|Lushakha]]:<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
''Léhkodé pai ko qhóqhøkos,<br />
''mjula keew'shtsozh oil qotitlóo;<br />
''darema soi slopapu'os,<br />
''jak rajidhé mitupurpóo.<br />
''Péma saitush q'papa sekhe,<br />
''jevaa hifthilan gat'tishh'i,<br />
''moŕ ól dorahpipi qóphe;<br />
''mutshos tslarmak jódish b'shøt'sji.<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian is a head-initial, ergative-absolutive language, i.e. the word order in clauses is mostly VAO and the head of the noun phrase is followed by adjectives and demostratives. However, poems use a more free word order, and apparently may omit vowels in various syllables. Both prepositions and postpositions are used, however. The cases of nouns are utilized in [[Sceptrian#Derivational_Morphology|derivational morphology]] so that at first glance many verbs seem to be only inflected nouns.<br />
<br />
==Glossed==<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
#''léhkod-é pai ko qhó~qhøk-os<br />
#:<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR DIST.SG SUBJ~\is_broken\-3SG.INCEP</small><br />
#''léhkod-é pai keewesht mjula-n<br />
#:<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR mosaic life-GEN</small><br />
#''léhkod-é pai qhó~qhøg-ho klo<br />
#:<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR SUBJ~\is_broken\-3PL.FUT PRO.3PL</small><br />
#''léhkod-é pai qhó~qhøk-l tshel-o<br />
#:<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR SUBJ~\is_broken-3PL.GNO sand-LAT</small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Particles|Verb particles]] don't always require verbs<br />
*Sceptrian has several ways of indicating [[Sceptrian#Possessive|possessive forms]]<br />
<br />
#''mjula keew(e)shtsozh oil qot&lt;i&gt;~t-l-óo <br />
#:<small>life mosaic-PL.COM-POSS.3SG.INAL as rock~&lt;DIM&gt;-PL-LAT</small><br />
#''qhó~qhøk oil qot&lt;i&gt;~t-l-óo tshel-o<br />
#:<small>SUBJ~\is_broken as rock~DIM-PL-LAT sand-LAT</small><br />
#''mjul(a) keeweshtsozh oil qot&lt;i&gt;~t-l-óo<br />
#:<small>life mosaic-PL.COM-POSS.3SG.INAL as rock~&lt;DIM&gt;-PL-LAT</small><br />
*See [[Sceptrian#Prepositions|prepositions]] for the effect of noun case.<br />
*Some derivations utilize both reduplication and infixing<br />
<br />
''darema soi slop&lt;a&gt;~p-u-os<br />
<small>Ruler.AUG on chair~&lt;AUG&gt;-LOC-POSS.3SG.ALIEN</small><br />
<br />
''jak rajidh-é mitup-u-r-p-óo<br />
<small>away sudden-VOC sea-LOC-VBZ.FREQ-NMZ-LAT</small><br />
*Occurrence of [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]] has certain rules <br />
<br />
''Pé=ma saitu-sh q(ó)papa sek-he<br />
<small>2PL.VOC=FOC DEM.PROX.ANIM-PL act-ABL come-GNO.2PL</small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Relative_clauses|On relative clauses]] of Sceptrian<br />
*Ablative case has a causal meaning as well<br />
<br />
''jeva-a hifthila-n gat(o)ti-sh-h(e)i<br />
<small>grace-ERG heaven-GEN accommodation-INS.VBZ-PST.PFV.2PL </small><br />
*Agent prefixes may be omitted<br />
*Genitive forms don't agree with their heads<br />
<br />
''moŕ ól dora-h-pi-pi qóp-he<br />
<small>1PL-GEN like law-COM.VBZ-GER-ABL act-GNO.2PL</small><br />
*It is common for Sceptrian to [[Sceptrian#Derivational_Morphology|derive]] new nouns from verbs already derived from nouns<br />
<br />
''mutsh-os tsla-r-mak-Ø jódi-sh b(a)shø-t(i)-s-ji <br />
<small>neighbour-INS.COM INCEP.1PL-HORT-give-ANTIP charity-INS VOC\wealth-ADJZ.ABE-NMZ.AN-DAT </small><br />
*[[Sceptrian#Irrealis|Hortative]] in Sceptrian<br />
*[[Sceptrian#Voice|Antipassive]] is formed by turning the ERG agent into ABS, removing the subject/object verb suffix and changing the subject/object case into instrumental<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Extra==<br />
<br />
*''Léh-ko-d-é'' might be glossed as ADVZ\leg-LAT-VBZ.MVT\ADJZ-VOC, but the core was translated for simplicity</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian&diff=35879Sceptrian2015-07-09T10:01:33Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Personal */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Construction}}<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Sceptrian<br />
|nativename = [[File:Lusha_name.png|300px]]<br>''Batop Lushan''<br />
|pronunciation = [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ]<br />
|region = Western Central World<br />
|states = Sceptre<br />
|speakers = 29,200,000 <br />
|date = 7th 641<br />
|familycolor = #d3ffce<br />
|fam1 = West-Herookuan<br />
|fam2 = Lutian<br />
|fam3 = Sceptrian branch<br />
|creator=Ahuelni<br />
|setting=Akekata<br />
|dialects = Yerzonian, Mulish, Fanish <br />
|script = Toneka alphabet<br />
|nation = Empire of Sceptre<br />
|minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia<br />
|agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language)<br />
|map = Lusha_regions.jpg<br />
|mapsize = 300<br />
|mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects<br />
}}<br />
{{ClassMeter<br />
|Name = Sceptrian<br />
|NativeName = Batop Lushan<br />
|Type = Fusional<br />
|Alignment = Absolutive-ergative<br />
<br />
|adjective = final<br />
|adposition = mixed<br />
|adverb= final<br />
|article= mixed<br />
|relativeclause = final<br />
|nounclause = final<br />
|order = VSO<br />
<br />
|Tonal = no<br />
|Genders = 3<br />
|Declined = yes<br />
|Conjugated = yes<br />
|Case = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Definiteness = no<br />
|Gender = yes<br />
|Voice = yes<br />
|Mood = yes<br />
|Person = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Tense = yes<br />
|Aspect = yes<br />
|Phonology = 100<br />
|NounCases = 100<br />
|NounDef = 100<br />
|NounNumbers = 100<br />
|NounGender = 100<br />
|VerbPerson = 100<br />
|VerbNumber = 100<br />
|VerbAspect = 90<br />
|VerbTense = 100<br />
|VerbMood = 90<br />
|VerbVoice = 80<br />
|AdjCase = 100<br />
|AdjNumber = 100<br />
|AdjDef = 100<br />
|AdjGen = 100<br />
|AdjComparative = 100<br />
|AdjSuperlative = 100<br />
|Supine = 90<br />
|Gerund = 90<br />
|Participle = 90<br />
|Infinitive = 90<br />
|Modality = 90<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ] or simply ''lusha'') is an ''a priori'' [[w:Artistic_language|artistic language]] created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 29 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking [[Khattish]] and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian and its dialects feature 51 phonetic consonants, some of them with interesting lateral features. The language also has 25 phonetic vowels: twelve short, nine long and four diphthongs. Nasalization, rhotacization and breathy voice are used phonemically. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
If the romanization symbol is the same as in IPA, it is not duplicated. Not bolded romanization indicates that the sound appears as a vernacular or dialectal version.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 830px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px" colspan="2"|<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Uvular<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| [ɱ]<br />
| <br />
| '''n (ń)''' [n]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''t'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''k'''<br />
| '''q'''<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''b'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''d'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''g'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Breathy<br />
| '''ph bh'''<br>[pʰ] [bʱ]<br />
|<br />
|'''th dh'''<br>[tʰ] [dʱ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''kh gh'''<br>[kʰ] [gʱ]<br />
|'''qh'''<br>[qʰ]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| '''pl bl'''<br />[pˡ] [bˡ]<br />
| <br />
| '''tl dl'''<br />[tˡ] [dˡ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''kl gl'''<br/>[kˡ] [gˡ]<br />
| '''ql'''<br/>[qˡ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| ph [ɸ]<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| '''th''' [θ]<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''sh''' [ʃ]<br />
| '''h''' [ç]<br />
| '''kh h''' [x]<br />
| '''qh''' [χ]<br />
| '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''w''' bh [β]<br />
| '''v'''<br />
| '''dh''' [ð]<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| '''zh''' [ʒ]<br />
| <br />
| gh [ɣ]<br />
| <br />
| h [ɦ]<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''sl''' [ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Affricate<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ts''' [t͡s] <br />
| '''tsh''' [t͡ʃ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''tsl''' [t͡ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Approximant<br />
!Non-lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''j'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''l''' [l] [l̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| pr [ʙ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''r (ŕ)''' [r] [r̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The liquids ''r'' and ''l'' can appear as '''syllabic consonants''': ''tlsl'' /tˡl̩ɬ/ (shallow), ''prk'' /pr̩k/ (wagon) and ''trs'' /tr̩s/ (smith)<br />
*Vernacularly, both syllabic and obstruent-following alveolar trill ''r'' and lateral approximant ''l'' are pronounced as voiceless [r̩̊], [r̥], [l̩̊] and [l̥] when in contact with only voiceless consonants: ''trs'' [tr̩̊s] (smith) contrasting with ''trls'' [tr̩s] (while standard /trəls/) (smiths); ''gatl'' [gɑtl̥] (houses) whose pronunciation approaches [gɑtɬ]. <br />
**'''Meslatu Hirke''' made his disputed suggestion in 7:693 that a similar process had led to the birth of ''sl'' as plural indicator, when original plural ''l'' turned first into voiceless and then into ''sl'' after a word-final glottal stop, which has disappeared entirely. <br />
*In eastern dialects, ''pr'' is realized as [ʙ] and ''tr'', ''tsr'' and ''trs'' often as [r̝]. In the dialects, aspirated plosives have been fully spirantized into their fricative counterparts, e.g. [tʰ]>[θ].<br />
*Fricatives show properties of syllabic consonants word-initially and word-finally.<br />
<br />
Nasal [ɱ] only appears as an allophone of nasals with labio-dental sounds /f/ and /v/. Before velar sounds (e.g. /k/) nasals turn similarly into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
Letter ''h'' has four allophones: initial is always [h] despite frontness, [ç] appears elsewhere with front vowels, [x] appears word-finally and [h~ɦ] word-medially with back vowels ''tihtóhnah'' [tiçˈtɔɦ.näx] (assassinator). It's also used after consonants to indicate breathy voice.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 390px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| <br />
| '''u'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-mid<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| o<br/>[ɘ]<br />
| o<br/>[ɤ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
|<br />
| '''o'''<br/>[ə]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''é ø'''<br />[ɛ] [œ]<br />
|<br />
| '''ó'''<br />[ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
|'''æ'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
|'''a'''<br />[ä]<br />
|a<br />[ɑ]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
All the nine main vowel sounds (bolded) have '''long''' versions as separate phonemes.<br />
<br />
Schwa '''''o''''' is used as an epenthetic vowel (anaptyxis). When it is used to break consonant clusters (not indicated in native script) it is the simple schwa /ə/: *dŧ → ''doth'' /dəθ/ (man). When stressed, it is vernacularly realized as [ɘ], and in western dialects more clearly as [ɤ]: *dŧs → ''dothos'' [dəˈθɘˑs]<br />
<br />
Vowel ''a'' is [ɑ] after voiced consonants. Vowel ''æ'' is often more open [a], though, in Western dialects, it has merged with ''é''. <br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, there are only closing diphthongs which go up in the vowel chart:<br />
*Back: ou /ɔʊ̯/<br />
*Front: ai /äɪ̯/, ei /ei̯/, oi /œi̯/<br />
<br />
If the syllable border (glottal stop) is between vowels and they don't form a diphthong, apostrophe is used: ''tai'' (for long) vs. ''ta'i'' (past)<br />
*In native [[Sceptrian#Script|script]], separate graphemes for diphthongs exist and glottal stop is not marked.<br />
<br />
If diphthongs are followed by vowels, they are separated by a glottal stop in formal register. <br />
*In casual speech, ''ouV'' becomes ''owV'' and ''ViV'' ''VjV'': ''oua→ówa'' and ''aia→aja''. If the following vowel is the same, a glottal stop breaks the former diphthong and the ending vowel is lengthened: ''ai'i→a'ii''<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
<br />
===Onset===<br />
<br />
Basic [[w:Syllable#Structure|syllabic structure]] is CV, where the onset (beginning) consonant can be of any type. <br />
*It is possible to use liquids and approximants as '''glides''' (CLV) between the onset and the rime (ending). <br />
*Up to two consonants with same voicing may appear in the onset (CCV), especially fricative-plosive combinations, but never two plosives: ''stak'' (fence), ''fkot'' (nest), ''ksaru'' (guard). Affricate ''ts'' takes may be accompanied only by ''w'', ''j'', ''n'' or ''m'': ''tsma'' (doubt). Combination /sl/ has turned into /ɬ/.<br />
*Lateralization and aspiration may never appear together, and nasalized rhoticization is only found in Fanish dialect.<br />
<br />
===Nucleus=== <br />
<br />
The nucleus can be either a vowel or a liquid, thus CVC and CLC are also possible syllables. <br />
*Vowels (diphthongs included) may exist as a stand-alone nucleic syllable (V), mostly in the beginning or at the end of a word. <br />
*If nucleus is a liquid, plosives appear in codas only word-finally: ''dldlp'' /dˡl̩ˈdˡl̩p/ (bubble)<br />
<br />
===Coda=== <br />
<br />
The coda (final) may consist of up to three consonants with possible structures: N, P, F, L; NP, FP, LP; NF, PF, LF; NPF, FPF, LFP, LPF (Nasal, Plosive, Fricative, Liquid). <br />
*Final liquids appear as syllabic consonants<br />
*Approximants ''j'', ''w'' and plain voiced plosives never appear as coda (final) even though they may be written that way (no written schwa): ''nad'' /nä.də/ (stainy). Voiced fricatives may appear as coda. <br />
*In coda, plosives with lateral release, however, will reflect the voicing of the onset: ''gatl'' [gädˡl̩] (houses) vs. ''katl'' [kätˡl̩] (knobs). Vernacularly, the lateral approximant weakens into a voiceless variant [l̥] when in contact with voiceless consonants: ''gatl'' [gätl̥].<br />
<br />
Closed syllables, i.e. those ending in coda, are not as common word-medially as open syllables (ending in nucleus) are. When words are inflected, parts of codas tend to become onsets of the following syllable, if possible. Especially three-consonant clusters are rare word-medially and receive a schwa after a non-lateral stop: ''kamps'' /kämps/ (marsh) → ''kampsku'' → ''kamposku'' /ˈkäm.pəs.ku/ (at marsh)<br />
*Voicing status must be the same for consonants touching at syllable boundaries and the voiced one reduces into voiceless: ''*katbas''→''katpas'' /kätˈpäs/ (fern) vs. ''oist baku'' /œi̯st<sup>(h)</sup> bä.ku/ (under a table)<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
Primary '''stress''' in a word is most often on the second syllable, and when there are four or five syllables, secondary stress is placed onto the final syllable. When there are more syllables, minor stress is placed on even-numbered syllables. <br />
*If the to-be-stressed syllable contains the schwa ''o'' /ə/ or a syllabic consonant, the preceding syllable is stressed in two-syllable words and the following in words with more than three syllables.<br />
**In uninflected words, syllable with nuclear ''o'' is only stressed when it comes second and the preceding syllable has also ''o'' as nucleus. Then the stressed nucleus appears as [ɘ]. Contrast between stressed and non-stressed syllabic consonants may occur as voicing and devoicing respectively. <br />
*A non-final syllable with a long vowel or a diphthong is always stressed and steals the stress from its neighboring syllable. This also moves the secondary stress from final to penultimate syllable, if primary stress falls on first syllable.<br />
<br />
Inflected and affixed word forms have almost always the same stress as the base word (even monosyllabic with schwa): ''doth'' (man) → ''dothku'' [ˈdɘθ.ku] (near the man). <br />
*Vocative and ergative cases as well as inflections with long vowels make an exception: ''dothee'' /dəˈθe:/ (by the man), ''dothé'' /dəˈθɛ/ (O man), ''gatóo'' /gɑˈtɔ:/ (to the house)<br />
<br />
Interrogatives are formed by changing the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. This is indicated with ¿: ''¿Eikepoi?'' [ˈei̯˧˦ˈke˩.pœi̯˨˦] (Did you wash it?)<br />
<br />
==Morphophonology==<br />
<br />
===Vowel form===<br />
<br />
There are five ways of sound altering which may be used for grammatical purposes (mainly number, genitive case and imperfective aspect). In the native script the following are marked on the vowel.<br />
*Lengthening: ''paata'' /pä:tä/ (separation), ''ée'' [ɛ:]~[ɛe̯], ''óo'' /ɔ:/<br />
*Lateral (release): ''pló'' /pˡɔ/ (opposite to), ''tlaf'' /tˡäf/ (sprig) <br />
**Western dialects keep the tongue on the alveolar ridge during vowel pronunciation so that the vowels have a distinct l-sound. Historically, this may have lead to the syllabic l.<br />
*Aspiration/breathy voice: ''phó'' [pʰɔ]~[ɸɔ] (along), ''kébhar'' [kɛˈbʱɑ˞]~[kɛˈβɑ˞] (I will wash), ''tha'' [tʰä]~[θä] (abstract "it"), ''dhaka'' [dʱɑkä]~[ðɑkä] (abstract "that"). <br />
**Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head)<br />
*Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]]<br />
**Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as a short syllabic nasal consonant of the same place as the directly preceding or following consonant<br />
**Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!).<br />
*Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) <br />
**Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞:] (soup)<br />
<br />
===Consonant form===<br />
<br />
Combining sounds<br />
*Lateralization<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sl'' and ''zh'' respectively<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' → ''fl'' & ''w''<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' are geminated<br />
**''m'' & ''n'' → ''ng'' and ''ng'' → ''ńg''<br />
* Aspiration<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sh'' and ''zh''<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' are geminated<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' → ''lh'' and ''rh''<br />
* Voicing and aspiration<br />
**''r'' → ''qh'', ''l'' → ''ldh'', ''v'' → ''w''<br />
<br />
===Apophony===<br />
<br />
Apophony in the '''stressed syllable''' is used for example to express adjective gender and to create different verb forms.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Apophony<br />
|-<br />
!Root<br />
!1st<br />
!2nd<br />
|-<br />
|e<br />
|ee<br />
|é<br />
|-<br />
|o<br />
|ó<br />
|ø<br />
|-<br />
|a<br />
|aa<br />
|æ<br />
|-<br />
|u<br />
|uu<br />
|i<br />
|-<br />
|ai<br />
|ii<br />
|ei<br />
|-<br />
|ou<br />
|óo<br />
|oi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*When the stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting)<br />
*With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of ''é''.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Script=== <br />
[[File:Sceptrian.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Toneka script from the early sixth era. Notice that the vowel form info-box romanization should have "o" instead of "a".]]<br />
[[File:SceptrianTsrnet.JPG|500px|thumb|right|Tsrnet cursive script used for handwriting in modern Sceptre.]]<br />
The Sceptrian alphabet script was derived from the ancient temple marks as were the Aoman and Northern (Latin) scripts. The modern alphabet is called ''Tsoklóp Lushan''.<br />
<br />
Diacritics on vowels mark different [[Sceptrian#Vowel_form|sounds]]. The diacritics may be used with consonants as well, especially in the plural forms of consonant-ending nouns: ''gat̆'' (''gatl'' "houses"), ''doŧ̆'' (''dolth'' "men"). With the diacritics, letter ''ts'' can be lateralized into ''tsl'' or aspirated into ''tsh''.<br />
<br />
The native Sceptrian script has a long history of being unicameral, not distinguishing between the upper and lower case. Only during the sixth era under the Tyranny of West, the flow of refugees from the Coast of Temples encouraged the introduction of case separation. In the developed fonts, capital letters were derived from the traditional Toneka and small letters from the cursive Tsrnet.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Short and long letter names with explanations<br />
|-<br />
|aa<br>aat || ee<br>eet || ée<br>eet maatikipi<br>(opened e) || ii<br>iit || oo<br>oot || óo<br>oot guzbikipi<br>(deepened o) || uu<br>uut <br />
|-<br />
|ææ<br>aat evadh<br>(bright a) || øø<br>oot gudh<br>(dark o) || ai<br>aat zaithon<br>(rising a) || ei<br>eet zaithon<br>(rising e) || oi<br>oot zaithon<br>(rising o) || ou<br>óot bousoson<br>(falling o) ||<br />
|-<br />
| po<br>poot || bo<br>bóot || mo<br>mool || wo<br>wool || to<br>toot || do<br>dóot || <br />
|-<br />
| tho<br>toot hifdo<br>(windy t) || dho<br>dóot hifdo<br>(windy d) || no<br>nool || so<br>siit || sho<br>siit hifdo<br>(windy s) || zo<br>ziit || zho<br>ziit gudh<br>(dark z) <br />
|-<br />
| ngo<br>góot slenguhpi<br>(g using nose) || tso<br>tsiit || lo<br>lool || slo<br>lool hifdo<br>(windy l) || fo<br>fiit || vo<br>fiit gudh<br>(dark f) || jo<br>jool <br />
|-<br />
| ko<br>koot || go<br>góot || ho<br>hiit || qho<br>hiit surmudh<br>(strong h) || qo<br>koot venongp<br>(k being<br> swallowed) || ro<br>rool || <br />
|-<br />
|plo<br>looh tisk<br>(with l<br> mark) || pon<br>slenguhpi tisk<br>(using nose<br> mark) || por<br>tisk prung<br>(mark of<br> trill) || pho<br>tisk hifn<br>(mark of<br> wind) || poo<br>tisk spiing<br>(mark of<br> length) || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Romanization===<br />
<br />
====Modern====<br />
Consonant variation:<br />
*Letter ''r'' is used with consonants for /r̩/ and between vowels for /r/, but after vowels in the end of syllables for rhoticization ''or'' /ɚ/. Letter ''ŕ'' is used to emphasize the use of /r/ after vowels ''oŕ'' /ər/.<br />
*Similarly letter ''n'' can appear syllable-finally with nasalization but ''ń'' always as /n/: ''an'' /ã/ vs. ''ań'' /an/. <br />
*With ''ng'' /ŋ/, the accent signals lengthening ''nańgo'' /näŋ:ə/ or ''naŋŋo'' (sweaty).<br />
*Labialization of plosives is indicated by PuV (V is any vowel except ''u'') or with ''w''.<br />
*Breathry voice is indicated with an ''h'' straight after a plosive. The ''h'' is also used for corresponding fricatives which occur word-finally. This risk of confuse is one of the downsides of the simplified modern system: ''nath'' /näθ/ "a beggar" or /nätʰ/ "with stains".<br />
<br />
====Old====<br />
<br />
The old romanization system (or part of it) was used until western regions of Eastern Sceptre were joined with the Western Sceptre empire in 7th era 161, during the war against Empress Renula of Golden Islet. A revision was needed when both Sceptrian and Aoma were used in the same printing press and texts had to be distributed to westlang-using communities. Peter Martyea suggested in 7:189 that the payment according to number of pages may have favoured quick adaptation as the non-diacritic system induced much longer texts (see the comparison example).<br />
<br />
Consonants:<br />
*Nasal: '''ŋ''' ''ng'' /ŋ/<br />
**Texts from the first century of the seventh era use ''ǥ'' for word-initial /ŋ/.<br />
*Fricative: '''ŧ''' ''th'' /θ/, '''đ''' ''dh'' /ð/, '''ś''' ''sh'' /ʃ/, '''ź''' ''zh'' /ʒ/, '''ħ''' ''qh'' /χ/<br />
*Affricate: '''c''' ''ts'' /t͡s/, '''č''' ''tsh'' /t͡ʃ/<br />
*Lateral: '''š''' ''sl'' /ɬ/, '''ǩ''' ''kl'' /kˡ/, '''ǧ''' ''gl'' /gˡ/<br />
<br />
Compact equivalents of sound altering:<br />
*Lengthening with a bar: ''ṓ'' /ɔ:/ and ''ō'' /ə:/<br />
*Lateral release with a breve diacritic: ''tŏ'' /tˡə/<br />
*Nasalization with a tilde: ''õ'' /ə̃/, ''on'' /ən/<br />
*Rhotacization with a diaeresis: ''ö'' /ɚ/, ''or'' /ər/<br />
*Aspiration with a grave accent: ''pò'' /pʰə/, ''pô'' /pʰɔ/<br />
<br />
Comparison between the systems:<br />
*Old: Ǧëǩ śošēŧã <br />
*Modern: Glerkl shosleethan (maces of a knight)<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
The most complete study of the structure of pre-modern Sceptrian words was done by Porutingatu of Jerzónó in year 362 of the seventh era. She collected, grouped and analyzed the fusional morphemes and listed the new rules to replace the outdated writings from the sixth era. By 370, her work had led to a new interest in linguistics and ultimately to the founding of ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan'' (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) which has been unifying and regulating the language along with its orthography since then.<br />
<br />
Sceptrian utilizes [[w:Fusional_language|fusional]] [[w:Inflection|inflections]] and has an [[w:Ergative–absolutive_language|absolutive-ergative]] [[w:Morphosyntactic_alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]. The language is rather [[w:Head-directionality_parameter|head-initial]] and its primary [[w:Word_order|word order]] is verb-agent-object.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns are used to refer to e.g. people or things in sentences instead of using the original nouns. In Sceptrian, they exist in two numbers and are inflected according to six [[Sceptrian#Cases|'''cases''']]. <br />
<br />
====Personal====<br />
Second person includes polite versions as well which were adapted by Aoma-sperkers. Third person singular makes distinction between abstract (Ab), animate (An) and inanimate (In) pronouns while plural only between Ab-An and In. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Personal pronoun inflection'''<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! 1SG !! 1PL !! 2SG !! 2PL !! 2SG.POL !! 2PL.POL !! 3SG.Ab !! 3SG.An !! 3PL.A !! 3SG.In !! 3PL.In<br />
|-<br />
!ABS <br />
| na || mo || fo || po || Nith || With || tha || su || slo || hi || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
| næ || moslo || fø || poslo || Nithe || Widhes || thaa || suu || sloslo || hii || kloslo<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
| nai || mokli || foki || pokli || Nithki || Withkli || thai || swi || slokli || hiki|| klokli<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
| nar || moŕ || for || poŕ || Nithor || Withoŕ || thar || sur || sloŕ || hir || kloŕ<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
| nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh ||thas ||sus ||slosh || his ||klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
| nape || moplo || fope || poplo || Nitti || Witti || thape || supe || sloplo || hipi || kloplo<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''Comitative''' case is used to indicate company: ''Mo slosh arakha.'' (We were with them yesterday.)<br />
*'''Causal''' describes the cause of an action or origin of something: ''Aitesosai næ su fope'' (I saw him because of (/thanks to) you), ''Hi supe foki.'' (It (is) from him to you.)<br />
<br />
3rd person abstract pronoun is used in the formal register when introducing or referring to a person of higher status.<br />
<br />
====Reflexive====<br />
Self-pronoun ''ru'' for '''reflexive''' and '''reciprocal''': ''tesosón ru'' (they are watching themself), ''ónlatepón ru'' (he is dancing by himself, alone) vs. ''ónlatepón su'' (he is dancing with him); ''sónkephón ru'' (they are washing each other) vs. ''sónkephón sloslo slo/soutu'' (they are washing them)<br />
*reflexive is easier with others: ''anlatepan'' (I'm dancing by myself); ''ankepan'' (I'm washing myself) vs. ''ankep'' ("I'm washing it"), ''kepan'' (I'm being washed)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
<br />
Simple words for "this/these" and "that/those". When demonstratives are used with [[Sceptrian#Nouns|nouns]], they behave similarly to [[Sceptrian#Adjectives|adjectives]]. In the following examples, note that Sceptrian lacks the [[Sceptrian#Verbs|verb "to be"]]: <br />
*As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.)<br />
*For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) <br />
*The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the head acts more like a specifying comment on the true sentence subject: ''Bouson ko qot.'' (That's falling, the rock, I mean.) <br />
<br />
See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]].<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Demonstrative pronoun inflection<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Case <br />
!colspan="2"| Proximal <br />
!colspan="2"| Distal <br />
|-<br />
!SG !! PL !! SG !! PL<br />
|-<br />
!ABS<br />
|ka || kla || ko || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
|kaa || klaa || kó || kló<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
|kai ||klai || koi || kloi<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
|kan ||klang || kon || klong<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
|kas || klash || kos || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
|kap || klapa || kop ||klopo<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Table of correlatives===<br />
<br />
Determiners follow their heads and agree in number and with the cases mentioned above in [[Sceptrian#Demonstrative|the table]], where DAT & LAT, COM & LOC, CAU & ABL and ABS & VOC are corresponding. Words follow the declension shown above or paradigms similar to [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun cases]]. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!rowspan="2"|Interrogative<br />
!colspan="2"|Demonstrative<br />
!colspan="5"|Quantifier<br />
|-<br />
!Proximal !! Distal !! Existential !! Elective !! Universal !! Negatory !! Alternative<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Determiner<br />
| sho || ka (SG)<br/>kla (PL) || ko<br />klo || jofa (some) || ota (any) || orka (every, all) || ze (no) || so (another)<br/>solo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="5"| Pronoun<br />
!Abstract<br />
| ashu || thaka || dhaka || jaafa || thata || thorka || theso || thaso<br />
|-<br />
!Animate<br />
| ¿soutu || saitu || soutu || jonfu || onta || ongka || souso || jonso<br />
|-<br />
!Inanimate <br />
| ¿ko || ka || ko || jofo || oto || orko || ze || so<br />
|-<br />
!Out of two<br />
| ¿tso || tsaka || tsoko || zho || tsoto || tsorko || tseso || tso<br />
|-<br />
!Out of many<br />
| ¿tsolo || tsalka || tsolko || zolo || tsolto || tsongko || tsleso || tsolo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="6"|Pro-adverb<br />
!Locative<br />
| sku || khau || khu || jofku || otku || orkhu || zengu || sokhu<br />
|-<br />
!Temporal<br />
| sko || kha || kho || jofko || otko || orkho || zeng || sokho<br />
|-<br />
!Comitative<br />
| shos ||kas || kos || jofos || otos || orkos ||zeos || sos<br />
|-<br />
!Causal<br />
| spe || kap || kop || jov || otop || orkop || zenep || sonop<br />
|-<br />
!Manner<br />
| shi || khai || khoi || jofai || otai || orkai || zei || soi<br />
|-<br />
!What kind of<br />
| shodh || kadh || kodh || jodhi || othi || ordhi || zodhi || sothi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Negative determiner ''ze'' has no plural form. Neither have pronouns "Out of two".<br />
*Demonstratives are used when referring to listed items of equal animacy: proximal with the former and distal with the latter: ''Aitesoshóji math kuthos. Óomidh soutu.'' (I saw a cat and a dog. The latter was large.)<br />
*Locative pro-adverb can be conjugated with lative, locative and ablative.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Nouns in Sceptrian form the basis of derivational morphology and even the cases are utilized when forming new words. They are declined according to two numbers and nine cases, and the seven declensions are grouped in three genders which affect the verb conjugation and adjective agreement.<br />
<br />
====Gender====<br />
<br />
There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes.<br />
*Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in vowels ''a, æ, o, ó, ø'' and ''i''. <br />
*Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h'', same voiced and affricates), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings.<br />
*Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group.<br />
In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull). Some archaic words remain in dialects and in poetic use.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
<br />
There are two numbers, singular and plural, but abstract ''i''-nouns and inanimate ''l''-nouns are always singular. The declension according to number is complicated and fused with the class/case system explained and tabulated below.<br />
<br />
====Cases====<br />
<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Unmarked base form for subjects of intransitive and objects of transitive verbs <br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agents of transitive verbs<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect object; alienable possession ''gat dothi'' (a house of (lit. "for") the man); comparison (with ADJ comparative)<br />
*Possessive (POS): Inalienable possession ''dhoku dothor'' (the man's head)<br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS): Using something; "with someone", replaces "and" as Latin [[wikt:-que|-que]]; in antipassive constructions<br />
*Lative (LAT): Movement to; with adpositions<br />
*Locative-temporal (LOC-TEMP): Place; time; with adpositions<br />
*Ablative (ABL): Movement from (+delative); causal<br />
*Vocative (VOC): addressing (people, gods); interjections ''Alæ!'' (Hello! lit. "Day!")<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Genders and desinences'''<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" style="width: 100px"| <br />
!colspan="3"| Abstract <br />
!colspan="6"| Animate <br />
!colspan="3"| Inanimate<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''A'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''i'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''F'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''N'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''u'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"|''P'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''l''<br />
|-<br />
|<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>|| ||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 100px"| Absolutive<br />
| A || Asl || i || F || (o)lF || N || Ning || u || ush || P || Pl || l<br />
|- <br />
! style=""| Ergative <br />
| AA || AslA || ii || Fee || Fele || Nee || Neng || uu || uushu || Pee || Ple || le<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Dative <br />
| Ak || Akl || ik || Fi || Fil || Ni || Nil || (u)ji || (u)wi || Pei || Plei || lei<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Possessive <br />
| An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Instrumental-comitative <br />
| Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Lative <br />
| AgA || AglA || iki || Fko || Fklo || Nong || Nongo || ugu || uglu || Póo || Plóo || lo <br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Locative-temporal <br />
| AkhA || AlkhA || ikhi || Fku || Fklu || Nung || Nungu || ukhu || ulkhu || Pu || Plu || lu<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Ablative <br />
| ApA || AplA || ipi || Fp(o) || Fpl(o) || Nop || Nopl || upu || uplu || PPo || PPol || lp<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Vocative <br />
| Ae || Asl || ii || Fé || lFé || Né || Nin || -wé || -wésh || Pé || Plé || lé<br />
|}<br />
*''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø''<br />
**Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø<br />
*''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts, tsl'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. <br />
*''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng''<br />
*''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q''<br />
**POS ''q''→''ng''<br />
**INS ending Ph marks breathy voice and may turn the plosive into corresponding fricative /ɸ, θ, x, χ/ if followed by a plosive.<br />
*- indicates that the original ending is replaced with the following: ''tup → tu'''m''''' (stick → stick's)<br />
<br />
====Possessive==== <br />
<br />
Different possessive forms and interpretations: <br />
*''Dativus possessivus'' (alienable): ''gat doth'''i''''' "the house which the man has temporarily settled in, i.e. rented"<br />
*Comitative case with alienable possessive suffix: ''doth gat''h'''''os''''' "man with his house which he has purchased"<br />
**Inalienable possessive suffix alters the meaning: ''doth gat''h'''''ozh''''' "man and his birthplace"<br />
*Possessive case (almost inalienable): ''gat doth'''or''''' "the house which was inherited and is now owned by the man". <br />
<br />
The noun in possessive case is not inflected further. With dative case, inflection may be utilized in order to distinguish the ''dativus possessivus'' from the indirect object or benefactive: ''Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli.'' "The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them." (Related to the feather ceremony when welcoming upper class members to a household.)<br />
<br />
'''Possessive affixes''', as shown in examples above, draw a distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: ''Óntesoson dothee gat'''s'''/vakuh'''oz'''.'' (A man is watching his house/ his own hand.) With the basic suffixes, the root is inflected first and then suffixed.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ Possessional suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!Person<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! ALIEN !! INAL !! ALIEN !! INAL <br />
|-<br />
!1st <br />
| (a)ń || (a)nga || (ó)m || (ó)ngó <br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
| (o)f || (ø)fo || (e)v || (ø)vø<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
| (o)s || (o)zh || (o)sl || (o)zhol<br />
|}<br />
*Irregular: Only VOC+possessive with 1SG: ''Pos'''n'''é!'' (My servant!), ''Polsmé!'' (Our servants!)<br />
<br />
'''2nd person polite suffixes''' are added to absolutive base and the endings are then declined according to abstract gender: <br />
*Singular: (a)tha, (a)tazha <br />
*Plural: (a)dhó, (a)dózhó <br />
*Example: ''gat'''atha'''pa'' (from Your house)<br />
<br />
See [[Sceptrian#Adverbial_clauses|adverbial clauses]] which utilize some possessive suffixes with [[Sceptrian#Non-finite_forms|non-finite verb forms]].<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
<br />
Adpositions are used with inflected nouns to add information about its location or relation to other nouns. Some Sceptrian adpositions can be used as stand-alone adverbs which may be conjugated according to noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====Prepositions====<br />
<br />
Prepositions are used with lative (to, towards), locative (at, near) and ablative (from) cases to alter the meaning.<br />
*''voi'' (in) forms illative, inessive, elative <br />
*''loi'' (out) for "out of", "outside" and "from outside"<br />
*''soi'' (on) to emphasize the surface aspect <br />
*''oist(i)'' (under) for movement under something<br />
*''roi'' (above) similarly to ''oist''<br />
*''boi'' (down) for "down (a surface / to)", "down in (somewhere)" and "from down"; as an adverb as well <br />
*''zoi'' (up) used like ''boi''<br />
*''moi'' (touching, around) with lative for terminative, locative for pertingent and ablative for initiative<br />
*''oil(i)'' (as) forms translative, essive, exessive<br />
*''koi'' (per) distribution: "for each", "every" (temporal), "from each"<br />
*''jon'' (... between) <br />
*''poi'' (... the middle of, among)<br />
*''tsoi'' (... front of; preceding) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = before<br />
*''hoi'' (... behind; following) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = after<br />
*''mots(i)'' (... on side)<br />
**combined with postpositional ''dei'' (right) or ''lai'' (left)<br />
**with time nouns in locative = ago<br />
<br />
====Postpositions====<br />
<br />
Postpositions appear with various cases and often come in groups.<br />
*''pón'' (through) with lative<br />
*''phó'' (along) with lative<br />
*''pló'' (opposite to, across) with locative<br />
*''sós'' (with) with comitative to express a greater degree of endowment (ornative); with ablative to indicate "without"; with lative for "in addition to"<br />
*''óp'' (about, concerning) with genitive; with ablative for "according to"<br />
*''ól'' (like) with genitive; as an adverb "similarly"<br />
*''jak'' (away, despite) with ablative; as an adverb as well<br />
*''mai'' (excluding) with ablative<br />
*''mak'' (except) with ablative<br />
*''mats'' (instead of) with ablative<br />
*''sai'' (including) with comitative<br />
*''sak'' (concerning, regarding) with comitative; with ablative to emphasize the causal aspect (due to, because of, thanks to)<br />
*''phe'' (for the sake of) with lative<br />
<br />
====Pronominal====<br />
<br />
When used with pronouns, separate adpositions only come with dative forms to indicate lative. Otherwise adpositions take possessive suffixes, inalienable for locative and alienable for ablative: ''voi nai'' (into me), ''voinga'' (inside me), ''voiń'' (from inside me)<br />
<br />
Of the polite possessive suffixes, alienable is added onto the adposition and then the entire compound is conjugated for lative, locative or ablative: ''voitha'' (in You; attributive), ''voithaga'' (into You), ''voithakha'' (inside You; predicative), ''voithapa'' (from inside You)<br />
<br />
===Derivational Morphology===<br />
<br />
Verbs and adjectives are derived from nouns by adding suffixes and in some cases prefixes as well.<br />
<br />
====Noun====<br />
<br />
Many nouns share same origins and these endings are the most common forms of derivation:<br />
*Suffixing verbs with once established ending vowels or consonant appropriate for the noun class. <br />
*place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix<br />
*collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish)<br />
**Archaic forms also add the prefix ''kl'' <br />
*being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy")<br />
**doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer)<br />
**experiencer, patient: ABS with ''(k)ois'' or ''(k)oit'' depending on animacy: ''kepois'' (person being washed)<br />
**origin: ABL with ''(o)su'': ''ukopposu'' (person from north)<br />
**characteristic (from abstract quality): INS with final duplicated vowel and ''tu'': ''luwishitu'' (beauty)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)n'' (AN) or ''(o)l'' (INAN): ''koson'' (wood), ''qotol'' (stone)<br />
*diminutive: reduplication of final sound with ''t'' between vowels and ''i'' between consonants: ''kosis'' (small tree)<br />
*augmentative: reduplication of final sound with ''g'' between vowels and ''a'' between consonants: ''kosas'' (great tree)<br />
**apotheosis: augmentative with ''a''-ending: ''kosonana'' (godwood)<br />
*abstract quality, feature: ABS suffixed with ''(k)oti'': ''dothoti'' (manliness)<br />
*'''gerund''' (act of doing): via derivated [[Sceptrian#Verb|verb]] suffixed with ''(o)pi'': ''glerkurpi'' (mace-battering)<br />
<br />
====Adjective====<br />
<br />
Different cases and affixes are used for the derivation:<br />
*similarity, having something: ''dh'' suffix to abstract gender and animate ''u''-ending; voicing of fricatives (''h→qh'', no change with affricates); nasals [[Sceptrian#Consonant_form|"lateralized"]] + ''o''; voicing of plosives + ''o'' (''q→g''); l-declension as in INS-COM: ''evadh'' (bright), ''dodh'' (masculine)<br />
**full of, having something: previous suffixed with ''ol'': ''mel muvol'' (waters full of fish)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)p'': ''kosonop'' (wooden)<br />
*origin, relation: ABL form with a final ''ó'' added or replacing the original ending vowel: ''kusupó'' (friendly)<br />
*absence, without: ''ti'' suffixed to VOC form: ''evæti'' (lightless=dark)<br />
*doing: ''on'' added after INS case: ''kephon'' (washing)<br />
*who did: INS with ''ompu'': ''kephompu'' (who washed = ''pessyt'' in Finnish)<br />
*done by: INS with ''empo'' and possibly inalienable possessive suffix: ''kephemponga'' (washed by me)<br />
*not done: LAT suffixed with ''tip'': ''kepóotip'' (unwashed)<br />
*experiencing: LAT suffixed with ''p'': kepóop (being washed)<br />
*result (wanted): LAT suffixed with ''pi'': ''kepóopi'' (washed=clean)<br />
**if unwanted: LAT suffixed with ''pot'': ''vangostóopot'' (drunk)<br />
*possible: POS with ''ta'': ''kenta'' (washable)<br />
*requiring: LOC with ''rt'': ''kepurt'' (needs to be washed)<br />
*opposite, negation: VOC with ''tot''<br />
<br />
Notice that plural forms of adjectives may be derived from plural nouns: ''dolth kep'''s'''on'' (men who are washing)<br />
<br />
====Verb====<br />
<br />
A declined core noun receives an ending which describes how the verb reflects the noun:<br />
*In some cases, the vowel ending of nouns may simply be removed or the absolutive of a consonant-ending noun may also serve as a verb.<br />
*ABS = "happens, is": ''kep'' (is washed)<br />
*COM = "using": ''tuph'' (is poked with a stick), ''glerkh'' (is hit with a mace)<br />
*POS + ''k'' = "similarity": ''melonk'' (is wet)<br />
*DAT + ''k'' = "making/becoming" (no ''k'' with Abstract): ''zurmu'' → ''zurmjik'' (strong person → is strengthened), ''zurp'' → ''zurpeik'' (strong, durable object → hardens) & ''zurma'' → ''zurmak'' (strength → intensifies)<br />
*LAT + ''t'' = "movement, quasi-inceptive": ''glerkóot'' (swings a mace, INTR), ''melot'' (flows), ''latepóot'' (is persuaded to dance, INTR; begins a dance with, TR), ''lehkot'' (runs) <br />
*LOC + ''r'' = "frequentative": ''glerkur'' (is battered with a mace), ''melur'' (rains; drips)<br />
*VOC + ''k'' = "momentane": ''glerkék'' (is hit once with a mace), ''melék'' (splashes once)<br />
*POS + ''(o)v'' = "consider, feel": ''vongv'' (is considered strange = ''oudoksutaan'' in Finnish)<br />
* Several endings can be stacked on verbs without turning it into a noun in between: ''melurék'' (shower of rain falls), ''tup(o)hkur'' (is often poked with a stick). When deriving, the ''r''-ending are declined according to the ''l''-paradigm.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Sceptrian agree with the gender, number and cases of their head. When an adjective is used as a predicative, it comes before its head, but when as an attributive, it comes after. Adjective declension follows approximately the same rules as [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun declension]]. In the common ''dh''-ending F-declension, ''o'' is added between ''dh'' and case-endings with consonants. Changes in both casual and poetic speech include mirroring onset into coda: ''dothklu jadaadh'''ulk''''' (near nice men)<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+DH-declension<br />
! !! ABS !! ERG !! DAT !! POS !! INS !! LAT !! LOC !! ABL !! VOC<br />
|-<br />
!SG<br />
|dh || dhee || dhi || dhor || dhos || dh'''ok''' || dh'''uk''' || dh'''op''' || dhé<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
| ldh(o) || dhele || dhil || dhoŕ || dhosh || dh'''olk''' || dh'''ulk''' || dh'''olp''' || ldhé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Sceptrian#Apophony|Apophony]] in the stressed syllable is used to indicate the gender: base for inanimate, first apophony with animate and second with abstract gender: ''eja jadædh, doth jadaadh, latep jadadh'' <br />
<br />
Polite adjectives are formed from the abstract form with predicative prefix ''nga'' and attributive suffix ''æ'': ''ngaluwidh Nith'' (You are beautiful), ''shosleetha luwidhæ'' (a beautiful knight)<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
<br />
'''Positive''' of an adjective is the base form.<br />
*When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.)<br />
*Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle.<br />
*When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii faaldh dolth lutush.'' (As many men as women.) <br />
<br />
'''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). <br />
*Manner quatifiers ''orkai, jofai'' and ''zei'' can be used to indicate the degree: ''luwidhé orkai'' (much more beautiful), ''luwidhé jofai'' (slightly more beautiful), ''luwidhé zei'' (not more beautiful)<br />
*When comparing two nouns adjective comes first (predicative comparative), the standard acquires the dative case, and comparative forms agree with their head in gender and number: ''luwildhé po swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*Pronoun comparison is also possible to construct with alienable possessional suffixes: ''luwildhév swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*When adjective comparative is not included, postpositional ''fadhé'' (more) or ''føødhi'' (less) can be used with noun plurals: ''dolth faldhé lutwi'' (more men than women)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative''' is similar to noun apotheosis: the ending is reduplicated with ''é'' between consonants and ''j'' between vowels, and an ''a'' added to the end: ''luwidhédha'' (most beautiful). Similarly to comparative, ''ti'' gives the meaning of "least": ''luwidhédhati'' (least beautiful).<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly)<br />
<br />
Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh óomidhé'' (very beautiful < "largely")<br />
<br />
'''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative adverb''' is similar to adjective superlative in its reduplication but with an ''æ''-ending: ''zaivie jadædhédhæ'' (you sing most pleasantly)<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Missing verbs: <br />
*"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man)<br />
**Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith)<br />
**Showing tense-aspect:<br />
***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past)<br />
***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective<br />
***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense<br />
***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" <br />
**Vernacularly, [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|proximal demonstrative pronouns]] are used as copulae with corresponding grammatical gender: ''Trs saitu Berats.'' ("Smith this Berats." Berats is a smith.)<br />
* "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man")<br />
<br />
====Conjugation====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, primary conjugation of verbs indicates person, number and tense-aspect, and it includes affixation and apophony. Conjugation for different [[Sceptrian#Mood|moods]] is slightly more complex.<br />
<br />
=====Root=====<br />
<br />
Verbs are given in their 3SG.INAN GNO form which is used to form all of the third person forms. With first and second person subjects, the first apophony is used in indicative inceptive and future. Polite second person forms use the second apophony<br />
<br />
=====Affixes=====<br />
<br />
Fusional conjugation affixes convey the person, number, tense and aspect (and honorific). Subject and object suffixes are almost always used with verbs, the antipassive being the only exception. Agent prefixes aren't often used in the casual register, mostly to form the [[Sceptrian#Reflexive|reflexive]], but they have to be used in the formal register. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || ha || e || he || ahi || aqhi || ó || hó || (o) || l<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || han || en || hen || ang || aing || ón || hón || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| ast || last || est || lest || æst || hæst || ós || lós || os || osl<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| ajin || hajin || ejin || hejin || azing || izing || ójin || hójin || oin || loin<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || hai || ei || hei || athi || idhi || óji || hóji || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| har || +har || her || +her || athar || idhar || hór || +hór || ho || +ho<br />
|}<br />
* initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive<br />
* initial ''h'' is for aspiration of the final plosive or simply ''h'' after a vowel<br />
**if the final plosive is already breathy, ''o'' is added after it<br />
*+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration<br />
**simple ''h'' becomes ''qh''<br />
*Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.) Note the second apophony due to the abstract gender.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || sa || e || se || æ || hæ || ó || só || o || lo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || san || en || sen || nga || ngai || ón || són || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| tsa || tsla || tse || tsle || tsæ || tshæ || tsó || tsló || so || slo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| jan || zhan || jen || zhen || izæ || izhæ || jón || zhón || i || li<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || sai || ei || sei || thæ || dhæ || jó || zhó || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| ar || sar || er || ser || thar || dhar || ór || sór || or || lor<br />
|}<br />
*Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.)<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ónbouson dothee pof.'' (A man (ERG) is lifting a feather (ABS).), ''Bousón doth.'' (The man falls.) ''Bouson pof.'' (The feather (ABS) falls.).<br />
<br />
====Tense====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, verbs are conjugated for three tenses: past, present and future. These tenses describe when an action took place relative to current moment as their names indicate. <br />
<br />
====Aspect====<br />
<br />
Gnomic-static aspect is used to indicate general truths ''Zaitó Hala.'' (sun rises) and static situations ''Mépa lusha.'' (I can speak Sceptrian). It can be used with expressions of time to specify when something was static ''Petsipha kas arakha.'' (dress-STAT.1SG this.COM yesterday.TEMP "I was dressed in these clothes yesterday (as well).")<br />
<br />
Present progressive describes dynamic actions ''Anbaplóph lusha kha.'' (I'm reading Sceptrian at the moment). Present inceptive is used when an action is about to begin or someone is starting to do something.<br />
*Inceptive is only used once: Subject inceptive with intransitive and mostly agent inceptive with translative verbs. Object ending is either PRES.PROG, when something was begun only a moment ago, or FUT, when something is about to begin.<br />
**Translative object inceptive if the object caused the initialization: ''Órlateepast.'' (He is about to take me to dancing through my initiative.)<br />
<br />
Past imperfective is used with continuous activities which were happening before the present. The contrasting perfective aspect describes the event as a whole and having an endpoint in the past.<br />
<br />
In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used.<br />
<br />
Endings with different tenses and aspects may be mixed in some cases:<br />
*PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) <br />
*PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while))<br />
<br />
====Mood====<br />
<br />
Moods express speaker's attitude towards the subject or their knowledge of it. They are divided into realis and irrealis moods: the former expresses factual statements while the latter indicates that an event hasn't taken place or the speaker is uncertain of a situation.<br />
<br />
=====Realis=====<br />
<br />
'''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well)<br />
<br />
'''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for supposedly factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.)<br />
<br />
=====Irrealis=====<br />
<br />
'''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?)<br />
*The change in stress does not affect the apophony.<br />
<br />
'''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) <br />
*The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!)<br />
**Alternatively, the ''r'' may be added after the inceptive agent prefix.<br />
<br />
'''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original stressed syllable: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: '''''la'''latép'' (may dance), '''''ak'''aktæsos'' (may hear), ''rorøt'' (may go)<br />
*The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject.<br />
*The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished<br />
<br />
=====Particles=====<br />
<br />
Particles are placed after a verb to alter or to specify its meaning.<br />
<br />
Realis<br />
*''pai'' mirative (with soft imperative in present): ''Rótóji pai!'' (He went!?)<br />
**with adjectives or as an adverb: ''Luwi pai!'' (How beautiful!) <br />
<br />
Evidentials (with causatives)<br />
*''atasi'' hearsay: ''Rotóji tasi fope.'' (I heard from you that he went.)<br />
*''tesei'' visual: ''Rótoutóji tesei nape.'' (I didn't see him go.)<br />
<br />
Irrealis<br />
*''norka'' dubitative (with subjunctive): ''Rorøtóji norka.'' (I doubt he went.)<br />
*''gana'' volitive (with future subjunctive): ''Lalatépar gana.'' (I wish I could dance.)<br />
<br />
Conditional (with subjunctive)<br />
*''ta'' apodosis: ''Arziizeither ta'' (I will raise you...)<br />
*''-ti-'' infixed between reduplicated form for protasis: ''boutiboisen'' (if you fall)<br />
<br />
Hortatives (with soft imperative which itself works as an adhortative or dehortative with negation (unwillingness))<br />
*Cohortative: ''Latéprlast kha!'' (Let's dance now!), ''Rótrlastonget khugu.'' (Let's not go there.)<br />
*''jokæ'' exhortative (inhortative through negation): ''Rótrest jokæ.'' (You really should go.)<br />
<br />
'''Formal''' register differences:<br />
*''aktasosai'' (hears) conjugated for hearsay: ''Røtathi aiaktasosóji.'' (I heard from her that you left.)<br />
*''tesos'' (sees) conjugated for visual evidentiality: ''Rotóji tesosai.'' (I saw her go.)<br />
*''tsmaadhoré'' (doubtfully) used for dubitative<br />
*''tutaadhoré'' (wishfully) used for volitive<br />
*''alké'' permissive with dative: ''Rótest alké foki.'' (You may leave.)<br />
**prohibitive with negated (inability) imperative infinitive: ''Rótrostodi alké foki.'' (You aren't allowed to leave.)<br />
*both conditional particles are used separately and they are prefixed with the subjunctive reduplication: ''Arziizeither zaita bouboisen bouti.'' (I will raise you if you fall.)<br />
<br />
'''In literature''' to express the peaking pitch of ironical statements and lowered pitch of sarcastic expressions:<br />
*''jø'' verbal irony: ''Jótesosoi melurpi, jóbatophoi "Luwidh jø hi loi khu".'' (He saw the rain and said: "''Beautiful'' day out there")<br />
*''gæ'' sarcasm: ''Uu, eiluwikoi gæ pai.'' (Oh, ''how beautiful'' you made it.)<br />
<br />
====Negation====<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Negation affixes<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Manner→<br />
! Inability<br />
!colspan="6"| Unwillingness<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Form→<br />
!2nd apophony +infix<br>(before patient-suffix)<br />
!colspan="3"|Intranslative<br>suffix<br />
!colspan="3"|Translative<br>infix (after agent-prefix)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Person→<br />
!All<br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!SG<br />
|ost<br />
|net<br />
|fep<br />
|set<br />
|no<br />
|fo<br />
|so<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|osht<br />
|nget<br />
|vep<br />
|slet<br />
|ngo<br />
|flo<br />
|slo<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|PST<br />
|out<br />
|colspan="3"|nait<br />
|colspan="3"|me<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|FUT<br />
|oz<br />
|colspan="3"|nort<br />
|colspan="3"|mor<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse'''fo'''lateephar?'' (You don't want to begin dancing with me?)<br />
<br />
'''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.)<br />
<br />
Second apophony of negation affixes with subjunctive mood: ''Rorøthórn'''ø'''rt.'' (He may not be willing to go.)<br />
<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
<br />
=====Gerund=====<br />
*Base nouns or their abstract variants may serve as gerunds, which describe the action of doing, but otherwise they are created with the suffix ''(o)pi'' added to a verb root. The suffic also helps to distinguish the forms.<br />
<br />
=====Infinitives=====<br />
*PRES ''-odi'', PST ''-oudi'', FUT ''ordi''<br />
*used with modal verbs<br />
*subjunctive form created with duplication<br />
<br />
=====Participles=====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian participles work as adjectives. Following table shows which "case" and suffix the verb base (or gerund in formal register) takes.<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Present participle suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!IPFV<br />
!PFV<br />
|-<br />
!Patientive (LAT)<br />
|''p''<br />
|''pi/pot''<br />
|-<br />
!Negative (LAT)<br />
|<br />
|''tip''<br />
|-<br />
!Active (INS)<br />
|rowspan="2"|''on''<br />
|''ompu''<br />
|-<br />
!Agentive (INS)<br />
|''empo''<br />
|}<br />
*Also the "requiring" (FUT) form LOC+''rt'' and "possible" (GNO) POS+''ta'' <br />
*Past forms are created by adding ''i'' to the end: ''kephoni'' (was being washed)<br />
*Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed)<br />
*Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]]<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, auxiliary verbs are conjugated only for subject which may act as the agent of the clause. The verbs can either precede (dynamic, deontic) or come after (epistemic) different verb infinitives. Since regular object-patient conjugation can't be used, objects have to be written (no pro-drop) and they are declined into instrumental-comitative case.<br />
*''tut'' "want" (from ''tuta'' "craving, wish"): ''Tutajin kepoudi his.'' (I wanted to wash it.)<br />
**infinitive in lative case for "want something to be done": ''Tutan kepordiki his.'' (I want it to be washed.)<br />
**"be going to" (FUT): ''Tuutar latepordi.'' (I'm going to dance.)<br />
**"wish" (SBJV) mostly as the subjunctive of the absent ''to be''-verb: ''Tutitan khau fos.'' (I wish you were here) <br />
*''mép'' "can, know how to" (dynamic) (from ''mépi'' "skill"): ''Mépa latepodi'' ("I can dance"; notice gnomic-static mood)<br />
*''kuut'' "can, may" (deontic / epistemic) (from ''kuutó'' "possibility"): ''Kuutest rotordi.'' (You may leave.), ''Fendógópot kuutó pai.'' (He may unexpectedly be dead.)<br />
**particle ''nor'' added after the verb for lower possibility i.e. "could, might": ''Fendógópi kuut nor.'' (It might be dead.)<br />
**particle ''ga'' added for "should, must": ''Fendógópi kuut ga.'' (It should be dead, as we wanted.)<br />
*''khet'' "must" (deontic) (from ''kheti'' "necessity"): ''Khetan rotodi.'' (I must go now), ''Kheetar rotordi.'' (I must go soon)<br />
*''khurd'' "dare" (from ''khurdi'' "daring"): ''¿Khurde glerkékodi nas?'' (Do you dare hit me with a mace?)<br />
<br />
Mixing tenses: <br />
*''Tutitai latepordi.'' SBJV.want-PST.PFV.1SG dance-INF.FUT "I would've wanted to dance"<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian distinguishes between two voices, active and antipassive. Passive is very similar to active since Sceptrian is absolutive-ergative, and thus isn't considered a true change in voice. Antipassive is used to reduce the valency of the verbs by removing the object of a transitive clause.<br />
<br />
Active construction: verb-agent-object and verb-object-agent are used so that a comment (rheme) precedes the topic (theme). [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|Emphasizing clitics]] are used to mark the topic. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Ónzaiton dothee pof.<br />
|IPA = /ɔ̃zaɪ̯tə̃ dəθe: pəf/<br />
| morphemes = ón-zait-on doth-ee pof-Ø<br />
| gloss = 3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV man-ERG feather-ABS<br />
| translation = A man is lifting a feather.<br />
}} <br />
<br />
Passive construction: To demote the agent (ERG), it's either removed or inflected into causal ablative (ABL). Verb is only conjugated for the object.<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Zaiton pof (dothpo).<br />
|IPA = /zaɪ̯tə̃ pəf (dəθpə)/<br />
| morphemes = zait-on pof-Ø (doth-po)<br />
| gloss = lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV feather-ABS (man-ABL)<br />
| translation = A feather is being lifted (by a man).<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Antipassive''' construction: Agent (ERG) transforms into subject (ABS) and object (ABS) takes the instrumental-comitative (INS) case. Word order becomes SV(O), and the verb is conjugated according to the agent only and the stressed syllable undergoes second [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]]. The verb is also suffixed with the emphasizing clitic ''ma'' in the formal register. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Doth ónzeit(ma) (pofos).<br />
|IPA = /dəθ ɔ̃zei̯t(mä) (pəfəs)/<br />
| morphemes = doth-Ø ón-zeit-Ø(or =ma) (pof-os)<br />
| gloss = man-ABS ANTIP\3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-ANTIP(or =ANTIP.FORM) (feather-INS)<br />
| translation = The man is lifting (a feather). <br />
}}<br />
<br />
Instrument and turning it into an agent:<br />
* ''Ónzaiton dothee pof vakuhosozh.'' (...with his own hand...)<br />
**''Ónzaiton pof vakuhp dothir.'' (the feather is raised by the man's hand)<br />
**''Onzaiton pof tuph dothi'''sh''' slokli.'' (The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them.) Inanimate agent conjugation, and dative of possession is inflected to avoid misinterpretation!<br />
* ''Vakuh ónzeit pofos.'' (The hand lifts something, which happens to be a feather)/(someone intentionally lifts a feather with their hand) Notice animate conjugation!<br />
**''Tup onzeit dothpo pofos.'' (The stick, which is being held by a man, lifts something, which happens to be a feather) ABL as causative since inanimate ''tup''.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
Decimal base was adopted due to commerce, but traces of the former octal base remain. <br />
<br />
Numerals are placed before their head. Last part of a cardinal determiner agrees with case through matching declension: ''op'''l''' tupl'' (two sticks)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Numeral system<br />
|-<br />
! Number <br />
! Number !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional !! Multiplicative adverb !! Multiplicative adjective !! Group !! Polygon<br />
|-<br />
!Zero<br />
| ozi || oz || ozhi || - || zeng (never) || - || ze (no) || -<br />
|-<br />
!One<br />
| ipi || ip || iphi || liku (whole) || ohu (once) || ipitse (onefold) || ipisi (singular) || ipirt (dot) <br />
|-<br />
!Two <br />
| opi || op || ophi || lopu (half) || ophu (twice) || opitse (twofold) || opisi (pair) || opart (line)<br />
|-<br />
!Three<br />
| oki || ok || okhi || loku || okhu || okitse || okisi || okart (triangle)<br />
|-<br />
!Four<br />
| óppi || óp || óphi || lóppu || óphu || óphitse || óphisi || ópart <br />
|-<br />
!Five<br />
| ofi || of || offi || lofu || offu || ofitse || ofisi || ofart<br />
|-<br />
!Six<br />
| ókki || ók || ókhi || lókku || ókhu || ókhitse || ókhisi || ókart<br />
|-<br />
!Seven<br />
| omi || om || ongi || lomu || ongu || omitse || omisi || omart<br />
|-<br />
!Eight<br />
| ngovi || ngov || ngovvi || longovu || ngovvu || ngovitse || ngovisi || jart<br />
|-<br />
!Nine<br />
| ngoipi || ngoip || ngoiphi || longoipu || ngoiphu || ngoipitse || ngoipisi || ngoipart<br />
|-<br />
!Ten<br />
| jopi || jop || jophi || lojopu || jophu || jopitse || jopisi || jopart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!Eleven<br />
!Twelve<br />
!Thirteen<br />
!Fourteen<br />
!Fifteen<br />
!Sixteen<br />
!Seventeen<br />
!Eighteen<br />
!Nineteen<br />
!Twenty<br />
|-<br />
| ngoki <br />
| ngópi <br />
| ngofi<br />
| ngóki<br />
| ngomi <br />
| ophungovi <br />
| jopomi<br />
| jopingovi<br />
| jopingoipi<br />
| ophujopi<br />
|-<br />
!Twenty-one<br />
!Thirty<br />
!Fourty<br />
!Fifty<br />
!Sixty<br />
!Sixty-four<br />
!Sixty-five<br />
!Seventy<br />
!Eighty<br />
!Ninety<br />
|-<br />
| ophujopipi <br />
| okhujopi<br />
| offungovi <br />
| offujopi <br />
|ókhujopi<br />
| mouti<br />
| moutipi<br />
|ongujopi<br />
|ngowopi<br />
|ngoiphujopi<br />
|-<br />
!One hundred<br />
!One hundred<br/>and twenty-two<br />
!One hundred<br/>and sixty-six<br />
!Two hundred<br />
!Thousand<br />
!Three thousand<br/>four hundred<br />
!Ten thousand<br />
!Hundred thousand<br />
!Million<br />
!Billion<br />
|-<br />
| toti <br />
|toti(s)<br>ophujopopi<br />
|toti(s)<br>moutókki<br />
|ophutoti<br />
| mopi<br />
|okhumopi(s)<br>óphutoti<br />
|tothutoti<br />
|tothumopi<br />
|hamisi<br />
|mowisi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Multiplicative adverb form is used in front of the powers of ten (tens, hundreds, ...)<br />
*Digits are annexed into the tens by using the cardinal or determiner form depending whether the digit begins with a vowel or not.<br />
*Fractions are constructed by placing the ''l(o)''-prefixed form after the multiplicative number: ''okhu lóppu'' ("thrice one quarter" = three quarters). The noun is in ablative case and only the fraction is inflected: ''lopu'''ji''' tuppo'' (for one half of a stick)<br />
*Large numbers (from hundred) are written separately from smaller, but in formal register ''s''-letter is added between each power of ten.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
* VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive<br />
* often a comment precedes the topic<br />
* numerals precede nouns<br />
* possessives follow nouns<br />
* predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns<br />
* demonstratives come last<br />
<br />
===Emphasizing clitics===<br />
<br />
Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton pof dothee'''noh'''.'' (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. ''Ónzaiton dothee pof'''ma'''.'' (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used in nominalized relative clauses and with verbs in antipassive constructions.<br />
<br />
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) <br />
<br />
The suffixes are also used with alienable possessive forms to separate the possessor from indirect objects. Chosen depending on the ergativity of the possessum: ''Jóvakuhoi suu pof swi'''ma''' swi.'' (He gave her feather to him.)<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
<br />
====Independent====<br />
<br />
Independent clauses make sense by themselves so that they may form their own sentence.<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, the subject is not necessarily a separate word since the verb can convey both the agent and the object. Thus a single verb can be a complete sentence: ''Ainamoi.'' (It was eaten by me.) However, a full clause may a verbless one as well when the gnomic-static aspect is used or because the languages lacks the verbs "to be" and "to have": ''Ksaru lutu(ma).'' (The woman is a guard.), ''Lutugu ksarushos.'' (Lady has their own guards.)<br />
<br />
Traditional Sceptrian language theorists have used the term ''qópó'' (act) when referring to the verb phrase: the main verb, its auxiliaries and particles which wouldn't appear without the verb. It may also refer to the predicative determiners of a verbless clause subject (possibly bearing the emphasizing clitic): e.g. ''ksaru'' (guard) is ''qópó hetson'' ("still" act) of the above example ''Ksaru lutu.''. This may be called predicate in Westlang grammar. <br />
<br />
''Betsloi'ó'' (affectee), that is, the absolutive subject-object may be: <br />
*Noun: ''Lehkotón '''kuth'''.'' ('''A dog''' is running.)<br />
*Pronoun: ''Aiteshóji '''slo'''.'' ('''They''' were seen by me.)<br />
*Gerund: ''Apekingvó '''lateppi'''.'' (I enjoy '''dancing'''.)<br />
*Another clause: ''Aitésoutóji, '''skugu rorøtóji'''.'' (I couldn't see, '''where he went'''.) <br />
*Note that the main verb conjugation is for the abstract subject. In the indirect question, the verb is in subjunctive.<br />
<br />
''Betslaató'' (affecter) refers to the agent which is declined into the ergative case. <br />
*A gerung will be declined if necessary, but an entire clause remains the same. <br />
<br />
Interrogative clauses begin with either the verb or the interrogative. Interrogative mood is indicated by the moving the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. Questions are placed between question marks "¿" and "?". See below in the [[Sceptrian#Noun_clauses|noun clauses]] for more of indirect questions.<br />
*In written language, requests often use only the final question mark: ''Tsemaakor nai?'' (Will you give it to me?)<br />
<br />
====Conjunction====<br />
<br />
coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?)<br />
*and, but, for, so, or<br />
*...<br />
<br />
Demonstratives will take the case ending, if the entire <br />
<br />
====Noun clauses====<br />
<br />
WIP ... to be redone<br />
*Infinitive.tense + ... + causatives: ''Tesosan kepó vakuhos supe.'' (I see that he washes his hands) vs. ''Onluvakan kep'''óo''' vakuhos supe.'' (The washing of his hands brings me pleasure.)<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
<br />
Nominalizing relative clauses with participles is common.<br />
<br />
Using [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|an emphasizing clitic]] to mark the antecedent for the class-appropriate proximal demonstrative pronoun (thaka/saitu/ka declined for number) which works as a relative pronoun - case chosen according to the embedded clause: <br />
*''Rotóji dothma saituh latepai.'' (leave-PST.PFV.3SG man.ABS-EMPH.ABS P.PROX.AN-COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The man, with whom I danced, left.") <br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahul dothelenos saitush latepai.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS man-PL.ERG-EMPH.ERG P.PROX.AN-PL.COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The men with whom I danced are starting to drink beer.")<br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahulma dothele ka tutitai vangosordi.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS-EMPH.ABS man-PL.ERG P.PROX.INAN SBJV-want-PST.PFV.1SG drink-INF.FUT "Men are starting to drink the beer which I would've wanted to drink."<br />
<br />
====Adverbial clauses====<br />
<br />
non-finite forms + possessive suffixes to indicate subject<br />
<br />
====Conditional clauses====<br />
<br />
subjunctive as explained in verb particle section<br />
<br />
====Indirect speech====<br />
<br />
==Register==<br />
<br />
Different endings which reflect the conversation situation: speakers, familiarity, formality, location... <br />
<br />
===Intimate===<br />
<br />
Agent prefixes aren't used. No ''t'' in inceptive. Due to apophony, subject suffix can be dropped from FUT/INCEP if 1st or 2nd person distinction is clear.<br />
<br />
===Casual===<br />
<br />
In casual register, verb forms are chosen differently when the subject is agent-like (he dances) or patient-like (he fell): ''latepóji'' (he danced AN) vs. ''bousoi'' (he fell INAN)<br />
<br />
===Formal===<br />
<br />
Mandatory use of pronouns and agent prefixes.<br />
<br />
One may use inanimate verb forms as anti-honorific? ''Ondakon næ ka Nithki.'' (I humbly offer this to You)<br />
<br />
Apophony of basic prepositions with root ''oi'': ''Oisti Hala, óosti vakuhanga, ousti qorel'' (under the Sun, under my hand, under the earth)<br />
<br />
In formal register, it is preferred to use only animate nouns as agents while abstract and inanimate are as antipassive subjects: ''luwi... nas'' ("beauty-of.yours it-un-eye-ful-makes me-with", your beauty makes me blind) vs. ''en fø na'' (you are making me blind)<br />
<br />
Distinction between abstract and animate in some categories, such as verb conjugation (''wa'')<br />
<br />
Can people with higher status be abstract or do they occupy a special animate category? (æ inside?)<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
See the [[Sceptrian/Dictionary|dictionary page]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian&diff=35878Sceptrian2015-07-09T10:01:18Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Personal */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Construction}}<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Sceptrian<br />
|nativename = [[File:Lusha_name.png|300px]]<br>''Batop Lushan''<br />
|pronunciation = [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ]<br />
|region = Western Central World<br />
|states = Sceptre<br />
|speakers = 29,200,000 <br />
|date = 7th 641<br />
|familycolor = #d3ffce<br />
|fam1 = West-Herookuan<br />
|fam2 = Lutian<br />
|fam3 = Sceptrian branch<br />
|creator=Ahuelni<br />
|setting=Akekata<br />
|dialects = Yerzonian, Mulish, Fanish <br />
|script = Toneka alphabet<br />
|nation = Empire of Sceptre<br />
|minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia<br />
|agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language)<br />
|map = Lusha_regions.jpg<br />
|mapsize = 300<br />
|mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects<br />
}}<br />
{{ClassMeter<br />
|Name = Sceptrian<br />
|NativeName = Batop Lushan<br />
|Type = Fusional<br />
|Alignment = Absolutive-ergative<br />
<br />
|adjective = final<br />
|adposition = mixed<br />
|adverb= final<br />
|article= mixed<br />
|relativeclause = final<br />
|nounclause = final<br />
|order = VSO<br />
<br />
|Tonal = no<br />
|Genders = 3<br />
|Declined = yes<br />
|Conjugated = yes<br />
|Case = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Definiteness = no<br />
|Gender = yes<br />
|Voice = yes<br />
|Mood = yes<br />
|Person = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Tense = yes<br />
|Aspect = yes<br />
|Phonology = 100<br />
|NounCases = 100<br />
|NounDef = 100<br />
|NounNumbers = 100<br />
|NounGender = 100<br />
|VerbPerson = 100<br />
|VerbNumber = 100<br />
|VerbAspect = 90<br />
|VerbTense = 100<br />
|VerbMood = 90<br />
|VerbVoice = 80<br />
|AdjCase = 100<br />
|AdjNumber = 100<br />
|AdjDef = 100<br />
|AdjGen = 100<br />
|AdjComparative = 100<br />
|AdjSuperlative = 100<br />
|Supine = 90<br />
|Gerund = 90<br />
|Participle = 90<br />
|Infinitive = 90<br />
|Modality = 90<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ] or simply ''lusha'') is an ''a priori'' [[w:Artistic_language|artistic language]] created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 29 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking [[Khattish]] and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian and its dialects feature 51 phonetic consonants, some of them with interesting lateral features. The language also has 25 phonetic vowels: twelve short, nine long and four diphthongs. Nasalization, rhotacization and breathy voice are used phonemically. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
If the romanization symbol is the same as in IPA, it is not duplicated. Not bolded romanization indicates that the sound appears as a vernacular or dialectal version.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 830px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px" colspan="2"|<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Uvular<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| [ɱ]<br />
| <br />
| '''n (ń)''' [n]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''t'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''k'''<br />
| '''q'''<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''b'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''d'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''g'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Breathy<br />
| '''ph bh'''<br>[pʰ] [bʱ]<br />
|<br />
|'''th dh'''<br>[tʰ] [dʱ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''kh gh'''<br>[kʰ] [gʱ]<br />
|'''qh'''<br>[qʰ]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| '''pl bl'''<br />[pˡ] [bˡ]<br />
| <br />
| '''tl dl'''<br />[tˡ] [dˡ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''kl gl'''<br/>[kˡ] [gˡ]<br />
| '''ql'''<br/>[qˡ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| ph [ɸ]<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| '''th''' [θ]<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''sh''' [ʃ]<br />
| '''h''' [ç]<br />
| '''kh h''' [x]<br />
| '''qh''' [χ]<br />
| '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''w''' bh [β]<br />
| '''v'''<br />
| '''dh''' [ð]<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| '''zh''' [ʒ]<br />
| <br />
| gh [ɣ]<br />
| <br />
| h [ɦ]<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''sl''' [ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Affricate<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ts''' [t͡s] <br />
| '''tsh''' [t͡ʃ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''tsl''' [t͡ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Approximant<br />
!Non-lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''j'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''l''' [l] [l̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| pr [ʙ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''r (ŕ)''' [r] [r̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The liquids ''r'' and ''l'' can appear as '''syllabic consonants''': ''tlsl'' /tˡl̩ɬ/ (shallow), ''prk'' /pr̩k/ (wagon) and ''trs'' /tr̩s/ (smith)<br />
*Vernacularly, both syllabic and obstruent-following alveolar trill ''r'' and lateral approximant ''l'' are pronounced as voiceless [r̩̊], [r̥], [l̩̊] and [l̥] when in contact with only voiceless consonants: ''trs'' [tr̩̊s] (smith) contrasting with ''trls'' [tr̩s] (while standard /trəls/) (smiths); ''gatl'' [gɑtl̥] (houses) whose pronunciation approaches [gɑtɬ]. <br />
**'''Meslatu Hirke''' made his disputed suggestion in 7:693 that a similar process had led to the birth of ''sl'' as plural indicator, when original plural ''l'' turned first into voiceless and then into ''sl'' after a word-final glottal stop, which has disappeared entirely. <br />
*In eastern dialects, ''pr'' is realized as [ʙ] and ''tr'', ''tsr'' and ''trs'' often as [r̝]. In the dialects, aspirated plosives have been fully spirantized into their fricative counterparts, e.g. [tʰ]>[θ].<br />
*Fricatives show properties of syllabic consonants word-initially and word-finally.<br />
<br />
Nasal [ɱ] only appears as an allophone of nasals with labio-dental sounds /f/ and /v/. Before velar sounds (e.g. /k/) nasals turn similarly into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
Letter ''h'' has four allophones: initial is always [h] despite frontness, [ç] appears elsewhere with front vowels, [x] appears word-finally and [h~ɦ] word-medially with back vowels ''tihtóhnah'' [tiçˈtɔɦ.näx] (assassinator). It's also used after consonants to indicate breathy voice.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 390px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| <br />
| '''u'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-mid<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| o<br/>[ɘ]<br />
| o<br/>[ɤ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
|<br />
| '''o'''<br/>[ə]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''é ø'''<br />[ɛ] [œ]<br />
|<br />
| '''ó'''<br />[ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
|'''æ'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
|'''a'''<br />[ä]<br />
|a<br />[ɑ]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
All the nine main vowel sounds (bolded) have '''long''' versions as separate phonemes.<br />
<br />
Schwa '''''o''''' is used as an epenthetic vowel (anaptyxis). When it is used to break consonant clusters (not indicated in native script) it is the simple schwa /ə/: *dŧ → ''doth'' /dəθ/ (man). When stressed, it is vernacularly realized as [ɘ], and in western dialects more clearly as [ɤ]: *dŧs → ''dothos'' [dəˈθɘˑs]<br />
<br />
Vowel ''a'' is [ɑ] after voiced consonants. Vowel ''æ'' is often more open [a], though, in Western dialects, it has merged with ''é''. <br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, there are only closing diphthongs which go up in the vowel chart:<br />
*Back: ou /ɔʊ̯/<br />
*Front: ai /äɪ̯/, ei /ei̯/, oi /œi̯/<br />
<br />
If the syllable border (glottal stop) is between vowels and they don't form a diphthong, apostrophe is used: ''tai'' (for long) vs. ''ta'i'' (past)<br />
*In native [[Sceptrian#Script|script]], separate graphemes for diphthongs exist and glottal stop is not marked.<br />
<br />
If diphthongs are followed by vowels, they are separated by a glottal stop in formal register. <br />
*In casual speech, ''ouV'' becomes ''owV'' and ''ViV'' ''VjV'': ''oua→ówa'' and ''aia→aja''. If the following vowel is the same, a glottal stop breaks the former diphthong and the ending vowel is lengthened: ''ai'i→a'ii''<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
<br />
===Onset===<br />
<br />
Basic [[w:Syllable#Structure|syllabic structure]] is CV, where the onset (beginning) consonant can be of any type. <br />
*It is possible to use liquids and approximants as '''glides''' (CLV) between the onset and the rime (ending). <br />
*Up to two consonants with same voicing may appear in the onset (CCV), especially fricative-plosive combinations, but never two plosives: ''stak'' (fence), ''fkot'' (nest), ''ksaru'' (guard). Affricate ''ts'' takes may be accompanied only by ''w'', ''j'', ''n'' or ''m'': ''tsma'' (doubt). Combination /sl/ has turned into /ɬ/.<br />
*Lateralization and aspiration may never appear together, and nasalized rhoticization is only found in Fanish dialect.<br />
<br />
===Nucleus=== <br />
<br />
The nucleus can be either a vowel or a liquid, thus CVC and CLC are also possible syllables. <br />
*Vowels (diphthongs included) may exist as a stand-alone nucleic syllable (V), mostly in the beginning or at the end of a word. <br />
*If nucleus is a liquid, plosives appear in codas only word-finally: ''dldlp'' /dˡl̩ˈdˡl̩p/ (bubble)<br />
<br />
===Coda=== <br />
<br />
The coda (final) may consist of up to three consonants with possible structures: N, P, F, L; NP, FP, LP; NF, PF, LF; NPF, FPF, LFP, LPF (Nasal, Plosive, Fricative, Liquid). <br />
*Final liquids appear as syllabic consonants<br />
*Approximants ''j'', ''w'' and plain voiced plosives never appear as coda (final) even though they may be written that way (no written schwa): ''nad'' /nä.də/ (stainy). Voiced fricatives may appear as coda. <br />
*In coda, plosives with lateral release, however, will reflect the voicing of the onset: ''gatl'' [gädˡl̩] (houses) vs. ''katl'' [kätˡl̩] (knobs). Vernacularly, the lateral approximant weakens into a voiceless variant [l̥] when in contact with voiceless consonants: ''gatl'' [gätl̥].<br />
<br />
Closed syllables, i.e. those ending in coda, are not as common word-medially as open syllables (ending in nucleus) are. When words are inflected, parts of codas tend to become onsets of the following syllable, if possible. Especially three-consonant clusters are rare word-medially and receive a schwa after a non-lateral stop: ''kamps'' /kämps/ (marsh) → ''kampsku'' → ''kamposku'' /ˈkäm.pəs.ku/ (at marsh)<br />
*Voicing status must be the same for consonants touching at syllable boundaries and the voiced one reduces into voiceless: ''*katbas''→''katpas'' /kätˈpäs/ (fern) vs. ''oist baku'' /œi̯st<sup>(h)</sup> bä.ku/ (under a table)<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
Primary '''stress''' in a word is most often on the second syllable, and when there are four or five syllables, secondary stress is placed onto the final syllable. When there are more syllables, minor stress is placed on even-numbered syllables. <br />
*If the to-be-stressed syllable contains the schwa ''o'' /ə/ or a syllabic consonant, the preceding syllable is stressed in two-syllable words and the following in words with more than three syllables.<br />
**In uninflected words, syllable with nuclear ''o'' is only stressed when it comes second and the preceding syllable has also ''o'' as nucleus. Then the stressed nucleus appears as [ɘ]. Contrast between stressed and non-stressed syllabic consonants may occur as voicing and devoicing respectively. <br />
*A non-final syllable with a long vowel or a diphthong is always stressed and steals the stress from its neighboring syllable. This also moves the secondary stress from final to penultimate syllable, if primary stress falls on first syllable.<br />
<br />
Inflected and affixed word forms have almost always the same stress as the base word (even monosyllabic with schwa): ''doth'' (man) → ''dothku'' [ˈdɘθ.ku] (near the man). <br />
*Vocative and ergative cases as well as inflections with long vowels make an exception: ''dothee'' /dəˈθe:/ (by the man), ''dothé'' /dəˈθɛ/ (O man), ''gatóo'' /gɑˈtɔ:/ (to the house)<br />
<br />
Interrogatives are formed by changing the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. This is indicated with ¿: ''¿Eikepoi?'' [ˈei̯˧˦ˈke˩.pœi̯˨˦] (Did you wash it?)<br />
<br />
==Morphophonology==<br />
<br />
===Vowel form===<br />
<br />
There are five ways of sound altering which may be used for grammatical purposes (mainly number, genitive case and imperfective aspect). In the native script the following are marked on the vowel.<br />
*Lengthening: ''paata'' /pä:tä/ (separation), ''ée'' [ɛ:]~[ɛe̯], ''óo'' /ɔ:/<br />
*Lateral (release): ''pló'' /pˡɔ/ (opposite to), ''tlaf'' /tˡäf/ (sprig) <br />
**Western dialects keep the tongue on the alveolar ridge during vowel pronunciation so that the vowels have a distinct l-sound. Historically, this may have lead to the syllabic l.<br />
*Aspiration/breathy voice: ''phó'' [pʰɔ]~[ɸɔ] (along), ''kébhar'' [kɛˈbʱɑ˞]~[kɛˈβɑ˞] (I will wash), ''tha'' [tʰä]~[θä] (abstract "it"), ''dhaka'' [dʱɑkä]~[ðɑkä] (abstract "that"). <br />
**Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head)<br />
*Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]]<br />
**Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as a short syllabic nasal consonant of the same place as the directly preceding or following consonant<br />
**Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!).<br />
*Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) <br />
**Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞:] (soup)<br />
<br />
===Consonant form===<br />
<br />
Combining sounds<br />
*Lateralization<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sl'' and ''zh'' respectively<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' → ''fl'' & ''w''<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' are geminated<br />
**''m'' & ''n'' → ''ng'' and ''ng'' → ''ńg''<br />
* Aspiration<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sh'' and ''zh''<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' are geminated<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' → ''lh'' and ''rh''<br />
* Voicing and aspiration<br />
**''r'' → ''qh'', ''l'' → ''ldh'', ''v'' → ''w''<br />
<br />
===Apophony===<br />
<br />
Apophony in the '''stressed syllable''' is used for example to express adjective gender and to create different verb forms.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Apophony<br />
|-<br />
!Root<br />
!1st<br />
!2nd<br />
|-<br />
|e<br />
|ee<br />
|é<br />
|-<br />
|o<br />
|ó<br />
|ø<br />
|-<br />
|a<br />
|aa<br />
|æ<br />
|-<br />
|u<br />
|uu<br />
|i<br />
|-<br />
|ai<br />
|ii<br />
|ei<br />
|-<br />
|ou<br />
|óo<br />
|oi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*When the stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting)<br />
*With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of ''é''.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Script=== <br />
[[File:Sceptrian.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Toneka script from the early sixth era. Notice that the vowel form info-box romanization should have "o" instead of "a".]]<br />
[[File:SceptrianTsrnet.JPG|500px|thumb|right|Tsrnet cursive script used for handwriting in modern Sceptre.]]<br />
The Sceptrian alphabet script was derived from the ancient temple marks as were the Aoman and Northern (Latin) scripts. The modern alphabet is called ''Tsoklóp Lushan''.<br />
<br />
Diacritics on vowels mark different [[Sceptrian#Vowel_form|sounds]]. The diacritics may be used with consonants as well, especially in the plural forms of consonant-ending nouns: ''gat̆'' (''gatl'' "houses"), ''doŧ̆'' (''dolth'' "men"). With the diacritics, letter ''ts'' can be lateralized into ''tsl'' or aspirated into ''tsh''.<br />
<br />
The native Sceptrian script has a long history of being unicameral, not distinguishing between the upper and lower case. Only during the sixth era under the Tyranny of West, the flow of refugees from the Coast of Temples encouraged the introduction of case separation. In the developed fonts, capital letters were derived from the traditional Toneka and small letters from the cursive Tsrnet.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Short and long letter names with explanations<br />
|-<br />
|aa<br>aat || ee<br>eet || ée<br>eet maatikipi<br>(opened e) || ii<br>iit || oo<br>oot || óo<br>oot guzbikipi<br>(deepened o) || uu<br>uut <br />
|-<br />
|ææ<br>aat evadh<br>(bright a) || øø<br>oot gudh<br>(dark o) || ai<br>aat zaithon<br>(rising a) || ei<br>eet zaithon<br>(rising e) || oi<br>oot zaithon<br>(rising o) || ou<br>óot bousoson<br>(falling o) ||<br />
|-<br />
| po<br>poot || bo<br>bóot || mo<br>mool || wo<br>wool || to<br>toot || do<br>dóot || <br />
|-<br />
| tho<br>toot hifdo<br>(windy t) || dho<br>dóot hifdo<br>(windy d) || no<br>nool || so<br>siit || sho<br>siit hifdo<br>(windy s) || zo<br>ziit || zho<br>ziit gudh<br>(dark z) <br />
|-<br />
| ngo<br>góot slenguhpi<br>(g using nose) || tso<br>tsiit || lo<br>lool || slo<br>lool hifdo<br>(windy l) || fo<br>fiit || vo<br>fiit gudh<br>(dark f) || jo<br>jool <br />
|-<br />
| ko<br>koot || go<br>góot || ho<br>hiit || qho<br>hiit surmudh<br>(strong h) || qo<br>koot venongp<br>(k being<br> swallowed) || ro<br>rool || <br />
|-<br />
|plo<br>looh tisk<br>(with l<br> mark) || pon<br>slenguhpi tisk<br>(using nose<br> mark) || por<br>tisk prung<br>(mark of<br> trill) || pho<br>tisk hifn<br>(mark of<br> wind) || poo<br>tisk spiing<br>(mark of<br> length) || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Romanization===<br />
<br />
====Modern====<br />
Consonant variation:<br />
*Letter ''r'' is used with consonants for /r̩/ and between vowels for /r/, but after vowels in the end of syllables for rhoticization ''or'' /ɚ/. Letter ''ŕ'' is used to emphasize the use of /r/ after vowels ''oŕ'' /ər/.<br />
*Similarly letter ''n'' can appear syllable-finally with nasalization but ''ń'' always as /n/: ''an'' /ã/ vs. ''ań'' /an/. <br />
*With ''ng'' /ŋ/, the accent signals lengthening ''nańgo'' /näŋ:ə/ or ''naŋŋo'' (sweaty).<br />
*Labialization of plosives is indicated by PuV (V is any vowel except ''u'') or with ''w''.<br />
*Breathry voice is indicated with an ''h'' straight after a plosive. The ''h'' is also used for corresponding fricatives which occur word-finally. This risk of confuse is one of the downsides of the simplified modern system: ''nath'' /näθ/ "a beggar" or /nätʰ/ "with stains".<br />
<br />
====Old====<br />
<br />
The old romanization system (or part of it) was used until western regions of Eastern Sceptre were joined with the Western Sceptre empire in 7th era 161, during the war against Empress Renula of Golden Islet. A revision was needed when both Sceptrian and Aoma were used in the same printing press and texts had to be distributed to westlang-using communities. Peter Martyea suggested in 7:189 that the payment according to number of pages may have favoured quick adaptation as the non-diacritic system induced much longer texts (see the comparison example).<br />
<br />
Consonants:<br />
*Nasal: '''ŋ''' ''ng'' /ŋ/<br />
**Texts from the first century of the seventh era use ''ǥ'' for word-initial /ŋ/.<br />
*Fricative: '''ŧ''' ''th'' /θ/, '''đ''' ''dh'' /ð/, '''ś''' ''sh'' /ʃ/, '''ź''' ''zh'' /ʒ/, '''ħ''' ''qh'' /χ/<br />
*Affricate: '''c''' ''ts'' /t͡s/, '''č''' ''tsh'' /t͡ʃ/<br />
*Lateral: '''š''' ''sl'' /ɬ/, '''ǩ''' ''kl'' /kˡ/, '''ǧ''' ''gl'' /gˡ/<br />
<br />
Compact equivalents of sound altering:<br />
*Lengthening with a bar: ''ṓ'' /ɔ:/ and ''ō'' /ə:/<br />
*Lateral release with a breve diacritic: ''tŏ'' /tˡə/<br />
*Nasalization with a tilde: ''õ'' /ə̃/, ''on'' /ən/<br />
*Rhotacization with a diaeresis: ''ö'' /ɚ/, ''or'' /ər/<br />
*Aspiration with a grave accent: ''pò'' /pʰə/, ''pô'' /pʰɔ/<br />
<br />
Comparison between the systems:<br />
*Old: Ǧëǩ śošēŧã <br />
*Modern: Glerkl shosleethan (maces of a knight)<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
The most complete study of the structure of pre-modern Sceptrian words was done by Porutingatu of Jerzónó in year 362 of the seventh era. She collected, grouped and analyzed the fusional morphemes and listed the new rules to replace the outdated writings from the sixth era. By 370, her work had led to a new interest in linguistics and ultimately to the founding of ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan'' (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) which has been unifying and regulating the language along with its orthography since then.<br />
<br />
Sceptrian utilizes [[w:Fusional_language|fusional]] [[w:Inflection|inflections]] and has an [[w:Ergative–absolutive_language|absolutive-ergative]] [[w:Morphosyntactic_alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]. The language is rather [[w:Head-directionality_parameter|head-initial]] and its primary [[w:Word_order|word order]] is verb-agent-object.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns are used to refer to e.g. people or things in sentences instead of using the original nouns. In Sceptrian, they exist in two numbers and are inflected according to six [[Sceptrian#Cases|'''cases''']]. <br />
<br />
====Personal====<br />
Second person includes polite versions as well which were adapted by Aoma-sperkers. Third person singular makes distinction between abstract (Ab), animate (An) and inanimate (In) pronouns while plural only between Ab-An and In. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Personal pronoun inflection'''<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! 1SG !! 1PL !! 2SG !! 2PL !! 2SG.POL !! 2PL.POL !! 3SG.Ab !! 3SG.An !! 3PL.A !! 3SG.In !! 3PL.In<br />
|-<br />
!ABS <br />
| na || mo || fo || po || Nith || With || tha || su || slo || hi || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
| næ || moslo || fø || poslo || Nithe || Widhes || thaa || suu || sloslo || hii || kloslo<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
| nai || mokli || foki || pokli || Nithki || Withkli || thai || swi || slokli || hiki|| klokli<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
| nar || moŕ || for || poŕ || Nithor || Withoŕ || thar || sur || sloŕ || hir || kloŕ<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
| nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh ||thas ||sus ||slosh || his || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
| nape || moplo || fope || poplo || Nitti || Witti || thape || supe || sloplo || hipi || kloplo<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''Comitative''' case is used to indicate company: ''Mo slosh arakha.'' (We were with them yesterday.)<br />
*'''Causal''' describes the cause of an action or origin of something: ''Aitesosai næ su fope'' (I saw him because of (/thanks to) you), ''Hi supe foki.'' (It (is) from him to you.)<br />
<br />
3rd person abstract pronoun is used in the formal register when introducing or referring to a person of higher status.<br />
<br />
====Reflexive====<br />
Self-pronoun ''ru'' for '''reflexive''' and '''reciprocal''': ''tesosón ru'' (they are watching themself), ''ónlatepón ru'' (he is dancing by himself, alone) vs. ''ónlatepón su'' (he is dancing with him); ''sónkephón ru'' (they are washing each other) vs. ''sónkephón sloslo slo/soutu'' (they are washing them)<br />
*reflexive is easier with others: ''anlatepan'' (I'm dancing by myself); ''ankepan'' (I'm washing myself) vs. ''ankep'' ("I'm washing it"), ''kepan'' (I'm being washed)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
<br />
Simple words for "this/these" and "that/those". When demonstratives are used with [[Sceptrian#Nouns|nouns]], they behave similarly to [[Sceptrian#Adjectives|adjectives]]. In the following examples, note that Sceptrian lacks the [[Sceptrian#Verbs|verb "to be"]]: <br />
*As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.)<br />
*For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) <br />
*The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the head acts more like a specifying comment on the true sentence subject: ''Bouson ko qot.'' (That's falling, the rock, I mean.) <br />
<br />
See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]].<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Demonstrative pronoun inflection<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Case <br />
!colspan="2"| Proximal <br />
!colspan="2"| Distal <br />
|-<br />
!SG !! PL !! SG !! PL<br />
|-<br />
!ABS<br />
|ka || kla || ko || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
|kaa || klaa || kó || kló<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
|kai ||klai || koi || kloi<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
|kan ||klang || kon || klong<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
|kas || klash || kos || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
|kap || klapa || kop ||klopo<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Table of correlatives===<br />
<br />
Determiners follow their heads and agree in number and with the cases mentioned above in [[Sceptrian#Demonstrative|the table]], where DAT & LAT, COM & LOC, CAU & ABL and ABS & VOC are corresponding. Words follow the declension shown above or paradigms similar to [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun cases]]. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!rowspan="2"|Interrogative<br />
!colspan="2"|Demonstrative<br />
!colspan="5"|Quantifier<br />
|-<br />
!Proximal !! Distal !! Existential !! Elective !! Universal !! Negatory !! Alternative<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Determiner<br />
| sho || ka (SG)<br/>kla (PL) || ko<br />klo || jofa (some) || ota (any) || orka (every, all) || ze (no) || so (another)<br/>solo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="5"| Pronoun<br />
!Abstract<br />
| ashu || thaka || dhaka || jaafa || thata || thorka || theso || thaso<br />
|-<br />
!Animate<br />
| ¿soutu || saitu || soutu || jonfu || onta || ongka || souso || jonso<br />
|-<br />
!Inanimate <br />
| ¿ko || ka || ko || jofo || oto || orko || ze || so<br />
|-<br />
!Out of two<br />
| ¿tso || tsaka || tsoko || zho || tsoto || tsorko || tseso || tso<br />
|-<br />
!Out of many<br />
| ¿tsolo || tsalka || tsolko || zolo || tsolto || tsongko || tsleso || tsolo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="6"|Pro-adverb<br />
!Locative<br />
| sku || khau || khu || jofku || otku || orkhu || zengu || sokhu<br />
|-<br />
!Temporal<br />
| sko || kha || kho || jofko || otko || orkho || zeng || sokho<br />
|-<br />
!Comitative<br />
| shos ||kas || kos || jofos || otos || orkos ||zeos || sos<br />
|-<br />
!Causal<br />
| spe || kap || kop || jov || otop || orkop || zenep || sonop<br />
|-<br />
!Manner<br />
| shi || khai || khoi || jofai || otai || orkai || zei || soi<br />
|-<br />
!What kind of<br />
| shodh || kadh || kodh || jodhi || othi || ordhi || zodhi || sothi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Negative determiner ''ze'' has no plural form. Neither have pronouns "Out of two".<br />
*Demonstratives are used when referring to listed items of equal animacy: proximal with the former and distal with the latter: ''Aitesoshóji math kuthos. Óomidh soutu.'' (I saw a cat and a dog. The latter was large.)<br />
*Locative pro-adverb can be conjugated with lative, locative and ablative.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Nouns in Sceptrian form the basis of derivational morphology and even the cases are utilized when forming new words. They are declined according to two numbers and nine cases, and the seven declensions are grouped in three genders which affect the verb conjugation and adjective agreement.<br />
<br />
====Gender====<br />
<br />
There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes.<br />
*Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in vowels ''a, æ, o, ó, ø'' and ''i''. <br />
*Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h'', same voiced and affricates), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings.<br />
*Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group.<br />
In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull). Some archaic words remain in dialects and in poetic use.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
<br />
There are two numbers, singular and plural, but abstract ''i''-nouns and inanimate ''l''-nouns are always singular. The declension according to number is complicated and fused with the class/case system explained and tabulated below.<br />
<br />
====Cases====<br />
<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Unmarked base form for subjects of intransitive and objects of transitive verbs <br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agents of transitive verbs<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect object; alienable possession ''gat dothi'' (a house of (lit. "for") the man); comparison (with ADJ comparative)<br />
*Possessive (POS): Inalienable possession ''dhoku dothor'' (the man's head)<br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS): Using something; "with someone", replaces "and" as Latin [[wikt:-que|-que]]; in antipassive constructions<br />
*Lative (LAT): Movement to; with adpositions<br />
*Locative-temporal (LOC-TEMP): Place; time; with adpositions<br />
*Ablative (ABL): Movement from (+delative); causal<br />
*Vocative (VOC): addressing (people, gods); interjections ''Alæ!'' (Hello! lit. "Day!")<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Genders and desinences'''<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" style="width: 100px"| <br />
!colspan="3"| Abstract <br />
!colspan="6"| Animate <br />
!colspan="3"| Inanimate<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''A'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''i'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''F'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''N'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''u'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"|''P'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''l''<br />
|-<br />
|<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>|| ||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 100px"| Absolutive<br />
| A || Asl || i || F || (o)lF || N || Ning || u || ush || P || Pl || l<br />
|- <br />
! style=""| Ergative <br />
| AA || AslA || ii || Fee || Fele || Nee || Neng || uu || uushu || Pee || Ple || le<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Dative <br />
| Ak || Akl || ik || Fi || Fil || Ni || Nil || (u)ji || (u)wi || Pei || Plei || lei<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Possessive <br />
| An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Instrumental-comitative <br />
| Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Lative <br />
| AgA || AglA || iki || Fko || Fklo || Nong || Nongo || ugu || uglu || Póo || Plóo || lo <br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Locative-temporal <br />
| AkhA || AlkhA || ikhi || Fku || Fklu || Nung || Nungu || ukhu || ulkhu || Pu || Plu || lu<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Ablative <br />
| ApA || AplA || ipi || Fp(o) || Fpl(o) || Nop || Nopl || upu || uplu || PPo || PPol || lp<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Vocative <br />
| Ae || Asl || ii || Fé || lFé || Né || Nin || -wé || -wésh || Pé || Plé || lé<br />
|}<br />
*''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø''<br />
**Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø<br />
*''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts, tsl'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. <br />
*''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng''<br />
*''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q''<br />
**POS ''q''→''ng''<br />
**INS ending Ph marks breathy voice and may turn the plosive into corresponding fricative /ɸ, θ, x, χ/ if followed by a plosive.<br />
*- indicates that the original ending is replaced with the following: ''tup → tu'''m''''' (stick → stick's)<br />
<br />
====Possessive==== <br />
<br />
Different possessive forms and interpretations: <br />
*''Dativus possessivus'' (alienable): ''gat doth'''i''''' "the house which the man has temporarily settled in, i.e. rented"<br />
*Comitative case with alienable possessive suffix: ''doth gat''h'''''os''''' "man with his house which he has purchased"<br />
**Inalienable possessive suffix alters the meaning: ''doth gat''h'''''ozh''''' "man and his birthplace"<br />
*Possessive case (almost inalienable): ''gat doth'''or''''' "the house which was inherited and is now owned by the man". <br />
<br />
The noun in possessive case is not inflected further. With dative case, inflection may be utilized in order to distinguish the ''dativus possessivus'' from the indirect object or benefactive: ''Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli.'' "The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them." (Related to the feather ceremony when welcoming upper class members to a household.)<br />
<br />
'''Possessive affixes''', as shown in examples above, draw a distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: ''Óntesoson dothee gat'''s'''/vakuh'''oz'''.'' (A man is watching his house/ his own hand.) With the basic suffixes, the root is inflected first and then suffixed.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ Possessional suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!Person<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! ALIEN !! INAL !! ALIEN !! INAL <br />
|-<br />
!1st <br />
| (a)ń || (a)nga || (ó)m || (ó)ngó <br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
| (o)f || (ø)fo || (e)v || (ø)vø<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
| (o)s || (o)zh || (o)sl || (o)zhol<br />
|}<br />
*Irregular: Only VOC+possessive with 1SG: ''Pos'''n'''é!'' (My servant!), ''Polsmé!'' (Our servants!)<br />
<br />
'''2nd person polite suffixes''' are added to absolutive base and the endings are then declined according to abstract gender: <br />
*Singular: (a)tha, (a)tazha <br />
*Plural: (a)dhó, (a)dózhó <br />
*Example: ''gat'''atha'''pa'' (from Your house)<br />
<br />
See [[Sceptrian#Adverbial_clauses|adverbial clauses]] which utilize some possessive suffixes with [[Sceptrian#Non-finite_forms|non-finite verb forms]].<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
<br />
Adpositions are used with inflected nouns to add information about its location or relation to other nouns. Some Sceptrian adpositions can be used as stand-alone adverbs which may be conjugated according to noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====Prepositions====<br />
<br />
Prepositions are used with lative (to, towards), locative (at, near) and ablative (from) cases to alter the meaning.<br />
*''voi'' (in) forms illative, inessive, elative <br />
*''loi'' (out) for "out of", "outside" and "from outside"<br />
*''soi'' (on) to emphasize the surface aspect <br />
*''oist(i)'' (under) for movement under something<br />
*''roi'' (above) similarly to ''oist''<br />
*''boi'' (down) for "down (a surface / to)", "down in (somewhere)" and "from down"; as an adverb as well <br />
*''zoi'' (up) used like ''boi''<br />
*''moi'' (touching, around) with lative for terminative, locative for pertingent and ablative for initiative<br />
*''oil(i)'' (as) forms translative, essive, exessive<br />
*''koi'' (per) distribution: "for each", "every" (temporal), "from each"<br />
*''jon'' (... between) <br />
*''poi'' (... the middle of, among)<br />
*''tsoi'' (... front of; preceding) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = before<br />
*''hoi'' (... behind; following) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = after<br />
*''mots(i)'' (... on side)<br />
**combined with postpositional ''dei'' (right) or ''lai'' (left)<br />
**with time nouns in locative = ago<br />
<br />
====Postpositions====<br />
<br />
Postpositions appear with various cases and often come in groups.<br />
*''pón'' (through) with lative<br />
*''phó'' (along) with lative<br />
*''pló'' (opposite to, across) with locative<br />
*''sós'' (with) with comitative to express a greater degree of endowment (ornative); with ablative to indicate "without"; with lative for "in addition to"<br />
*''óp'' (about, concerning) with genitive; with ablative for "according to"<br />
*''ól'' (like) with genitive; as an adverb "similarly"<br />
*''jak'' (away, despite) with ablative; as an adverb as well<br />
*''mai'' (excluding) with ablative<br />
*''mak'' (except) with ablative<br />
*''mats'' (instead of) with ablative<br />
*''sai'' (including) with comitative<br />
*''sak'' (concerning, regarding) with comitative; with ablative to emphasize the causal aspect (due to, because of, thanks to)<br />
*''phe'' (for the sake of) with lative<br />
<br />
====Pronominal====<br />
<br />
When used with pronouns, separate adpositions only come with dative forms to indicate lative. Otherwise adpositions take possessive suffixes, inalienable for locative and alienable for ablative: ''voi nai'' (into me), ''voinga'' (inside me), ''voiń'' (from inside me)<br />
<br />
Of the polite possessive suffixes, alienable is added onto the adposition and then the entire compound is conjugated for lative, locative or ablative: ''voitha'' (in You; attributive), ''voithaga'' (into You), ''voithakha'' (inside You; predicative), ''voithapa'' (from inside You)<br />
<br />
===Derivational Morphology===<br />
<br />
Verbs and adjectives are derived from nouns by adding suffixes and in some cases prefixes as well.<br />
<br />
====Noun====<br />
<br />
Many nouns share same origins and these endings are the most common forms of derivation:<br />
*Suffixing verbs with once established ending vowels or consonant appropriate for the noun class. <br />
*place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix<br />
*collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish)<br />
**Archaic forms also add the prefix ''kl'' <br />
*being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy")<br />
**doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer)<br />
**experiencer, patient: ABS with ''(k)ois'' or ''(k)oit'' depending on animacy: ''kepois'' (person being washed)<br />
**origin: ABL with ''(o)su'': ''ukopposu'' (person from north)<br />
**characteristic (from abstract quality): INS with final duplicated vowel and ''tu'': ''luwishitu'' (beauty)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)n'' (AN) or ''(o)l'' (INAN): ''koson'' (wood), ''qotol'' (stone)<br />
*diminutive: reduplication of final sound with ''t'' between vowels and ''i'' between consonants: ''kosis'' (small tree)<br />
*augmentative: reduplication of final sound with ''g'' between vowels and ''a'' between consonants: ''kosas'' (great tree)<br />
**apotheosis: augmentative with ''a''-ending: ''kosonana'' (godwood)<br />
*abstract quality, feature: ABS suffixed with ''(k)oti'': ''dothoti'' (manliness)<br />
*'''gerund''' (act of doing): via derivated [[Sceptrian#Verb|verb]] suffixed with ''(o)pi'': ''glerkurpi'' (mace-battering)<br />
<br />
====Adjective====<br />
<br />
Different cases and affixes are used for the derivation:<br />
*similarity, having something: ''dh'' suffix to abstract gender and animate ''u''-ending; voicing of fricatives (''h→qh'', no change with affricates); nasals [[Sceptrian#Consonant_form|"lateralized"]] + ''o''; voicing of plosives + ''o'' (''q→g''); l-declension as in INS-COM: ''evadh'' (bright), ''dodh'' (masculine)<br />
**full of, having something: previous suffixed with ''ol'': ''mel muvol'' (waters full of fish)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)p'': ''kosonop'' (wooden)<br />
*origin, relation: ABL form with a final ''ó'' added or replacing the original ending vowel: ''kusupó'' (friendly)<br />
*absence, without: ''ti'' suffixed to VOC form: ''evæti'' (lightless=dark)<br />
*doing: ''on'' added after INS case: ''kephon'' (washing)<br />
*who did: INS with ''ompu'': ''kephompu'' (who washed = ''pessyt'' in Finnish)<br />
*done by: INS with ''empo'' and possibly inalienable possessive suffix: ''kephemponga'' (washed by me)<br />
*not done: LAT suffixed with ''tip'': ''kepóotip'' (unwashed)<br />
*experiencing: LAT suffixed with ''p'': kepóop (being washed)<br />
*result (wanted): LAT suffixed with ''pi'': ''kepóopi'' (washed=clean)<br />
**if unwanted: LAT suffixed with ''pot'': ''vangostóopot'' (drunk)<br />
*possible: POS with ''ta'': ''kenta'' (washable)<br />
*requiring: LOC with ''rt'': ''kepurt'' (needs to be washed)<br />
*opposite, negation: VOC with ''tot''<br />
<br />
Notice that plural forms of adjectives may be derived from plural nouns: ''dolth kep'''s'''on'' (men who are washing)<br />
<br />
====Verb====<br />
<br />
A declined core noun receives an ending which describes how the verb reflects the noun:<br />
*In some cases, the vowel ending of nouns may simply be removed or the absolutive of a consonant-ending noun may also serve as a verb.<br />
*ABS = "happens, is": ''kep'' (is washed)<br />
*COM = "using": ''tuph'' (is poked with a stick), ''glerkh'' (is hit with a mace)<br />
*POS + ''k'' = "similarity": ''melonk'' (is wet)<br />
*DAT + ''k'' = "making/becoming" (no ''k'' with Abstract): ''zurmu'' → ''zurmjik'' (strong person → is strengthened), ''zurp'' → ''zurpeik'' (strong, durable object → hardens) & ''zurma'' → ''zurmak'' (strength → intensifies)<br />
*LAT + ''t'' = "movement, quasi-inceptive": ''glerkóot'' (swings a mace, INTR), ''melot'' (flows), ''latepóot'' (is persuaded to dance, INTR; begins a dance with, TR), ''lehkot'' (runs) <br />
*LOC + ''r'' = "frequentative": ''glerkur'' (is battered with a mace), ''melur'' (rains; drips)<br />
*VOC + ''k'' = "momentane": ''glerkék'' (is hit once with a mace), ''melék'' (splashes once)<br />
*POS + ''(o)v'' = "consider, feel": ''vongv'' (is considered strange = ''oudoksutaan'' in Finnish)<br />
* Several endings can be stacked on verbs without turning it into a noun in between: ''melurék'' (shower of rain falls), ''tup(o)hkur'' (is often poked with a stick). When deriving, the ''r''-ending are declined according to the ''l''-paradigm.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Sceptrian agree with the gender, number and cases of their head. When an adjective is used as a predicative, it comes before its head, but when as an attributive, it comes after. Adjective declension follows approximately the same rules as [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun declension]]. In the common ''dh''-ending F-declension, ''o'' is added between ''dh'' and case-endings with consonants. Changes in both casual and poetic speech include mirroring onset into coda: ''dothklu jadaadh'''ulk''''' (near nice men)<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+DH-declension<br />
! !! ABS !! ERG !! DAT !! POS !! INS !! LAT !! LOC !! ABL !! VOC<br />
|-<br />
!SG<br />
|dh || dhee || dhi || dhor || dhos || dh'''ok''' || dh'''uk''' || dh'''op''' || dhé<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
| ldh(o) || dhele || dhil || dhoŕ || dhosh || dh'''olk''' || dh'''ulk''' || dh'''olp''' || ldhé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Sceptrian#Apophony|Apophony]] in the stressed syllable is used to indicate the gender: base for inanimate, first apophony with animate and second with abstract gender: ''eja jadædh, doth jadaadh, latep jadadh'' <br />
<br />
Polite adjectives are formed from the abstract form with predicative prefix ''nga'' and attributive suffix ''æ'': ''ngaluwidh Nith'' (You are beautiful), ''shosleetha luwidhæ'' (a beautiful knight)<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
<br />
'''Positive''' of an adjective is the base form.<br />
*When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.)<br />
*Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle.<br />
*When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii faaldh dolth lutush.'' (As many men as women.) <br />
<br />
'''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). <br />
*Manner quatifiers ''orkai, jofai'' and ''zei'' can be used to indicate the degree: ''luwidhé orkai'' (much more beautiful), ''luwidhé jofai'' (slightly more beautiful), ''luwidhé zei'' (not more beautiful)<br />
*When comparing two nouns adjective comes first (predicative comparative), the standard acquires the dative case, and comparative forms agree with their head in gender and number: ''luwildhé po swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*Pronoun comparison is also possible to construct with alienable possessional suffixes: ''luwildhév swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*When adjective comparative is not included, postpositional ''fadhé'' (more) or ''føødhi'' (less) can be used with noun plurals: ''dolth faldhé lutwi'' (more men than women)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative''' is similar to noun apotheosis: the ending is reduplicated with ''é'' between consonants and ''j'' between vowels, and an ''a'' added to the end: ''luwidhédha'' (most beautiful). Similarly to comparative, ''ti'' gives the meaning of "least": ''luwidhédhati'' (least beautiful).<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly)<br />
<br />
Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh óomidhé'' (very beautiful < "largely")<br />
<br />
'''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative adverb''' is similar to adjective superlative in its reduplication but with an ''æ''-ending: ''zaivie jadædhédhæ'' (you sing most pleasantly)<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Missing verbs: <br />
*"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man)<br />
**Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith)<br />
**Showing tense-aspect:<br />
***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past)<br />
***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective<br />
***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense<br />
***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" <br />
**Vernacularly, [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|proximal demonstrative pronouns]] are used as copulae with corresponding grammatical gender: ''Trs saitu Berats.'' ("Smith this Berats." Berats is a smith.)<br />
* "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man")<br />
<br />
====Conjugation====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, primary conjugation of verbs indicates person, number and tense-aspect, and it includes affixation and apophony. Conjugation for different [[Sceptrian#Mood|moods]] is slightly more complex.<br />
<br />
=====Root=====<br />
<br />
Verbs are given in their 3SG.INAN GNO form which is used to form all of the third person forms. With first and second person subjects, the first apophony is used in indicative inceptive and future. Polite second person forms use the second apophony<br />
<br />
=====Affixes=====<br />
<br />
Fusional conjugation affixes convey the person, number, tense and aspect (and honorific). Subject and object suffixes are almost always used with verbs, the antipassive being the only exception. Agent prefixes aren't often used in the casual register, mostly to form the [[Sceptrian#Reflexive|reflexive]], but they have to be used in the formal register. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || ha || e || he || ahi || aqhi || ó || hó || (o) || l<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || han || en || hen || ang || aing || ón || hón || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| ast || last || est || lest || æst || hæst || ós || lós || os || osl<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| ajin || hajin || ejin || hejin || azing || izing || ójin || hójin || oin || loin<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || hai || ei || hei || athi || idhi || óji || hóji || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| har || +har || her || +her || athar || idhar || hór || +hór || ho || +ho<br />
|}<br />
* initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive<br />
* initial ''h'' is for aspiration of the final plosive or simply ''h'' after a vowel<br />
**if the final plosive is already breathy, ''o'' is added after it<br />
*+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration<br />
**simple ''h'' becomes ''qh''<br />
*Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.) Note the second apophony due to the abstract gender.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || sa || e || se || æ || hæ || ó || só || o || lo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || san || en || sen || nga || ngai || ón || són || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| tsa || tsla || tse || tsle || tsæ || tshæ || tsó || tsló || so || slo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| jan || zhan || jen || zhen || izæ || izhæ || jón || zhón || i || li<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || sai || ei || sei || thæ || dhæ || jó || zhó || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| ar || sar || er || ser || thar || dhar || ór || sór || or || lor<br />
|}<br />
*Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.)<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ónbouson dothee pof.'' (A man (ERG) is lifting a feather (ABS).), ''Bousón doth.'' (The man falls.) ''Bouson pof.'' (The feather (ABS) falls.).<br />
<br />
====Tense====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, verbs are conjugated for three tenses: past, present and future. These tenses describe when an action took place relative to current moment as their names indicate. <br />
<br />
====Aspect====<br />
<br />
Gnomic-static aspect is used to indicate general truths ''Zaitó Hala.'' (sun rises) and static situations ''Mépa lusha.'' (I can speak Sceptrian). It can be used with expressions of time to specify when something was static ''Petsipha kas arakha.'' (dress-STAT.1SG this.COM yesterday.TEMP "I was dressed in these clothes yesterday (as well).")<br />
<br />
Present progressive describes dynamic actions ''Anbaplóph lusha kha.'' (I'm reading Sceptrian at the moment). Present inceptive is used when an action is about to begin or someone is starting to do something.<br />
*Inceptive is only used once: Subject inceptive with intransitive and mostly agent inceptive with translative verbs. Object ending is either PRES.PROG, when something was begun only a moment ago, or FUT, when something is about to begin.<br />
**Translative object inceptive if the object caused the initialization: ''Órlateepast.'' (He is about to take me to dancing through my initiative.)<br />
<br />
Past imperfective is used with continuous activities which were happening before the present. The contrasting perfective aspect describes the event as a whole and having an endpoint in the past.<br />
<br />
In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used.<br />
<br />
Endings with different tenses and aspects may be mixed in some cases:<br />
*PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) <br />
*PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while))<br />
<br />
====Mood====<br />
<br />
Moods express speaker's attitude towards the subject or their knowledge of it. They are divided into realis and irrealis moods: the former expresses factual statements while the latter indicates that an event hasn't taken place or the speaker is uncertain of a situation.<br />
<br />
=====Realis=====<br />
<br />
'''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well)<br />
<br />
'''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for supposedly factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.)<br />
<br />
=====Irrealis=====<br />
<br />
'''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?)<br />
*The change in stress does not affect the apophony.<br />
<br />
'''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) <br />
*The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!)<br />
**Alternatively, the ''r'' may be added after the inceptive agent prefix.<br />
<br />
'''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original stressed syllable: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: '''''la'''latép'' (may dance), '''''ak'''aktæsos'' (may hear), ''rorøt'' (may go)<br />
*The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject.<br />
*The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished<br />
<br />
=====Particles=====<br />
<br />
Particles are placed after a verb to alter or to specify its meaning.<br />
<br />
Realis<br />
*''pai'' mirative (with soft imperative in present): ''Rótóji pai!'' (He went!?)<br />
**with adjectives or as an adverb: ''Luwi pai!'' (How beautiful!) <br />
<br />
Evidentials (with causatives)<br />
*''atasi'' hearsay: ''Rotóji tasi fope.'' (I heard from you that he went.)<br />
*''tesei'' visual: ''Rótoutóji tesei nape.'' (I didn't see him go.)<br />
<br />
Irrealis<br />
*''norka'' dubitative (with subjunctive): ''Rorøtóji norka.'' (I doubt he went.)<br />
*''gana'' volitive (with future subjunctive): ''Lalatépar gana.'' (I wish I could dance.)<br />
<br />
Conditional (with subjunctive)<br />
*''ta'' apodosis: ''Arziizeither ta'' (I will raise you...)<br />
*''-ti-'' infixed between reduplicated form for protasis: ''boutiboisen'' (if you fall)<br />
<br />
Hortatives (with soft imperative which itself works as an adhortative or dehortative with negation (unwillingness))<br />
*Cohortative: ''Latéprlast kha!'' (Let's dance now!), ''Rótrlastonget khugu.'' (Let's not go there.)<br />
*''jokæ'' exhortative (inhortative through negation): ''Rótrest jokæ.'' (You really should go.)<br />
<br />
'''Formal''' register differences:<br />
*''aktasosai'' (hears) conjugated for hearsay: ''Røtathi aiaktasosóji.'' (I heard from her that you left.)<br />
*''tesos'' (sees) conjugated for visual evidentiality: ''Rotóji tesosai.'' (I saw her go.)<br />
*''tsmaadhoré'' (doubtfully) used for dubitative<br />
*''tutaadhoré'' (wishfully) used for volitive<br />
*''alké'' permissive with dative: ''Rótest alké foki.'' (You may leave.)<br />
**prohibitive with negated (inability) imperative infinitive: ''Rótrostodi alké foki.'' (You aren't allowed to leave.)<br />
*both conditional particles are used separately and they are prefixed with the subjunctive reduplication: ''Arziizeither zaita bouboisen bouti.'' (I will raise you if you fall.)<br />
<br />
'''In literature''' to express the peaking pitch of ironical statements and lowered pitch of sarcastic expressions:<br />
*''jø'' verbal irony: ''Jótesosoi melurpi, jóbatophoi "Luwidh jø hi loi khu".'' (He saw the rain and said: "''Beautiful'' day out there")<br />
*''gæ'' sarcasm: ''Uu, eiluwikoi gæ pai.'' (Oh, ''how beautiful'' you made it.)<br />
<br />
====Negation====<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Negation affixes<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Manner→<br />
! Inability<br />
!colspan="6"| Unwillingness<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Form→<br />
!2nd apophony +infix<br>(before patient-suffix)<br />
!colspan="3"|Intranslative<br>suffix<br />
!colspan="3"|Translative<br>infix (after agent-prefix)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Person→<br />
!All<br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!SG<br />
|ost<br />
|net<br />
|fep<br />
|set<br />
|no<br />
|fo<br />
|so<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|osht<br />
|nget<br />
|vep<br />
|slet<br />
|ngo<br />
|flo<br />
|slo<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|PST<br />
|out<br />
|colspan="3"|nait<br />
|colspan="3"|me<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|FUT<br />
|oz<br />
|colspan="3"|nort<br />
|colspan="3"|mor<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse'''fo'''lateephar?'' (You don't want to begin dancing with me?)<br />
<br />
'''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.)<br />
<br />
Second apophony of negation affixes with subjunctive mood: ''Rorøthórn'''ø'''rt.'' (He may not be willing to go.)<br />
<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
<br />
=====Gerund=====<br />
*Base nouns or their abstract variants may serve as gerunds, which describe the action of doing, but otherwise they are created with the suffix ''(o)pi'' added to a verb root. The suffic also helps to distinguish the forms.<br />
<br />
=====Infinitives=====<br />
*PRES ''-odi'', PST ''-oudi'', FUT ''ordi''<br />
*used with modal verbs<br />
*subjunctive form created with duplication<br />
<br />
=====Participles=====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian participles work as adjectives. Following table shows which "case" and suffix the verb base (or gerund in formal register) takes.<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Present participle suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!IPFV<br />
!PFV<br />
|-<br />
!Patientive (LAT)<br />
|''p''<br />
|''pi/pot''<br />
|-<br />
!Negative (LAT)<br />
|<br />
|''tip''<br />
|-<br />
!Active (INS)<br />
|rowspan="2"|''on''<br />
|''ompu''<br />
|-<br />
!Agentive (INS)<br />
|''empo''<br />
|}<br />
*Also the "requiring" (FUT) form LOC+''rt'' and "possible" (GNO) POS+''ta'' <br />
*Past forms are created by adding ''i'' to the end: ''kephoni'' (was being washed)<br />
*Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed)<br />
*Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]]<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, auxiliary verbs are conjugated only for subject which may act as the agent of the clause. The verbs can either precede (dynamic, deontic) or come after (epistemic) different verb infinitives. Since regular object-patient conjugation can't be used, objects have to be written (no pro-drop) and they are declined into instrumental-comitative case.<br />
*''tut'' "want" (from ''tuta'' "craving, wish"): ''Tutajin kepoudi his.'' (I wanted to wash it.)<br />
**infinitive in lative case for "want something to be done": ''Tutan kepordiki his.'' (I want it to be washed.)<br />
**"be going to" (FUT): ''Tuutar latepordi.'' (I'm going to dance.)<br />
**"wish" (SBJV) mostly as the subjunctive of the absent ''to be''-verb: ''Tutitan khau fos.'' (I wish you were here) <br />
*''mép'' "can, know how to" (dynamic) (from ''mépi'' "skill"): ''Mépa latepodi'' ("I can dance"; notice gnomic-static mood)<br />
*''kuut'' "can, may" (deontic / epistemic) (from ''kuutó'' "possibility"): ''Kuutest rotordi.'' (You may leave.), ''Fendógópot kuutó pai.'' (He may unexpectedly be dead.)<br />
**particle ''nor'' added after the verb for lower possibility i.e. "could, might": ''Fendógópi kuut nor.'' (It might be dead.)<br />
**particle ''ga'' added for "should, must": ''Fendógópi kuut ga.'' (It should be dead, as we wanted.)<br />
*''khet'' "must" (deontic) (from ''kheti'' "necessity"): ''Khetan rotodi.'' (I must go now), ''Kheetar rotordi.'' (I must go soon)<br />
*''khurd'' "dare" (from ''khurdi'' "daring"): ''¿Khurde glerkékodi nas?'' (Do you dare hit me with a mace?)<br />
<br />
Mixing tenses: <br />
*''Tutitai latepordi.'' SBJV.want-PST.PFV.1SG dance-INF.FUT "I would've wanted to dance"<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian distinguishes between two voices, active and antipassive. Passive is very similar to active since Sceptrian is absolutive-ergative, and thus isn't considered a true change in voice. Antipassive is used to reduce the valency of the verbs by removing the object of a transitive clause.<br />
<br />
Active construction: verb-agent-object and verb-object-agent are used so that a comment (rheme) precedes the topic (theme). [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|Emphasizing clitics]] are used to mark the topic. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Ónzaiton dothee pof.<br />
|IPA = /ɔ̃zaɪ̯tə̃ dəθe: pəf/<br />
| morphemes = ón-zait-on doth-ee pof-Ø<br />
| gloss = 3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV man-ERG feather-ABS<br />
| translation = A man is lifting a feather.<br />
}} <br />
<br />
Passive construction: To demote the agent (ERG), it's either removed or inflected into causal ablative (ABL). Verb is only conjugated for the object.<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Zaiton pof (dothpo).<br />
|IPA = /zaɪ̯tə̃ pəf (dəθpə)/<br />
| morphemes = zait-on pof-Ø (doth-po)<br />
| gloss = lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV feather-ABS (man-ABL)<br />
| translation = A feather is being lifted (by a man).<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Antipassive''' construction: Agent (ERG) transforms into subject (ABS) and object (ABS) takes the instrumental-comitative (INS) case. Word order becomes SV(O), and the verb is conjugated according to the agent only and the stressed syllable undergoes second [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]]. The verb is also suffixed with the emphasizing clitic ''ma'' in the formal register. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Doth ónzeit(ma) (pofos).<br />
|IPA = /dəθ ɔ̃zei̯t(mä) (pəfəs)/<br />
| morphemes = doth-Ø ón-zeit-Ø(or =ma) (pof-os)<br />
| gloss = man-ABS ANTIP\3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-ANTIP(or =ANTIP.FORM) (feather-INS)<br />
| translation = The man is lifting (a feather). <br />
}}<br />
<br />
Instrument and turning it into an agent:<br />
* ''Ónzaiton dothee pof vakuhosozh.'' (...with his own hand...)<br />
**''Ónzaiton pof vakuhp dothir.'' (the feather is raised by the man's hand)<br />
**''Onzaiton pof tuph dothi'''sh''' slokli.'' (The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them.) Inanimate agent conjugation, and dative of possession is inflected to avoid misinterpretation!<br />
* ''Vakuh ónzeit pofos.'' (The hand lifts something, which happens to be a feather)/(someone intentionally lifts a feather with their hand) Notice animate conjugation!<br />
**''Tup onzeit dothpo pofos.'' (The stick, which is being held by a man, lifts something, which happens to be a feather) ABL as causative since inanimate ''tup''.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
Decimal base was adopted due to commerce, but traces of the former octal base remain. <br />
<br />
Numerals are placed before their head. Last part of a cardinal determiner agrees with case through matching declension: ''op'''l''' tupl'' (two sticks)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Numeral system<br />
|-<br />
! Number <br />
! Number !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional !! Multiplicative adverb !! Multiplicative adjective !! Group !! Polygon<br />
|-<br />
!Zero<br />
| ozi || oz || ozhi || - || zeng (never) || - || ze (no) || -<br />
|-<br />
!One<br />
| ipi || ip || iphi || liku (whole) || ohu (once) || ipitse (onefold) || ipisi (singular) || ipirt (dot) <br />
|-<br />
!Two <br />
| opi || op || ophi || lopu (half) || ophu (twice) || opitse (twofold) || opisi (pair) || opart (line)<br />
|-<br />
!Three<br />
| oki || ok || okhi || loku || okhu || okitse || okisi || okart (triangle)<br />
|-<br />
!Four<br />
| óppi || óp || óphi || lóppu || óphu || óphitse || óphisi || ópart <br />
|-<br />
!Five<br />
| ofi || of || offi || lofu || offu || ofitse || ofisi || ofart<br />
|-<br />
!Six<br />
| ókki || ók || ókhi || lókku || ókhu || ókhitse || ókhisi || ókart<br />
|-<br />
!Seven<br />
| omi || om || ongi || lomu || ongu || omitse || omisi || omart<br />
|-<br />
!Eight<br />
| ngovi || ngov || ngovvi || longovu || ngovvu || ngovitse || ngovisi || jart<br />
|-<br />
!Nine<br />
| ngoipi || ngoip || ngoiphi || longoipu || ngoiphu || ngoipitse || ngoipisi || ngoipart<br />
|-<br />
!Ten<br />
| jopi || jop || jophi || lojopu || jophu || jopitse || jopisi || jopart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!Eleven<br />
!Twelve<br />
!Thirteen<br />
!Fourteen<br />
!Fifteen<br />
!Sixteen<br />
!Seventeen<br />
!Eighteen<br />
!Nineteen<br />
!Twenty<br />
|-<br />
| ngoki <br />
| ngópi <br />
| ngofi<br />
| ngóki<br />
| ngomi <br />
| ophungovi <br />
| jopomi<br />
| jopingovi<br />
| jopingoipi<br />
| ophujopi<br />
|-<br />
!Twenty-one<br />
!Thirty<br />
!Fourty<br />
!Fifty<br />
!Sixty<br />
!Sixty-four<br />
!Sixty-five<br />
!Seventy<br />
!Eighty<br />
!Ninety<br />
|-<br />
| ophujopipi <br />
| okhujopi<br />
| offungovi <br />
| offujopi <br />
|ókhujopi<br />
| mouti<br />
| moutipi<br />
|ongujopi<br />
|ngowopi<br />
|ngoiphujopi<br />
|-<br />
!One hundred<br />
!One hundred<br/>and twenty-two<br />
!One hundred<br/>and sixty-six<br />
!Two hundred<br />
!Thousand<br />
!Three thousand<br/>four hundred<br />
!Ten thousand<br />
!Hundred thousand<br />
!Million<br />
!Billion<br />
|-<br />
| toti <br />
|toti(s)<br>ophujopopi<br />
|toti(s)<br>moutókki<br />
|ophutoti<br />
| mopi<br />
|okhumopi(s)<br>óphutoti<br />
|tothutoti<br />
|tothumopi<br />
|hamisi<br />
|mowisi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Multiplicative adverb form is used in front of the powers of ten (tens, hundreds, ...)<br />
*Digits are annexed into the tens by using the cardinal or determiner form depending whether the digit begins with a vowel or not.<br />
*Fractions are constructed by placing the ''l(o)''-prefixed form after the multiplicative number: ''okhu lóppu'' ("thrice one quarter" = three quarters). The noun is in ablative case and only the fraction is inflected: ''lopu'''ji''' tuppo'' (for one half of a stick)<br />
*Large numbers (from hundred) are written separately from smaller, but in formal register ''s''-letter is added between each power of ten.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
* VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive<br />
* often a comment precedes the topic<br />
* numerals precede nouns<br />
* possessives follow nouns<br />
* predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns<br />
* demonstratives come last<br />
<br />
===Emphasizing clitics===<br />
<br />
Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton pof dothee'''noh'''.'' (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. ''Ónzaiton dothee pof'''ma'''.'' (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used in nominalized relative clauses and with verbs in antipassive constructions.<br />
<br />
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) <br />
<br />
The suffixes are also used with alienable possessive forms to separate the possessor from indirect objects. Chosen depending on the ergativity of the possessum: ''Jóvakuhoi suu pof swi'''ma''' swi.'' (He gave her feather to him.)<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
<br />
====Independent====<br />
<br />
Independent clauses make sense by themselves so that they may form their own sentence.<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, the subject is not necessarily a separate word since the verb can convey both the agent and the object. Thus a single verb can be a complete sentence: ''Ainamoi.'' (It was eaten by me.) However, a full clause may a verbless one as well when the gnomic-static aspect is used or because the languages lacks the verbs "to be" and "to have": ''Ksaru lutu(ma).'' (The woman is a guard.), ''Lutugu ksarushos.'' (Lady has their own guards.)<br />
<br />
Traditional Sceptrian language theorists have used the term ''qópó'' (act) when referring to the verb phrase: the main verb, its auxiliaries and particles which wouldn't appear without the verb. It may also refer to the predicative determiners of a verbless clause subject (possibly bearing the emphasizing clitic): e.g. ''ksaru'' (guard) is ''qópó hetson'' ("still" act) of the above example ''Ksaru lutu.''. This may be called predicate in Westlang grammar. <br />
<br />
''Betsloi'ó'' (affectee), that is, the absolutive subject-object may be: <br />
*Noun: ''Lehkotón '''kuth'''.'' ('''A dog''' is running.)<br />
*Pronoun: ''Aiteshóji '''slo'''.'' ('''They''' were seen by me.)<br />
*Gerund: ''Apekingvó '''lateppi'''.'' (I enjoy '''dancing'''.)<br />
*Another clause: ''Aitésoutóji, '''skugu rorøtóji'''.'' (I couldn't see, '''where he went'''.) <br />
*Note that the main verb conjugation is for the abstract subject. In the indirect question, the verb is in subjunctive.<br />
<br />
''Betslaató'' (affecter) refers to the agent which is declined into the ergative case. <br />
*A gerung will be declined if necessary, but an entire clause remains the same. <br />
<br />
Interrogative clauses begin with either the verb or the interrogative. Interrogative mood is indicated by the moving the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. Questions are placed between question marks "¿" and "?". See below in the [[Sceptrian#Noun_clauses|noun clauses]] for more of indirect questions.<br />
*In written language, requests often use only the final question mark: ''Tsemaakor nai?'' (Will you give it to me?)<br />
<br />
====Conjunction====<br />
<br />
coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?)<br />
*and, but, for, so, or<br />
*...<br />
<br />
Demonstratives will take the case ending, if the entire <br />
<br />
====Noun clauses====<br />
<br />
WIP ... to be redone<br />
*Infinitive.tense + ... + causatives: ''Tesosan kepó vakuhos supe.'' (I see that he washes his hands) vs. ''Onluvakan kep'''óo''' vakuhos supe.'' (The washing of his hands brings me pleasure.)<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
<br />
Nominalizing relative clauses with participles is common.<br />
<br />
Using [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|an emphasizing clitic]] to mark the antecedent for the class-appropriate proximal demonstrative pronoun (thaka/saitu/ka declined for number) which works as a relative pronoun - case chosen according to the embedded clause: <br />
*''Rotóji dothma saituh latepai.'' (leave-PST.PFV.3SG man.ABS-EMPH.ABS P.PROX.AN-COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The man, with whom I danced, left.") <br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahul dothelenos saitush latepai.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS man-PL.ERG-EMPH.ERG P.PROX.AN-PL.COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The men with whom I danced are starting to drink beer.")<br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahulma dothele ka tutitai vangosordi.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS-EMPH.ABS man-PL.ERG P.PROX.INAN SBJV-want-PST.PFV.1SG drink-INF.FUT "Men are starting to drink the beer which I would've wanted to drink."<br />
<br />
====Adverbial clauses====<br />
<br />
non-finite forms + possessive suffixes to indicate subject<br />
<br />
====Conditional clauses====<br />
<br />
subjunctive as explained in verb particle section<br />
<br />
====Indirect speech====<br />
<br />
==Register==<br />
<br />
Different endings which reflect the conversation situation: speakers, familiarity, formality, location... <br />
<br />
===Intimate===<br />
<br />
Agent prefixes aren't used. No ''t'' in inceptive. Due to apophony, subject suffix can be dropped from FUT/INCEP if 1st or 2nd person distinction is clear.<br />
<br />
===Casual===<br />
<br />
In casual register, verb forms are chosen differently when the subject is agent-like (he dances) or patient-like (he fell): ''latepóji'' (he danced AN) vs. ''bousoi'' (he fell INAN)<br />
<br />
===Formal===<br />
<br />
Mandatory use of pronouns and agent prefixes.<br />
<br />
One may use inanimate verb forms as anti-honorific? ''Ondakon næ ka Nithki.'' (I humbly offer this to You)<br />
<br />
Apophony of basic prepositions with root ''oi'': ''Oisti Hala, óosti vakuhanga, ousti qorel'' (under the Sun, under my hand, under the earth)<br />
<br />
In formal register, it is preferred to use only animate nouns as agents while abstract and inanimate are as antipassive subjects: ''luwi... nas'' ("beauty-of.yours it-un-eye-ful-makes me-with", your beauty makes me blind) vs. ''en fø na'' (you are making me blind)<br />
<br />
Distinction between abstract and animate in some categories, such as verb conjugation (''wa'')<br />
<br />
Can people with higher status be abstract or do they occupy a special animate category? (æ inside?)<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
See the [[Sceptrian/Dictionary|dictionary page]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian&diff=35877Sceptrian2015-07-09T10:00:32Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Table of correlatives */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Construction}}<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Sceptrian<br />
|nativename = [[File:Lusha_name.png|300px]]<br>''Batop Lushan''<br />
|pronunciation = [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ]<br />
|region = Western Central World<br />
|states = Sceptre<br />
|speakers = 29,200,000 <br />
|date = 7th 641<br />
|familycolor = #d3ffce<br />
|fam1 = West-Herookuan<br />
|fam2 = Lutian<br />
|fam3 = Sceptrian branch<br />
|creator=Ahuelni<br />
|setting=Akekata<br />
|dialects = Yerzonian, Mulish, Fanish <br />
|script = Toneka alphabet<br />
|nation = Empire of Sceptre<br />
|minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia<br />
|agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language)<br />
|map = Lusha_regions.jpg<br />
|mapsize = 300<br />
|mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects<br />
}}<br />
{{ClassMeter<br />
|Name = Sceptrian<br />
|NativeName = Batop Lushan<br />
|Type = Fusional<br />
|Alignment = Absolutive-ergative<br />
<br />
|adjective = final<br />
|adposition = mixed<br />
|adverb= final<br />
|article= mixed<br />
|relativeclause = final<br />
|nounclause = final<br />
|order = VSO<br />
<br />
|Tonal = no<br />
|Genders = 3<br />
|Declined = yes<br />
|Conjugated = yes<br />
|Case = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Definiteness = no<br />
|Gender = yes<br />
|Voice = yes<br />
|Mood = yes<br />
|Person = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Tense = yes<br />
|Aspect = yes<br />
|Phonology = 100<br />
|NounCases = 100<br />
|NounDef = 100<br />
|NounNumbers = 100<br />
|NounGender = 100<br />
|VerbPerson = 100<br />
|VerbNumber = 100<br />
|VerbAspect = 90<br />
|VerbTense = 100<br />
|VerbMood = 90<br />
|VerbVoice = 80<br />
|AdjCase = 100<br />
|AdjNumber = 100<br />
|AdjDef = 100<br />
|AdjGen = 100<br />
|AdjComparative = 100<br />
|AdjSuperlative = 100<br />
|Supine = 90<br />
|Gerund = 90<br />
|Participle = 90<br />
|Infinitive = 90<br />
|Modality = 90<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ] or simply ''lusha'') is an ''a priori'' [[w:Artistic_language|artistic language]] created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 29 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking [[Khattish]] and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian and its dialects feature 51 phonetic consonants, some of them with interesting lateral features. The language also has 25 phonetic vowels: twelve short, nine long and four diphthongs. Nasalization, rhotacization and breathy voice are used phonemically. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
If the romanization symbol is the same as in IPA, it is not duplicated. Not bolded romanization indicates that the sound appears as a vernacular or dialectal version.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 830px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px" colspan="2"|<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Uvular<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| [ɱ]<br />
| <br />
| '''n (ń)''' [n]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''t'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''k'''<br />
| '''q'''<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''b'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''d'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''g'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Breathy<br />
| '''ph bh'''<br>[pʰ] [bʱ]<br />
|<br />
|'''th dh'''<br>[tʰ] [dʱ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''kh gh'''<br>[kʰ] [gʱ]<br />
|'''qh'''<br>[qʰ]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| '''pl bl'''<br />[pˡ] [bˡ]<br />
| <br />
| '''tl dl'''<br />[tˡ] [dˡ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''kl gl'''<br/>[kˡ] [gˡ]<br />
| '''ql'''<br/>[qˡ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| ph [ɸ]<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| '''th''' [θ]<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''sh''' [ʃ]<br />
| '''h''' [ç]<br />
| '''kh h''' [x]<br />
| '''qh''' [χ]<br />
| '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''w''' bh [β]<br />
| '''v'''<br />
| '''dh''' [ð]<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| '''zh''' [ʒ]<br />
| <br />
| gh [ɣ]<br />
| <br />
| h [ɦ]<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''sl''' [ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Affricate<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ts''' [t͡s] <br />
| '''tsh''' [t͡ʃ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''tsl''' [t͡ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Approximant<br />
!Non-lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''j'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''l''' [l] [l̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| pr [ʙ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''r (ŕ)''' [r] [r̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The liquids ''r'' and ''l'' can appear as '''syllabic consonants''': ''tlsl'' /tˡl̩ɬ/ (shallow), ''prk'' /pr̩k/ (wagon) and ''trs'' /tr̩s/ (smith)<br />
*Vernacularly, both syllabic and obstruent-following alveolar trill ''r'' and lateral approximant ''l'' are pronounced as voiceless [r̩̊], [r̥], [l̩̊] and [l̥] when in contact with only voiceless consonants: ''trs'' [tr̩̊s] (smith) contrasting with ''trls'' [tr̩s] (while standard /trəls/) (smiths); ''gatl'' [gɑtl̥] (houses) whose pronunciation approaches [gɑtɬ]. <br />
**'''Meslatu Hirke''' made his disputed suggestion in 7:693 that a similar process had led to the birth of ''sl'' as plural indicator, when original plural ''l'' turned first into voiceless and then into ''sl'' after a word-final glottal stop, which has disappeared entirely. <br />
*In eastern dialects, ''pr'' is realized as [ʙ] and ''tr'', ''tsr'' and ''trs'' often as [r̝]. In the dialects, aspirated plosives have been fully spirantized into their fricative counterparts, e.g. [tʰ]>[θ].<br />
*Fricatives show properties of syllabic consonants word-initially and word-finally.<br />
<br />
Nasal [ɱ] only appears as an allophone of nasals with labio-dental sounds /f/ and /v/. Before velar sounds (e.g. /k/) nasals turn similarly into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
Letter ''h'' has four allophones: initial is always [h] despite frontness, [ç] appears elsewhere with front vowels, [x] appears word-finally and [h~ɦ] word-medially with back vowels ''tihtóhnah'' [tiçˈtɔɦ.näx] (assassinator). It's also used after consonants to indicate breathy voice.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 390px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| <br />
| '''u'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-mid<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| o<br/>[ɘ]<br />
| o<br/>[ɤ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
|<br />
| '''o'''<br/>[ə]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''é ø'''<br />[ɛ] [œ]<br />
|<br />
| '''ó'''<br />[ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
|'''æ'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
|'''a'''<br />[ä]<br />
|a<br />[ɑ]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
All the nine main vowel sounds (bolded) have '''long''' versions as separate phonemes.<br />
<br />
Schwa '''''o''''' is used as an epenthetic vowel (anaptyxis). When it is used to break consonant clusters (not indicated in native script) it is the simple schwa /ə/: *dŧ → ''doth'' /dəθ/ (man). When stressed, it is vernacularly realized as [ɘ], and in western dialects more clearly as [ɤ]: *dŧs → ''dothos'' [dəˈθɘˑs]<br />
<br />
Vowel ''a'' is [ɑ] after voiced consonants. Vowel ''æ'' is often more open [a], though, in Western dialects, it has merged with ''é''. <br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, there are only closing diphthongs which go up in the vowel chart:<br />
*Back: ou /ɔʊ̯/<br />
*Front: ai /äɪ̯/, ei /ei̯/, oi /œi̯/<br />
<br />
If the syllable border (glottal stop) is between vowels and they don't form a diphthong, apostrophe is used: ''tai'' (for long) vs. ''ta'i'' (past)<br />
*In native [[Sceptrian#Script|script]], separate graphemes for diphthongs exist and glottal stop is not marked.<br />
<br />
If diphthongs are followed by vowels, they are separated by a glottal stop in formal register. <br />
*In casual speech, ''ouV'' becomes ''owV'' and ''ViV'' ''VjV'': ''oua→ówa'' and ''aia→aja''. If the following vowel is the same, a glottal stop breaks the former diphthong and the ending vowel is lengthened: ''ai'i→a'ii''<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
<br />
===Onset===<br />
<br />
Basic [[w:Syllable#Structure|syllabic structure]] is CV, where the onset (beginning) consonant can be of any type. <br />
*It is possible to use liquids and approximants as '''glides''' (CLV) between the onset and the rime (ending). <br />
*Up to two consonants with same voicing may appear in the onset (CCV), especially fricative-plosive combinations, but never two plosives: ''stak'' (fence), ''fkot'' (nest), ''ksaru'' (guard). Affricate ''ts'' takes may be accompanied only by ''w'', ''j'', ''n'' or ''m'': ''tsma'' (doubt). Combination /sl/ has turned into /ɬ/.<br />
*Lateralization and aspiration may never appear together, and nasalized rhoticization is only found in Fanish dialect.<br />
<br />
===Nucleus=== <br />
<br />
The nucleus can be either a vowel or a liquid, thus CVC and CLC are also possible syllables. <br />
*Vowels (diphthongs included) may exist as a stand-alone nucleic syllable (V), mostly in the beginning or at the end of a word. <br />
*If nucleus is a liquid, plosives appear in codas only word-finally: ''dldlp'' /dˡl̩ˈdˡl̩p/ (bubble)<br />
<br />
===Coda=== <br />
<br />
The coda (final) may consist of up to three consonants with possible structures: N, P, F, L; NP, FP, LP; NF, PF, LF; NPF, FPF, LFP, LPF (Nasal, Plosive, Fricative, Liquid). <br />
*Final liquids appear as syllabic consonants<br />
*Approximants ''j'', ''w'' and plain voiced plosives never appear as coda (final) even though they may be written that way (no written schwa): ''nad'' /nä.də/ (stainy). Voiced fricatives may appear as coda. <br />
*In coda, plosives with lateral release, however, will reflect the voicing of the onset: ''gatl'' [gädˡl̩] (houses) vs. ''katl'' [kätˡl̩] (knobs). Vernacularly, the lateral approximant weakens into a voiceless variant [l̥] when in contact with voiceless consonants: ''gatl'' [gätl̥].<br />
<br />
Closed syllables, i.e. those ending in coda, are not as common word-medially as open syllables (ending in nucleus) are. When words are inflected, parts of codas tend to become onsets of the following syllable, if possible. Especially three-consonant clusters are rare word-medially and receive a schwa after a non-lateral stop: ''kamps'' /kämps/ (marsh) → ''kampsku'' → ''kamposku'' /ˈkäm.pəs.ku/ (at marsh)<br />
*Voicing status must be the same for consonants touching at syllable boundaries and the voiced one reduces into voiceless: ''*katbas''→''katpas'' /kätˈpäs/ (fern) vs. ''oist baku'' /œi̯st<sup>(h)</sup> bä.ku/ (under a table)<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
Primary '''stress''' in a word is most often on the second syllable, and when there are four or five syllables, secondary stress is placed onto the final syllable. When there are more syllables, minor stress is placed on even-numbered syllables. <br />
*If the to-be-stressed syllable contains the schwa ''o'' /ə/ or a syllabic consonant, the preceding syllable is stressed in two-syllable words and the following in words with more than three syllables.<br />
**In uninflected words, syllable with nuclear ''o'' is only stressed when it comes second and the preceding syllable has also ''o'' as nucleus. Then the stressed nucleus appears as [ɘ]. Contrast between stressed and non-stressed syllabic consonants may occur as voicing and devoicing respectively. <br />
*A non-final syllable with a long vowel or a diphthong is always stressed and steals the stress from its neighboring syllable. This also moves the secondary stress from final to penultimate syllable, if primary stress falls on first syllable.<br />
<br />
Inflected and affixed word forms have almost always the same stress as the base word (even monosyllabic with schwa): ''doth'' (man) → ''dothku'' [ˈdɘθ.ku] (near the man). <br />
*Vocative and ergative cases as well as inflections with long vowels make an exception: ''dothee'' /dəˈθe:/ (by the man), ''dothé'' /dəˈθɛ/ (O man), ''gatóo'' /gɑˈtɔ:/ (to the house)<br />
<br />
Interrogatives are formed by changing the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. This is indicated with ¿: ''¿Eikepoi?'' [ˈei̯˧˦ˈke˩.pœi̯˨˦] (Did you wash it?)<br />
<br />
==Morphophonology==<br />
<br />
===Vowel form===<br />
<br />
There are five ways of sound altering which may be used for grammatical purposes (mainly number, genitive case and imperfective aspect). In the native script the following are marked on the vowel.<br />
*Lengthening: ''paata'' /pä:tä/ (separation), ''ée'' [ɛ:]~[ɛe̯], ''óo'' /ɔ:/<br />
*Lateral (release): ''pló'' /pˡɔ/ (opposite to), ''tlaf'' /tˡäf/ (sprig) <br />
**Western dialects keep the tongue on the alveolar ridge during vowel pronunciation so that the vowels have a distinct l-sound. Historically, this may have lead to the syllabic l.<br />
*Aspiration/breathy voice: ''phó'' [pʰɔ]~[ɸɔ] (along), ''kébhar'' [kɛˈbʱɑ˞]~[kɛˈβɑ˞] (I will wash), ''tha'' [tʰä]~[θä] (abstract "it"), ''dhaka'' [dʱɑkä]~[ðɑkä] (abstract "that"). <br />
**Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head)<br />
*Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]]<br />
**Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as a short syllabic nasal consonant of the same place as the directly preceding or following consonant<br />
**Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!).<br />
*Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) <br />
**Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞:] (soup)<br />
<br />
===Consonant form===<br />
<br />
Combining sounds<br />
*Lateralization<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sl'' and ''zh'' respectively<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' → ''fl'' & ''w''<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' are geminated<br />
**''m'' & ''n'' → ''ng'' and ''ng'' → ''ńg''<br />
* Aspiration<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sh'' and ''zh''<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' are geminated<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' → ''lh'' and ''rh''<br />
* Voicing and aspiration<br />
**''r'' → ''qh'', ''l'' → ''ldh'', ''v'' → ''w''<br />
<br />
===Apophony===<br />
<br />
Apophony in the '''stressed syllable''' is used for example to express adjective gender and to create different verb forms.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Apophony<br />
|-<br />
!Root<br />
!1st<br />
!2nd<br />
|-<br />
|e<br />
|ee<br />
|é<br />
|-<br />
|o<br />
|ó<br />
|ø<br />
|-<br />
|a<br />
|aa<br />
|æ<br />
|-<br />
|u<br />
|uu<br />
|i<br />
|-<br />
|ai<br />
|ii<br />
|ei<br />
|-<br />
|ou<br />
|óo<br />
|oi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*When the stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting)<br />
*With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of ''é''.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Script=== <br />
[[File:Sceptrian.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Toneka script from the early sixth era. Notice that the vowel form info-box romanization should have "o" instead of "a".]]<br />
[[File:SceptrianTsrnet.JPG|500px|thumb|right|Tsrnet cursive script used for handwriting in modern Sceptre.]]<br />
The Sceptrian alphabet script was derived from the ancient temple marks as were the Aoman and Northern (Latin) scripts. The modern alphabet is called ''Tsoklóp Lushan''.<br />
<br />
Diacritics on vowels mark different [[Sceptrian#Vowel_form|sounds]]. The diacritics may be used with consonants as well, especially in the plural forms of consonant-ending nouns: ''gat̆'' (''gatl'' "houses"), ''doŧ̆'' (''dolth'' "men"). With the diacritics, letter ''ts'' can be lateralized into ''tsl'' or aspirated into ''tsh''.<br />
<br />
The native Sceptrian script has a long history of being unicameral, not distinguishing between the upper and lower case. Only during the sixth era under the Tyranny of West, the flow of refugees from the Coast of Temples encouraged the introduction of case separation. In the developed fonts, capital letters were derived from the traditional Toneka and small letters from the cursive Tsrnet.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Short and long letter names with explanations<br />
|-<br />
|aa<br>aat || ee<br>eet || ée<br>eet maatikipi<br>(opened e) || ii<br>iit || oo<br>oot || óo<br>oot guzbikipi<br>(deepened o) || uu<br>uut <br />
|-<br />
|ææ<br>aat evadh<br>(bright a) || øø<br>oot gudh<br>(dark o) || ai<br>aat zaithon<br>(rising a) || ei<br>eet zaithon<br>(rising e) || oi<br>oot zaithon<br>(rising o) || ou<br>óot bousoson<br>(falling o) ||<br />
|-<br />
| po<br>poot || bo<br>bóot || mo<br>mool || wo<br>wool || to<br>toot || do<br>dóot || <br />
|-<br />
| tho<br>toot hifdo<br>(windy t) || dho<br>dóot hifdo<br>(windy d) || no<br>nool || so<br>siit || sho<br>siit hifdo<br>(windy s) || zo<br>ziit || zho<br>ziit gudh<br>(dark z) <br />
|-<br />
| ngo<br>góot slenguhpi<br>(g using nose) || tso<br>tsiit || lo<br>lool || slo<br>lool hifdo<br>(windy l) || fo<br>fiit || vo<br>fiit gudh<br>(dark f) || jo<br>jool <br />
|-<br />
| ko<br>koot || go<br>góot || ho<br>hiit || qho<br>hiit surmudh<br>(strong h) || qo<br>koot venongp<br>(k being<br> swallowed) || ro<br>rool || <br />
|-<br />
|plo<br>looh tisk<br>(with l<br> mark) || pon<br>slenguhpi tisk<br>(using nose<br> mark) || por<br>tisk prung<br>(mark of<br> trill) || pho<br>tisk hifn<br>(mark of<br> wind) || poo<br>tisk spiing<br>(mark of<br> length) || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Romanization===<br />
<br />
====Modern====<br />
Consonant variation:<br />
*Letter ''r'' is used with consonants for /r̩/ and between vowels for /r/, but after vowels in the end of syllables for rhoticization ''or'' /ɚ/. Letter ''ŕ'' is used to emphasize the use of /r/ after vowels ''oŕ'' /ər/.<br />
*Similarly letter ''n'' can appear syllable-finally with nasalization but ''ń'' always as /n/: ''an'' /ã/ vs. ''ań'' /an/. <br />
*With ''ng'' /ŋ/, the accent signals lengthening ''nańgo'' /näŋ:ə/ or ''naŋŋo'' (sweaty).<br />
*Labialization of plosives is indicated by PuV (V is any vowel except ''u'') or with ''w''.<br />
*Breathry voice is indicated with an ''h'' straight after a plosive. The ''h'' is also used for corresponding fricatives which occur word-finally. This risk of confuse is one of the downsides of the simplified modern system: ''nath'' /näθ/ "a beggar" or /nätʰ/ "with stains".<br />
<br />
====Old====<br />
<br />
The old romanization system (or part of it) was used until western regions of Eastern Sceptre were joined with the Western Sceptre empire in 7th era 161, during the war against Empress Renula of Golden Islet. A revision was needed when both Sceptrian and Aoma were used in the same printing press and texts had to be distributed to westlang-using communities. Peter Martyea suggested in 7:189 that the payment according to number of pages may have favoured quick adaptation as the non-diacritic system induced much longer texts (see the comparison example).<br />
<br />
Consonants:<br />
*Nasal: '''ŋ''' ''ng'' /ŋ/<br />
**Texts from the first century of the seventh era use ''ǥ'' for word-initial /ŋ/.<br />
*Fricative: '''ŧ''' ''th'' /θ/, '''đ''' ''dh'' /ð/, '''ś''' ''sh'' /ʃ/, '''ź''' ''zh'' /ʒ/, '''ħ''' ''qh'' /χ/<br />
*Affricate: '''c''' ''ts'' /t͡s/, '''č''' ''tsh'' /t͡ʃ/<br />
*Lateral: '''š''' ''sl'' /ɬ/, '''ǩ''' ''kl'' /kˡ/, '''ǧ''' ''gl'' /gˡ/<br />
<br />
Compact equivalents of sound altering:<br />
*Lengthening with a bar: ''ṓ'' /ɔ:/ and ''ō'' /ə:/<br />
*Lateral release with a breve diacritic: ''tŏ'' /tˡə/<br />
*Nasalization with a tilde: ''õ'' /ə̃/, ''on'' /ən/<br />
*Rhotacization with a diaeresis: ''ö'' /ɚ/, ''or'' /ər/<br />
*Aspiration with a grave accent: ''pò'' /pʰə/, ''pô'' /pʰɔ/<br />
<br />
Comparison between the systems:<br />
*Old: Ǧëǩ śošēŧã <br />
*Modern: Glerkl shosleethan (maces of a knight)<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
The most complete study of the structure of pre-modern Sceptrian words was done by Porutingatu of Jerzónó in year 362 of the seventh era. She collected, grouped and analyzed the fusional morphemes and listed the new rules to replace the outdated writings from the sixth era. By 370, her work had led to a new interest in linguistics and ultimately to the founding of ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan'' (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) which has been unifying and regulating the language along with its orthography since then.<br />
<br />
Sceptrian utilizes [[w:Fusional_language|fusional]] [[w:Inflection|inflections]] and has an [[w:Ergative–absolutive_language|absolutive-ergative]] [[w:Morphosyntactic_alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]. The language is rather [[w:Head-directionality_parameter|head-initial]] and its primary [[w:Word_order|word order]] is verb-agent-object.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns are used to refer to e.g. people or things in sentences instead of using the original nouns. In Sceptrian, they exist in two numbers and are inflected according to six [[Sceptrian#Cases|'''cases''']]. <br />
<br />
====Personal====<br />
Second person includes polite versions as well which were adapted by Aoma-sperkers. Third person singular makes distinction between abstract (Ab), animate (An) and inanimate (In) pronouns while plural only between Ab-An and In. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Personal pronoun inflection'''<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! 1SG !! 1PL !! 2SG !! 2PL !! 2SG.POL !! 2PL.POL !! 3SG.Ab !! 3SG.An !! 3PL.A !! 3SG.In !! 3PL.In<br />
|-<br />
!ABS <br />
| na || mo || fo || po || Nith || With || tha || su || slo || hi || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
| næ || moslo || fø || poslo || Nithe || Widhes || thaa || suu || sloslo || hii || kloslo<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
| nai || mokli || foki || pokli || Nithki || Withkli || thai || swi || slokli || hiki|| klokli<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
| nar || moŕ || for || poŕ || Nithor || Withoŕ || thar || sur || sloŕ || hir || kloŕ<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
| nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh || thas || sus || slosh || his || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
| nape || moplo || fope || poplo || Nitti || Witti || thape || supe || sloplo || hipi || kloplo<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''Comitative''' case is used to indicate company: ''Mo slosh arakha.'' (We were with them yesterday.)<br />
*'''Causal''' describes the cause of an action or origin of something: ''Aitesosai næ su fope'' (I saw him because of (/thanks to) you), ''Hi supe foki.'' (It (is) from him to you.)<br />
<br />
3rd person abstract pronoun is used in the formal register when introducing or referring to a person of higher status.<br />
<br />
====Reflexive====<br />
Self-pronoun ''ru'' for '''reflexive''' and '''reciprocal''': ''tesosón ru'' (they are watching themself), ''ónlatepón ru'' (he is dancing by himself, alone) vs. ''ónlatepón su'' (he is dancing with him); ''sónkephón ru'' (they are washing each other) vs. ''sónkephón sloslo slo/soutu'' (they are washing them)<br />
*reflexive is easier with others: ''anlatepan'' (I'm dancing by myself); ''ankepan'' (I'm washing myself) vs. ''ankep'' ("I'm washing it"), ''kepan'' (I'm being washed)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
<br />
Simple words for "this/these" and "that/those". When demonstratives are used with [[Sceptrian#Nouns|nouns]], they behave similarly to [[Sceptrian#Adjectives|adjectives]]. In the following examples, note that Sceptrian lacks the [[Sceptrian#Verbs|verb "to be"]]: <br />
*As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.)<br />
*For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) <br />
*The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the head acts more like a specifying comment on the true sentence subject: ''Bouson ko qot.'' (That's falling, the rock, I mean.) <br />
<br />
See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]].<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Demonstrative pronoun inflection<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Case <br />
!colspan="2"| Proximal <br />
!colspan="2"| Distal <br />
|-<br />
!SG !! PL !! SG !! PL<br />
|-<br />
!ABS<br />
|ka || kla || ko || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
|kaa || klaa || kó || kló<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
|kai ||klai || koi || kloi<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
|kan ||klang || kon || klong<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
|kas || klash || kos || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
|kap || klapa || kop ||klopo<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Table of correlatives===<br />
<br />
Determiners follow their heads and agree in number and with the cases mentioned above in [[Sceptrian#Demonstrative|the table]], where DAT & LAT, COM & LOC, CAU & ABL and ABS & VOC are corresponding. Words follow the declension shown above or paradigms similar to [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun cases]]. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!rowspan="2"|Interrogative<br />
!colspan="2"|Demonstrative<br />
!colspan="5"|Quantifier<br />
|-<br />
!Proximal !! Distal !! Existential !! Elective !! Universal !! Negatory !! Alternative<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Determiner<br />
| sho || ka (SG)<br/>kla (PL) || ko<br />klo || jofa (some) || ota (any) || orka (every, all) || ze (no) || so (another)<br/>solo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="5"| Pronoun<br />
!Abstract<br />
| ashu || thaka || dhaka || jaafa || thata || thorka || theso || thaso<br />
|-<br />
!Animate<br />
| ¿soutu || saitu || soutu || jonfu || onta || ongka || souso || jonso<br />
|-<br />
!Inanimate <br />
| ¿ko || ka || ko || jofo || oto || orko || ze || so<br />
|-<br />
!Out of two<br />
| ¿tso || tsaka || tsoko || zho || tsoto || tsorko || tseso || tso<br />
|-<br />
!Out of many<br />
| ¿tsolo || tsalka || tsolko || zolo || tsolto || tsongko || tsleso || tsolo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="6"|Pro-adverb<br />
!Locative<br />
| sku || khau || khu || jofku || otku || orkhu || zengu || sokhu<br />
|-<br />
!Temporal<br />
| sko || kha || kho || jofko || otko || orkho || zeng || sokho<br />
|-<br />
!Comitative<br />
| shos ||kas || kos || jofos || otos || orkos ||zeos || sos<br />
|-<br />
!Causal<br />
| spe || kap || kop || jov || otop || orkop || zenep || sonop<br />
|-<br />
!Manner<br />
| shi || khai || khoi || jofai || otai || orkai || zei || soi<br />
|-<br />
!What kind of<br />
| shodh || kadh || kodh || jodhi || othi || ordhi || zodhi || sothi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Negative determiner ''ze'' has no plural form. Neither have pronouns "Out of two".<br />
*Demonstratives are used when referring to listed items of equal animacy: proximal with the former and distal with the latter: ''Aitesoshóji math kuthos. Óomidh soutu.'' (I saw a cat and a dog. The latter was large.)<br />
*Locative pro-adverb can be conjugated with lative, locative and ablative.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Nouns in Sceptrian form the basis of derivational morphology and even the cases are utilized when forming new words. They are declined according to two numbers and nine cases, and the seven declensions are grouped in three genders which affect the verb conjugation and adjective agreement.<br />
<br />
====Gender====<br />
<br />
There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes.<br />
*Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in vowels ''a, æ, o, ó, ø'' and ''i''. <br />
*Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h'', same voiced and affricates), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings.<br />
*Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group.<br />
In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull). Some archaic words remain in dialects and in poetic use.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
<br />
There are two numbers, singular and plural, but abstract ''i''-nouns and inanimate ''l''-nouns are always singular. The declension according to number is complicated and fused with the class/case system explained and tabulated below.<br />
<br />
====Cases====<br />
<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Unmarked base form for subjects of intransitive and objects of transitive verbs <br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agents of transitive verbs<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect object; alienable possession ''gat dothi'' (a house of (lit. "for") the man); comparison (with ADJ comparative)<br />
*Possessive (POS): Inalienable possession ''dhoku dothor'' (the man's head)<br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS): Using something; "with someone", replaces "and" as Latin [[wikt:-que|-que]]; in antipassive constructions<br />
*Lative (LAT): Movement to; with adpositions<br />
*Locative-temporal (LOC-TEMP): Place; time; with adpositions<br />
*Ablative (ABL): Movement from (+delative); causal<br />
*Vocative (VOC): addressing (people, gods); interjections ''Alæ!'' (Hello! lit. "Day!")<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Genders and desinences'''<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" style="width: 100px"| <br />
!colspan="3"| Abstract <br />
!colspan="6"| Animate <br />
!colspan="3"| Inanimate<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''A'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''i'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''F'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''N'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''u'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"|''P'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''l''<br />
|-<br />
|<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>|| ||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 100px"| Absolutive<br />
| A || Asl || i || F || (o)lF || N || Ning || u || ush || P || Pl || l<br />
|- <br />
! style=""| Ergative <br />
| AA || AslA || ii || Fee || Fele || Nee || Neng || uu || uushu || Pee || Ple || le<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Dative <br />
| Ak || Akl || ik || Fi || Fil || Ni || Nil || (u)ji || (u)wi || Pei || Plei || lei<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Possessive <br />
| An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Instrumental-comitative <br />
| Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Lative <br />
| AgA || AglA || iki || Fko || Fklo || Nong || Nongo || ugu || uglu || Póo || Plóo || lo <br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Locative-temporal <br />
| AkhA || AlkhA || ikhi || Fku || Fklu || Nung || Nungu || ukhu || ulkhu || Pu || Plu || lu<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Ablative <br />
| ApA || AplA || ipi || Fp(o) || Fpl(o) || Nop || Nopl || upu || uplu || PPo || PPol || lp<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Vocative <br />
| Ae || Asl || ii || Fé || lFé || Né || Nin || -wé || -wésh || Pé || Plé || lé<br />
|}<br />
*''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø''<br />
**Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø<br />
*''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts, tsl'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. <br />
*''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng''<br />
*''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q''<br />
**POS ''q''→''ng''<br />
**INS ending Ph marks breathy voice and may turn the plosive into corresponding fricative /ɸ, θ, x, χ/ if followed by a plosive.<br />
*- indicates that the original ending is replaced with the following: ''tup → tu'''m''''' (stick → stick's)<br />
<br />
====Possessive==== <br />
<br />
Different possessive forms and interpretations: <br />
*''Dativus possessivus'' (alienable): ''gat doth'''i''''' "the house which the man has temporarily settled in, i.e. rented"<br />
*Comitative case with alienable possessive suffix: ''doth gat''h'''''os''''' "man with his house which he has purchased"<br />
**Inalienable possessive suffix alters the meaning: ''doth gat''h'''''ozh''''' "man and his birthplace"<br />
*Possessive case (almost inalienable): ''gat doth'''or''''' "the house which was inherited and is now owned by the man". <br />
<br />
The noun in possessive case is not inflected further. With dative case, inflection may be utilized in order to distinguish the ''dativus possessivus'' from the indirect object or benefactive: ''Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli.'' "The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them." (Related to the feather ceremony when welcoming upper class members to a household.)<br />
<br />
'''Possessive affixes''', as shown in examples above, draw a distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: ''Óntesoson dothee gat'''s'''/vakuh'''oz'''.'' (A man is watching his house/ his own hand.) With the basic suffixes, the root is inflected first and then suffixed.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ Possessional suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!Person<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! ALIEN !! INAL !! ALIEN !! INAL <br />
|-<br />
!1st <br />
| (a)ń || (a)nga || (ó)m || (ó)ngó <br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
| (o)f || (ø)fo || (e)v || (ø)vø<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
| (o)s || (o)zh || (o)sl || (o)zhol<br />
|}<br />
*Irregular: Only VOC+possessive with 1SG: ''Pos'''n'''é!'' (My servant!), ''Polsmé!'' (Our servants!)<br />
<br />
'''2nd person polite suffixes''' are added to absolutive base and the endings are then declined according to abstract gender: <br />
*Singular: (a)tha, (a)tazha <br />
*Plural: (a)dhó, (a)dózhó <br />
*Example: ''gat'''atha'''pa'' (from Your house)<br />
<br />
See [[Sceptrian#Adverbial_clauses|adverbial clauses]] which utilize some possessive suffixes with [[Sceptrian#Non-finite_forms|non-finite verb forms]].<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
<br />
Adpositions are used with inflected nouns to add information about its location or relation to other nouns. Some Sceptrian adpositions can be used as stand-alone adverbs which may be conjugated according to noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====Prepositions====<br />
<br />
Prepositions are used with lative (to, towards), locative (at, near) and ablative (from) cases to alter the meaning.<br />
*''voi'' (in) forms illative, inessive, elative <br />
*''loi'' (out) for "out of", "outside" and "from outside"<br />
*''soi'' (on) to emphasize the surface aspect <br />
*''oist(i)'' (under) for movement under something<br />
*''roi'' (above) similarly to ''oist''<br />
*''boi'' (down) for "down (a surface / to)", "down in (somewhere)" and "from down"; as an adverb as well <br />
*''zoi'' (up) used like ''boi''<br />
*''moi'' (touching, around) with lative for terminative, locative for pertingent and ablative for initiative<br />
*''oil(i)'' (as) forms translative, essive, exessive<br />
*''koi'' (per) distribution: "for each", "every" (temporal), "from each"<br />
*''jon'' (... between) <br />
*''poi'' (... the middle of, among)<br />
*''tsoi'' (... front of; preceding) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = before<br />
*''hoi'' (... behind; following) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = after<br />
*''mots(i)'' (... on side)<br />
**combined with postpositional ''dei'' (right) or ''lai'' (left)<br />
**with time nouns in locative = ago<br />
<br />
====Postpositions====<br />
<br />
Postpositions appear with various cases and often come in groups.<br />
*''pón'' (through) with lative<br />
*''phó'' (along) with lative<br />
*''pló'' (opposite to, across) with locative<br />
*''sós'' (with) with comitative to express a greater degree of endowment (ornative); with ablative to indicate "without"; with lative for "in addition to"<br />
*''óp'' (about, concerning) with genitive; with ablative for "according to"<br />
*''ól'' (like) with genitive; as an adverb "similarly"<br />
*''jak'' (away, despite) with ablative; as an adverb as well<br />
*''mai'' (excluding) with ablative<br />
*''mak'' (except) with ablative<br />
*''mats'' (instead of) with ablative<br />
*''sai'' (including) with comitative<br />
*''sak'' (concerning, regarding) with comitative; with ablative to emphasize the causal aspect (due to, because of, thanks to)<br />
*''phe'' (for the sake of) with lative<br />
<br />
====Pronominal====<br />
<br />
When used with pronouns, separate adpositions only come with dative forms to indicate lative. Otherwise adpositions take possessive suffixes, inalienable for locative and alienable for ablative: ''voi nai'' (into me), ''voinga'' (inside me), ''voiń'' (from inside me)<br />
<br />
Of the polite possessive suffixes, alienable is added onto the adposition and then the entire compound is conjugated for lative, locative or ablative: ''voitha'' (in You; attributive), ''voithaga'' (into You), ''voithakha'' (inside You; predicative), ''voithapa'' (from inside You)<br />
<br />
===Derivational Morphology===<br />
<br />
Verbs and adjectives are derived from nouns by adding suffixes and in some cases prefixes as well.<br />
<br />
====Noun====<br />
<br />
Many nouns share same origins and these endings are the most common forms of derivation:<br />
*Suffixing verbs with once established ending vowels or consonant appropriate for the noun class. <br />
*place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix<br />
*collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish)<br />
**Archaic forms also add the prefix ''kl'' <br />
*being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy")<br />
**doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer)<br />
**experiencer, patient: ABS with ''(k)ois'' or ''(k)oit'' depending on animacy: ''kepois'' (person being washed)<br />
**origin: ABL with ''(o)su'': ''ukopposu'' (person from north)<br />
**characteristic (from abstract quality): INS with final duplicated vowel and ''tu'': ''luwishitu'' (beauty)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)n'' (AN) or ''(o)l'' (INAN): ''koson'' (wood), ''qotol'' (stone)<br />
*diminutive: reduplication of final sound with ''t'' between vowels and ''i'' between consonants: ''kosis'' (small tree)<br />
*augmentative: reduplication of final sound with ''g'' between vowels and ''a'' between consonants: ''kosas'' (great tree)<br />
**apotheosis: augmentative with ''a''-ending: ''kosonana'' (godwood)<br />
*abstract quality, feature: ABS suffixed with ''(k)oti'': ''dothoti'' (manliness)<br />
*'''gerund''' (act of doing): via derivated [[Sceptrian#Verb|verb]] suffixed with ''(o)pi'': ''glerkurpi'' (mace-battering)<br />
<br />
====Adjective====<br />
<br />
Different cases and affixes are used for the derivation:<br />
*similarity, having something: ''dh'' suffix to abstract gender and animate ''u''-ending; voicing of fricatives (''h→qh'', no change with affricates); nasals [[Sceptrian#Consonant_form|"lateralized"]] + ''o''; voicing of plosives + ''o'' (''q→g''); l-declension as in INS-COM: ''evadh'' (bright), ''dodh'' (masculine)<br />
**full of, having something: previous suffixed with ''ol'': ''mel muvol'' (waters full of fish)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)p'': ''kosonop'' (wooden)<br />
*origin, relation: ABL form with a final ''ó'' added or replacing the original ending vowel: ''kusupó'' (friendly)<br />
*absence, without: ''ti'' suffixed to VOC form: ''evæti'' (lightless=dark)<br />
*doing: ''on'' added after INS case: ''kephon'' (washing)<br />
*who did: INS with ''ompu'': ''kephompu'' (who washed = ''pessyt'' in Finnish)<br />
*done by: INS with ''empo'' and possibly inalienable possessive suffix: ''kephemponga'' (washed by me)<br />
*not done: LAT suffixed with ''tip'': ''kepóotip'' (unwashed)<br />
*experiencing: LAT suffixed with ''p'': kepóop (being washed)<br />
*result (wanted): LAT suffixed with ''pi'': ''kepóopi'' (washed=clean)<br />
**if unwanted: LAT suffixed with ''pot'': ''vangostóopot'' (drunk)<br />
*possible: POS with ''ta'': ''kenta'' (washable)<br />
*requiring: LOC with ''rt'': ''kepurt'' (needs to be washed)<br />
*opposite, negation: VOC with ''tot''<br />
<br />
Notice that plural forms of adjectives may be derived from plural nouns: ''dolth kep'''s'''on'' (men who are washing)<br />
<br />
====Verb====<br />
<br />
A declined core noun receives an ending which describes how the verb reflects the noun:<br />
*In some cases, the vowel ending of nouns may simply be removed or the absolutive of a consonant-ending noun may also serve as a verb.<br />
*ABS = "happens, is": ''kep'' (is washed)<br />
*COM = "using": ''tuph'' (is poked with a stick), ''glerkh'' (is hit with a mace)<br />
*POS + ''k'' = "similarity": ''melonk'' (is wet)<br />
*DAT + ''k'' = "making/becoming" (no ''k'' with Abstract): ''zurmu'' → ''zurmjik'' (strong person → is strengthened), ''zurp'' → ''zurpeik'' (strong, durable object → hardens) & ''zurma'' → ''zurmak'' (strength → intensifies)<br />
*LAT + ''t'' = "movement, quasi-inceptive": ''glerkóot'' (swings a mace, INTR), ''melot'' (flows), ''latepóot'' (is persuaded to dance, INTR; begins a dance with, TR), ''lehkot'' (runs) <br />
*LOC + ''r'' = "frequentative": ''glerkur'' (is battered with a mace), ''melur'' (rains; drips)<br />
*VOC + ''k'' = "momentane": ''glerkék'' (is hit once with a mace), ''melék'' (splashes once)<br />
*POS + ''(o)v'' = "consider, feel": ''vongv'' (is considered strange = ''oudoksutaan'' in Finnish)<br />
* Several endings can be stacked on verbs without turning it into a noun in between: ''melurék'' (shower of rain falls), ''tup(o)hkur'' (is often poked with a stick). When deriving, the ''r''-ending are declined according to the ''l''-paradigm.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Sceptrian agree with the gender, number and cases of their head. When an adjective is used as a predicative, it comes before its head, but when as an attributive, it comes after. Adjective declension follows approximately the same rules as [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun declension]]. In the common ''dh''-ending F-declension, ''o'' is added between ''dh'' and case-endings with consonants. Changes in both casual and poetic speech include mirroring onset into coda: ''dothklu jadaadh'''ulk''''' (near nice men)<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+DH-declension<br />
! !! ABS !! ERG !! DAT !! POS !! INS !! LAT !! LOC !! ABL !! VOC<br />
|-<br />
!SG<br />
|dh || dhee || dhi || dhor || dhos || dh'''ok''' || dh'''uk''' || dh'''op''' || dhé<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
| ldh(o) || dhele || dhil || dhoŕ || dhosh || dh'''olk''' || dh'''ulk''' || dh'''olp''' || ldhé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Sceptrian#Apophony|Apophony]] in the stressed syllable is used to indicate the gender: base for inanimate, first apophony with animate and second with abstract gender: ''eja jadædh, doth jadaadh, latep jadadh'' <br />
<br />
Polite adjectives are formed from the abstract form with predicative prefix ''nga'' and attributive suffix ''æ'': ''ngaluwidh Nith'' (You are beautiful), ''shosleetha luwidhæ'' (a beautiful knight)<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
<br />
'''Positive''' of an adjective is the base form.<br />
*When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.)<br />
*Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle.<br />
*When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii faaldh dolth lutush.'' (As many men as women.) <br />
<br />
'''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). <br />
*Manner quatifiers ''orkai, jofai'' and ''zei'' can be used to indicate the degree: ''luwidhé orkai'' (much more beautiful), ''luwidhé jofai'' (slightly more beautiful), ''luwidhé zei'' (not more beautiful)<br />
*When comparing two nouns adjective comes first (predicative comparative), the standard acquires the dative case, and comparative forms agree with their head in gender and number: ''luwildhé po swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*Pronoun comparison is also possible to construct with alienable possessional suffixes: ''luwildhév swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*When adjective comparative is not included, postpositional ''fadhé'' (more) or ''føødhi'' (less) can be used with noun plurals: ''dolth faldhé lutwi'' (more men than women)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative''' is similar to noun apotheosis: the ending is reduplicated with ''é'' between consonants and ''j'' between vowels, and an ''a'' added to the end: ''luwidhédha'' (most beautiful). Similarly to comparative, ''ti'' gives the meaning of "least": ''luwidhédhati'' (least beautiful).<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly)<br />
<br />
Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh óomidhé'' (very beautiful < "largely")<br />
<br />
'''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative adverb''' is similar to adjective superlative in its reduplication but with an ''æ''-ending: ''zaivie jadædhédhæ'' (you sing most pleasantly)<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Missing verbs: <br />
*"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man)<br />
**Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith)<br />
**Showing tense-aspect:<br />
***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past)<br />
***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective<br />
***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense<br />
***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" <br />
**Vernacularly, [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|proximal demonstrative pronouns]] are used as copulae with corresponding grammatical gender: ''Trs saitu Berats.'' ("Smith this Berats." Berats is a smith.)<br />
* "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man")<br />
<br />
====Conjugation====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, primary conjugation of verbs indicates person, number and tense-aspect, and it includes affixation and apophony. Conjugation for different [[Sceptrian#Mood|moods]] is slightly more complex.<br />
<br />
=====Root=====<br />
<br />
Verbs are given in their 3SG.INAN GNO form which is used to form all of the third person forms. With first and second person subjects, the first apophony is used in indicative inceptive and future. Polite second person forms use the second apophony<br />
<br />
=====Affixes=====<br />
<br />
Fusional conjugation affixes convey the person, number, tense and aspect (and honorific). Subject and object suffixes are almost always used with verbs, the antipassive being the only exception. Agent prefixes aren't often used in the casual register, mostly to form the [[Sceptrian#Reflexive|reflexive]], but they have to be used in the formal register. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || ha || e || he || ahi || aqhi || ó || hó || (o) || l<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || han || en || hen || ang || aing || ón || hón || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| ast || last || est || lest || æst || hæst || ós || lós || os || osl<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| ajin || hajin || ejin || hejin || azing || izing || ójin || hójin || oin || loin<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || hai || ei || hei || athi || idhi || óji || hóji || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| har || +har || her || +her || athar || idhar || hór || +hór || ho || +ho<br />
|}<br />
* initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive<br />
* initial ''h'' is for aspiration of the final plosive or simply ''h'' after a vowel<br />
**if the final plosive is already breathy, ''o'' is added after it<br />
*+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration<br />
**simple ''h'' becomes ''qh''<br />
*Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.) Note the second apophony due to the abstract gender.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || sa || e || se || æ || hæ || ó || só || o || lo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || san || en || sen || nga || ngai || ón || són || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| tsa || tsla || tse || tsle || tsæ || tshæ || tsó || tsló || so || slo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| jan || zhan || jen || zhen || izæ || izhæ || jón || zhón || i || li<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || sai || ei || sei || thæ || dhæ || jó || zhó || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| ar || sar || er || ser || thar || dhar || ór || sór || or || lor<br />
|}<br />
*Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.)<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ónbouson dothee pof.'' (A man (ERG) is lifting a feather (ABS).), ''Bousón doth.'' (The man falls.) ''Bouson pof.'' (The feather (ABS) falls.).<br />
<br />
====Tense====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, verbs are conjugated for three tenses: past, present and future. These tenses describe when an action took place relative to current moment as their names indicate. <br />
<br />
====Aspect====<br />
<br />
Gnomic-static aspect is used to indicate general truths ''Zaitó Hala.'' (sun rises) and static situations ''Mépa lusha.'' (I can speak Sceptrian). It can be used with expressions of time to specify when something was static ''Petsipha kas arakha.'' (dress-STAT.1SG this.COM yesterday.TEMP "I was dressed in these clothes yesterday (as well).")<br />
<br />
Present progressive describes dynamic actions ''Anbaplóph lusha kha.'' (I'm reading Sceptrian at the moment). Present inceptive is used when an action is about to begin or someone is starting to do something.<br />
*Inceptive is only used once: Subject inceptive with intransitive and mostly agent inceptive with translative verbs. Object ending is either PRES.PROG, when something was begun only a moment ago, or FUT, when something is about to begin.<br />
**Translative object inceptive if the object caused the initialization: ''Órlateepast.'' (He is about to take me to dancing through my initiative.)<br />
<br />
Past imperfective is used with continuous activities which were happening before the present. The contrasting perfective aspect describes the event as a whole and having an endpoint in the past.<br />
<br />
In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used.<br />
<br />
Endings with different tenses and aspects may be mixed in some cases:<br />
*PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) <br />
*PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while))<br />
<br />
====Mood====<br />
<br />
Moods express speaker's attitude towards the subject or their knowledge of it. They are divided into realis and irrealis moods: the former expresses factual statements while the latter indicates that an event hasn't taken place or the speaker is uncertain of a situation.<br />
<br />
=====Realis=====<br />
<br />
'''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well)<br />
<br />
'''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for supposedly factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.)<br />
<br />
=====Irrealis=====<br />
<br />
'''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?)<br />
*The change in stress does not affect the apophony.<br />
<br />
'''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) <br />
*The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!)<br />
**Alternatively, the ''r'' may be added after the inceptive agent prefix.<br />
<br />
'''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original stressed syllable: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: '''''la'''latép'' (may dance), '''''ak'''aktæsos'' (may hear), ''rorøt'' (may go)<br />
*The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject.<br />
*The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished<br />
<br />
=====Particles=====<br />
<br />
Particles are placed after a verb to alter or to specify its meaning.<br />
<br />
Realis<br />
*''pai'' mirative (with soft imperative in present): ''Rótóji pai!'' (He went!?)<br />
**with adjectives or as an adverb: ''Luwi pai!'' (How beautiful!) <br />
<br />
Evidentials (with causatives)<br />
*''atasi'' hearsay: ''Rotóji tasi fope.'' (I heard from you that he went.)<br />
*''tesei'' visual: ''Rótoutóji tesei nape.'' (I didn't see him go.)<br />
<br />
Irrealis<br />
*''norka'' dubitative (with subjunctive): ''Rorøtóji norka.'' (I doubt he went.)<br />
*''gana'' volitive (with future subjunctive): ''Lalatépar gana.'' (I wish I could dance.)<br />
<br />
Conditional (with subjunctive)<br />
*''ta'' apodosis: ''Arziizeither ta'' (I will raise you...)<br />
*''-ti-'' infixed between reduplicated form for protasis: ''boutiboisen'' (if you fall)<br />
<br />
Hortatives (with soft imperative which itself works as an adhortative or dehortative with negation (unwillingness))<br />
*Cohortative: ''Latéprlast kha!'' (Let's dance now!), ''Rótrlastonget khugu.'' (Let's not go there.)<br />
*''jokæ'' exhortative (inhortative through negation): ''Rótrest jokæ.'' (You really should go.)<br />
<br />
'''Formal''' register differences:<br />
*''aktasosai'' (hears) conjugated for hearsay: ''Røtathi aiaktasosóji.'' (I heard from her that you left.)<br />
*''tesos'' (sees) conjugated for visual evidentiality: ''Rotóji tesosai.'' (I saw her go.)<br />
*''tsmaadhoré'' (doubtfully) used for dubitative<br />
*''tutaadhoré'' (wishfully) used for volitive<br />
*''alké'' permissive with dative: ''Rótest alké foki.'' (You may leave.)<br />
**prohibitive with negated (inability) imperative infinitive: ''Rótrostodi alké foki.'' (You aren't allowed to leave.)<br />
*both conditional particles are used separately and they are prefixed with the subjunctive reduplication: ''Arziizeither zaita bouboisen bouti.'' (I will raise you if you fall.)<br />
<br />
'''In literature''' to express the peaking pitch of ironical statements and lowered pitch of sarcastic expressions:<br />
*''jø'' verbal irony: ''Jótesosoi melurpi, jóbatophoi "Luwidh jø hi loi khu".'' (He saw the rain and said: "''Beautiful'' day out there")<br />
*''gæ'' sarcasm: ''Uu, eiluwikoi gæ pai.'' (Oh, ''how beautiful'' you made it.)<br />
<br />
====Negation====<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Negation affixes<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Manner→<br />
! Inability<br />
!colspan="6"| Unwillingness<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Form→<br />
!2nd apophony +infix<br>(before patient-suffix)<br />
!colspan="3"|Intranslative<br>suffix<br />
!colspan="3"|Translative<br>infix (after agent-prefix)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Person→<br />
!All<br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!SG<br />
|ost<br />
|net<br />
|fep<br />
|set<br />
|no<br />
|fo<br />
|so<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|osht<br />
|nget<br />
|vep<br />
|slet<br />
|ngo<br />
|flo<br />
|slo<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|PST<br />
|out<br />
|colspan="3"|nait<br />
|colspan="3"|me<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|FUT<br />
|oz<br />
|colspan="3"|nort<br />
|colspan="3"|mor<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse'''fo'''lateephar?'' (You don't want to begin dancing with me?)<br />
<br />
'''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.)<br />
<br />
Second apophony of negation affixes with subjunctive mood: ''Rorøthórn'''ø'''rt.'' (He may not be willing to go.)<br />
<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
<br />
=====Gerund=====<br />
*Base nouns or their abstract variants may serve as gerunds, which describe the action of doing, but otherwise they are created with the suffix ''(o)pi'' added to a verb root. The suffic also helps to distinguish the forms.<br />
<br />
=====Infinitives=====<br />
*PRES ''-odi'', PST ''-oudi'', FUT ''ordi''<br />
*used with modal verbs<br />
*subjunctive form created with duplication<br />
<br />
=====Participles=====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian participles work as adjectives. Following table shows which "case" and suffix the verb base (or gerund in formal register) takes.<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Present participle suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!IPFV<br />
!PFV<br />
|-<br />
!Patientive (LAT)<br />
|''p''<br />
|''pi/pot''<br />
|-<br />
!Negative (LAT)<br />
|<br />
|''tip''<br />
|-<br />
!Active (INS)<br />
|rowspan="2"|''on''<br />
|''ompu''<br />
|-<br />
!Agentive (INS)<br />
|''empo''<br />
|}<br />
*Also the "requiring" (FUT) form LOC+''rt'' and "possible" (GNO) POS+''ta'' <br />
*Past forms are created by adding ''i'' to the end: ''kephoni'' (was being washed)<br />
*Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed)<br />
*Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]]<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, auxiliary verbs are conjugated only for subject which may act as the agent of the clause. The verbs can either precede (dynamic, deontic) or come after (epistemic) different verb infinitives. Since regular object-patient conjugation can't be used, objects have to be written (no pro-drop) and they are declined into instrumental-comitative case.<br />
*''tut'' "want" (from ''tuta'' "craving, wish"): ''Tutajin kepoudi his.'' (I wanted to wash it.)<br />
**infinitive in lative case for "want something to be done": ''Tutan kepordiki his.'' (I want it to be washed.)<br />
**"be going to" (FUT): ''Tuutar latepordi.'' (I'm going to dance.)<br />
**"wish" (SBJV) mostly as the subjunctive of the absent ''to be''-verb: ''Tutitan khau fos.'' (I wish you were here) <br />
*''mép'' "can, know how to" (dynamic) (from ''mépi'' "skill"): ''Mépa latepodi'' ("I can dance"; notice gnomic-static mood)<br />
*''kuut'' "can, may" (deontic / epistemic) (from ''kuutó'' "possibility"): ''Kuutest rotordi.'' (You may leave.), ''Fendógópot kuutó pai.'' (He may unexpectedly be dead.)<br />
**particle ''nor'' added after the verb for lower possibility i.e. "could, might": ''Fendógópi kuut nor.'' (It might be dead.)<br />
**particle ''ga'' added for "should, must": ''Fendógópi kuut ga.'' (It should be dead, as we wanted.)<br />
*''khet'' "must" (deontic) (from ''kheti'' "necessity"): ''Khetan rotodi.'' (I must go now), ''Kheetar rotordi.'' (I must go soon)<br />
*''khurd'' "dare" (from ''khurdi'' "daring"): ''¿Khurde glerkékodi nas?'' (Do you dare hit me with a mace?)<br />
<br />
Mixing tenses: <br />
*''Tutitai latepordi.'' SBJV.want-PST.PFV.1SG dance-INF.FUT "I would've wanted to dance"<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian distinguishes between two voices, active and antipassive. Passive is very similar to active since Sceptrian is absolutive-ergative, and thus isn't considered a true change in voice. Antipassive is used to reduce the valency of the verbs by removing the object of a transitive clause.<br />
<br />
Active construction: verb-agent-object and verb-object-agent are used so that a comment (rheme) precedes the topic (theme). [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|Emphasizing clitics]] are used to mark the topic. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Ónzaiton dothee pof.<br />
|IPA = /ɔ̃zaɪ̯tə̃ dəθe: pəf/<br />
| morphemes = ón-zait-on doth-ee pof-Ø<br />
| gloss = 3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV man-ERG feather-ABS<br />
| translation = A man is lifting a feather.<br />
}} <br />
<br />
Passive construction: To demote the agent (ERG), it's either removed or inflected into causal ablative (ABL). Verb is only conjugated for the object.<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Zaiton pof (dothpo).<br />
|IPA = /zaɪ̯tə̃ pəf (dəθpə)/<br />
| morphemes = zait-on pof-Ø (doth-po)<br />
| gloss = lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV feather-ABS (man-ABL)<br />
| translation = A feather is being lifted (by a man).<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Antipassive''' construction: Agent (ERG) transforms into subject (ABS) and object (ABS) takes the instrumental-comitative (INS) case. Word order becomes SV(O), and the verb is conjugated according to the agent only and the stressed syllable undergoes second [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]]. The verb is also suffixed with the emphasizing clitic ''ma'' in the formal register. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Doth ónzeit(ma) (pofos).<br />
|IPA = /dəθ ɔ̃zei̯t(mä) (pəfəs)/<br />
| morphemes = doth-Ø ón-zeit-Ø(or =ma) (pof-os)<br />
| gloss = man-ABS ANTIP\3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-ANTIP(or =ANTIP.FORM) (feather-INS)<br />
| translation = The man is lifting (a feather). <br />
}}<br />
<br />
Instrument and turning it into an agent:<br />
* ''Ónzaiton dothee pof vakuhosozh.'' (...with his own hand...)<br />
**''Ónzaiton pof vakuhp dothir.'' (the feather is raised by the man's hand)<br />
**''Onzaiton pof tuph dothi'''sh''' slokli.'' (The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them.) Inanimate agent conjugation, and dative of possession is inflected to avoid misinterpretation!<br />
* ''Vakuh ónzeit pofos.'' (The hand lifts something, which happens to be a feather)/(someone intentionally lifts a feather with their hand) Notice animate conjugation!<br />
**''Tup onzeit dothpo pofos.'' (The stick, which is being held by a man, lifts something, which happens to be a feather) ABL as causative since inanimate ''tup''.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
Decimal base was adopted due to commerce, but traces of the former octal base remain. <br />
<br />
Numerals are placed before their head. Last part of a cardinal determiner agrees with case through matching declension: ''op'''l''' tupl'' (two sticks)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Numeral system<br />
|-<br />
! Number <br />
! Number !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional !! Multiplicative adverb !! Multiplicative adjective !! Group !! Polygon<br />
|-<br />
!Zero<br />
| ozi || oz || ozhi || - || zeng (never) || - || ze (no) || -<br />
|-<br />
!One<br />
| ipi || ip || iphi || liku (whole) || ohu (once) || ipitse (onefold) || ipisi (singular) || ipirt (dot) <br />
|-<br />
!Two <br />
| opi || op || ophi || lopu (half) || ophu (twice) || opitse (twofold) || opisi (pair) || opart (line)<br />
|-<br />
!Three<br />
| oki || ok || okhi || loku || okhu || okitse || okisi || okart (triangle)<br />
|-<br />
!Four<br />
| óppi || óp || óphi || lóppu || óphu || óphitse || óphisi || ópart <br />
|-<br />
!Five<br />
| ofi || of || offi || lofu || offu || ofitse || ofisi || ofart<br />
|-<br />
!Six<br />
| ókki || ók || ókhi || lókku || ókhu || ókhitse || ókhisi || ókart<br />
|-<br />
!Seven<br />
| omi || om || ongi || lomu || ongu || omitse || omisi || omart<br />
|-<br />
!Eight<br />
| ngovi || ngov || ngovvi || longovu || ngovvu || ngovitse || ngovisi || jart<br />
|-<br />
!Nine<br />
| ngoipi || ngoip || ngoiphi || longoipu || ngoiphu || ngoipitse || ngoipisi || ngoipart<br />
|-<br />
!Ten<br />
| jopi || jop || jophi || lojopu || jophu || jopitse || jopisi || jopart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!Eleven<br />
!Twelve<br />
!Thirteen<br />
!Fourteen<br />
!Fifteen<br />
!Sixteen<br />
!Seventeen<br />
!Eighteen<br />
!Nineteen<br />
!Twenty<br />
|-<br />
| ngoki <br />
| ngópi <br />
| ngofi<br />
| ngóki<br />
| ngomi <br />
| ophungovi <br />
| jopomi<br />
| jopingovi<br />
| jopingoipi<br />
| ophujopi<br />
|-<br />
!Twenty-one<br />
!Thirty<br />
!Fourty<br />
!Fifty<br />
!Sixty<br />
!Sixty-four<br />
!Sixty-five<br />
!Seventy<br />
!Eighty<br />
!Ninety<br />
|-<br />
| ophujopipi <br />
| okhujopi<br />
| offungovi <br />
| offujopi <br />
|ókhujopi<br />
| mouti<br />
| moutipi<br />
|ongujopi<br />
|ngowopi<br />
|ngoiphujopi<br />
|-<br />
!One hundred<br />
!One hundred<br/>and twenty-two<br />
!One hundred<br/>and sixty-six<br />
!Two hundred<br />
!Thousand<br />
!Three thousand<br/>four hundred<br />
!Ten thousand<br />
!Hundred thousand<br />
!Million<br />
!Billion<br />
|-<br />
| toti <br />
|toti(s)<br>ophujopopi<br />
|toti(s)<br>moutókki<br />
|ophutoti<br />
| mopi<br />
|okhumopi(s)<br>óphutoti<br />
|tothutoti<br />
|tothumopi<br />
|hamisi<br />
|mowisi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Multiplicative adverb form is used in front of the powers of ten (tens, hundreds, ...)<br />
*Digits are annexed into the tens by using the cardinal or determiner form depending whether the digit begins with a vowel or not.<br />
*Fractions are constructed by placing the ''l(o)''-prefixed form after the multiplicative number: ''okhu lóppu'' ("thrice one quarter" = three quarters). The noun is in ablative case and only the fraction is inflected: ''lopu'''ji''' tuppo'' (for one half of a stick)<br />
*Large numbers (from hundred) are written separately from smaller, but in formal register ''s''-letter is added between each power of ten.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
* VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive<br />
* often a comment precedes the topic<br />
* numerals precede nouns<br />
* possessives follow nouns<br />
* predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns<br />
* demonstratives come last<br />
<br />
===Emphasizing clitics===<br />
<br />
Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton pof dothee'''noh'''.'' (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. ''Ónzaiton dothee pof'''ma'''.'' (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used in nominalized relative clauses and with verbs in antipassive constructions.<br />
<br />
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) <br />
<br />
The suffixes are also used with alienable possessive forms to separate the possessor from indirect objects. Chosen depending on the ergativity of the possessum: ''Jóvakuhoi suu pof swi'''ma''' swi.'' (He gave her feather to him.)<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
<br />
====Independent====<br />
<br />
Independent clauses make sense by themselves so that they may form their own sentence.<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, the subject is not necessarily a separate word since the verb can convey both the agent and the object. Thus a single verb can be a complete sentence: ''Ainamoi.'' (It was eaten by me.) However, a full clause may a verbless one as well when the gnomic-static aspect is used or because the languages lacks the verbs "to be" and "to have": ''Ksaru lutu(ma).'' (The woman is a guard.), ''Lutugu ksarushos.'' (Lady has their own guards.)<br />
<br />
Traditional Sceptrian language theorists have used the term ''qópó'' (act) when referring to the verb phrase: the main verb, its auxiliaries and particles which wouldn't appear without the verb. It may also refer to the predicative determiners of a verbless clause subject (possibly bearing the emphasizing clitic): e.g. ''ksaru'' (guard) is ''qópó hetson'' ("still" act) of the above example ''Ksaru lutu.''. This may be called predicate in Westlang grammar. <br />
<br />
''Betsloi'ó'' (affectee), that is, the absolutive subject-object may be: <br />
*Noun: ''Lehkotón '''kuth'''.'' ('''A dog''' is running.)<br />
*Pronoun: ''Aiteshóji '''slo'''.'' ('''They''' were seen by me.)<br />
*Gerund: ''Apekingvó '''lateppi'''.'' (I enjoy '''dancing'''.)<br />
*Another clause: ''Aitésoutóji, '''skugu rorøtóji'''.'' (I couldn't see, '''where he went'''.) <br />
*Note that the main verb conjugation is for the abstract subject. In the indirect question, the verb is in subjunctive.<br />
<br />
''Betslaató'' (affecter) refers to the agent which is declined into the ergative case. <br />
*A gerung will be declined if necessary, but an entire clause remains the same. <br />
<br />
Interrogative clauses begin with either the verb or the interrogative. Interrogative mood is indicated by the moving the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. Questions are placed between question marks "¿" and "?". See below in the [[Sceptrian#Noun_clauses|noun clauses]] for more of indirect questions.<br />
*In written language, requests often use only the final question mark: ''Tsemaakor nai?'' (Will you give it to me?)<br />
<br />
====Conjunction====<br />
<br />
coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?)<br />
*and, but, for, so, or<br />
*...<br />
<br />
Demonstratives will take the case ending, if the entire <br />
<br />
====Noun clauses====<br />
<br />
WIP ... to be redone<br />
*Infinitive.tense + ... + causatives: ''Tesosan kepó vakuhos supe.'' (I see that he washes his hands) vs. ''Onluvakan kep'''óo''' vakuhos supe.'' (The washing of his hands brings me pleasure.)<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
<br />
Nominalizing relative clauses with participles is common.<br />
<br />
Using [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|an emphasizing clitic]] to mark the antecedent for the class-appropriate proximal demonstrative pronoun (thaka/saitu/ka declined for number) which works as a relative pronoun - case chosen according to the embedded clause: <br />
*''Rotóji dothma saituh latepai.'' (leave-PST.PFV.3SG man.ABS-EMPH.ABS P.PROX.AN-COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The man, with whom I danced, left.") <br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahul dothelenos saitush latepai.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS man-PL.ERG-EMPH.ERG P.PROX.AN-PL.COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The men with whom I danced are starting to drink beer.")<br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahulma dothele ka tutitai vangosordi.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS-EMPH.ABS man-PL.ERG P.PROX.INAN SBJV-want-PST.PFV.1SG drink-INF.FUT "Men are starting to drink the beer which I would've wanted to drink."<br />
<br />
====Adverbial clauses====<br />
<br />
non-finite forms + possessive suffixes to indicate subject<br />
<br />
====Conditional clauses====<br />
<br />
subjunctive as explained in verb particle section<br />
<br />
====Indirect speech====<br />
<br />
==Register==<br />
<br />
Different endings which reflect the conversation situation: speakers, familiarity, formality, location... <br />
<br />
===Intimate===<br />
<br />
Agent prefixes aren't used. No ''t'' in inceptive. Due to apophony, subject suffix can be dropped from FUT/INCEP if 1st or 2nd person distinction is clear.<br />
<br />
===Casual===<br />
<br />
In casual register, verb forms are chosen differently when the subject is agent-like (he dances) or patient-like (he fell): ''latepóji'' (he danced AN) vs. ''bousoi'' (he fell INAN)<br />
<br />
===Formal===<br />
<br />
Mandatory use of pronouns and agent prefixes.<br />
<br />
One may use inanimate verb forms as anti-honorific? ''Ondakon næ ka Nithki.'' (I humbly offer this to You)<br />
<br />
Apophony of basic prepositions with root ''oi'': ''Oisti Hala, óosti vakuhanga, ousti qorel'' (under the Sun, under my hand, under the earth)<br />
<br />
In formal register, it is preferred to use only animate nouns as agents while abstract and inanimate are as antipassive subjects: ''luwi... nas'' ("beauty-of.yours it-un-eye-ful-makes me-with", your beauty makes me blind) vs. ''en fø na'' (you are making me blind)<br />
<br />
Distinction between abstract and animate in some categories, such as verb conjugation (''wa'')<br />
<br />
Can people with higher status be abstract or do they occupy a special animate category? (æ inside?)<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
See the [[Sceptrian/Dictionary|dictionary page]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian&diff=35876Sceptrian2015-07-09T10:00:05Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Table of correlatives */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Construction}}<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Sceptrian<br />
|nativename = [[File:Lusha_name.png|300px]]<br>''Batop Lushan''<br />
|pronunciation = [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ]<br />
|region = Western Central World<br />
|states = Sceptre<br />
|speakers = 29,200,000 <br />
|date = 7th 641<br />
|familycolor = #d3ffce<br />
|fam1 = West-Herookuan<br />
|fam2 = Lutian<br />
|fam3 = Sceptrian branch<br />
|creator=Ahuelni<br />
|setting=Akekata<br />
|dialects = Yerzonian, Mulish, Fanish <br />
|script = Toneka alphabet<br />
|nation = Empire of Sceptre<br />
|minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia<br />
|agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language)<br />
|map = Lusha_regions.jpg<br />
|mapsize = 300<br />
|mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects<br />
}}<br />
{{ClassMeter<br />
|Name = Sceptrian<br />
|NativeName = Batop Lushan<br />
|Type = Fusional<br />
|Alignment = Absolutive-ergative<br />
<br />
|adjective = final<br />
|adposition = mixed<br />
|adverb= final<br />
|article= mixed<br />
|relativeclause = final<br />
|nounclause = final<br />
|order = VSO<br />
<br />
|Tonal = no<br />
|Genders = 3<br />
|Declined = yes<br />
|Conjugated = yes<br />
|Case = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Definiteness = no<br />
|Gender = yes<br />
|Voice = yes<br />
|Mood = yes<br />
|Person = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Tense = yes<br />
|Aspect = yes<br />
|Phonology = 100<br />
|NounCases = 100<br />
|NounDef = 100<br />
|NounNumbers = 100<br />
|NounGender = 100<br />
|VerbPerson = 100<br />
|VerbNumber = 100<br />
|VerbAspect = 90<br />
|VerbTense = 100<br />
|VerbMood = 90<br />
|VerbVoice = 80<br />
|AdjCase = 100<br />
|AdjNumber = 100<br />
|AdjDef = 100<br />
|AdjGen = 100<br />
|AdjComparative = 100<br />
|AdjSuperlative = 100<br />
|Supine = 90<br />
|Gerund = 90<br />
|Participle = 90<br />
|Infinitive = 90<br />
|Modality = 90<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ] or simply ''lusha'') is an ''a priori'' [[w:Artistic_language|artistic language]] created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 29 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking [[Khattish]] and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian and its dialects feature 51 phonetic consonants, some of them with interesting lateral features. The language also has 25 phonetic vowels: twelve short, nine long and four diphthongs. Nasalization, rhotacization and breathy voice are used phonemically. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
If the romanization symbol is the same as in IPA, it is not duplicated. Not bolded romanization indicates that the sound appears as a vernacular or dialectal version.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 830px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px" colspan="2"|<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Uvular<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| [ɱ]<br />
| <br />
| '''n (ń)''' [n]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''t'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''k'''<br />
| '''q'''<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''b'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''d'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''g'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Breathy<br />
| '''ph bh'''<br>[pʰ] [bʱ]<br />
|<br />
|'''th dh'''<br>[tʰ] [dʱ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''kh gh'''<br>[kʰ] [gʱ]<br />
|'''qh'''<br>[qʰ]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| '''pl bl'''<br />[pˡ] [bˡ]<br />
| <br />
| '''tl dl'''<br />[tˡ] [dˡ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''kl gl'''<br/>[kˡ] [gˡ]<br />
| '''ql'''<br/>[qˡ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| ph [ɸ]<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| '''th''' [θ]<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''sh''' [ʃ]<br />
| '''h''' [ç]<br />
| '''kh h''' [x]<br />
| '''qh''' [χ]<br />
| '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''w''' bh [β]<br />
| '''v'''<br />
| '''dh''' [ð]<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| '''zh''' [ʒ]<br />
| <br />
| gh [ɣ]<br />
| <br />
| h [ɦ]<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''sl''' [ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Affricate<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ts''' [t͡s] <br />
| '''tsh''' [t͡ʃ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''tsl''' [t͡ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Approximant<br />
!Non-lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''j'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''l''' [l] [l̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| pr [ʙ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''r (ŕ)''' [r] [r̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The liquids ''r'' and ''l'' can appear as '''syllabic consonants''': ''tlsl'' /tˡl̩ɬ/ (shallow), ''prk'' /pr̩k/ (wagon) and ''trs'' /tr̩s/ (smith)<br />
*Vernacularly, both syllabic and obstruent-following alveolar trill ''r'' and lateral approximant ''l'' are pronounced as voiceless [r̩̊], [r̥], [l̩̊] and [l̥] when in contact with only voiceless consonants: ''trs'' [tr̩̊s] (smith) contrasting with ''trls'' [tr̩s] (while standard /trəls/) (smiths); ''gatl'' [gɑtl̥] (houses) whose pronunciation approaches [gɑtɬ]. <br />
**'''Meslatu Hirke''' made his disputed suggestion in 7:693 that a similar process had led to the birth of ''sl'' as plural indicator, when original plural ''l'' turned first into voiceless and then into ''sl'' after a word-final glottal stop, which has disappeared entirely. <br />
*In eastern dialects, ''pr'' is realized as [ʙ] and ''tr'', ''tsr'' and ''trs'' often as [r̝]. In the dialects, aspirated plosives have been fully spirantized into their fricative counterparts, e.g. [tʰ]>[θ].<br />
*Fricatives show properties of syllabic consonants word-initially and word-finally.<br />
<br />
Nasal [ɱ] only appears as an allophone of nasals with labio-dental sounds /f/ and /v/. Before velar sounds (e.g. /k/) nasals turn similarly into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
Letter ''h'' has four allophones: initial is always [h] despite frontness, [ç] appears elsewhere with front vowels, [x] appears word-finally and [h~ɦ] word-medially with back vowels ''tihtóhnah'' [tiçˈtɔɦ.näx] (assassinator). It's also used after consonants to indicate breathy voice.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 390px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| <br />
| '''u'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-mid<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| o<br/>[ɘ]<br />
| o<br/>[ɤ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
|<br />
| '''o'''<br/>[ə]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''é ø'''<br />[ɛ] [œ]<br />
|<br />
| '''ó'''<br />[ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
|'''æ'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
|'''a'''<br />[ä]<br />
|a<br />[ɑ]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
All the nine main vowel sounds (bolded) have '''long''' versions as separate phonemes.<br />
<br />
Schwa '''''o''''' is used as an epenthetic vowel (anaptyxis). When it is used to break consonant clusters (not indicated in native script) it is the simple schwa /ə/: *dŧ → ''doth'' /dəθ/ (man). When stressed, it is vernacularly realized as [ɘ], and in western dialects more clearly as [ɤ]: *dŧs → ''dothos'' [dəˈθɘˑs]<br />
<br />
Vowel ''a'' is [ɑ] after voiced consonants. Vowel ''æ'' is often more open [a], though, in Western dialects, it has merged with ''é''. <br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, there are only closing diphthongs which go up in the vowel chart:<br />
*Back: ou /ɔʊ̯/<br />
*Front: ai /äɪ̯/, ei /ei̯/, oi /œi̯/<br />
<br />
If the syllable border (glottal stop) is between vowels and they don't form a diphthong, apostrophe is used: ''tai'' (for long) vs. ''ta'i'' (past)<br />
*In native [[Sceptrian#Script|script]], separate graphemes for diphthongs exist and glottal stop is not marked.<br />
<br />
If diphthongs are followed by vowels, they are separated by a glottal stop in formal register. <br />
*In casual speech, ''ouV'' becomes ''owV'' and ''ViV'' ''VjV'': ''oua→ówa'' and ''aia→aja''. If the following vowel is the same, a glottal stop breaks the former diphthong and the ending vowel is lengthened: ''ai'i→a'ii''<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
<br />
===Onset===<br />
<br />
Basic [[w:Syllable#Structure|syllabic structure]] is CV, where the onset (beginning) consonant can be of any type. <br />
*It is possible to use liquids and approximants as '''glides''' (CLV) between the onset and the rime (ending). <br />
*Up to two consonants with same voicing may appear in the onset (CCV), especially fricative-plosive combinations, but never two plosives: ''stak'' (fence), ''fkot'' (nest), ''ksaru'' (guard). Affricate ''ts'' takes may be accompanied only by ''w'', ''j'', ''n'' or ''m'': ''tsma'' (doubt). Combination /sl/ has turned into /ɬ/.<br />
*Lateralization and aspiration may never appear together, and nasalized rhoticization is only found in Fanish dialect.<br />
<br />
===Nucleus=== <br />
<br />
The nucleus can be either a vowel or a liquid, thus CVC and CLC are also possible syllables. <br />
*Vowels (diphthongs included) may exist as a stand-alone nucleic syllable (V), mostly in the beginning or at the end of a word. <br />
*If nucleus is a liquid, plosives appear in codas only word-finally: ''dldlp'' /dˡl̩ˈdˡl̩p/ (bubble)<br />
<br />
===Coda=== <br />
<br />
The coda (final) may consist of up to three consonants with possible structures: N, P, F, L; NP, FP, LP; NF, PF, LF; NPF, FPF, LFP, LPF (Nasal, Plosive, Fricative, Liquid). <br />
*Final liquids appear as syllabic consonants<br />
*Approximants ''j'', ''w'' and plain voiced plosives never appear as coda (final) even though they may be written that way (no written schwa): ''nad'' /nä.də/ (stainy). Voiced fricatives may appear as coda. <br />
*In coda, plosives with lateral release, however, will reflect the voicing of the onset: ''gatl'' [gädˡl̩] (houses) vs. ''katl'' [kätˡl̩] (knobs). Vernacularly, the lateral approximant weakens into a voiceless variant [l̥] when in contact with voiceless consonants: ''gatl'' [gätl̥].<br />
<br />
Closed syllables, i.e. those ending in coda, are not as common word-medially as open syllables (ending in nucleus) are. When words are inflected, parts of codas tend to become onsets of the following syllable, if possible. Especially three-consonant clusters are rare word-medially and receive a schwa after a non-lateral stop: ''kamps'' /kämps/ (marsh) → ''kampsku'' → ''kamposku'' /ˈkäm.pəs.ku/ (at marsh)<br />
*Voicing status must be the same for consonants touching at syllable boundaries and the voiced one reduces into voiceless: ''*katbas''→''katpas'' /kätˈpäs/ (fern) vs. ''oist baku'' /œi̯st<sup>(h)</sup> bä.ku/ (under a table)<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
Primary '''stress''' in a word is most often on the second syllable, and when there are four or five syllables, secondary stress is placed onto the final syllable. When there are more syllables, minor stress is placed on even-numbered syllables. <br />
*If the to-be-stressed syllable contains the schwa ''o'' /ə/ or a syllabic consonant, the preceding syllable is stressed in two-syllable words and the following in words with more than three syllables.<br />
**In uninflected words, syllable with nuclear ''o'' is only stressed when it comes second and the preceding syllable has also ''o'' as nucleus. Then the stressed nucleus appears as [ɘ]. Contrast between stressed and non-stressed syllabic consonants may occur as voicing and devoicing respectively. <br />
*A non-final syllable with a long vowel or a diphthong is always stressed and steals the stress from its neighboring syllable. This also moves the secondary stress from final to penultimate syllable, if primary stress falls on first syllable.<br />
<br />
Inflected and affixed word forms have almost always the same stress as the base word (even monosyllabic with schwa): ''doth'' (man) → ''dothku'' [ˈdɘθ.ku] (near the man). <br />
*Vocative and ergative cases as well as inflections with long vowels make an exception: ''dothee'' /dəˈθe:/ (by the man), ''dothé'' /dəˈθɛ/ (O man), ''gatóo'' /gɑˈtɔ:/ (to the house)<br />
<br />
Interrogatives are formed by changing the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. This is indicated with ¿: ''¿Eikepoi?'' [ˈei̯˧˦ˈke˩.pœi̯˨˦] (Did you wash it?)<br />
<br />
==Morphophonology==<br />
<br />
===Vowel form===<br />
<br />
There are five ways of sound altering which may be used for grammatical purposes (mainly number, genitive case and imperfective aspect). In the native script the following are marked on the vowel.<br />
*Lengthening: ''paata'' /pä:tä/ (separation), ''ée'' [ɛ:]~[ɛe̯], ''óo'' /ɔ:/<br />
*Lateral (release): ''pló'' /pˡɔ/ (opposite to), ''tlaf'' /tˡäf/ (sprig) <br />
**Western dialects keep the tongue on the alveolar ridge during vowel pronunciation so that the vowels have a distinct l-sound. Historically, this may have lead to the syllabic l.<br />
*Aspiration/breathy voice: ''phó'' [pʰɔ]~[ɸɔ] (along), ''kébhar'' [kɛˈbʱɑ˞]~[kɛˈβɑ˞] (I will wash), ''tha'' [tʰä]~[θä] (abstract "it"), ''dhaka'' [dʱɑkä]~[ðɑkä] (abstract "that"). <br />
**Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head)<br />
*Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]]<br />
**Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as a short syllabic nasal consonant of the same place as the directly preceding or following consonant<br />
**Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!).<br />
*Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) <br />
**Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞:] (soup)<br />
<br />
===Consonant form===<br />
<br />
Combining sounds<br />
*Lateralization<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sl'' and ''zh'' respectively<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' → ''fl'' & ''w''<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' are geminated<br />
**''m'' & ''n'' → ''ng'' and ''ng'' → ''ńg''<br />
* Aspiration<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sh'' and ''zh''<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' are geminated<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' → ''lh'' and ''rh''<br />
* Voicing and aspiration<br />
**''r'' → ''qh'', ''l'' → ''ldh'', ''v'' → ''w''<br />
<br />
===Apophony===<br />
<br />
Apophony in the '''stressed syllable''' is used for example to express adjective gender and to create different verb forms.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Apophony<br />
|-<br />
!Root<br />
!1st<br />
!2nd<br />
|-<br />
|e<br />
|ee<br />
|é<br />
|-<br />
|o<br />
|ó<br />
|ø<br />
|-<br />
|a<br />
|aa<br />
|æ<br />
|-<br />
|u<br />
|uu<br />
|i<br />
|-<br />
|ai<br />
|ii<br />
|ei<br />
|-<br />
|ou<br />
|óo<br />
|oi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*When the stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting)<br />
*With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of ''é''.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Script=== <br />
[[File:Sceptrian.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Toneka script from the early sixth era. Notice that the vowel form info-box romanization should have "o" instead of "a".]]<br />
[[File:SceptrianTsrnet.JPG|500px|thumb|right|Tsrnet cursive script used for handwriting in modern Sceptre.]]<br />
The Sceptrian alphabet script was derived from the ancient temple marks as were the Aoman and Northern (Latin) scripts. The modern alphabet is called ''Tsoklóp Lushan''.<br />
<br />
Diacritics on vowels mark different [[Sceptrian#Vowel_form|sounds]]. The diacritics may be used with consonants as well, especially in the plural forms of consonant-ending nouns: ''gat̆'' (''gatl'' "houses"), ''doŧ̆'' (''dolth'' "men"). With the diacritics, letter ''ts'' can be lateralized into ''tsl'' or aspirated into ''tsh''.<br />
<br />
The native Sceptrian script has a long history of being unicameral, not distinguishing between the upper and lower case. Only during the sixth era under the Tyranny of West, the flow of refugees from the Coast of Temples encouraged the introduction of case separation. In the developed fonts, capital letters were derived from the traditional Toneka and small letters from the cursive Tsrnet.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Short and long letter names with explanations<br />
|-<br />
|aa<br>aat || ee<br>eet || ée<br>eet maatikipi<br>(opened e) || ii<br>iit || oo<br>oot || óo<br>oot guzbikipi<br>(deepened o) || uu<br>uut <br />
|-<br />
|ææ<br>aat evadh<br>(bright a) || øø<br>oot gudh<br>(dark o) || ai<br>aat zaithon<br>(rising a) || ei<br>eet zaithon<br>(rising e) || oi<br>oot zaithon<br>(rising o) || ou<br>óot bousoson<br>(falling o) ||<br />
|-<br />
| po<br>poot || bo<br>bóot || mo<br>mool || wo<br>wool || to<br>toot || do<br>dóot || <br />
|-<br />
| tho<br>toot hifdo<br>(windy t) || dho<br>dóot hifdo<br>(windy d) || no<br>nool || so<br>siit || sho<br>siit hifdo<br>(windy s) || zo<br>ziit || zho<br>ziit gudh<br>(dark z) <br />
|-<br />
| ngo<br>góot slenguhpi<br>(g using nose) || tso<br>tsiit || lo<br>lool || slo<br>lool hifdo<br>(windy l) || fo<br>fiit || vo<br>fiit gudh<br>(dark f) || jo<br>jool <br />
|-<br />
| ko<br>koot || go<br>góot || ho<br>hiit || qho<br>hiit surmudh<br>(strong h) || qo<br>koot venongp<br>(k being<br> swallowed) || ro<br>rool || <br />
|-<br />
|plo<br>looh tisk<br>(with l<br> mark) || pon<br>slenguhpi tisk<br>(using nose<br> mark) || por<br>tisk prung<br>(mark of<br> trill) || pho<br>tisk hifn<br>(mark of<br> wind) || poo<br>tisk spiing<br>(mark of<br> length) || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Romanization===<br />
<br />
====Modern====<br />
Consonant variation:<br />
*Letter ''r'' is used with consonants for /r̩/ and between vowels for /r/, but after vowels in the end of syllables for rhoticization ''or'' /ɚ/. Letter ''ŕ'' is used to emphasize the use of /r/ after vowels ''oŕ'' /ər/.<br />
*Similarly letter ''n'' can appear syllable-finally with nasalization but ''ń'' always as /n/: ''an'' /ã/ vs. ''ań'' /an/. <br />
*With ''ng'' /ŋ/, the accent signals lengthening ''nańgo'' /näŋ:ə/ or ''naŋŋo'' (sweaty).<br />
*Labialization of plosives is indicated by PuV (V is any vowel except ''u'') or with ''w''.<br />
*Breathry voice is indicated with an ''h'' straight after a plosive. The ''h'' is also used for corresponding fricatives which occur word-finally. This risk of confuse is one of the downsides of the simplified modern system: ''nath'' /näθ/ "a beggar" or /nätʰ/ "with stains".<br />
<br />
====Old====<br />
<br />
The old romanization system (or part of it) was used until western regions of Eastern Sceptre were joined with the Western Sceptre empire in 7th era 161, during the war against Empress Renula of Golden Islet. A revision was needed when both Sceptrian and Aoma were used in the same printing press and texts had to be distributed to westlang-using communities. Peter Martyea suggested in 7:189 that the payment according to number of pages may have favoured quick adaptation as the non-diacritic system induced much longer texts (see the comparison example).<br />
<br />
Consonants:<br />
*Nasal: '''ŋ''' ''ng'' /ŋ/<br />
**Texts from the first century of the seventh era use ''ǥ'' for word-initial /ŋ/.<br />
*Fricative: '''ŧ''' ''th'' /θ/, '''đ''' ''dh'' /ð/, '''ś''' ''sh'' /ʃ/, '''ź''' ''zh'' /ʒ/, '''ħ''' ''qh'' /χ/<br />
*Affricate: '''c''' ''ts'' /t͡s/, '''č''' ''tsh'' /t͡ʃ/<br />
*Lateral: '''š''' ''sl'' /ɬ/, '''ǩ''' ''kl'' /kˡ/, '''ǧ''' ''gl'' /gˡ/<br />
<br />
Compact equivalents of sound altering:<br />
*Lengthening with a bar: ''ṓ'' /ɔ:/ and ''ō'' /ə:/<br />
*Lateral release with a breve diacritic: ''tŏ'' /tˡə/<br />
*Nasalization with a tilde: ''õ'' /ə̃/, ''on'' /ən/<br />
*Rhotacization with a diaeresis: ''ö'' /ɚ/, ''or'' /ər/<br />
*Aspiration with a grave accent: ''pò'' /pʰə/, ''pô'' /pʰɔ/<br />
<br />
Comparison between the systems:<br />
*Old: Ǧëǩ śošēŧã <br />
*Modern: Glerkl shosleethan (maces of a knight)<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
The most complete study of the structure of pre-modern Sceptrian words was done by Porutingatu of Jerzónó in year 362 of the seventh era. She collected, grouped and analyzed the fusional morphemes and listed the new rules to replace the outdated writings from the sixth era. By 370, her work had led to a new interest in linguistics and ultimately to the founding of ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan'' (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) which has been unifying and regulating the language along with its orthography since then.<br />
<br />
Sceptrian utilizes [[w:Fusional_language|fusional]] [[w:Inflection|inflections]] and has an [[w:Ergative–absolutive_language|absolutive-ergative]] [[w:Morphosyntactic_alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]. The language is rather [[w:Head-directionality_parameter|head-initial]] and its primary [[w:Word_order|word order]] is verb-agent-object.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns are used to refer to e.g. people or things in sentences instead of using the original nouns. In Sceptrian, they exist in two numbers and are inflected according to six [[Sceptrian#Cases|'''cases''']]. <br />
<br />
====Personal====<br />
Second person includes polite versions as well which were adapted by Aoma-sperkers. Third person singular makes distinction between abstract (Ab), animate (An) and inanimate (In) pronouns while plural only between Ab-An and In. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Personal pronoun inflection'''<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! 1SG !! 1PL !! 2SG !! 2PL !! 2SG.POL !! 2PL.POL !! 3SG.Ab !! 3SG.An !! 3PL.A !! 3SG.In !! 3PL.In<br />
|-<br />
!ABS <br />
| na || mo || fo || po || Nith || With || tha || su || slo || hi || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
| næ || moslo || fø || poslo || Nithe || Widhes || thaa || suu || sloslo || hii || kloslo<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
| nai || mokli || foki || pokli || Nithki || Withkli || thai || swi || slokli || hiki|| klokli<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
| nar || moŕ || for || poŕ || Nithor || Withoŕ || thar || sur || sloŕ || hir || kloŕ<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
| nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh || thas || sus || slosh || his || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
| nape || moplo || fope || poplo || Nitti || Witti || thape || supe || sloplo || hipi || kloplo<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''Comitative''' case is used to indicate company: ''Mo slosh arakha.'' (We were with them yesterday.)<br />
*'''Causal''' describes the cause of an action or origin of something: ''Aitesosai næ su fope'' (I saw him because of (/thanks to) you), ''Hi supe foki.'' (It (is) from him to you.)<br />
<br />
3rd person abstract pronoun is used in the formal register when introducing or referring to a person of higher status.<br />
<br />
====Reflexive====<br />
Self-pronoun ''ru'' for '''reflexive''' and '''reciprocal''': ''tesosón ru'' (they are watching themself), ''ónlatepón ru'' (he is dancing by himself, alone) vs. ''ónlatepón su'' (he is dancing with him); ''sónkephón ru'' (they are washing each other) vs. ''sónkephón sloslo slo/soutu'' (they are washing them)<br />
*reflexive is easier with others: ''anlatepan'' (I'm dancing by myself); ''ankepan'' (I'm washing myself) vs. ''ankep'' ("I'm washing it"), ''kepan'' (I'm being washed)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
<br />
Simple words for "this/these" and "that/those". When demonstratives are used with [[Sceptrian#Nouns|nouns]], they behave similarly to [[Sceptrian#Adjectives|adjectives]]. In the following examples, note that Sceptrian lacks the [[Sceptrian#Verbs|verb "to be"]]: <br />
*As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.)<br />
*For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) <br />
*The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the head acts more like a specifying comment on the true sentence subject: ''Bouson ko qot.'' (That's falling, the rock, I mean.) <br />
<br />
See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]].<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Demonstrative pronoun inflection<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Case <br />
!colspan="2"| Proximal <br />
!colspan="2"| Distal <br />
|-<br />
!SG !! PL !! SG !! PL<br />
|-<br />
!ABS<br />
|ka || kla || ko || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
|kaa || klaa || kó || kló<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
|kai ||klai || koi || kloi<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
|kan ||klang || kon || klong<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
|kas || klash || kos || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
|kap || klapa || kop ||klopo<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Table of correlatives===<br />
<br />
Determiners follow their heads and agree in number and with the cases mentioned above in [[Sceptrian#Demonstrative|the table]], where DAT & LAT, COM & LOC, CAU & ABL and ABS & VOC are corresponding. Words follow the declension shown above or paradigms similar to [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun cases]]. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!rowspan="2"|Interrogative<br />
!colspan="2"|Demonstrative<br />
!colspan="5"|Quantifier<br />
|-<br />
!Proximal !! Distal !! Existential !! Elective !! Universal !! Negatory !! Alternative<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Determiner<br />
| sho || ka (SG)<br/>kla (PL) || ko<br />klo || jofa (some) || ota (any) || orka (every, all) || ze (no) || so (another)<br/>solo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="5"| Pronoun<br />
!Abstract<br />
| ashu || thaka || dhaka || jaafa || thata || thorka || theso || thaso<br />
|-<br />
!Animate<br />
| ¿soutu || saitu || soutu || jonfu || onta || ongka || souso || jonso<br />
|-<br />
!Inanimate <br />
| ¿ko || ka || ko || jofo || oto || orko || ze || so<br />
|-<br />
!Out of two<br />
| ¿tso || tsaka || tsoko || zho || tsoto || tsorko || tseso || tso<br />
|-<br />
!Out of many<br />
| ¿tsolo || tsalka || tsolko || zolo || tsolto || tsongko || tsleso || tsolo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="6"|Pro-adverb<br />
!Locative<br />
| sku || khau || khu || jofku || otku || orkhu || zengu || sokhu<br />
|-<br />
!Temporal<br />
| sko || kha || kho || jofko || otko || orkho || zeng || sokho<br />
|-<br />
!Comitative<br />
| shos || kas || kos || jofos || otos || orkos ||zeos || sos<br />
|-<br />
!Causal<br />
| spe || kap || kop || jov || otop || orkop || zenep || sonop<br />
|-<br />
!Manner<br />
| shi || khai || khoi || jofai || otai || orkai || zei || soi<br />
|-<br />
!What kind of<br />
| shodh || kadh || kodh || jodhi || othi || ordhi || zodhi || sothi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Negative determiner ''ze'' has no plural form. Neither have pronouns "Out of two".<br />
*Demonstratives are used when referring to listed items of equal animacy: proximal with the former and distal with the latter: ''Aitesoshóji math kuthos. Óomidh soutu.'' (I saw a cat and a dog. The latter was large.)<br />
*Locative pro-adverb can be conjugated with lative, locative and ablative.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Nouns in Sceptrian form the basis of derivational morphology and even the cases are utilized when forming new words. They are declined according to two numbers and nine cases, and the seven declensions are grouped in three genders which affect the verb conjugation and adjective agreement.<br />
<br />
====Gender====<br />
<br />
There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes.<br />
*Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in vowels ''a, æ, o, ó, ø'' and ''i''. <br />
*Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h'', same voiced and affricates), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings.<br />
*Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group.<br />
In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull). Some archaic words remain in dialects and in poetic use.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
<br />
There are two numbers, singular and plural, but abstract ''i''-nouns and inanimate ''l''-nouns are always singular. The declension according to number is complicated and fused with the class/case system explained and tabulated below.<br />
<br />
====Cases====<br />
<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Unmarked base form for subjects of intransitive and objects of transitive verbs <br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agents of transitive verbs<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect object; alienable possession ''gat dothi'' (a house of (lit. "for") the man); comparison (with ADJ comparative)<br />
*Possessive (POS): Inalienable possession ''dhoku dothor'' (the man's head)<br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS): Using something; "with someone", replaces "and" as Latin [[wikt:-que|-que]]; in antipassive constructions<br />
*Lative (LAT): Movement to; with adpositions<br />
*Locative-temporal (LOC-TEMP): Place; time; with adpositions<br />
*Ablative (ABL): Movement from (+delative); causal<br />
*Vocative (VOC): addressing (people, gods); interjections ''Alæ!'' (Hello! lit. "Day!")<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Genders and desinences'''<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" style="width: 100px"| <br />
!colspan="3"| Abstract <br />
!colspan="6"| Animate <br />
!colspan="3"| Inanimate<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''A'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''i'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''F'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''N'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''u'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"|''P'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''l''<br />
|-<br />
|<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>|| ||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 100px"| Absolutive<br />
| A || Asl || i || F || (o)lF || N || Ning || u || ush || P || Pl || l<br />
|- <br />
! style=""| Ergative <br />
| AA || AslA || ii || Fee || Fele || Nee || Neng || uu || uushu || Pee || Ple || le<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Dative <br />
| Ak || Akl || ik || Fi || Fil || Ni || Nil || (u)ji || (u)wi || Pei || Plei || lei<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Possessive <br />
| An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Instrumental-comitative <br />
| Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Lative <br />
| AgA || AglA || iki || Fko || Fklo || Nong || Nongo || ugu || uglu || Póo || Plóo || lo <br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Locative-temporal <br />
| AkhA || AlkhA || ikhi || Fku || Fklu || Nung || Nungu || ukhu || ulkhu || Pu || Plu || lu<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Ablative <br />
| ApA || AplA || ipi || Fp(o) || Fpl(o) || Nop || Nopl || upu || uplu || PPo || PPol || lp<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Vocative <br />
| Ae || Asl || ii || Fé || lFé || Né || Nin || -wé || -wésh || Pé || Plé || lé<br />
|}<br />
*''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø''<br />
**Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø<br />
*''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts, tsl'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. <br />
*''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng''<br />
*''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q''<br />
**POS ''q''→''ng''<br />
**INS ending Ph marks breathy voice and may turn the plosive into corresponding fricative /ɸ, θ, x, χ/ if followed by a plosive.<br />
*- indicates that the original ending is replaced with the following: ''tup → tu'''m''''' (stick → stick's)<br />
<br />
====Possessive==== <br />
<br />
Different possessive forms and interpretations: <br />
*''Dativus possessivus'' (alienable): ''gat doth'''i''''' "the house which the man has temporarily settled in, i.e. rented"<br />
*Comitative case with alienable possessive suffix: ''doth gat''h'''''os''''' "man with his house which he has purchased"<br />
**Inalienable possessive suffix alters the meaning: ''doth gat''h'''''ozh''''' "man and his birthplace"<br />
*Possessive case (almost inalienable): ''gat doth'''or''''' "the house which was inherited and is now owned by the man". <br />
<br />
The noun in possessive case is not inflected further. With dative case, inflection may be utilized in order to distinguish the ''dativus possessivus'' from the indirect object or benefactive: ''Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli.'' "The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them." (Related to the feather ceremony when welcoming upper class members to a household.)<br />
<br />
'''Possessive affixes''', as shown in examples above, draw a distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: ''Óntesoson dothee gat'''s'''/vakuh'''oz'''.'' (A man is watching his house/ his own hand.) With the basic suffixes, the root is inflected first and then suffixed.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ Possessional suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!Person<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! ALIEN !! INAL !! ALIEN !! INAL <br />
|-<br />
!1st <br />
| (a)ń || (a)nga || (ó)m || (ó)ngó <br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
| (o)f || (ø)fo || (e)v || (ø)vø<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
| (o)s || (o)zh || (o)sl || (o)zhol<br />
|}<br />
*Irregular: Only VOC+possessive with 1SG: ''Pos'''n'''é!'' (My servant!), ''Polsmé!'' (Our servants!)<br />
<br />
'''2nd person polite suffixes''' are added to absolutive base and the endings are then declined according to abstract gender: <br />
*Singular: (a)tha, (a)tazha <br />
*Plural: (a)dhó, (a)dózhó <br />
*Example: ''gat'''atha'''pa'' (from Your house)<br />
<br />
See [[Sceptrian#Adverbial_clauses|adverbial clauses]] which utilize some possessive suffixes with [[Sceptrian#Non-finite_forms|non-finite verb forms]].<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
<br />
Adpositions are used with inflected nouns to add information about its location or relation to other nouns. Some Sceptrian adpositions can be used as stand-alone adverbs which may be conjugated according to noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====Prepositions====<br />
<br />
Prepositions are used with lative (to, towards), locative (at, near) and ablative (from) cases to alter the meaning.<br />
*''voi'' (in) forms illative, inessive, elative <br />
*''loi'' (out) for "out of", "outside" and "from outside"<br />
*''soi'' (on) to emphasize the surface aspect <br />
*''oist(i)'' (under) for movement under something<br />
*''roi'' (above) similarly to ''oist''<br />
*''boi'' (down) for "down (a surface / to)", "down in (somewhere)" and "from down"; as an adverb as well <br />
*''zoi'' (up) used like ''boi''<br />
*''moi'' (touching, around) with lative for terminative, locative for pertingent and ablative for initiative<br />
*''oil(i)'' (as) forms translative, essive, exessive<br />
*''koi'' (per) distribution: "for each", "every" (temporal), "from each"<br />
*''jon'' (... between) <br />
*''poi'' (... the middle of, among)<br />
*''tsoi'' (... front of; preceding) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = before<br />
*''hoi'' (... behind; following) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = after<br />
*''mots(i)'' (... on side)<br />
**combined with postpositional ''dei'' (right) or ''lai'' (left)<br />
**with time nouns in locative = ago<br />
<br />
====Postpositions====<br />
<br />
Postpositions appear with various cases and often come in groups.<br />
*''pón'' (through) with lative<br />
*''phó'' (along) with lative<br />
*''pló'' (opposite to, across) with locative<br />
*''sós'' (with) with comitative to express a greater degree of endowment (ornative); with ablative to indicate "without"; with lative for "in addition to"<br />
*''óp'' (about, concerning) with genitive; with ablative for "according to"<br />
*''ól'' (like) with genitive; as an adverb "similarly"<br />
*''jak'' (away, despite) with ablative; as an adverb as well<br />
*''mai'' (excluding) with ablative<br />
*''mak'' (except) with ablative<br />
*''mats'' (instead of) with ablative<br />
*''sai'' (including) with comitative<br />
*''sak'' (concerning, regarding) with comitative; with ablative to emphasize the causal aspect (due to, because of, thanks to)<br />
*''phe'' (for the sake of) with lative<br />
<br />
====Pronominal====<br />
<br />
When used with pronouns, separate adpositions only come with dative forms to indicate lative. Otherwise adpositions take possessive suffixes, inalienable for locative and alienable for ablative: ''voi nai'' (into me), ''voinga'' (inside me), ''voiń'' (from inside me)<br />
<br />
Of the polite possessive suffixes, alienable is added onto the adposition and then the entire compound is conjugated for lative, locative or ablative: ''voitha'' (in You; attributive), ''voithaga'' (into You), ''voithakha'' (inside You; predicative), ''voithapa'' (from inside You)<br />
<br />
===Derivational Morphology===<br />
<br />
Verbs and adjectives are derived from nouns by adding suffixes and in some cases prefixes as well.<br />
<br />
====Noun====<br />
<br />
Many nouns share same origins and these endings are the most common forms of derivation:<br />
*Suffixing verbs with once established ending vowels or consonant appropriate for the noun class. <br />
*place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix<br />
*collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish)<br />
**Archaic forms also add the prefix ''kl'' <br />
*being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy")<br />
**doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer)<br />
**experiencer, patient: ABS with ''(k)ois'' or ''(k)oit'' depending on animacy: ''kepois'' (person being washed)<br />
**origin: ABL with ''(o)su'': ''ukopposu'' (person from north)<br />
**characteristic (from abstract quality): INS with final duplicated vowel and ''tu'': ''luwishitu'' (beauty)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)n'' (AN) or ''(o)l'' (INAN): ''koson'' (wood), ''qotol'' (stone)<br />
*diminutive: reduplication of final sound with ''t'' between vowels and ''i'' between consonants: ''kosis'' (small tree)<br />
*augmentative: reduplication of final sound with ''g'' between vowels and ''a'' between consonants: ''kosas'' (great tree)<br />
**apotheosis: augmentative with ''a''-ending: ''kosonana'' (godwood)<br />
*abstract quality, feature: ABS suffixed with ''(k)oti'': ''dothoti'' (manliness)<br />
*'''gerund''' (act of doing): via derivated [[Sceptrian#Verb|verb]] suffixed with ''(o)pi'': ''glerkurpi'' (mace-battering)<br />
<br />
====Adjective====<br />
<br />
Different cases and affixes are used for the derivation:<br />
*similarity, having something: ''dh'' suffix to abstract gender and animate ''u''-ending; voicing of fricatives (''h→qh'', no change with affricates); nasals [[Sceptrian#Consonant_form|"lateralized"]] + ''o''; voicing of plosives + ''o'' (''q→g''); l-declension as in INS-COM: ''evadh'' (bright), ''dodh'' (masculine)<br />
**full of, having something: previous suffixed with ''ol'': ''mel muvol'' (waters full of fish)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)p'': ''kosonop'' (wooden)<br />
*origin, relation: ABL form with a final ''ó'' added or replacing the original ending vowel: ''kusupó'' (friendly)<br />
*absence, without: ''ti'' suffixed to VOC form: ''evæti'' (lightless=dark)<br />
*doing: ''on'' added after INS case: ''kephon'' (washing)<br />
*who did: INS with ''ompu'': ''kephompu'' (who washed = ''pessyt'' in Finnish)<br />
*done by: INS with ''empo'' and possibly inalienable possessive suffix: ''kephemponga'' (washed by me)<br />
*not done: LAT suffixed with ''tip'': ''kepóotip'' (unwashed)<br />
*experiencing: LAT suffixed with ''p'': kepóop (being washed)<br />
*result (wanted): LAT suffixed with ''pi'': ''kepóopi'' (washed=clean)<br />
**if unwanted: LAT suffixed with ''pot'': ''vangostóopot'' (drunk)<br />
*possible: POS with ''ta'': ''kenta'' (washable)<br />
*requiring: LOC with ''rt'': ''kepurt'' (needs to be washed)<br />
*opposite, negation: VOC with ''tot''<br />
<br />
Notice that plural forms of adjectives may be derived from plural nouns: ''dolth kep'''s'''on'' (men who are washing)<br />
<br />
====Verb====<br />
<br />
A declined core noun receives an ending which describes how the verb reflects the noun:<br />
*In some cases, the vowel ending of nouns may simply be removed or the absolutive of a consonant-ending noun may also serve as a verb.<br />
*ABS = "happens, is": ''kep'' (is washed)<br />
*COM = "using": ''tuph'' (is poked with a stick), ''glerkh'' (is hit with a mace)<br />
*POS + ''k'' = "similarity": ''melonk'' (is wet)<br />
*DAT + ''k'' = "making/becoming" (no ''k'' with Abstract): ''zurmu'' → ''zurmjik'' (strong person → is strengthened), ''zurp'' → ''zurpeik'' (strong, durable object → hardens) & ''zurma'' → ''zurmak'' (strength → intensifies)<br />
*LAT + ''t'' = "movement, quasi-inceptive": ''glerkóot'' (swings a mace, INTR), ''melot'' (flows), ''latepóot'' (is persuaded to dance, INTR; begins a dance with, TR), ''lehkot'' (runs) <br />
*LOC + ''r'' = "frequentative": ''glerkur'' (is battered with a mace), ''melur'' (rains; drips)<br />
*VOC + ''k'' = "momentane": ''glerkék'' (is hit once with a mace), ''melék'' (splashes once)<br />
*POS + ''(o)v'' = "consider, feel": ''vongv'' (is considered strange = ''oudoksutaan'' in Finnish)<br />
* Several endings can be stacked on verbs without turning it into a noun in between: ''melurék'' (shower of rain falls), ''tup(o)hkur'' (is often poked with a stick). When deriving, the ''r''-ending are declined according to the ''l''-paradigm.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Sceptrian agree with the gender, number and cases of their head. When an adjective is used as a predicative, it comes before its head, but when as an attributive, it comes after. Adjective declension follows approximately the same rules as [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun declension]]. In the common ''dh''-ending F-declension, ''o'' is added between ''dh'' and case-endings with consonants. Changes in both casual and poetic speech include mirroring onset into coda: ''dothklu jadaadh'''ulk''''' (near nice men)<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+DH-declension<br />
! !! ABS !! ERG !! DAT !! POS !! INS !! LAT !! LOC !! ABL !! VOC<br />
|-<br />
!SG<br />
|dh || dhee || dhi || dhor || dhos || dh'''ok''' || dh'''uk''' || dh'''op''' || dhé<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
| ldh(o) || dhele || dhil || dhoŕ || dhosh || dh'''olk''' || dh'''ulk''' || dh'''olp''' || ldhé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Sceptrian#Apophony|Apophony]] in the stressed syllable is used to indicate the gender: base for inanimate, first apophony with animate and second with abstract gender: ''eja jadædh, doth jadaadh, latep jadadh'' <br />
<br />
Polite adjectives are formed from the abstract form with predicative prefix ''nga'' and attributive suffix ''æ'': ''ngaluwidh Nith'' (You are beautiful), ''shosleetha luwidhæ'' (a beautiful knight)<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
<br />
'''Positive''' of an adjective is the base form.<br />
*When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.)<br />
*Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle.<br />
*When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii faaldh dolth lutush.'' (As many men as women.) <br />
<br />
'''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). <br />
*Manner quatifiers ''orkai, jofai'' and ''zei'' can be used to indicate the degree: ''luwidhé orkai'' (much more beautiful), ''luwidhé jofai'' (slightly more beautiful), ''luwidhé zei'' (not more beautiful)<br />
*When comparing two nouns adjective comes first (predicative comparative), the standard acquires the dative case, and comparative forms agree with their head in gender and number: ''luwildhé po swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*Pronoun comparison is also possible to construct with alienable possessional suffixes: ''luwildhév swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*When adjective comparative is not included, postpositional ''fadhé'' (more) or ''føødhi'' (less) can be used with noun plurals: ''dolth faldhé lutwi'' (more men than women)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative''' is similar to noun apotheosis: the ending is reduplicated with ''é'' between consonants and ''j'' between vowels, and an ''a'' added to the end: ''luwidhédha'' (most beautiful). Similarly to comparative, ''ti'' gives the meaning of "least": ''luwidhédhati'' (least beautiful).<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly)<br />
<br />
Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh óomidhé'' (very beautiful < "largely")<br />
<br />
'''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative adverb''' is similar to adjective superlative in its reduplication but with an ''æ''-ending: ''zaivie jadædhédhæ'' (you sing most pleasantly)<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Missing verbs: <br />
*"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man)<br />
**Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith)<br />
**Showing tense-aspect:<br />
***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past)<br />
***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective<br />
***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense<br />
***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" <br />
**Vernacularly, [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|proximal demonstrative pronouns]] are used as copulae with corresponding grammatical gender: ''Trs saitu Berats.'' ("Smith this Berats." Berats is a smith.)<br />
* "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man")<br />
<br />
====Conjugation====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, primary conjugation of verbs indicates person, number and tense-aspect, and it includes affixation and apophony. Conjugation for different [[Sceptrian#Mood|moods]] is slightly more complex.<br />
<br />
=====Root=====<br />
<br />
Verbs are given in their 3SG.INAN GNO form which is used to form all of the third person forms. With first and second person subjects, the first apophony is used in indicative inceptive and future. Polite second person forms use the second apophony<br />
<br />
=====Affixes=====<br />
<br />
Fusional conjugation affixes convey the person, number, tense and aspect (and honorific). Subject and object suffixes are almost always used with verbs, the antipassive being the only exception. Agent prefixes aren't often used in the casual register, mostly to form the [[Sceptrian#Reflexive|reflexive]], but they have to be used in the formal register. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || ha || e || he || ahi || aqhi || ó || hó || (o) || l<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || han || en || hen || ang || aing || ón || hón || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| ast || last || est || lest || æst || hæst || ós || lós || os || osl<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| ajin || hajin || ejin || hejin || azing || izing || ójin || hójin || oin || loin<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || hai || ei || hei || athi || idhi || óji || hóji || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| har || +har || her || +her || athar || idhar || hór || +hór || ho || +ho<br />
|}<br />
* initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive<br />
* initial ''h'' is for aspiration of the final plosive or simply ''h'' after a vowel<br />
**if the final plosive is already breathy, ''o'' is added after it<br />
*+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration<br />
**simple ''h'' becomes ''qh''<br />
*Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.) Note the second apophony due to the abstract gender.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || sa || e || se || æ || hæ || ó || só || o || lo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || san || en || sen || nga || ngai || ón || són || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| tsa || tsla || tse || tsle || tsæ || tshæ || tsó || tsló || so || slo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| jan || zhan || jen || zhen || izæ || izhæ || jón || zhón || i || li<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || sai || ei || sei || thæ || dhæ || jó || zhó || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| ar || sar || er || ser || thar || dhar || ór || sór || or || lor<br />
|}<br />
*Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.)<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ónbouson dothee pof.'' (A man (ERG) is lifting a feather (ABS).), ''Bousón doth.'' (The man falls.) ''Bouson pof.'' (The feather (ABS) falls.).<br />
<br />
====Tense====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, verbs are conjugated for three tenses: past, present and future. These tenses describe when an action took place relative to current moment as their names indicate. <br />
<br />
====Aspect====<br />
<br />
Gnomic-static aspect is used to indicate general truths ''Zaitó Hala.'' (sun rises) and static situations ''Mépa lusha.'' (I can speak Sceptrian). It can be used with expressions of time to specify when something was static ''Petsipha kas arakha.'' (dress-STAT.1SG this.COM yesterday.TEMP "I was dressed in these clothes yesterday (as well).")<br />
<br />
Present progressive describes dynamic actions ''Anbaplóph lusha kha.'' (I'm reading Sceptrian at the moment). Present inceptive is used when an action is about to begin or someone is starting to do something.<br />
*Inceptive is only used once: Subject inceptive with intransitive and mostly agent inceptive with translative verbs. Object ending is either PRES.PROG, when something was begun only a moment ago, or FUT, when something is about to begin.<br />
**Translative object inceptive if the object caused the initialization: ''Órlateepast.'' (He is about to take me to dancing through my initiative.)<br />
<br />
Past imperfective is used with continuous activities which were happening before the present. The contrasting perfective aspect describes the event as a whole and having an endpoint in the past.<br />
<br />
In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used.<br />
<br />
Endings with different tenses and aspects may be mixed in some cases:<br />
*PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) <br />
*PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while))<br />
<br />
====Mood====<br />
<br />
Moods express speaker's attitude towards the subject or their knowledge of it. They are divided into realis and irrealis moods: the former expresses factual statements while the latter indicates that an event hasn't taken place or the speaker is uncertain of a situation.<br />
<br />
=====Realis=====<br />
<br />
'''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well)<br />
<br />
'''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for supposedly factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.)<br />
<br />
=====Irrealis=====<br />
<br />
'''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?)<br />
*The change in stress does not affect the apophony.<br />
<br />
'''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) <br />
*The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!)<br />
**Alternatively, the ''r'' may be added after the inceptive agent prefix.<br />
<br />
'''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original stressed syllable: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: '''''la'''latép'' (may dance), '''''ak'''aktæsos'' (may hear), ''rorøt'' (may go)<br />
*The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject.<br />
*The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished<br />
<br />
=====Particles=====<br />
<br />
Particles are placed after a verb to alter or to specify its meaning.<br />
<br />
Realis<br />
*''pai'' mirative (with soft imperative in present): ''Rótóji pai!'' (He went!?)<br />
**with adjectives or as an adverb: ''Luwi pai!'' (How beautiful!) <br />
<br />
Evidentials (with causatives)<br />
*''atasi'' hearsay: ''Rotóji tasi fope.'' (I heard from you that he went.)<br />
*''tesei'' visual: ''Rótoutóji tesei nape.'' (I didn't see him go.)<br />
<br />
Irrealis<br />
*''norka'' dubitative (with subjunctive): ''Rorøtóji norka.'' (I doubt he went.)<br />
*''gana'' volitive (with future subjunctive): ''Lalatépar gana.'' (I wish I could dance.)<br />
<br />
Conditional (with subjunctive)<br />
*''ta'' apodosis: ''Arziizeither ta'' (I will raise you...)<br />
*''-ti-'' infixed between reduplicated form for protasis: ''boutiboisen'' (if you fall)<br />
<br />
Hortatives (with soft imperative which itself works as an adhortative or dehortative with negation (unwillingness))<br />
*Cohortative: ''Latéprlast kha!'' (Let's dance now!), ''Rótrlastonget khugu.'' (Let's not go there.)<br />
*''jokæ'' exhortative (inhortative through negation): ''Rótrest jokæ.'' (You really should go.)<br />
<br />
'''Formal''' register differences:<br />
*''aktasosai'' (hears) conjugated for hearsay: ''Røtathi aiaktasosóji.'' (I heard from her that you left.)<br />
*''tesos'' (sees) conjugated for visual evidentiality: ''Rotóji tesosai.'' (I saw her go.)<br />
*''tsmaadhoré'' (doubtfully) used for dubitative<br />
*''tutaadhoré'' (wishfully) used for volitive<br />
*''alké'' permissive with dative: ''Rótest alké foki.'' (You may leave.)<br />
**prohibitive with negated (inability) imperative infinitive: ''Rótrostodi alké foki.'' (You aren't allowed to leave.)<br />
*both conditional particles are used separately and they are prefixed with the subjunctive reduplication: ''Arziizeither zaita bouboisen bouti.'' (I will raise you if you fall.)<br />
<br />
'''In literature''' to express the peaking pitch of ironical statements and lowered pitch of sarcastic expressions:<br />
*''jø'' verbal irony: ''Jótesosoi melurpi, jóbatophoi "Luwidh jø hi loi khu".'' (He saw the rain and said: "''Beautiful'' day out there")<br />
*''gæ'' sarcasm: ''Uu, eiluwikoi gæ pai.'' (Oh, ''how beautiful'' you made it.)<br />
<br />
====Negation====<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Negation affixes<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Manner→<br />
! Inability<br />
!colspan="6"| Unwillingness<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Form→<br />
!2nd apophony +infix<br>(before patient-suffix)<br />
!colspan="3"|Intranslative<br>suffix<br />
!colspan="3"|Translative<br>infix (after agent-prefix)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Person→<br />
!All<br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!SG<br />
|ost<br />
|net<br />
|fep<br />
|set<br />
|no<br />
|fo<br />
|so<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|osht<br />
|nget<br />
|vep<br />
|slet<br />
|ngo<br />
|flo<br />
|slo<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|PST<br />
|out<br />
|colspan="3"|nait<br />
|colspan="3"|me<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|FUT<br />
|oz<br />
|colspan="3"|nort<br />
|colspan="3"|mor<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse'''fo'''lateephar?'' (You don't want to begin dancing with me?)<br />
<br />
'''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.)<br />
<br />
Second apophony of negation affixes with subjunctive mood: ''Rorøthórn'''ø'''rt.'' (He may not be willing to go.)<br />
<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
<br />
=====Gerund=====<br />
*Base nouns or their abstract variants may serve as gerunds, which describe the action of doing, but otherwise they are created with the suffix ''(o)pi'' added to a verb root. The suffic also helps to distinguish the forms.<br />
<br />
=====Infinitives=====<br />
*PRES ''-odi'', PST ''-oudi'', FUT ''ordi''<br />
*used with modal verbs<br />
*subjunctive form created with duplication<br />
<br />
=====Participles=====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian participles work as adjectives. Following table shows which "case" and suffix the verb base (or gerund in formal register) takes.<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Present participle suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!IPFV<br />
!PFV<br />
|-<br />
!Patientive (LAT)<br />
|''p''<br />
|''pi/pot''<br />
|-<br />
!Negative (LAT)<br />
|<br />
|''tip''<br />
|-<br />
!Active (INS)<br />
|rowspan="2"|''on''<br />
|''ompu''<br />
|-<br />
!Agentive (INS)<br />
|''empo''<br />
|}<br />
*Also the "requiring" (FUT) form LOC+''rt'' and "possible" (GNO) POS+''ta'' <br />
*Past forms are created by adding ''i'' to the end: ''kephoni'' (was being washed)<br />
*Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed)<br />
*Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]]<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, auxiliary verbs are conjugated only for subject which may act as the agent of the clause. The verbs can either precede (dynamic, deontic) or come after (epistemic) different verb infinitives. Since regular object-patient conjugation can't be used, objects have to be written (no pro-drop) and they are declined into instrumental-comitative case.<br />
*''tut'' "want" (from ''tuta'' "craving, wish"): ''Tutajin kepoudi his.'' (I wanted to wash it.)<br />
**infinitive in lative case for "want something to be done": ''Tutan kepordiki his.'' (I want it to be washed.)<br />
**"be going to" (FUT): ''Tuutar latepordi.'' (I'm going to dance.)<br />
**"wish" (SBJV) mostly as the subjunctive of the absent ''to be''-verb: ''Tutitan khau fos.'' (I wish you were here) <br />
*''mép'' "can, know how to" (dynamic) (from ''mépi'' "skill"): ''Mépa latepodi'' ("I can dance"; notice gnomic-static mood)<br />
*''kuut'' "can, may" (deontic / epistemic) (from ''kuutó'' "possibility"): ''Kuutest rotordi.'' (You may leave.), ''Fendógópot kuutó pai.'' (He may unexpectedly be dead.)<br />
**particle ''nor'' added after the verb for lower possibility i.e. "could, might": ''Fendógópi kuut nor.'' (It might be dead.)<br />
**particle ''ga'' added for "should, must": ''Fendógópi kuut ga.'' (It should be dead, as we wanted.)<br />
*''khet'' "must" (deontic) (from ''kheti'' "necessity"): ''Khetan rotodi.'' (I must go now), ''Kheetar rotordi.'' (I must go soon)<br />
*''khurd'' "dare" (from ''khurdi'' "daring"): ''¿Khurde glerkékodi nas?'' (Do you dare hit me with a mace?)<br />
<br />
Mixing tenses: <br />
*''Tutitai latepordi.'' SBJV.want-PST.PFV.1SG dance-INF.FUT "I would've wanted to dance"<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian distinguishes between two voices, active and antipassive. Passive is very similar to active since Sceptrian is absolutive-ergative, and thus isn't considered a true change in voice. Antipassive is used to reduce the valency of the verbs by removing the object of a transitive clause.<br />
<br />
Active construction: verb-agent-object and verb-object-agent are used so that a comment (rheme) precedes the topic (theme). [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|Emphasizing clitics]] are used to mark the topic. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Ónzaiton dothee pof.<br />
|IPA = /ɔ̃zaɪ̯tə̃ dəθe: pəf/<br />
| morphemes = ón-zait-on doth-ee pof-Ø<br />
| gloss = 3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV man-ERG feather-ABS<br />
| translation = A man is lifting a feather.<br />
}} <br />
<br />
Passive construction: To demote the agent (ERG), it's either removed or inflected into causal ablative (ABL). Verb is only conjugated for the object.<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Zaiton pof (dothpo).<br />
|IPA = /zaɪ̯tə̃ pəf (dəθpə)/<br />
| morphemes = zait-on pof-Ø (doth-po)<br />
| gloss = lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV feather-ABS (man-ABL)<br />
| translation = A feather is being lifted (by a man).<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Antipassive''' construction: Agent (ERG) transforms into subject (ABS) and object (ABS) takes the instrumental-comitative (INS) case. Word order becomes SV(O), and the verb is conjugated according to the agent only and the stressed syllable undergoes second [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]]. The verb is also suffixed with the emphasizing clitic ''ma'' in the formal register. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Doth ónzeit(ma) (pofos).<br />
|IPA = /dəθ ɔ̃zei̯t(mä) (pəfəs)/<br />
| morphemes = doth-Ø ón-zeit-Ø(or =ma) (pof-os)<br />
| gloss = man-ABS ANTIP\3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-ANTIP(or =ANTIP.FORM) (feather-INS)<br />
| translation = The man is lifting (a feather). <br />
}}<br />
<br />
Instrument and turning it into an agent:<br />
* ''Ónzaiton dothee pof vakuhosozh.'' (...with his own hand...)<br />
**''Ónzaiton pof vakuhp dothir.'' (the feather is raised by the man's hand)<br />
**''Onzaiton pof tuph dothi'''sh''' slokli.'' (The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them.) Inanimate agent conjugation, and dative of possession is inflected to avoid misinterpretation!<br />
* ''Vakuh ónzeit pofos.'' (The hand lifts something, which happens to be a feather)/(someone intentionally lifts a feather with their hand) Notice animate conjugation!<br />
**''Tup onzeit dothpo pofos.'' (The stick, which is being held by a man, lifts something, which happens to be a feather) ABL as causative since inanimate ''tup''.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
Decimal base was adopted due to commerce, but traces of the former octal base remain. <br />
<br />
Numerals are placed before their head. Last part of a cardinal determiner agrees with case through matching declension: ''op'''l''' tupl'' (two sticks)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Numeral system<br />
|-<br />
! Number <br />
! Number !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional !! Multiplicative adverb !! Multiplicative adjective !! Group !! Polygon<br />
|-<br />
!Zero<br />
| ozi || oz || ozhi || - || zeng (never) || - || ze (no) || -<br />
|-<br />
!One<br />
| ipi || ip || iphi || liku (whole) || ohu (once) || ipitse (onefold) || ipisi (singular) || ipirt (dot) <br />
|-<br />
!Two <br />
| opi || op || ophi || lopu (half) || ophu (twice) || opitse (twofold) || opisi (pair) || opart (line)<br />
|-<br />
!Three<br />
| oki || ok || okhi || loku || okhu || okitse || okisi || okart (triangle)<br />
|-<br />
!Four<br />
| óppi || óp || óphi || lóppu || óphu || óphitse || óphisi || ópart <br />
|-<br />
!Five<br />
| ofi || of || offi || lofu || offu || ofitse || ofisi || ofart<br />
|-<br />
!Six<br />
| ókki || ók || ókhi || lókku || ókhu || ókhitse || ókhisi || ókart<br />
|-<br />
!Seven<br />
| omi || om || ongi || lomu || ongu || omitse || omisi || omart<br />
|-<br />
!Eight<br />
| ngovi || ngov || ngovvi || longovu || ngovvu || ngovitse || ngovisi || jart<br />
|-<br />
!Nine<br />
| ngoipi || ngoip || ngoiphi || longoipu || ngoiphu || ngoipitse || ngoipisi || ngoipart<br />
|-<br />
!Ten<br />
| jopi || jop || jophi || lojopu || jophu || jopitse || jopisi || jopart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!Eleven<br />
!Twelve<br />
!Thirteen<br />
!Fourteen<br />
!Fifteen<br />
!Sixteen<br />
!Seventeen<br />
!Eighteen<br />
!Nineteen<br />
!Twenty<br />
|-<br />
| ngoki <br />
| ngópi <br />
| ngofi<br />
| ngóki<br />
| ngomi <br />
| ophungovi <br />
| jopomi<br />
| jopingovi<br />
| jopingoipi<br />
| ophujopi<br />
|-<br />
!Twenty-one<br />
!Thirty<br />
!Fourty<br />
!Fifty<br />
!Sixty<br />
!Sixty-four<br />
!Sixty-five<br />
!Seventy<br />
!Eighty<br />
!Ninety<br />
|-<br />
| ophujopipi <br />
| okhujopi<br />
| offungovi <br />
| offujopi <br />
|ókhujopi<br />
| mouti<br />
| moutipi<br />
|ongujopi<br />
|ngowopi<br />
|ngoiphujopi<br />
|-<br />
!One hundred<br />
!One hundred<br/>and twenty-two<br />
!One hundred<br/>and sixty-six<br />
!Two hundred<br />
!Thousand<br />
!Three thousand<br/>four hundred<br />
!Ten thousand<br />
!Hundred thousand<br />
!Million<br />
!Billion<br />
|-<br />
| toti <br />
|toti(s)<br>ophujopopi<br />
|toti(s)<br>moutókki<br />
|ophutoti<br />
| mopi<br />
|okhumopi(s)<br>óphutoti<br />
|tothutoti<br />
|tothumopi<br />
|hamisi<br />
|mowisi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Multiplicative adverb form is used in front of the powers of ten (tens, hundreds, ...)<br />
*Digits are annexed into the tens by using the cardinal or determiner form depending whether the digit begins with a vowel or not.<br />
*Fractions are constructed by placing the ''l(o)''-prefixed form after the multiplicative number: ''okhu lóppu'' ("thrice one quarter" = three quarters). The noun is in ablative case and only the fraction is inflected: ''lopu'''ji''' tuppo'' (for one half of a stick)<br />
*Large numbers (from hundred) are written separately from smaller, but in formal register ''s''-letter is added between each power of ten.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
* VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive<br />
* often a comment precedes the topic<br />
* numerals precede nouns<br />
* possessives follow nouns<br />
* predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns<br />
* demonstratives come last<br />
<br />
===Emphasizing clitics===<br />
<br />
Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton pof dothee'''noh'''.'' (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. ''Ónzaiton dothee pof'''ma'''.'' (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used in nominalized relative clauses and with verbs in antipassive constructions.<br />
<br />
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) <br />
<br />
The suffixes are also used with alienable possessive forms to separate the possessor from indirect objects. Chosen depending on the ergativity of the possessum: ''Jóvakuhoi suu pof swi'''ma''' swi.'' (He gave her feather to him.)<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
<br />
====Independent====<br />
<br />
Independent clauses make sense by themselves so that they may form their own sentence.<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, the subject is not necessarily a separate word since the verb can convey both the agent and the object. Thus a single verb can be a complete sentence: ''Ainamoi.'' (It was eaten by me.) However, a full clause may a verbless one as well when the gnomic-static aspect is used or because the languages lacks the verbs "to be" and "to have": ''Ksaru lutu(ma).'' (The woman is a guard.), ''Lutugu ksarushos.'' (Lady has their own guards.)<br />
<br />
Traditional Sceptrian language theorists have used the term ''qópó'' (act) when referring to the verb phrase: the main verb, its auxiliaries and particles which wouldn't appear without the verb. It may also refer to the predicative determiners of a verbless clause subject (possibly bearing the emphasizing clitic): e.g. ''ksaru'' (guard) is ''qópó hetson'' ("still" act) of the above example ''Ksaru lutu.''. This may be called predicate in Westlang grammar. <br />
<br />
''Betsloi'ó'' (affectee), that is, the absolutive subject-object may be: <br />
*Noun: ''Lehkotón '''kuth'''.'' ('''A dog''' is running.)<br />
*Pronoun: ''Aiteshóji '''slo'''.'' ('''They''' were seen by me.)<br />
*Gerund: ''Apekingvó '''lateppi'''.'' (I enjoy '''dancing'''.)<br />
*Another clause: ''Aitésoutóji, '''skugu rorøtóji'''.'' (I couldn't see, '''where he went'''.) <br />
*Note that the main verb conjugation is for the abstract subject. In the indirect question, the verb is in subjunctive.<br />
<br />
''Betslaató'' (affecter) refers to the agent which is declined into the ergative case. <br />
*A gerung will be declined if necessary, but an entire clause remains the same. <br />
<br />
Interrogative clauses begin with either the verb or the interrogative. Interrogative mood is indicated by the moving the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. Questions are placed between question marks "¿" and "?". See below in the [[Sceptrian#Noun_clauses|noun clauses]] for more of indirect questions.<br />
*In written language, requests often use only the final question mark: ''Tsemaakor nai?'' (Will you give it to me?)<br />
<br />
====Conjunction====<br />
<br />
coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?)<br />
*and, but, for, so, or<br />
*...<br />
<br />
Demonstratives will take the case ending, if the entire <br />
<br />
====Noun clauses====<br />
<br />
WIP ... to be redone<br />
*Infinitive.tense + ... + causatives: ''Tesosan kepó vakuhos supe.'' (I see that he washes his hands) vs. ''Onluvakan kep'''óo''' vakuhos supe.'' (The washing of his hands brings me pleasure.)<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
<br />
Nominalizing relative clauses with participles is common.<br />
<br />
Using [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|an emphasizing clitic]] to mark the antecedent for the class-appropriate proximal demonstrative pronoun (thaka/saitu/ka declined for number) which works as a relative pronoun - case chosen according to the embedded clause: <br />
*''Rotóji dothma saituh latepai.'' (leave-PST.PFV.3SG man.ABS-EMPH.ABS P.PROX.AN-COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The man, with whom I danced, left.") <br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahul dothelenos saitush latepai.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS man-PL.ERG-EMPH.ERG P.PROX.AN-PL.COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The men with whom I danced are starting to drink beer.")<br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahulma dothele ka tutitai vangosordi.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS-EMPH.ABS man-PL.ERG P.PROX.INAN SBJV-want-PST.PFV.1SG drink-INF.FUT "Men are starting to drink the beer which I would've wanted to drink."<br />
<br />
====Adverbial clauses====<br />
<br />
non-finite forms + possessive suffixes to indicate subject<br />
<br />
====Conditional clauses====<br />
<br />
subjunctive as explained in verb particle section<br />
<br />
====Indirect speech====<br />
<br />
==Register==<br />
<br />
Different endings which reflect the conversation situation: speakers, familiarity, formality, location... <br />
<br />
===Intimate===<br />
<br />
Agent prefixes aren't used. No ''t'' in inceptive. Due to apophony, subject suffix can be dropped from FUT/INCEP if 1st or 2nd person distinction is clear.<br />
<br />
===Casual===<br />
<br />
In casual register, verb forms are chosen differently when the subject is agent-like (he dances) or patient-like (he fell): ''latepóji'' (he danced AN) vs. ''bousoi'' (he fell INAN)<br />
<br />
===Formal===<br />
<br />
Mandatory use of pronouns and agent prefixes.<br />
<br />
One may use inanimate verb forms as anti-honorific? ''Ondakon næ ka Nithki.'' (I humbly offer this to You)<br />
<br />
Apophony of basic prepositions with root ''oi'': ''Oisti Hala, óosti vakuhanga, ousti qorel'' (under the Sun, under my hand, under the earth)<br />
<br />
In formal register, it is preferred to use only animate nouns as agents while abstract and inanimate are as antipassive subjects: ''luwi... nas'' ("beauty-of.yours it-un-eye-ful-makes me-with", your beauty makes me blind) vs. ''en fø na'' (you are making me blind)<br />
<br />
Distinction between abstract and animate in some categories, such as verb conjugation (''wa'')<br />
<br />
Can people with higher status be abstract or do they occupy a special animate category? (æ inside?)<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
See the [[Sceptrian/Dictionary|dictionary page]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian&diff=35875Sceptrian2015-07-09T09:46:02Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Irrealis */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Construction}}<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Sceptrian<br />
|nativename = [[File:Lusha_name.png|300px]]<br>''Batop Lushan''<br />
|pronunciation = [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ]<br />
|region = Western Central World<br />
|states = Sceptre<br />
|speakers = 29,200,000 <br />
|date = 7th 641<br />
|familycolor = #d3ffce<br />
|fam1 = West-Herookuan<br />
|fam2 = Lutian<br />
|fam3 = Sceptrian branch<br />
|creator=Ahuelni<br />
|setting=Akekata<br />
|dialects = Yerzonian, Mulish, Fanish <br />
|script = Toneka alphabet<br />
|nation = Empire of Sceptre<br />
|minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia<br />
|agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language)<br />
|map = Lusha_regions.jpg<br />
|mapsize = 300<br />
|mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects<br />
}}<br />
{{ClassMeter<br />
|Name = Sceptrian<br />
|NativeName = Batop Lushan<br />
|Type = Fusional<br />
|Alignment = Absolutive-ergative<br />
<br />
|adjective = final<br />
|adposition = mixed<br />
|adverb= final<br />
|article= mixed<br />
|relativeclause = final<br />
|nounclause = final<br />
|order = VSO<br />
<br />
|Tonal = no<br />
|Genders = 3<br />
|Declined = yes<br />
|Conjugated = yes<br />
|Case = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Definiteness = no<br />
|Gender = yes<br />
|Voice = yes<br />
|Mood = yes<br />
|Person = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Tense = yes<br />
|Aspect = yes<br />
|Phonology = 100<br />
|NounCases = 100<br />
|NounDef = 100<br />
|NounNumbers = 100<br />
|NounGender = 100<br />
|VerbPerson = 100<br />
|VerbNumber = 100<br />
|VerbAspect = 90<br />
|VerbTense = 100<br />
|VerbMood = 90<br />
|VerbVoice = 80<br />
|AdjCase = 100<br />
|AdjNumber = 100<br />
|AdjDef = 100<br />
|AdjGen = 100<br />
|AdjComparative = 100<br />
|AdjSuperlative = 100<br />
|Supine = 90<br />
|Gerund = 90<br />
|Participle = 90<br />
|Infinitive = 90<br />
|Modality = 90<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ] or simply ''lusha'') is an ''a priori'' [[w:Artistic_language|artistic language]] created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 29 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking [[Khattish]] and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian and its dialects feature 51 phonetic consonants, some of them with interesting lateral features. The language also has 25 phonetic vowels: twelve short, nine long and four diphthongs. Nasalization, rhotacization and breathy voice are used phonemically. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
If the romanization symbol is the same as in IPA, it is not duplicated. Not bolded romanization indicates that the sound appears as a vernacular or dialectal version.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 830px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px" colspan="2"|<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Uvular<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| [ɱ]<br />
| <br />
| '''n (ń)''' [n]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''t'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''k'''<br />
| '''q'''<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''b'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''d'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''g'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Breathy<br />
| '''ph bh'''<br>[pʰ] [bʱ]<br />
|<br />
|'''th dh'''<br>[tʰ] [dʱ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''kh gh'''<br>[kʰ] [gʱ]<br />
|'''qh'''<br>[qʰ]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| '''pl bl'''<br />[pˡ] [bˡ]<br />
| <br />
| '''tl dl'''<br />[tˡ] [dˡ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''kl gl'''<br/>[kˡ] [gˡ]<br />
| '''ql'''<br/>[qˡ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| ph [ɸ]<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| '''th''' [θ]<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''sh''' [ʃ]<br />
| '''h''' [ç]<br />
| '''kh h''' [x]<br />
| '''qh''' [χ]<br />
| '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''w''' bh [β]<br />
| '''v'''<br />
| '''dh''' [ð]<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| '''zh''' [ʒ]<br />
| <br />
| gh [ɣ]<br />
| <br />
| h [ɦ]<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''sl''' [ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Affricate<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ts''' [t͡s] <br />
| '''tsh''' [t͡ʃ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''tsl''' [t͡ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Approximant<br />
!Non-lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''j'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''l''' [l] [l̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| pr [ʙ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''r (ŕ)''' [r] [r̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The liquids ''r'' and ''l'' can appear as '''syllabic consonants''': ''tlsl'' /tˡl̩ɬ/ (shallow), ''prk'' /pr̩k/ (wagon) and ''trs'' /tr̩s/ (smith)<br />
*Vernacularly, both syllabic and obstruent-following alveolar trill ''r'' and lateral approximant ''l'' are pronounced as voiceless [r̩̊], [r̥], [l̩̊] and [l̥] when in contact with only voiceless consonants: ''trs'' [tr̩̊s] (smith) contrasting with ''trls'' [tr̩s] (while standard /trəls/) (smiths); ''gatl'' [gɑtl̥] (houses) whose pronunciation approaches [gɑtɬ]. <br />
**'''Meslatu Hirke''' made his disputed suggestion in 7:693 that a similar process had led to the birth of ''sl'' as plural indicator, when original plural ''l'' turned first into voiceless and then into ''sl'' after a word-final glottal stop, which has disappeared entirely. <br />
*In eastern dialects, ''pr'' is realized as [ʙ] and ''tr'', ''tsr'' and ''trs'' often as [r̝]. In the dialects, aspirated plosives have been fully spirantized into their fricative counterparts, e.g. [tʰ]>[θ].<br />
*Fricatives show properties of syllabic consonants word-initially and word-finally.<br />
<br />
Nasal [ɱ] only appears as an allophone of nasals with labio-dental sounds /f/ and /v/. Before velar sounds (e.g. /k/) nasals turn similarly into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
Letter ''h'' has four allophones: initial is always [h] despite frontness, [ç] appears elsewhere with front vowels, [x] appears word-finally and [h~ɦ] word-medially with back vowels ''tihtóhnah'' [tiçˈtɔɦ.näx] (assassinator). It's also used after consonants to indicate breathy voice.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 390px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| <br />
| '''u'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-mid<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| o<br/>[ɘ]<br />
| o<br/>[ɤ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
|<br />
| '''o'''<br/>[ə]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''é ø'''<br />[ɛ] [œ]<br />
|<br />
| '''ó'''<br />[ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
|'''æ'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
|'''a'''<br />[ä]<br />
|a<br />[ɑ]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
All the nine main vowel sounds (bolded) have '''long''' versions as separate phonemes.<br />
<br />
Schwa '''''o''''' is used as an epenthetic vowel (anaptyxis). When it is used to break consonant clusters (not indicated in native script) it is the simple schwa /ə/: *dŧ → ''doth'' /dəθ/ (man). When stressed, it is vernacularly realized as [ɘ], and in western dialects more clearly as [ɤ]: *dŧs → ''dothos'' [dəˈθɘˑs]<br />
<br />
Vowel ''a'' is [ɑ] after voiced consonants. Vowel ''æ'' is often more open [a], though, in Western dialects, it has merged with ''é''. <br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, there are only closing diphthongs which go up in the vowel chart:<br />
*Back: ou /ɔʊ̯/<br />
*Front: ai /äɪ̯/, ei /ei̯/, oi /œi̯/<br />
<br />
If the syllable border (glottal stop) is between vowels and they don't form a diphthong, apostrophe is used: ''tai'' (for long) vs. ''ta'i'' (past)<br />
*In native [[Sceptrian#Script|script]], separate graphemes for diphthongs exist and glottal stop is not marked.<br />
<br />
If diphthongs are followed by vowels, they are separated by a glottal stop in formal register. <br />
*In casual speech, ''ouV'' becomes ''owV'' and ''ViV'' ''VjV'': ''oua→ówa'' and ''aia→aja''. If the following vowel is the same, a glottal stop breaks the former diphthong and the ending vowel is lengthened: ''ai'i→a'ii''<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
<br />
===Onset===<br />
<br />
Basic [[w:Syllable#Structure|syllabic structure]] is CV, where the onset (beginning) consonant can be of any type. <br />
*It is possible to use liquids and approximants as '''glides''' (CLV) between the onset and the rime (ending). <br />
*Up to two consonants with same voicing may appear in the onset (CCV), especially fricative-plosive combinations, but never two plosives: ''stak'' (fence), ''fkot'' (nest), ''ksaru'' (guard). Affricate ''ts'' takes may be accompanied only by ''w'', ''j'', ''n'' or ''m'': ''tsma'' (doubt). Combination /sl/ has turned into /ɬ/.<br />
*Lateralization and aspiration may never appear together, and nasalized rhoticization is only found in Fanish dialect.<br />
<br />
===Nucleus=== <br />
<br />
The nucleus can be either a vowel or a liquid, thus CVC and CLC are also possible syllables. <br />
*Vowels (diphthongs included) may exist as a stand-alone nucleic syllable (V), mostly in the beginning or at the end of a word. <br />
*If nucleus is a liquid, plosives appear in codas only word-finally: ''dldlp'' /dˡl̩ˈdˡl̩p/ (bubble)<br />
<br />
===Coda=== <br />
<br />
The coda (final) may consist of up to three consonants with possible structures: N, P, F, L; NP, FP, LP; NF, PF, LF; NPF, FPF, LFP, LPF (Nasal, Plosive, Fricative, Liquid). <br />
*Final liquids appear as syllabic consonants<br />
*Approximants ''j'', ''w'' and plain voiced plosives never appear as coda (final) even though they may be written that way (no written schwa): ''nad'' /nä.də/ (stainy). Voiced fricatives may appear as coda. <br />
*In coda, plosives with lateral release, however, will reflect the voicing of the onset: ''gatl'' [gädˡl̩] (houses) vs. ''katl'' [kätˡl̩] (knobs). Vernacularly, the lateral approximant weakens into a voiceless variant [l̥] when in contact with voiceless consonants: ''gatl'' [gätl̥].<br />
<br />
Closed syllables, i.e. those ending in coda, are not as common word-medially as open syllables (ending in nucleus) are. When words are inflected, parts of codas tend to become onsets of the following syllable, if possible. Especially three-consonant clusters are rare word-medially and receive a schwa after a non-lateral stop: ''kamps'' /kämps/ (marsh) → ''kampsku'' → ''kamposku'' /ˈkäm.pəs.ku/ (at marsh)<br />
*Voicing status must be the same for consonants touching at syllable boundaries and the voiced one reduces into voiceless: ''*katbas''→''katpas'' /kätˈpäs/ (fern) vs. ''oist baku'' /œi̯st<sup>(h)</sup> bä.ku/ (under a table)<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
Primary '''stress''' in a word is most often on the second syllable, and when there are four or five syllables, secondary stress is placed onto the final syllable. When there are more syllables, minor stress is placed on even-numbered syllables. <br />
*If the to-be-stressed syllable contains the schwa ''o'' /ə/ or a syllabic consonant, the preceding syllable is stressed in two-syllable words and the following in words with more than three syllables.<br />
**In uninflected words, syllable with nuclear ''o'' is only stressed when it comes second and the preceding syllable has also ''o'' as nucleus. Then the stressed nucleus appears as [ɘ]. Contrast between stressed and non-stressed syllabic consonants may occur as voicing and devoicing respectively. <br />
*A non-final syllable with a long vowel or a diphthong is always stressed and steals the stress from its neighboring syllable. This also moves the secondary stress from final to penultimate syllable, if primary stress falls on first syllable.<br />
<br />
Inflected and affixed word forms have almost always the same stress as the base word (even monosyllabic with schwa): ''doth'' (man) → ''dothku'' [ˈdɘθ.ku] (near the man). <br />
*Vocative and ergative cases as well as inflections with long vowels make an exception: ''dothee'' /dəˈθe:/ (by the man), ''dothé'' /dəˈθɛ/ (O man), ''gatóo'' /gɑˈtɔ:/ (to the house)<br />
<br />
Interrogatives are formed by changing the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. This is indicated with ¿: ''¿Eikepoi?'' [ˈei̯˧˦ˈke˩.pœi̯˨˦] (Did you wash it?)<br />
<br />
==Morphophonology==<br />
<br />
===Vowel form===<br />
<br />
There are five ways of sound altering which may be used for grammatical purposes (mainly number, genitive case and imperfective aspect). In the native script the following are marked on the vowel.<br />
*Lengthening: ''paata'' /pä:tä/ (separation), ''ée'' [ɛ:]~[ɛe̯], ''óo'' /ɔ:/<br />
*Lateral (release): ''pló'' /pˡɔ/ (opposite to), ''tlaf'' /tˡäf/ (sprig) <br />
**Western dialects keep the tongue on the alveolar ridge during vowel pronunciation so that the vowels have a distinct l-sound. Historically, this may have lead to the syllabic l.<br />
*Aspiration/breathy voice: ''phó'' [pʰɔ]~[ɸɔ] (along), ''kébhar'' [kɛˈbʱɑ˞]~[kɛˈβɑ˞] (I will wash), ''tha'' [tʰä]~[θä] (abstract "it"), ''dhaka'' [dʱɑkä]~[ðɑkä] (abstract "that"). <br />
**Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head)<br />
*Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]]<br />
**Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as a short syllabic nasal consonant of the same place as the directly preceding or following consonant<br />
**Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!).<br />
*Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) <br />
**Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞:] (soup)<br />
<br />
===Consonant form===<br />
<br />
Combining sounds<br />
*Lateralization<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sl'' and ''zh'' respectively<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' → ''fl'' & ''w''<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' are geminated<br />
**''m'' & ''n'' → ''ng'' and ''ng'' → ''ńg''<br />
* Aspiration<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sh'' and ''zh''<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' are geminated<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' → ''lh'' and ''rh''<br />
* Voicing and aspiration<br />
**''r'' → ''qh'', ''l'' → ''ldh'', ''v'' → ''w''<br />
<br />
===Apophony===<br />
<br />
Apophony in the '''stressed syllable''' is used for example to express adjective gender and to create different verb forms.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Apophony<br />
|-<br />
!Root<br />
!1st<br />
!2nd<br />
|-<br />
|e<br />
|ee<br />
|é<br />
|-<br />
|o<br />
|ó<br />
|ø<br />
|-<br />
|a<br />
|aa<br />
|æ<br />
|-<br />
|u<br />
|uu<br />
|i<br />
|-<br />
|ai<br />
|ii<br />
|ei<br />
|-<br />
|ou<br />
|óo<br />
|oi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*When the stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting)<br />
*With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of ''é''.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Script=== <br />
[[File:Sceptrian.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Toneka script from the early sixth era. Notice that the vowel form info-box romanization should have "o" instead of "a".]]<br />
[[File:SceptrianTsrnet.JPG|500px|thumb|right|Tsrnet cursive script used for handwriting in modern Sceptre.]]<br />
The Sceptrian alphabet script was derived from the ancient temple marks as were the Aoman and Northern (Latin) scripts. The modern alphabet is called ''Tsoklóp Lushan''.<br />
<br />
Diacritics on vowels mark different [[Sceptrian#Vowel_form|sounds]]. The diacritics may be used with consonants as well, especially in the plural forms of consonant-ending nouns: ''gat̆'' (''gatl'' "houses"), ''doŧ̆'' (''dolth'' "men"). With the diacritics, letter ''ts'' can be lateralized into ''tsl'' or aspirated into ''tsh''.<br />
<br />
The native Sceptrian script has a long history of being unicameral, not distinguishing between the upper and lower case. Only during the sixth era under the Tyranny of West, the flow of refugees from the Coast of Temples encouraged the introduction of case separation. In the developed fonts, capital letters were derived from the traditional Toneka and small letters from the cursive Tsrnet.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Short and long letter names with explanations<br />
|-<br />
|aa<br>aat || ee<br>eet || ée<br>eet maatikipi<br>(opened e) || ii<br>iit || oo<br>oot || óo<br>oot guzbikipi<br>(deepened o) || uu<br>uut <br />
|-<br />
|ææ<br>aat evadh<br>(bright a) || øø<br>oot gudh<br>(dark o) || ai<br>aat zaithon<br>(rising a) || ei<br>eet zaithon<br>(rising e) || oi<br>oot zaithon<br>(rising o) || ou<br>óot bousoson<br>(falling o) ||<br />
|-<br />
| po<br>poot || bo<br>bóot || mo<br>mool || wo<br>wool || to<br>toot || do<br>dóot || <br />
|-<br />
| tho<br>toot hifdo<br>(windy t) || dho<br>dóot hifdo<br>(windy d) || no<br>nool || so<br>siit || sho<br>siit hifdo<br>(windy s) || zo<br>ziit || zho<br>ziit gudh<br>(dark z) <br />
|-<br />
| ngo<br>góot slenguhpi<br>(g using nose) || tso<br>tsiit || lo<br>lool || slo<br>lool hifdo<br>(windy l) || fo<br>fiit || vo<br>fiit gudh<br>(dark f) || jo<br>jool <br />
|-<br />
| ko<br>koot || go<br>góot || ho<br>hiit || qho<br>hiit surmudh<br>(strong h) || qo<br>koot venongp<br>(k being<br> swallowed) || ro<br>rool || <br />
|-<br />
|plo<br>looh tisk<br>(with l<br> mark) || pon<br>slenguhpi tisk<br>(using nose<br> mark) || por<br>tisk prung<br>(mark of<br> trill) || pho<br>tisk hifn<br>(mark of<br> wind) || poo<br>tisk spiing<br>(mark of<br> length) || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Romanization===<br />
<br />
====Modern====<br />
Consonant variation:<br />
*Letter ''r'' is used with consonants for /r̩/ and between vowels for /r/, but after vowels in the end of syllables for rhoticization ''or'' /ɚ/. Letter ''ŕ'' is used to emphasize the use of /r/ after vowels ''oŕ'' /ər/.<br />
*Similarly letter ''n'' can appear syllable-finally with nasalization but ''ń'' always as /n/: ''an'' /ã/ vs. ''ań'' /an/. <br />
*With ''ng'' /ŋ/, the accent signals lengthening ''nańgo'' /näŋ:ə/ or ''naŋŋo'' (sweaty).<br />
*Labialization of plosives is indicated by PuV (V is any vowel except ''u'') or with ''w''.<br />
*Breathry voice is indicated with an ''h'' straight after a plosive. The ''h'' is also used for corresponding fricatives which occur word-finally. This risk of confuse is one of the downsides of the simplified modern system: ''nath'' /näθ/ "a beggar" or /nätʰ/ "with stains".<br />
<br />
====Old====<br />
<br />
The old romanization system (or part of it) was used until western regions of Eastern Sceptre were joined with the Western Sceptre empire in 7th era 161, during the war against Empress Renula of Golden Islet. A revision was needed when both Sceptrian and Aoma were used in the same printing press and texts had to be distributed to westlang-using communities. Peter Martyea suggested in 7:189 that the payment according to number of pages may have favoured quick adaptation as the non-diacritic system induced much longer texts (see the comparison example).<br />
<br />
Consonants:<br />
*Nasal: '''ŋ''' ''ng'' /ŋ/<br />
**Texts from the first century of the seventh era use ''ǥ'' for word-initial /ŋ/.<br />
*Fricative: '''ŧ''' ''th'' /θ/, '''đ''' ''dh'' /ð/, '''ś''' ''sh'' /ʃ/, '''ź''' ''zh'' /ʒ/, '''ħ''' ''qh'' /χ/<br />
*Affricate: '''c''' ''ts'' /t͡s/, '''č''' ''tsh'' /t͡ʃ/<br />
*Lateral: '''š''' ''sl'' /ɬ/, '''ǩ''' ''kl'' /kˡ/, '''ǧ''' ''gl'' /gˡ/<br />
<br />
Compact equivalents of sound altering:<br />
*Lengthening with a bar: ''ṓ'' /ɔ:/ and ''ō'' /ə:/<br />
*Lateral release with a breve diacritic: ''tŏ'' /tˡə/<br />
*Nasalization with a tilde: ''õ'' /ə̃/, ''on'' /ən/<br />
*Rhotacization with a diaeresis: ''ö'' /ɚ/, ''or'' /ər/<br />
*Aspiration with a grave accent: ''pò'' /pʰə/, ''pô'' /pʰɔ/<br />
<br />
Comparison between the systems:<br />
*Old: Ǧëǩ śošēŧã <br />
*Modern: Glerkl shosleethan (maces of a knight)<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
The most complete study of the structure of pre-modern Sceptrian words was done by Porutingatu of Jerzónó in year 362 of the seventh era. She collected, grouped and analyzed the fusional morphemes and listed the new rules to replace the outdated writings from the sixth era. By 370, her work had led to a new interest in linguistics and ultimately to the founding of ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan'' (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) which has been unifying and regulating the language along with its orthography since then.<br />
<br />
Sceptrian utilizes [[w:Fusional_language|fusional]] [[w:Inflection|inflections]] and has an [[w:Ergative–absolutive_language|absolutive-ergative]] [[w:Morphosyntactic_alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]. The language is rather [[w:Head-directionality_parameter|head-initial]] and its primary [[w:Word_order|word order]] is verb-agent-object.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns are used to refer to e.g. people or things in sentences instead of using the original nouns. In Sceptrian, they exist in two numbers and are inflected according to six [[Sceptrian#Cases|'''cases''']]. <br />
<br />
====Personal====<br />
Second person includes polite versions as well which were adapted by Aoma-sperkers. Third person singular makes distinction between abstract (Ab), animate (An) and inanimate (In) pronouns while plural only between Ab-An and In. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Personal pronoun inflection'''<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! 1SG !! 1PL !! 2SG !! 2PL !! 2SG.POL !! 2PL.POL !! 3SG.Ab !! 3SG.An !! 3PL.A !! 3SG.In !! 3PL.In<br />
|-<br />
!ABS <br />
| na || mo || fo || po || Nith || With || tha || su || slo || hi || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
| næ || moslo || fø || poslo || Nithe || Widhes || thaa || suu || sloslo || hii || kloslo<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
| nai || mokli || foki || pokli || Nithki || Withkli || thai || swi || slokli || hiki|| klokli<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
| nar || moŕ || for || poŕ || Nithor || Withoŕ || thar || sur || sloŕ || hir || kloŕ<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
| nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh || thas || sus || slosh || his || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
| nape || moplo || fope || poplo || Nitti || Witti || thape || supe || sloplo || hipi || kloplo<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''Comitative''' case is used to indicate company: ''Mo slosh arakha.'' (We were with them yesterday.)<br />
*'''Causal''' describes the cause of an action or origin of something: ''Aitesosai næ su fope'' (I saw him because of (/thanks to) you), ''Hi supe foki.'' (It (is) from him to you.)<br />
<br />
3rd person abstract pronoun is used in the formal register when introducing or referring to a person of higher status.<br />
<br />
====Reflexive====<br />
Self-pronoun ''ru'' for '''reflexive''' and '''reciprocal''': ''tesosón ru'' (they are watching themself), ''ónlatepón ru'' (he is dancing by himself, alone) vs. ''ónlatepón su'' (he is dancing with him); ''sónkephón ru'' (they are washing each other) vs. ''sónkephón sloslo slo/soutu'' (they are washing them)<br />
*reflexive is easier with others: ''anlatepan'' (I'm dancing by myself); ''ankepan'' (I'm washing myself) vs. ''ankep'' ("I'm washing it"), ''kepan'' (I'm being washed)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
<br />
Simple words for "this/these" and "that/those". When demonstratives are used with [[Sceptrian#Nouns|nouns]], they behave similarly to [[Sceptrian#Adjectives|adjectives]]. In the following examples, note that Sceptrian lacks the [[Sceptrian#Verbs|verb "to be"]]: <br />
*As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.)<br />
*For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) <br />
*The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the head acts more like a specifying comment on the true sentence subject: ''Bouson ko qot.'' (That's falling, the rock, I mean.) <br />
<br />
See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]].<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Demonstrative pronoun inflection<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Case <br />
!colspan="2"| Proximal <br />
!colspan="2"| Distal <br />
|-<br />
!SG !! PL !! SG !! PL<br />
|-<br />
!ABS<br />
|ka || kla || ko || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
|kaa || klaa || kó || kló<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
|kai ||klai || koi || kloi<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
|kan ||klang || kon || klong<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
|kas || klash || kos || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
|kap || klapa || kop ||klopo<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Table of correlatives===<br />
<br />
Determiners follow their heads and agree in number and with the cases mentioned above in [[Sceptrian#Demonstrative|the table]], where DAT & LAT, COM & LOC, CAU & ABL and ABS & VOC are corresponding. Words follow the declension shown above or paradigms similar to [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun cases]]. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!rowspan="2"|Interrogative<br />
!colspan="2"|Demonstrative<br />
!colspan="5"|Quantifier<br />
|-<br />
!Proximal !! Distal !! Existential !! Elective !! Universal !! Negatory !! Alternative<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Determiner<br />
| sho || ka (SG)<br/>kla (PL) || ko<br />klo || jofa (some) || ota (any) || orka (every, all) || ze (no) || so (another)<br/>solo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="5"| Pronoun<br />
!Abstract<br />
| ashu || thaka || dhaka || jaafa || thata || thorka || theso || thaso<br />
|-<br />
!Animate<br />
| ¿soutu || saitu || soutu || jonfu || onta || ongka || souso || jonso<br />
|-<br />
!Inanimate <br />
| ¿ko || ka || ko || jofo || oto || orko || ze || so<br />
|-<br />
!Out of two<br />
| ¿tso || tsaka || tsoko || zho || tsoto || tsorko || tseso || tso<br />
|-<br />
!Out of many<br />
| ¿tsolo || tsalka || tsolko || zolo || tsolto || tsongko || tsleso || tsolo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="6"|Pro-adverb<br />
!Locative<br />
| sku || khau || khu || jofku || otku || orkhu || zengu || sokhu<br />
|-<br />
!Temporal<br />
| sko || kha || kho || jofko || otko || orkho || zeng || sokho<br />
|-<br />
!Comitative<br />
| shos || kas || kos || jofos || otos || orkos || zeos || sos<br />
|-<br />
!Causal<br />
| spe || kap || kop || jov || otop || orkop || zenep || sonop<br />
|-<br />
!Manner<br />
| shi || khai || khoi || jofai || otai || orkai || zei || soi<br />
|-<br />
!What kind of<br />
| shodh || kadh || kodh || jodhi || othi || ordhi || zodhi || sothi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Negative determiner ''ze'' has no plural form. Neither have pronouns "Out of two".<br />
*Demonstratives are used when referring to listed items of equal animacy: proximal with the former and distal with the latter: ''Aitesoshóji math kuthos. Óomidh soutu.'' (I saw a cat and a dog. The latter was large.)<br />
*Locative pro-adverb can be conjugated with lative, locative and ablative.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Nouns in Sceptrian form the basis of derivational morphology and even the cases are utilized when forming new words. They are declined according to two numbers and nine cases, and the seven declensions are grouped in three genders which affect the verb conjugation and adjective agreement.<br />
<br />
====Gender====<br />
<br />
There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes.<br />
*Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in vowels ''a, æ, o, ó, ø'' and ''i''. <br />
*Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h'', same voiced and affricates), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings.<br />
*Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group.<br />
In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull). Some archaic words remain in dialects and in poetic use.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
<br />
There are two numbers, singular and plural, but abstract ''i''-nouns and inanimate ''l''-nouns are always singular. The declension according to number is complicated and fused with the class/case system explained and tabulated below.<br />
<br />
====Cases====<br />
<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Unmarked base form for subjects of intransitive and objects of transitive verbs <br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agents of transitive verbs<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect object; alienable possession ''gat dothi'' (a house of (lit. "for") the man); comparison (with ADJ comparative)<br />
*Possessive (POS): Inalienable possession ''dhoku dothor'' (the man's head)<br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS): Using something; "with someone", replaces "and" as Latin [[wikt:-que|-que]]; in antipassive constructions<br />
*Lative (LAT): Movement to; with adpositions<br />
*Locative-temporal (LOC-TEMP): Place; time; with adpositions<br />
*Ablative (ABL): Movement from (+delative); causal<br />
*Vocative (VOC): addressing (people, gods); interjections ''Alæ!'' (Hello! lit. "Day!")<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Genders and desinences'''<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" style="width: 100px"| <br />
!colspan="3"| Abstract <br />
!colspan="6"| Animate <br />
!colspan="3"| Inanimate<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''A'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''i'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''F'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''N'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''u'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"|''P'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''l''<br />
|-<br />
|<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>|| ||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 100px"| Absolutive<br />
| A || Asl || i || F || (o)lF || N || Ning || u || ush || P || Pl || l<br />
|- <br />
! style=""| Ergative <br />
| AA || AslA || ii || Fee || Fele || Nee || Neng || uu || uushu || Pee || Ple || le<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Dative <br />
| Ak || Akl || ik || Fi || Fil || Ni || Nil || (u)ji || (u)wi || Pei || Plei || lei<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Possessive <br />
| An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Instrumental-comitative <br />
| Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Lative <br />
| AgA || AglA || iki || Fko || Fklo || Nong || Nongo || ugu || uglu || Póo || Plóo || lo <br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Locative-temporal <br />
| AkhA || AlkhA || ikhi || Fku || Fklu || Nung || Nungu || ukhu || ulkhu || Pu || Plu || lu<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Ablative <br />
| ApA || AplA || ipi || Fp(o) || Fpl(o) || Nop || Nopl || upu || uplu || PPo || PPol || lp<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Vocative <br />
| Ae || Asl || ii || Fé || lFé || Né || Nin || -wé || -wésh || Pé || Plé || lé<br />
|}<br />
*''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø''<br />
**Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø<br />
*''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts, tsl'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. <br />
*''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng''<br />
*''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q''<br />
**POS ''q''→''ng''<br />
**INS ending Ph marks breathy voice and may turn the plosive into corresponding fricative /ɸ, θ, x, χ/ if followed by a plosive.<br />
*- indicates that the original ending is replaced with the following: ''tup → tu'''m''''' (stick → stick's)<br />
<br />
====Possessive==== <br />
<br />
Different possessive forms and interpretations: <br />
*''Dativus possessivus'' (alienable): ''gat doth'''i''''' "the house which the man has temporarily settled in, i.e. rented"<br />
*Comitative case with alienable possessive suffix: ''doth gat''h'''''os''''' "man with his house which he has purchased"<br />
**Inalienable possessive suffix alters the meaning: ''doth gat''h'''''ozh''''' "man and his birthplace"<br />
*Possessive case (almost inalienable): ''gat doth'''or''''' "the house which was inherited and is now owned by the man". <br />
<br />
The noun in possessive case is not inflected further. With dative case, inflection may be utilized in order to distinguish the ''dativus possessivus'' from the indirect object or benefactive: ''Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli.'' "The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them." (Related to the feather ceremony when welcoming upper class members to a household.)<br />
<br />
'''Possessive affixes''', as shown in examples above, draw a distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: ''Óntesoson dothee gat'''s'''/vakuh'''oz'''.'' (A man is watching his house/ his own hand.) With the basic suffixes, the root is inflected first and then suffixed.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ Possessional suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!Person<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! ALIEN !! INAL !! ALIEN !! INAL <br />
|-<br />
!1st <br />
| (a)ń || (a)nga || (ó)m || (ó)ngó <br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
| (o)f || (ø)fo || (e)v || (ø)vø<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
| (o)s || (o)zh || (o)sl || (o)zhol<br />
|}<br />
*Irregular: Only VOC+possessive with 1SG: ''Pos'''n'''é!'' (My servant!), ''Polsmé!'' (Our servants!)<br />
<br />
'''2nd person polite suffixes''' are added to absolutive base and the endings are then declined according to abstract gender: <br />
*Singular: (a)tha, (a)tazha <br />
*Plural: (a)dhó, (a)dózhó <br />
*Example: ''gat'''atha'''pa'' (from Your house)<br />
<br />
See [[Sceptrian#Adverbial_clauses|adverbial clauses]] which utilize some possessive suffixes with [[Sceptrian#Non-finite_forms|non-finite verb forms]].<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
<br />
Adpositions are used with inflected nouns to add information about its location or relation to other nouns. Some Sceptrian adpositions can be used as stand-alone adverbs which may be conjugated according to noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====Prepositions====<br />
<br />
Prepositions are used with lative (to, towards), locative (at, near) and ablative (from) cases to alter the meaning.<br />
*''voi'' (in) forms illative, inessive, elative <br />
*''loi'' (out) for "out of", "outside" and "from outside"<br />
*''soi'' (on) to emphasize the surface aspect <br />
*''oist(i)'' (under) for movement under something<br />
*''roi'' (above) similarly to ''oist''<br />
*''boi'' (down) for "down (a surface / to)", "down in (somewhere)" and "from down"; as an adverb as well <br />
*''zoi'' (up) used like ''boi''<br />
*''moi'' (touching, around) with lative for terminative, locative for pertingent and ablative for initiative<br />
*''oil(i)'' (as) forms translative, essive, exessive<br />
*''koi'' (per) distribution: "for each", "every" (temporal), "from each"<br />
*''jon'' (... between) <br />
*''poi'' (... the middle of, among)<br />
*''tsoi'' (... front of; preceding) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = before<br />
*''hoi'' (... behind; following) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = after<br />
*''mots(i)'' (... on side)<br />
**combined with postpositional ''dei'' (right) or ''lai'' (left)<br />
**with time nouns in locative = ago<br />
<br />
====Postpositions====<br />
<br />
Postpositions appear with various cases and often come in groups.<br />
*''pón'' (through) with lative<br />
*''phó'' (along) with lative<br />
*''pló'' (opposite to, across) with locative<br />
*''sós'' (with) with comitative to express a greater degree of endowment (ornative); with ablative to indicate "without"; with lative for "in addition to"<br />
*''óp'' (about, concerning) with genitive; with ablative for "according to"<br />
*''ól'' (like) with genitive; as an adverb "similarly"<br />
*''jak'' (away, despite) with ablative; as an adverb as well<br />
*''mai'' (excluding) with ablative<br />
*''mak'' (except) with ablative<br />
*''mats'' (instead of) with ablative<br />
*''sai'' (including) with comitative<br />
*''sak'' (concerning, regarding) with comitative; with ablative to emphasize the causal aspect (due to, because of, thanks to)<br />
*''phe'' (for the sake of) with lative<br />
<br />
====Pronominal====<br />
<br />
When used with pronouns, separate adpositions only come with dative forms to indicate lative. Otherwise adpositions take possessive suffixes, inalienable for locative and alienable for ablative: ''voi nai'' (into me), ''voinga'' (inside me), ''voiń'' (from inside me)<br />
<br />
Of the polite possessive suffixes, alienable is added onto the adposition and then the entire compound is conjugated for lative, locative or ablative: ''voitha'' (in You; attributive), ''voithaga'' (into You), ''voithakha'' (inside You; predicative), ''voithapa'' (from inside You)<br />
<br />
===Derivational Morphology===<br />
<br />
Verbs and adjectives are derived from nouns by adding suffixes and in some cases prefixes as well.<br />
<br />
====Noun====<br />
<br />
Many nouns share same origins and these endings are the most common forms of derivation:<br />
*Suffixing verbs with once established ending vowels or consonant appropriate for the noun class. <br />
*place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix<br />
*collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish)<br />
**Archaic forms also add the prefix ''kl'' <br />
*being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy")<br />
**doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer)<br />
**experiencer, patient: ABS with ''(k)ois'' or ''(k)oit'' depending on animacy: ''kepois'' (person being washed)<br />
**origin: ABL with ''(o)su'': ''ukopposu'' (person from north)<br />
**characteristic (from abstract quality): INS with final duplicated vowel and ''tu'': ''luwishitu'' (beauty)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)n'' (AN) or ''(o)l'' (INAN): ''koson'' (wood), ''qotol'' (stone)<br />
*diminutive: reduplication of final sound with ''t'' between vowels and ''i'' between consonants: ''kosis'' (small tree)<br />
*augmentative: reduplication of final sound with ''g'' between vowels and ''a'' between consonants: ''kosas'' (great tree)<br />
**apotheosis: augmentative with ''a''-ending: ''kosonana'' (godwood)<br />
*abstract quality, feature: ABS suffixed with ''(k)oti'': ''dothoti'' (manliness)<br />
*'''gerund''' (act of doing): via derivated [[Sceptrian#Verb|verb]] suffixed with ''(o)pi'': ''glerkurpi'' (mace-battering)<br />
<br />
====Adjective====<br />
<br />
Different cases and affixes are used for the derivation:<br />
*similarity, having something: ''dh'' suffix to abstract gender and animate ''u''-ending; voicing of fricatives (''h→qh'', no change with affricates); nasals [[Sceptrian#Consonant_form|"lateralized"]] + ''o''; voicing of plosives + ''o'' (''q→g''); l-declension as in INS-COM: ''evadh'' (bright), ''dodh'' (masculine)<br />
**full of, having something: previous suffixed with ''ol'': ''mel muvol'' (waters full of fish)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)p'': ''kosonop'' (wooden)<br />
*origin, relation: ABL form with a final ''ó'' added or replacing the original ending vowel: ''kusupó'' (friendly)<br />
*absence, without: ''ti'' suffixed to VOC form: ''evæti'' (lightless=dark)<br />
*doing: ''on'' added after INS case: ''kephon'' (washing)<br />
*who did: INS with ''ompu'': ''kephompu'' (who washed = ''pessyt'' in Finnish)<br />
*done by: INS with ''empo'' and possibly inalienable possessive suffix: ''kephemponga'' (washed by me)<br />
*not done: LAT suffixed with ''tip'': ''kepóotip'' (unwashed)<br />
*experiencing: LAT suffixed with ''p'': kepóop (being washed)<br />
*result (wanted): LAT suffixed with ''pi'': ''kepóopi'' (washed=clean)<br />
**if unwanted: LAT suffixed with ''pot'': ''vangostóopot'' (drunk)<br />
*possible: POS with ''ta'': ''kenta'' (washable)<br />
*requiring: LOC with ''rt'': ''kepurt'' (needs to be washed)<br />
*opposite, negation: VOC with ''tot''<br />
<br />
Notice that plural forms of adjectives may be derived from plural nouns: ''dolth kep'''s'''on'' (men who are washing)<br />
<br />
====Verb====<br />
<br />
A declined core noun receives an ending which describes how the verb reflects the noun:<br />
*In some cases, the vowel ending of nouns may simply be removed or the absolutive of a consonant-ending noun may also serve as a verb.<br />
*ABS = "happens, is": ''kep'' (is washed)<br />
*COM = "using": ''tuph'' (is poked with a stick), ''glerkh'' (is hit with a mace)<br />
*POS + ''k'' = "similarity": ''melonk'' (is wet)<br />
*DAT + ''k'' = "making/becoming" (no ''k'' with Abstract): ''zurmu'' → ''zurmjik'' (strong person → is strengthened), ''zurp'' → ''zurpeik'' (strong, durable object → hardens) & ''zurma'' → ''zurmak'' (strength → intensifies)<br />
*LAT + ''t'' = "movement, quasi-inceptive": ''glerkóot'' (swings a mace, INTR), ''melot'' (flows), ''latepóot'' (is persuaded to dance, INTR; begins a dance with, TR), ''lehkot'' (runs) <br />
*LOC + ''r'' = "frequentative": ''glerkur'' (is battered with a mace), ''melur'' (rains; drips)<br />
*VOC + ''k'' = "momentane": ''glerkék'' (is hit once with a mace), ''melék'' (splashes once)<br />
*POS + ''(o)v'' = "consider, feel": ''vongv'' (is considered strange = ''oudoksutaan'' in Finnish)<br />
* Several endings can be stacked on verbs without turning it into a noun in between: ''melurék'' (shower of rain falls), ''tup(o)hkur'' (is often poked with a stick). When deriving, the ''r''-ending are declined according to the ''l''-paradigm.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Sceptrian agree with the gender, number and cases of their head. When an adjective is used as a predicative, it comes before its head, but when as an attributive, it comes after. Adjective declension follows approximately the same rules as [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun declension]]. In the common ''dh''-ending F-declension, ''o'' is added between ''dh'' and case-endings with consonants. Changes in both casual and poetic speech include mirroring onset into coda: ''dothklu jadaadh'''ulk''''' (near nice men)<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+DH-declension<br />
! !! ABS !! ERG !! DAT !! POS !! INS !! LAT !! LOC !! ABL !! VOC<br />
|-<br />
!SG<br />
|dh || dhee || dhi || dhor || dhos || dh'''ok''' || dh'''uk''' || dh'''op''' || dhé<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
| ldh(o) || dhele || dhil || dhoŕ || dhosh || dh'''olk''' || dh'''ulk''' || dh'''olp''' || ldhé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Sceptrian#Apophony|Apophony]] in the stressed syllable is used to indicate the gender: base for inanimate, first apophony with animate and second with abstract gender: ''eja jadædh, doth jadaadh, latep jadadh'' <br />
<br />
Polite adjectives are formed from the abstract form with predicative prefix ''nga'' and attributive suffix ''æ'': ''ngaluwidh Nith'' (You are beautiful), ''shosleetha luwidhæ'' (a beautiful knight)<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
<br />
'''Positive''' of an adjective is the base form.<br />
*When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.)<br />
*Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle.<br />
*When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii faaldh dolth lutush.'' (As many men as women.) <br />
<br />
'''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). <br />
*Manner quatifiers ''orkai, jofai'' and ''zei'' can be used to indicate the degree: ''luwidhé orkai'' (much more beautiful), ''luwidhé jofai'' (slightly more beautiful), ''luwidhé zei'' (not more beautiful)<br />
*When comparing two nouns adjective comes first (predicative comparative), the standard acquires the dative case, and comparative forms agree with their head in gender and number: ''luwildhé po swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*Pronoun comparison is also possible to construct with alienable possessional suffixes: ''luwildhév swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*When adjective comparative is not included, postpositional ''fadhé'' (more) or ''føødhi'' (less) can be used with noun plurals: ''dolth faldhé lutwi'' (more men than women)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative''' is similar to noun apotheosis: the ending is reduplicated with ''é'' between consonants and ''j'' between vowels, and an ''a'' added to the end: ''luwidhédha'' (most beautiful). Similarly to comparative, ''ti'' gives the meaning of "least": ''luwidhédhati'' (least beautiful).<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly)<br />
<br />
Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh óomidhé'' (very beautiful < "largely")<br />
<br />
'''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative adverb''' is similar to adjective superlative in its reduplication but with an ''æ''-ending: ''zaivie jadædhédhæ'' (you sing most pleasantly)<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Missing verbs: <br />
*"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man)<br />
**Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith)<br />
**Showing tense-aspect:<br />
***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past)<br />
***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective<br />
***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense<br />
***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" <br />
**Vernacularly, [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|proximal demonstrative pronouns]] are used as copulae with corresponding grammatical gender: ''Trs saitu Berats.'' ("Smith this Berats." Berats is a smith.)<br />
* "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man")<br />
<br />
====Conjugation====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, primary conjugation of verbs indicates person, number and tense-aspect, and it includes affixation and apophony. Conjugation for different [[Sceptrian#Mood|moods]] is slightly more complex.<br />
<br />
=====Root=====<br />
<br />
Verbs are given in their 3SG.INAN GNO form which is used to form all of the third person forms. With first and second person subjects, the first apophony is used in indicative inceptive and future. Polite second person forms use the second apophony<br />
<br />
=====Affixes=====<br />
<br />
Fusional conjugation affixes convey the person, number, tense and aspect (and honorific). Subject and object suffixes are almost always used with verbs, the antipassive being the only exception. Agent prefixes aren't often used in the casual register, mostly to form the [[Sceptrian#Reflexive|reflexive]], but they have to be used in the formal register. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || ha || e || he || ahi || aqhi || ó || hó || (o) || l<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || han || en || hen || ang || aing || ón || hón || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| ast || last || est || lest || æst || hæst || ós || lós || os || osl<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| ajin || hajin || ejin || hejin || azing || izing || ójin || hójin || oin || loin<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || hai || ei || hei || athi || idhi || óji || hóji || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| har || +har || her || +her || athar || idhar || hór || +hór || ho || +ho<br />
|}<br />
* initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive<br />
* initial ''h'' is for aspiration of the final plosive or simply ''h'' after a vowel<br />
**if the final plosive is already breathy, ''o'' is added after it<br />
*+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration<br />
**simple ''h'' becomes ''qh''<br />
*Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.) Note the second apophony due to the abstract gender.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || sa || e || se || æ || hæ || ó || só || o || lo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || san || en || sen || nga || ngai || ón || són || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| tsa || tsla || tse || tsle || tsæ || tshæ || tsó || tsló || so || slo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| jan || zhan || jen || zhen || izæ || izhæ || jón || zhón || i || li<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || sai || ei || sei || thæ || dhæ || jó || zhó || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| ar || sar || er || ser || thar || dhar || ór || sór || or || lor<br />
|}<br />
*Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.)<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ónbouson dothee pof.'' (A man (ERG) is lifting a feather (ABS).), ''Bousón doth.'' (The man falls.) ''Bouson pof.'' (The feather (ABS) falls.).<br />
<br />
====Tense====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, verbs are conjugated for three tenses: past, present and future. These tenses describe when an action took place relative to current moment as their names indicate. <br />
<br />
====Aspect====<br />
<br />
Gnomic-static aspect is used to indicate general truths ''Zaitó Hala.'' (sun rises) and static situations ''Mépa lusha.'' (I can speak Sceptrian). It can be used with expressions of time to specify when something was static ''Petsipha kas arakha.'' (dress-STAT.1SG this.COM yesterday.TEMP "I was dressed in these clothes yesterday (as well).")<br />
<br />
Present progressive describes dynamic actions ''Anbaplóph lusha kha.'' (I'm reading Sceptrian at the moment). Present inceptive is used when an action is about to begin or someone is starting to do something.<br />
*Inceptive is only used once: Subject inceptive with intransitive and mostly agent inceptive with translative verbs. Object ending is either PRES.PROG, when something was begun only a moment ago, or FUT, when something is about to begin.<br />
**Translative object inceptive if the object caused the initialization: ''Órlateepast.'' (He is about to take me to dancing through my initiative.)<br />
<br />
Past imperfective is used with continuous activities which were happening before the present. The contrasting perfective aspect describes the event as a whole and having an endpoint in the past.<br />
<br />
In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used.<br />
<br />
Endings with different tenses and aspects may be mixed in some cases:<br />
*PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) <br />
*PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while))<br />
<br />
====Mood====<br />
<br />
Moods express speaker's attitude towards the subject or their knowledge of it. They are divided into realis and irrealis moods: the former expresses factual statements while the latter indicates that an event hasn't taken place or the speaker is uncertain of a situation.<br />
<br />
=====Realis=====<br />
<br />
'''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well)<br />
<br />
'''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for supposedly factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.)<br />
<br />
=====Irrealis=====<br />
<br />
'''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?)<br />
*The change in stress does not affect the apophony.<br />
<br />
'''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) <br />
*The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!)<br />
**Alternatively, the ''r'' may be added after the inceptive agent prefix.<br />
<br />
'''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original stressed syllable: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: '''''la'''latép'' (may dance), '''''ak'''aktæsos'' (may hear), ''rorøt'' (may go)<br />
*The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject.<br />
*The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished<br />
<br />
=====Particles=====<br />
<br />
Particles are placed after a verb to alter or to specify its meaning.<br />
<br />
Realis<br />
*''pai'' mirative (with soft imperative in present): ''Rótóji pai!'' (He went!?)<br />
**with adjectives or as an adverb: ''Luwi pai!'' (How beautiful!) <br />
<br />
Evidentials (with causatives)<br />
*''atasi'' hearsay: ''Rotóji tasi fope.'' (I heard from you that he went.)<br />
*''tesei'' visual: ''Rótoutóji tesei nape.'' (I didn't see him go.)<br />
<br />
Irrealis<br />
*''norka'' dubitative (with subjunctive): ''Rorøtóji norka.'' (I doubt he went.)<br />
*''gana'' volitive (with future subjunctive): ''Lalatépar gana.'' (I wish I could dance.)<br />
<br />
Conditional (with subjunctive)<br />
*''ta'' apodosis: ''Arziizeither ta'' (I will raise you...)<br />
*''-ti-'' infixed between reduplicated form for protasis: ''boutiboisen'' (if you fall)<br />
<br />
Hortatives (with soft imperative which itself works as an adhortative or dehortative with negation (unwillingness))<br />
*Cohortative: ''Latéprlast kha!'' (Let's dance now!), ''Rótrlastonget khugu.'' (Let's not go there.)<br />
*''jokæ'' exhortative (inhortative through negation): ''Rótrest jokæ.'' (You really should go.)<br />
<br />
'''Formal''' register differences:<br />
*''aktasosai'' (hears) conjugated for hearsay: ''Røtathi aiaktasosóji.'' (I heard from her that you left.)<br />
*''tesos'' (sees) conjugated for visual evidentiality: ''Rotóji tesosai.'' (I saw her go.)<br />
*''tsmaadhoré'' (doubtfully) used for dubitative<br />
*''tutaadhoré'' (wishfully) used for volitive<br />
*''alké'' permissive with dative: ''Rótest alké foki.'' (You may leave.)<br />
**prohibitive with negated (inability) imperative infinitive: ''Rótrostodi alké foki.'' (You aren't allowed to leave.)<br />
*both conditional particles are used separately and they are prefixed with the subjunctive reduplication: ''Arziizeither zaita bouboisen bouti.'' (I will raise you if you fall.)<br />
<br />
'''In literature''' to express the peaking pitch of ironical statements and lowered pitch of sarcastic expressions:<br />
*''jø'' verbal irony: ''Jótesosoi melurpi, jóbatophoi "Luwidh jø hi loi khu".'' (He saw the rain and said: "''Beautiful'' day out there")<br />
*''gæ'' sarcasm: ''Uu, eiluwikoi gæ pai.'' (Oh, ''how beautiful'' you made it.)<br />
<br />
====Negation====<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Negation affixes<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Manner→<br />
! Inability<br />
!colspan="6"| Unwillingness<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Form→<br />
!2nd apophony +infix<br>(before patient-suffix)<br />
!colspan="3"|Intranslative<br>suffix<br />
!colspan="3"|Translative<br>infix (after agent-prefix)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Person→<br />
!All<br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!SG<br />
|ost<br />
|net<br />
|fep<br />
|set<br />
|no<br />
|fo<br />
|so<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|osht<br />
|nget<br />
|vep<br />
|slet<br />
|ngo<br />
|flo<br />
|slo<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|PST<br />
|out<br />
|colspan="3"|nait<br />
|colspan="3"|me<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|FUT<br />
|oz<br />
|colspan="3"|nort<br />
|colspan="3"|mor<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse'''fo'''lateephar?'' (You don't want to begin dancing with me?)<br />
<br />
'''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.)<br />
<br />
Second apophony of negation affixes with subjunctive mood: ''Rorøthórn'''ø'''rt.'' (He may not be willing to go.)<br />
<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
<br />
=====Gerund=====<br />
*Base nouns or their abstract variants may serve as gerunds, which describe the action of doing, but otherwise they are created with the suffix ''(o)pi'' added to a verb root. The suffic also helps to distinguish the forms.<br />
<br />
=====Infinitives=====<br />
*PRES ''-odi'', PST ''-oudi'', FUT ''ordi''<br />
*used with modal verbs<br />
*subjunctive form created with duplication<br />
<br />
=====Participles=====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian participles work as adjectives. Following table shows which "case" and suffix the verb base (or gerund in formal register) takes.<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Present participle suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!IPFV<br />
!PFV<br />
|-<br />
!Patientive (LAT)<br />
|''p''<br />
|''pi/pot''<br />
|-<br />
!Negative (LAT)<br />
|<br />
|''tip''<br />
|-<br />
!Active (INS)<br />
|rowspan="2"|''on''<br />
|''ompu''<br />
|-<br />
!Agentive (INS)<br />
|''empo''<br />
|}<br />
*Also the "requiring" (FUT) form LOC+''rt'' and "possible" (GNO) POS+''ta'' <br />
*Past forms are created by adding ''i'' to the end: ''kephoni'' (was being washed)<br />
*Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed)<br />
*Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]]<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, auxiliary verbs are conjugated only for subject which may act as the agent of the clause. The verbs can either precede (dynamic, deontic) or come after (epistemic) different verb infinitives. Since regular object-patient conjugation can't be used, objects have to be written (no pro-drop) and they are declined into instrumental-comitative case.<br />
*''tut'' "want" (from ''tuta'' "craving, wish"): ''Tutajin kepoudi his.'' (I wanted to wash it.)<br />
**infinitive in lative case for "want something to be done": ''Tutan kepordiki his.'' (I want it to be washed.)<br />
**"be going to" (FUT): ''Tuutar latepordi.'' (I'm going to dance.)<br />
**"wish" (SBJV) mostly as the subjunctive of the absent ''to be''-verb: ''Tutitan khau fos.'' (I wish you were here) <br />
*''mép'' "can, know how to" (dynamic) (from ''mépi'' "skill"): ''Mépa latepodi'' ("I can dance"; notice gnomic-static mood)<br />
*''kuut'' "can, may" (deontic / epistemic) (from ''kuutó'' "possibility"): ''Kuutest rotordi.'' (You may leave.), ''Fendógópot kuutó pai.'' (He may unexpectedly be dead.)<br />
**particle ''nor'' added after the verb for lower possibility i.e. "could, might": ''Fendógópi kuut nor.'' (It might be dead.)<br />
**particle ''ga'' added for "should, must": ''Fendógópi kuut ga.'' (It should be dead, as we wanted.)<br />
*''khet'' "must" (deontic) (from ''kheti'' "necessity"): ''Khetan rotodi.'' (I must go now), ''Kheetar rotordi.'' (I must go soon)<br />
*''khurd'' "dare" (from ''khurdi'' "daring"): ''¿Khurde glerkékodi nas?'' (Do you dare hit me with a mace?)<br />
<br />
Mixing tenses: <br />
*''Tutitai latepordi.'' SBJV.want-PST.PFV.1SG dance-INF.FUT "I would've wanted to dance"<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian distinguishes between two voices, active and antipassive. Passive is very similar to active since Sceptrian is absolutive-ergative, and thus isn't considered a true change in voice. Antipassive is used to reduce the valency of the verbs by removing the object of a transitive clause.<br />
<br />
Active construction: verb-agent-object and verb-object-agent are used so that a comment (rheme) precedes the topic (theme). [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|Emphasizing clitics]] are used to mark the topic. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Ónzaiton dothee pof.<br />
|IPA = /ɔ̃zaɪ̯tə̃ dəθe: pəf/<br />
| morphemes = ón-zait-on doth-ee pof-Ø<br />
| gloss = 3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV man-ERG feather-ABS<br />
| translation = A man is lifting a feather.<br />
}} <br />
<br />
Passive construction: To demote the agent (ERG), it's either removed or inflected into causal ablative (ABL). Verb is only conjugated for the object.<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Zaiton pof (dothpo).<br />
|IPA = /zaɪ̯tə̃ pəf (dəθpə)/<br />
| morphemes = zait-on pof-Ø (doth-po)<br />
| gloss = lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV feather-ABS (man-ABL)<br />
| translation = A feather is being lifted (by a man).<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Antipassive''' construction: Agent (ERG) transforms into subject (ABS) and object (ABS) takes the instrumental-comitative (INS) case. Word order becomes SV(O), and the verb is conjugated according to the agent only and the stressed syllable undergoes second [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]]. The verb is also suffixed with the emphasizing clitic ''ma'' in the formal register. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Doth ónzeit(ma) (pofos).<br />
|IPA = /dəθ ɔ̃zei̯t(mä) (pəfəs)/<br />
| morphemes = doth-Ø ón-zeit-Ø(or =ma) (pof-os)<br />
| gloss = man-ABS ANTIP\3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-ANTIP(or =ANTIP.FORM) (feather-INS)<br />
| translation = The man is lifting (a feather). <br />
}}<br />
<br />
Instrument and turning it into an agent:<br />
* ''Ónzaiton dothee pof vakuhosozh.'' (...with his own hand...)<br />
**''Ónzaiton pof vakuhp dothir.'' (the feather is raised by the man's hand)<br />
**''Onzaiton pof tuph dothi'''sh''' slokli.'' (The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them.) Inanimate agent conjugation, and dative of possession is inflected to avoid misinterpretation!<br />
* ''Vakuh ónzeit pofos.'' (The hand lifts something, which happens to be a feather)/(someone intentionally lifts a feather with their hand) Notice animate conjugation!<br />
**''Tup onzeit dothpo pofos.'' (The stick, which is being held by a man, lifts something, which happens to be a feather) ABL as causative since inanimate ''tup''.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
Decimal base was adopted due to commerce, but traces of the former octal base remain. <br />
<br />
Numerals are placed before their head. Last part of a cardinal determiner agrees with case through matching declension: ''op'''l''' tupl'' (two sticks)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Numeral system<br />
|-<br />
! Number <br />
! Number !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional !! Multiplicative adverb !! Multiplicative adjective !! Group !! Polygon<br />
|-<br />
!Zero<br />
| ozi || oz || ozhi || - || zeng (never) || - || ze (no) || -<br />
|-<br />
!One<br />
| ipi || ip || iphi || liku (whole) || ohu (once) || ipitse (onefold) || ipisi (singular) || ipirt (dot) <br />
|-<br />
!Two <br />
| opi || op || ophi || lopu (half) || ophu (twice) || opitse (twofold) || opisi (pair) || opart (line)<br />
|-<br />
!Three<br />
| oki || ok || okhi || loku || okhu || okitse || okisi || okart (triangle)<br />
|-<br />
!Four<br />
| óppi || óp || óphi || lóppu || óphu || óphitse || óphisi || ópart <br />
|-<br />
!Five<br />
| ofi || of || offi || lofu || offu || ofitse || ofisi || ofart<br />
|-<br />
!Six<br />
| ókki || ók || ókhi || lókku || ókhu || ókhitse || ókhisi || ókart<br />
|-<br />
!Seven<br />
| omi || om || ongi || lomu || ongu || omitse || omisi || omart<br />
|-<br />
!Eight<br />
| ngovi || ngov || ngovvi || longovu || ngovvu || ngovitse || ngovisi || jart<br />
|-<br />
!Nine<br />
| ngoipi || ngoip || ngoiphi || longoipu || ngoiphu || ngoipitse || ngoipisi || ngoipart<br />
|-<br />
!Ten<br />
| jopi || jop || jophi || lojopu || jophu || jopitse || jopisi || jopart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!Eleven<br />
!Twelve<br />
!Thirteen<br />
!Fourteen<br />
!Fifteen<br />
!Sixteen<br />
!Seventeen<br />
!Eighteen<br />
!Nineteen<br />
!Twenty<br />
|-<br />
| ngoki <br />
| ngópi <br />
| ngofi<br />
| ngóki<br />
| ngomi <br />
| ophungovi <br />
| jopomi<br />
| jopingovi<br />
| jopingoipi<br />
| ophujopi<br />
|-<br />
!Twenty-one<br />
!Thirty<br />
!Fourty<br />
!Fifty<br />
!Sixty<br />
!Sixty-four<br />
!Sixty-five<br />
!Seventy<br />
!Eighty<br />
!Ninety<br />
|-<br />
| ophujopipi <br />
| okhujopi<br />
| offungovi <br />
| offujopi <br />
|ókhujopi<br />
| mouti<br />
| moutipi<br />
|ongujopi<br />
|ngowopi<br />
|ngoiphujopi<br />
|-<br />
!One hundred<br />
!One hundred<br/>and twenty-two<br />
!One hundred<br/>and sixty-six<br />
!Two hundred<br />
!Thousand<br />
!Three thousand<br/>four hundred<br />
!Ten thousand<br />
!Hundred thousand<br />
!Million<br />
!Billion<br />
|-<br />
| toti <br />
|toti(s)<br>ophujopopi<br />
|toti(s)<br>moutókki<br />
|ophutoti<br />
| mopi<br />
|okhumopi(s)<br>óphutoti<br />
|tothutoti<br />
|tothumopi<br />
|hamisi<br />
|mowisi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Multiplicative adverb form is used in front of the powers of ten (tens, hundreds, ...)<br />
*Digits are annexed into the tens by using the cardinal or determiner form depending whether the digit begins with a vowel or not.<br />
*Fractions are constructed by placing the ''l(o)''-prefixed form after the multiplicative number: ''okhu lóppu'' ("thrice one quarter" = three quarters). The noun is in ablative case and only the fraction is inflected: ''lopu'''ji''' tuppo'' (for one half of a stick)<br />
*Large numbers (from hundred) are written separately from smaller, but in formal register ''s''-letter is added between each power of ten.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
* VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive<br />
* often a comment precedes the topic<br />
* numerals precede nouns<br />
* possessives follow nouns<br />
* predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns<br />
* demonstratives come last<br />
<br />
===Emphasizing clitics===<br />
<br />
Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton pof dothee'''noh'''.'' (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. ''Ónzaiton dothee pof'''ma'''.'' (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used in nominalized relative clauses and with verbs in antipassive constructions.<br />
<br />
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) <br />
<br />
The suffixes are also used with alienable possessive forms to separate the possessor from indirect objects. Chosen depending on the ergativity of the possessum: ''Jóvakuhoi suu pof swi'''ma''' swi.'' (He gave her feather to him.)<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
<br />
====Independent====<br />
<br />
Independent clauses make sense by themselves so that they may form their own sentence.<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, the subject is not necessarily a separate word since the verb can convey both the agent and the object. Thus a single verb can be a complete sentence: ''Ainamoi.'' (It was eaten by me.) However, a full clause may a verbless one as well when the gnomic-static aspect is used or because the languages lacks the verbs "to be" and "to have": ''Ksaru lutu(ma).'' (The woman is a guard.), ''Lutugu ksarushos.'' (Lady has their own guards.)<br />
<br />
Traditional Sceptrian language theorists have used the term ''qópó'' (act) when referring to the verb phrase: the main verb, its auxiliaries and particles which wouldn't appear without the verb. It may also refer to the predicative determiners of a verbless clause subject (possibly bearing the emphasizing clitic): e.g. ''ksaru'' (guard) is ''qópó hetson'' ("still" act) of the above example ''Ksaru lutu.''. This may be called predicate in Westlang grammar. <br />
<br />
''Betsloi'ó'' (affectee), that is, the absolutive subject-object may be: <br />
*Noun: ''Lehkotón '''kuth'''.'' ('''A dog''' is running.)<br />
*Pronoun: ''Aiteshóji '''slo'''.'' ('''They''' were seen by me.)<br />
*Gerund: ''Apekingvó '''lateppi'''.'' (I enjoy '''dancing'''.)<br />
*Another clause: ''Aitésoutóji, '''skugu rorøtóji'''.'' (I couldn't see, '''where he went'''.) <br />
*Note that the main verb conjugation is for the abstract subject. In the indirect question, the verb is in subjunctive.<br />
<br />
''Betslaató'' (affecter) refers to the agent which is declined into the ergative case. <br />
*A gerung will be declined if necessary, but an entire clause remains the same. <br />
<br />
Interrogative clauses begin with either the verb or the interrogative. Interrogative mood is indicated by the moving the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. Questions are placed between question marks "¿" and "?". See below in the [[Sceptrian#Noun_clauses|noun clauses]] for more of indirect questions.<br />
*In written language, requests often use only the final question mark: ''Tsemaakor nai?'' (Will you give it to me?)<br />
<br />
====Conjunction====<br />
<br />
coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?)<br />
*and, but, for, so, or<br />
*...<br />
<br />
Demonstratives will take the case ending, if the entire <br />
<br />
====Noun clauses====<br />
<br />
WIP ... to be redone<br />
*Infinitive.tense + ... + causatives: ''Tesosan kepó vakuhos supe.'' (I see that he washes his hands) vs. ''Onluvakan kep'''óo''' vakuhos supe.'' (The washing of his hands brings me pleasure.)<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
<br />
Nominalizing relative clauses with participles is common.<br />
<br />
Using [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|an emphasizing clitic]] to mark the antecedent for the class-appropriate proximal demonstrative pronoun (thaka/saitu/ka declined for number) which works as a relative pronoun - case chosen according to the embedded clause: <br />
*''Rotóji dothma saituh latepai.'' (leave-PST.PFV.3SG man.ABS-EMPH.ABS P.PROX.AN-COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The man, with whom I danced, left.") <br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahul dothelenos saitush latepai.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS man-PL.ERG-EMPH.ERG P.PROX.AN-PL.COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The men with whom I danced are starting to drink beer.")<br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahulma dothele ka tutitai vangosordi.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS-EMPH.ABS man-PL.ERG P.PROX.INAN SBJV-want-PST.PFV.1SG drink-INF.FUT "Men are starting to drink the beer which I would've wanted to drink."<br />
<br />
====Adverbial clauses====<br />
<br />
non-finite forms + possessive suffixes to indicate subject<br />
<br />
====Conditional clauses====<br />
<br />
subjunctive as explained in verb particle section<br />
<br />
====Indirect speech====<br />
<br />
==Register==<br />
<br />
Different endings which reflect the conversation situation: speakers, familiarity, formality, location... <br />
<br />
===Intimate===<br />
<br />
Agent prefixes aren't used. No ''t'' in inceptive. Due to apophony, subject suffix can be dropped from FUT/INCEP if 1st or 2nd person distinction is clear.<br />
<br />
===Casual===<br />
<br />
In casual register, verb forms are chosen differently when the subject is agent-like (he dances) or patient-like (he fell): ''latepóji'' (he danced AN) vs. ''bousoi'' (he fell INAN)<br />
<br />
===Formal===<br />
<br />
Mandatory use of pronouns and agent prefixes.<br />
<br />
One may use inanimate verb forms as anti-honorific? ''Ondakon næ ka Nithki.'' (I humbly offer this to You)<br />
<br />
Apophony of basic prepositions with root ''oi'': ''Oisti Hala, óosti vakuhanga, ousti qorel'' (under the Sun, under my hand, under the earth)<br />
<br />
In formal register, it is preferred to use only animate nouns as agents while abstract and inanimate are as antipassive subjects: ''luwi... nas'' ("beauty-of.yours it-un-eye-ful-makes me-with", your beauty makes me blind) vs. ''en fø na'' (you are making me blind)<br />
<br />
Distinction between abstract and animate in some categories, such as verb conjugation (''wa'')<br />
<br />
Can people with higher status be abstract or do they occupy a special animate category? (æ inside?)<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
See the [[Sceptrian/Dictionary|dictionary page]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Linguifex_Relay/Sceptrian&diff=35744Fourth Linguifex Relay/Sceptrian2015-07-08T19:39:30Z<p>Juhhmi: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Fourth_Linguifex_Relay|Óphi fatipap Lingwifekson]] [[Sceptrian|Lushakha]]:<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
''Léhkodé pai ko qhóqhøkos,<br />
''mjul' keeweshtsozh oil qotitlóo;<br />
''daremu soi slopapu'os,<br />
''jak rajidhé mitupurpóo.<br />
''Pé,<br />
'' ,<br />
'' ;<br />
'' .<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Glossed==<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
#''léhkod-é pai ko qhó~qhøk-os<br />
#:<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR DIST.SG SUBJ~\is_broken\-3SG.INCEP</small><br />
#''léhkod-é pai keewesht mjula-n<br />
#:<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR mosaic life-GEN</small><br />
#''léhkod-é pai qhó~qhøg-ho klo<br />
#:<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR SUBJ~\is_broken\-3PL.FUT PRO.3PL</small><br />
#''léhkod-é pai qhó~qhøk-l tshel-o<br />
#:<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR SUBJ~\is_broken-3PL.GNO sand-LAT</small><br />
*''léh-ko-d-é'' might be glossed as ADVZ\leg-LAT-VBZ.MVT\ADJZ-VOC, but the core was translated for simplicity<br />
*[[Sceptrian#Particles|verb particles]] don't always require verbs<br />
*Sceptrian has several ways of indicating [[Sceptrian#Possessive|possessive forms]]<br />
<br />
#''mjul(a) keeweshtsozh oil qot&lt;i&gt;~t-l-óo <br />
#:<small>life mosaic-PL.COM-POSS.3SG.INAL as rock~DIM-PL-LAT</small><br />
#''qhó~qhøk oil qot&lt;i&gt;~t-l-óo tshel-o<br />
#:<small>SUBJ~\is_broken as rock~DIM-PL-LAT sand-LAT</small><br />
#''mjul(a) keeweshtsozh oil qot&lt;i&gt;~t-l-óo<br />
#:<small>life mosaic-PL.COM-POSS.3SG.INAL as rock~DIM-PL-LAT</small><br />
*See [[Sceptrian#Prepositions|prepositions]] for the effect of noun case.<br />
<br />
''daremu soi slop&lt;a&gt;~p-u-os<br />
<small>Ruler on chair~AUG-LOC-POSS.3SG.ALIEN</small><br />
<br />
''jak rajidhé mitup-u-r-p-óo<br />
<small>away (ADVZ\)sudden-VOC sea-LOC-VBZ.FREQ-NMZ-LAT</small><br />
<br />
''Pé=ma saitu-sh sek-l qópapa!?<br />
<small>2PL.VOC=FOC DEM.PROX.ANIM-PL come-GNO act-ABL </small><br />
*On [[Sceptrian#Relative_clauses|relative clauses]] of Sceptrian<br />
<br />
''<br />
<small></small><br />
<br />
''<br />
<small></small><br />
<br />
''<br />
<small></small><br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian is a head-initial, ergative-absolutive language, i.e. the word order in clauses is VAO and the head of the noun phrase is followed by adjectives and demostratives. Both prepositions and postpositions are used, however. The cases of nouns are utilized in derivative morphology.</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian/Dictionary&diff=35743Sceptrian/Dictionary2015-07-08T19:30:25Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Q */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
Derived words are shown under the original word. Latin alphabet order is used to help unaccustomed users.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
|Sceptrian || Word Class || English<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===A=== <br />
|-<br />
|aktas|| n || ear <br />
|-<br />
|ala || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
| alké || part || verb permissive<br />
|-<br />
| amu || n || girl<br />
|-<br />
|ara || n ||previous day, yesterday <br />
|-<br />
| atasi || part || verb hearsay evidential<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Æ=== <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===B===<br />
|-<br />
|bak|| n || table <br />
|-<br />
|bap|| n|| word <br />
|-<br />
|baplóp || n ||sentence <br />
|-<br />
|batop|| n || language <br />
|-<br />
| berak || n || tower<br />
|-<br />
| betsla || n || effect<br />
|-<br />
| betsl || v || affect<br />
|-<br />
|birtsil || n ||fire <br />
|-<br />
| boi || prep || down <br />
|-<br />
|bó || n||lowness <br />
|-<br />
|bous || v ||goes down <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===D=== <br />
|-<br />
| darem || v || is ruled <br />
|-<br />
| daremu || n || ruler<br />
|-<br />
| dei || adj || right (side) <br />
|-<br />
| deq || n || cliff <br />
|-<br />
|dldlp|| n || bubble<br />
|-<br />
|doth|| n || man <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===DH=== <br />
|-<br />
|dhoku || n ||head <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===E=== <br />
|-<br />
|eja || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
|eva || n ||light <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===É=== <br />
|-<br />
| éves || n || hair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===F=== <br />
|-<br />
| fas || n || finger<br />
|-<br />
|fatip||n||chain<br />
|-<br />
|fendó ||n ||death <br />
|-<br />
|firut || n || city, town<br />
|-<br />
|fkot|| n|| nest <br />
|-<br />
| fo || pro || you (singular)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===G=== <br />
|-<br />
| gana || part || verb volitive<br />
|-<br />
|gat|| n || house<br />
|-<br />
| gæ || part || in literature for sarcasm <br />
|-<br />
| get || n || mountain <br />
|-<br />
|glerk|| n || mace <br />
|-<br />
|gln || n ||fat <br />
|-<br />
| gót || n || table <br />
|-<br />
|guh || n ||mouth <br />
|-<br />
|gul|| n || blackness <br />
|-<br />
|guts||n||cow<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===H=== <br />
|-<br />
| hara || n || west <br />
|-<br />
| hamisi || n || one million <br />
|-<br />
| hets || v || stands<br />
|-<br />
| hi || pro || it (inanimate)<br />
|-<br />
|hifthil || n || air <br />
|-<br />
|hil || n ||whiteness <br />
|-<br />
| hoi || prep || behind; after<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===I=== <br />
|-<br />
| i || n || concept, abstraction<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===J=== <br />
|-<br />
| jaafa || pro || something (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
|jada|| n || pleasant, nice, good <br />
|-<br />
| jak || postp || ABL away <br />
|-<br />
| jatu || n || father <br />
|-<br />
|jiti|| n || smallness <br />
|-<br />
| jodhi || pro || some kind of<br />
|-<br />
| jofa || adj || some <br />
|-<br />
| jofai || pro || somehow<br />
|-<br />
| jofko || pro || sometime<br />
|-<br />
| jofku || pro || somewhere<br />
|-<br />
| jofo || pro || something (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| jofos || pro || with someone <br />
|-<br />
| jokæ || part || verb exhortative<br />
|-<br />
| jon || prep || between<br />
|-<br />
| jonfu || pro || something (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| jopi || n || number ten <br />
|-<br />
|joqó || n ||disgust <br />
|-<br />
| jov || pro || for some reason<br />
|-<br />
| jø || part || in literature for verbal irony <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===K=== <br />
|-<br />
| ka || pro || this <br />
|-<br />
| kadh || pro || this kind of<br />
|-<br />
|kamps || n ||marsh, swamp <br />
|-<br />
| kap || pro || herefore<br />
|-<br />
|karon || n ||soup <br />
|-<br />
| kas || pro || with this<br />
|-<br />
|kat|| n ||knob, handle <br />
|-<br />
|katpas || n ||fern <br />
|-<br />
| keet || n || hill <br />
|-<br />
|kep || n ||wash, act of washing <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||is washed <br />
|-<br />
| kesl || v || bleed <br />
|-<br />
|keslań|| n || blood <br />
|-<br />
| ket || n || plate <br />
|-<br />
| keva || n || priest <br />
|-<br />
| kha || pro || now<br />
|-<br />
| khai || pro || hereby<br />
|-<br />
| khau || pro || here<br />
|-<br />
| khet || v|| must<br />
|-<br />
|kheti|| n || necessity <br />
|-<br />
| kho || pro || then<br />
|-<br />
| khoi || pro || thereby<br />
|-<br />
| khu || pro || there<br />
|-<br />
| khurd || v || dare<br />
|-<br />
|khurdi|| n || daring <br />
|-<br />
|ki || n ||shortness <br />
|-<br />
| ko || pro || that<br />
|-<br />
| kodh || pro || that kind of<br />
|-<br />
| koi || prep || per <br />
|-<br />
| kop || pro || therefore<br />
|-<br />
| kos || pro || with that<br />
|-<br />
|kos || n ||tree <br />
|-<br />
|koson || n ||wood (also kosoń) <br />
|-<br />
|ksaru || n ||guard<br />
|-<br />
|kusu|| n || friend <br />
|-<br />
|kuth|| n || dog <br />
|-<br />
| kuut || v || can, may<br />
|-<br />
|kuutó|| n || possibility <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===L=== <br />
|-<br />
| lai || adj || left (side) <br />
|-<br />
| lamat || n || field <br />
|-<br />
|latep || n ||dance <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||dances <br />
|-<br />
| leh || n || leg<br />
|-<br />
| lewu || n || mother<br />
|-<br />
| loi || prep || out<br />
|-<br />
|lutu|| n || woman <br />
|-<br />
|luva || n ||pleasure <br />
|-<br />
|luwi|| n || beauty <br />
|-<br />
|lzork || n ||worm <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===M=== <br />
|-<br />
| mai || postp || ABL excluding<br />
|-<br />
| mak || postp || ABL except<br />
|-<br />
|mak || v || ABL is given to DAT by ERG <br />
|-<br />
|math || n ||cat <br />
|-<br />
| mats || postp || ABL instead of <br />
|-<br />
|mel|| n || water <br />
|-<br />
| mép || v || can, knows how to<br />
|-<br />
|mépi || n ||skill <br />
|-<br />
| mitup || n || sea, ocean <br />
|-<br />
|mjula|| n || life <br />
|-<br />
| mo || pro || we<br />
|-<br />
|mofpu|| n || lip <br />
|-<br />
| moi || prep || touching<br />
|-<br />
|mol || n ||blueness <br />
|-<br />
| mopi || n || one thousand <br />
|-<br />
| mots(i) || prep || on side<br />
|-<br />
| mowisi || n || one billion <br />
|-<br />
| mótap || n || bread<br />
|-<br />
|muf|| n || fish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===N=== <br />
|-<br />
| na || pro || I<br />
|-<br />
| nam || n || food<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is eaten, used to sate<br />
|-<br />
|naméti || n || hunger<br />
|-<br />
|nang || n ||sweat <br />
|-<br />
|nat || n ||stain <br />
|-<br />
|nath|| n || beggar <br />
|-<br />
|nek||v||is taken<br />
|-<br />
| nesu || n || boy <br />
|-<br />
|nin || n ||greenness <br />
|-<br />
| Nith || pro || You (singular) <br />
|-<br />
| norka || part || verb dubitative<br />
|-<br />
|not|| n || object <br />
|-<br />
| nuhit || n || carpet <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===NG=== <br />
|-<br />
| nget || n || candle, lamp<br />
|-<br />
| ngofi || n || number thirteen<br />
|-<br />
| ngoipi || n || number nine <br />
|-<br />
| ngoki || n || number eleven <br />
|-<br />
| ngovi || n || number eight <br />
|-<br />
| ngóki || n || number fourteen <br />
|-<br />
| ngópi || n || number twelve<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===O=== <br />
|-<br />
| ofi || n || number five<br />
|-<br />
| ohu || adv || once<br />
|-<br />
| oil(i) || prep || as<br />
|-<br />
| oist(i) || prep || under<br />
|-<br />
| ok || num || three<br />
|-<br />
| okart || n || triangle<br />
|-<br />
| okhi || adj || third<br />
|-<br />
| okhu || adv || thrice<br />
|-<br />
| oki || n || number three<br />
|-<br />
| okitse || adj || threefold<br />
|-<br />
| omi || n || number seven<br />
|-<br />
| onta || pro || anything (animate) <br />
|-<br />
| ongka || pro || everything (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| op || num || two<br />
|-<br />
| opart || n || line<br />
|-<br />
| ophi || adj || second<br />
|-<br />
| ophu || adv || twice<br />
|-<br />
| ophungovi || n || number sixteen<br />
|-<br />
| opi || n || number two<br />
|-<br />
| opisi || n || pair<br />
|-<br />
| opitse || adj || twofold<br />
|-<br />
| orak || n || street, alley <br />
|-<br />
| ordhi || pro || all/every kind of<br />
|-<br />
| orka || adj || every, all <br />
|-<br />
| orkai || pro || in every way<br />
|-<br />
| orkho || pro || always<br />
|-<br />
| orkhu || pro || everywhere <br />
|-<br />
| orko || pro || everything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| orkop || pro || for every reason<br />
|-<br />
| orkos || pro || with everyone<br />
|-<br />
| ota || adj || any <br />
|-<br />
| othi || pro || any kind of <br />
|-<br />
| otko || pro || whenever<br />
|-<br />
| otku || pro || anywhere <br />
|-<br />
| oto || pro || anything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| otop || pro || for any reason<br />
|-<br />
| otos || pro || with anyone<br />
|-<br />
| oz || num || zero<br />
|-<br />
| ozhi || adj || zeroth<br />
|-<br />
| ozi || n || number zero, nought<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ó=== <br />
|-<br />
| ókart || n || hexagon<br />
|-<br />
| ókki || n || number six<br />
|-<br />
| ól || postp || GEN like <br />
|-<br />
| || adverb || similarly<br />
|-<br />
|óomi || n ||largeness <br />
|-<br />
| óp || postp || GEN about; ABL according to<br />
|-<br />
| ópart || n || square<br />
|-<br />
| ópef || n || chicken <br />
|-<br />
| óppi || n || number four <br />
|-<br />
| ótuk || n|| sign<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ø=== <br />
|-<br />
|øfkam || n || pus <br />
|-<br />
|ølep || n || fabric<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===P=== <br />
|-<br />
|paata || n ||separation <br />
|-<br />
| pai || part || verb mirative <br />
|-<br />
| || adv || how (with adj)<br />
|-<br />
| patuk || n || village <br />
|-<br />
|peki || n || enjoyment<br />
|-<br />
|petsip|| n|| clothes <br />
|-<br />
| phe || postp || LAT for the sake of<br />
|-<br />
| phó || postp || LAT along<br />
|-<br />
| pló || postp || LOC opposite to <br />
|-<br />
| po || pro || you (plural)<br />
|-<br />
|pof || n ||feather <br />
|-<br />
| poi || prep || in the middle of, among<br />
|-<br />
| poki || n ||centre <br />
|-<br />
| pón || postp || LAT through<br />
|-<br />
|pos|| n ||servant <br />
|-<br />
|prk || n ||wagon <br />
|-<br />
| puk || n || door<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===Q=== <br />
|-<br />
|qal ||n ||yellowness <br />
|-<br />
| qet || n || wall <br />
|-<br />
|qorel|| n || earth <br />
|-<br />
|qot || n ||rock <br />
|-<br />
|qotol|| n || stone <br />
|-<br />
|qóp||v||is done<br />
|-<br />
|qópa||n||act, deed <br />
|-<br />
|qut || n || room<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===QH=== <br />
|-<br />
| qheetu || n || guard <br />
|-<br />
| qhotep || n || spear<br />
|-<br />
| qhók || v || is broken, smashed<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===R=== <br />
|-<br />
| raf || n || foot<br />
|-<br />
|ras||n||horse<br />
|-<br />
| ret || n || floor<br />
|-<br />
|rkil|| n || orange <br />
|-<br />
| roi || prep || above<br />
|-<br />
|rot || v ||leaves, goes <br />
|-<br />
|rul|| n || redness <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===S=== <br />
|-<br />
| sahul || n || beer<br />
|-<br />
| sai || postp || COM including <br />
|-<br />
| saitu || pre || this one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| sak || postp || COM concerning; ABL due to <br />
|-<br />
| sku || pro || where<br />
|-<br />
| sko || pro || when <br />
|-<br />
| so || adj || another <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || something else<br />
|-<br />
| soi || prep || on<br />
|-<br />
| soi || pro || otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| sokho || pro || another time <br />
|-<br />
| sokhu || pro || elsewhere <br />
|-<br />
| sonop || pro || for another reason<br />
|-<br />
| sos || pro || with someone else<br />
|-<br />
| sothi || pro || of another kind<br />
|-<br />
| sós || postp || COM with; ABL without; LAT in addition to <br />
|-<br />
| souso || pro || nobody<br />
|-<br />
| soutu || pro || that one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| || pro || who? <br />
|-<br />
| spe || pro || why?<br />
|-<br />
|spii|| n || length <br />
|-<br />
|stak|| n || fence <br />
|-<br />
|su || n ||it/he? <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SH=== <br />
|-<br />
| shara || n || south <br />
|-<br />
| shi || pro || how?<br />
|-<br />
| sho || adj || which?, what? <br />
|-<br />
| shodh || pro || what kind of<br />
|-<br />
| shos || pro || with whom<br />
|-<br />
|shosleetha|| n || knight <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SL=== <br />
|-<br />
| slada || n || monastery<br />
|-<br />
| slahit || n || flour <br />
|-<br />
|slengu|| n || nose <br />
|-<br />
| slint || n || jug <br />
|-<br />
| slop || n || chair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===T=== <br />
|-<br />
| ta || part || verb conditional <br />
|-<br />
|ta'i || n ||past <br />
|-<br />
|tai || n ||for long <br />
|-<br />
|tes || n ||eye <br />
|-<br />
|tes(os)|| v || is seen <br />
|-<br />
| tesei || part || verb visual evidential<br />
|-<br />
| thol || n || liquid <br />
|-<br />
|tihtóhnah || n ||assassinator <br />
|-<br />
| tis || n || skin <br />
|-<br />
|tlaf || n ||sprig <br />
|-<br />
|tlsl || n ||shallow <br />
|-<br />
| toti || n || one hundred <br />
|-<br />
|trk || n ||smithy <br />
|-<br />
|trs || n ||smith <br />
|-<br />
|tup || n ||stick <br />
|-<br />
| tut || v || wants<br />
|-<br />
|tuta || n ||craving, wish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TH=== <br />
|-<br />
| tha || pro || it (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaka || pro || this (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaso || pro || something else (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thata || pro || anything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
| theso || pro || nothing (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thorka || pro || everything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TS=== <br />
|-<br />
|tsagadhet || n ||bureau <br />
|-<br />
| tsaka || pro || this one (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| tsalka || pro || this one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tseso || pro || neither <br />
|-<br />
|tsma || n ||doubt <br />
|-<br />
| tso || pro || other (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsoi || prep || in front of<br />
|-<br />
| tso'i || n || front<br />
|-<br />
|tsok || n ||letter <br />
|-<br />
|tsoklóp || n ||alphabet <br />
|-<br />
| tsoko || pro || that one (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolko || pro || that one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolo || pro || another (of many) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (one many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolto || pro || any (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsongko || pro || every, each<br />
|-<br />
| tsorko || pro || both <br />
|-<br />
| tsoto || pro || either one <br />
|-<br />
|tsøl || n ||purple <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSL===<br />
|-<br />
| tslap || n || window <br />
|-<br />
| tsleso || pro || none (of many)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSH===<br />
|-<br />
|tshok || n || cabinet, storage<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is stored<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===U=== <br />
|-<br />
|ukop || n ||north <br />
|-<br />
| umah || n || egg<br />
|-<br />
|ura || n ||following day, tomorrow <br />
|-<br />
| utsu || n || person <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===V=== <br />
|-<br />
|vakuh || n ||hand <br />
|-<br />
|vang || n ||throat<br />
|-<br />
|vangos || v ||is drunk, swallowed, devoured <br />
|-<br />
|vangost || n || drink<br />
|-<br />
|vangostéti || n || thirst<br />
|-<br />
|voi || prep || in<br />
|-<br />
| vop || n || roof<br />
|-<br />
|voq || n ||strange thing <br />
|-<br />
| vóna || n || east <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===W=== <br />
|-<br />
|weh||v||is born<br />
|-<br />
| With || pro || You (plural) <br />
|-<br />
| wu || n || youngster <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===Z=== <br />
|-<br />
|za || n ||height <br />
|-<br />
|zait || v ||goes up <br />
|-<br />
|zaivi|| n || song <br />
|-<br />
| ze || adj || no<br />
|-<br />
| zei || pro || in no way<br />
|-<br />
| zenep ||pro || for no reason<br />
|-<br />
| zeng || pro || never <br />
|-<br />
| zengu || pro || nowhere <br />
|-<br />
| zeos || pro || with nobody <br />
|-<br />
| zil || n || salt <br />
|-<br />
| zodhi || pro || of no kind<br />
|-<br />
| zoi || prep || up<br />
|-<br />
| zolo || pro || some, one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
|zurmu || n ||strong person<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===ZH=== <br />
|-<br />
| zhaku || n || seller, vendor <br />
|-<br />
| zho || pro || one (of two) <br />
|}</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Linguifex_Relay/Sceptrian&diff=35742Fourth Linguifex Relay/Sceptrian2015-07-08T19:13:25Z<p>Juhhmi: Created page with "Óphi fatipap Lingwifekson Lushakha: <poem> '' , '' ; '' , '' . ''Pé, '' , '' ; '' . </poem> ==Glossed== <poem> #''léhkod-é pai..."</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Fourth_Linguifex_Relay|Óphi fatipap Lingwifekson]] [[Sceptrian|Lushakha]]:<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
'' ,<br />
'' ;<br />
'' ,<br />
'' .<br />
''Pé,<br />
'' ,<br />
'' ;<br />
'' .<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Glossed==<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
#''léhkod-é pai ko qhó~qhøk-os<br />
#:<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR DIST.SG SUBJ~\is_broken\-3SG.INCEP</small><br />
#''léhkod-é pai keewesht mjula-n<br />
#:<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR mosaic life-GEN</small><br />
#''léhkod-é pai qhó~qhøg-ho klo<br />
#:<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR SUBJ~\is_broken\-3PL.FUT PRO.3PL</small><br />
#''léhkod-é pai qhó~qhøk-l tshel-o<br />
#:<small>ADVZ\fast-VOC MIR SUBJ~\is_broken-3PL.GNO sand-LAT</small><br />
*''léh-ko-d-é'' might be glossed as ADVZ\leg-LAT-VBZ.MVT\ADJZ-VOC, but the core was translated for simplicity<br />
*[[Sceptrian#Particles|verb particles]] don't always require verbs<br />
*Sceptrian has several ways of indicating [[Sceptrian#Possessive|possessive forms]]<br />
<br />
#''mjul(a) keeweshtsozh oil qot&lt;i&gt;~t-l-óo <br />
#:<small>life mosaic-PL.COM-POSS.3SG.INAL as rock~DIM-PL-LAT</small><br />
#''qhó~qhøk oil qot&lt;i&gt;~t-l-óo tshel-o<br />
#:<small>SUBJ~\is_broken as rock~DIM-PL-LAT sand-LAT</small><br />
#''mjul(a) keeweshtsozh oil qot&lt;i&gt;~t-l-óo<br />
#:<small>life mosaic-PL.COM-POSS.3SG.INAL as rock~DIM-PL-LAT</small><br />
*See [[Sceptrian#Prepositions|prepositions]] for the effect of noun case.<br />
<br />
''daremu soi slop&lt;a&gt;~p-u-os<br />
<small>Ruler on chair~AUG-LOC-POSS.3SG.ALIEN</small><br />
<br />
''jak rajidhé mitup-u-r-p-óo<br />
<small>away (ADVZ\)sudden-VOC sea-LOC-VBZ.FREQ-NMZ-LAT</small><br />
<br />
''Pé, <br />
<small>2Pl.VOC </small><br />
<br />
''<br />
<small></small><br />
<br />
''<br />
<small></small><br />
<br />
''<br />
<small></small><br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian is a head-initial, ergative-absolutive language, i.e. the word order in clauses is VAO and the head of the noun phrase is followed by adjectives and demostratives. Both prepositions and postpositions are used, however.</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian/Dictionary&diff=35733Sceptrian/Dictionary2015-07-08T15:46:55Z<p>Juhhmi: /* F */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
Derived words are shown under the original word. Latin alphabet order is used to help unaccustomed users.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
|Sceptrian || Word Class || English<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===A=== <br />
|-<br />
|aktas|| n || ear <br />
|-<br />
|ala || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
| alké || part || verb permissive<br />
|-<br />
| amu || n || girl<br />
|-<br />
|ara || n ||previous day, yesterday <br />
|-<br />
| atasi || part || verb hearsay evidential<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Æ=== <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===B===<br />
|-<br />
|bak|| n || table <br />
|-<br />
|bap|| n|| word <br />
|-<br />
|baplóp || n ||sentence <br />
|-<br />
|batop|| n || language <br />
|-<br />
| berak || n || tower<br />
|-<br />
| betsla || n || effect<br />
|-<br />
| betsl || v || affect<br />
|-<br />
|birtsil || n ||fire <br />
|-<br />
| boi || prep || down <br />
|-<br />
|bó || n||lowness <br />
|-<br />
|bous || v ||goes down <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===D=== <br />
|-<br />
| darem || v || is ruled <br />
|-<br />
| daremu || n || ruler<br />
|-<br />
| dei || adj || right (side) <br />
|-<br />
| deq || n || cliff <br />
|-<br />
|dldlp|| n || bubble<br />
|-<br />
|doth|| n || man <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===DH=== <br />
|-<br />
|dhoku || n ||head <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===E=== <br />
|-<br />
|eja || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
|eva || n ||light <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===É=== <br />
|-<br />
| éves || n || hair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===F=== <br />
|-<br />
| fas || n || finger<br />
|-<br />
|fatip||n||chain<br />
|-<br />
|fendó ||n ||death <br />
|-<br />
|firut || n || city, town<br />
|-<br />
|fkot|| n|| nest <br />
|-<br />
| fo || pro || you (singular)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===G=== <br />
|-<br />
| gana || part || verb volitive<br />
|-<br />
|gat|| n || house<br />
|-<br />
| gæ || part || in literature for sarcasm <br />
|-<br />
| get || n || mountain <br />
|-<br />
|glerk|| n || mace <br />
|-<br />
|gln || n ||fat <br />
|-<br />
| gót || n || table <br />
|-<br />
|guh || n ||mouth <br />
|-<br />
|gul|| n || blackness <br />
|-<br />
|guts||n||cow<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===H=== <br />
|-<br />
| hara || n || west <br />
|-<br />
| hamisi || n || one million <br />
|-<br />
| hets || v || stands<br />
|-<br />
| hi || pro || it (inanimate)<br />
|-<br />
|hifthil || n || air <br />
|-<br />
|hil || n ||whiteness <br />
|-<br />
| hoi || prep || behind; after<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===I=== <br />
|-<br />
| i || n || concept, abstraction<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===J=== <br />
|-<br />
| jaafa || pro || something (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
|jada|| n || pleasant, nice, good <br />
|-<br />
| jak || postp || ABL away <br />
|-<br />
| jatu || n || father <br />
|-<br />
|jiti|| n || smallness <br />
|-<br />
| jodhi || pro || some kind of<br />
|-<br />
| jofa || adj || some <br />
|-<br />
| jofai || pro || somehow<br />
|-<br />
| jofko || pro || sometime<br />
|-<br />
| jofku || pro || somewhere<br />
|-<br />
| jofo || pro || something (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| jofos || pro || with someone <br />
|-<br />
| jokæ || part || verb exhortative<br />
|-<br />
| jon || prep || between<br />
|-<br />
| jonfu || pro || something (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| jopi || n || number ten <br />
|-<br />
|joqó || n ||disgust <br />
|-<br />
| jov || pro || for some reason<br />
|-<br />
| jø || part || in literature for verbal irony <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===K=== <br />
|-<br />
| ka || pro || this <br />
|-<br />
| kadh || pro || this kind of<br />
|-<br />
|kamps || n ||marsh, swamp <br />
|-<br />
| kap || pro || herefore<br />
|-<br />
|karon || n ||soup <br />
|-<br />
| kas || pro || with this<br />
|-<br />
|kat|| n ||knob, handle <br />
|-<br />
|katpas || n ||fern <br />
|-<br />
| keet || n || hill <br />
|-<br />
|kep || n ||wash, act of washing <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||is washed <br />
|-<br />
| kesl || v || bleed <br />
|-<br />
|keslań|| n || blood <br />
|-<br />
| ket || n || plate <br />
|-<br />
| keva || n || priest <br />
|-<br />
| kha || pro || now<br />
|-<br />
| khai || pro || hereby<br />
|-<br />
| khau || pro || here<br />
|-<br />
| khet || v|| must<br />
|-<br />
|kheti|| n || necessity <br />
|-<br />
| kho || pro || then<br />
|-<br />
| khoi || pro || thereby<br />
|-<br />
| khu || pro || there<br />
|-<br />
| khurd || v || dare<br />
|-<br />
|khurdi|| n || daring <br />
|-<br />
|ki || n ||shortness <br />
|-<br />
| ko || pro || that<br />
|-<br />
| kodh || pro || that kind of<br />
|-<br />
| koi || prep || per <br />
|-<br />
| kop || pro || therefore<br />
|-<br />
| kos || pro || with that<br />
|-<br />
|kos || n ||tree <br />
|-<br />
|koson || n ||wood (also kosoń) <br />
|-<br />
|ksaru || n ||guard<br />
|-<br />
|kusu|| n || friend <br />
|-<br />
|kuth|| n || dog <br />
|-<br />
| kuut || v || can, may<br />
|-<br />
|kuutó|| n || possibility <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===L=== <br />
|-<br />
| lai || adj || left (side) <br />
|-<br />
| lamat || n || field <br />
|-<br />
|latep || n ||dance <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||dances <br />
|-<br />
| leh || n || leg<br />
|-<br />
| lewu || n || mother<br />
|-<br />
| loi || prep || out<br />
|-<br />
|lutu|| n || woman <br />
|-<br />
|luva || n ||pleasure <br />
|-<br />
|luwi|| n || beauty <br />
|-<br />
|lzork || n ||worm <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===M=== <br />
|-<br />
| mai || postp || ABL excluding<br />
|-<br />
| mak || postp || ABL except<br />
|-<br />
|mak || v || ABL is given to DAT by ERG <br />
|-<br />
|math || n ||cat <br />
|-<br />
| mats || postp || ABL instead of <br />
|-<br />
|mel|| n || water <br />
|-<br />
| mép || v || can, knows how to<br />
|-<br />
|mépi || n ||skill <br />
|-<br />
| mitup || n || sea, ocean <br />
|-<br />
|mjula|| n || life <br />
|-<br />
| mo || pro || we<br />
|-<br />
|mofpu|| n || lip <br />
|-<br />
| moi || prep || touching<br />
|-<br />
|mol || n ||blueness <br />
|-<br />
| mopi || n || one thousand <br />
|-<br />
| mots(i) || prep || on side<br />
|-<br />
| mowisi || n || one billion <br />
|-<br />
| mótap || n || bread<br />
|-<br />
|muf|| n || fish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===N=== <br />
|-<br />
| na || pro || I<br />
|-<br />
| nam || n || food<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is eaten, used to sate<br />
|-<br />
|naméti || n || hunger<br />
|-<br />
|nang || n ||sweat <br />
|-<br />
|nat || n ||stain <br />
|-<br />
|nath|| n || beggar <br />
|-<br />
|nek||v||is taken<br />
|-<br />
| nesu || n || boy <br />
|-<br />
|nin || n ||greenness <br />
|-<br />
| Nith || pro || You (singular) <br />
|-<br />
| norka || part || verb dubitative<br />
|-<br />
|not|| n || object <br />
|-<br />
| nuhit || n || carpet <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===NG=== <br />
|-<br />
| nget || n || candle, lamp<br />
|-<br />
| ngofi || n || number thirteen<br />
|-<br />
| ngoipi || n || number nine <br />
|-<br />
| ngoki || n || number eleven <br />
|-<br />
| ngovi || n || number eight <br />
|-<br />
| ngóki || n || number fourteen <br />
|-<br />
| ngópi || n || number twelve<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===O=== <br />
|-<br />
| ofi || n || number five<br />
|-<br />
| ohu || adv || once<br />
|-<br />
| oil(i) || prep || as<br />
|-<br />
| oist(i) || prep || under<br />
|-<br />
| ok || num || three<br />
|-<br />
| okart || n || triangle<br />
|-<br />
| okhi || adj || third<br />
|-<br />
| okhu || adv || thrice<br />
|-<br />
| oki || n || number three<br />
|-<br />
| okitse || adj || threefold<br />
|-<br />
| omi || n || number seven<br />
|-<br />
| onta || pro || anything (animate) <br />
|-<br />
| ongka || pro || everything (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| op || num || two<br />
|-<br />
| opart || n || line<br />
|-<br />
| ophi || adj || second<br />
|-<br />
| ophu || adv || twice<br />
|-<br />
| ophungovi || n || number sixteen<br />
|-<br />
| opi || n || number two<br />
|-<br />
| opisi || n || pair<br />
|-<br />
| opitse || adj || twofold<br />
|-<br />
| orak || n || street, alley <br />
|-<br />
| ordhi || pro || all/every kind of<br />
|-<br />
| orka || adj || every, all <br />
|-<br />
| orkai || pro || in every way<br />
|-<br />
| orkho || pro || always<br />
|-<br />
| orkhu || pro || everywhere <br />
|-<br />
| orko || pro || everything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| orkop || pro || for every reason<br />
|-<br />
| orkos || pro || with everyone<br />
|-<br />
| ota || adj || any <br />
|-<br />
| othi || pro || any kind of <br />
|-<br />
| otko || pro || whenever<br />
|-<br />
| otku || pro || anywhere <br />
|-<br />
| oto || pro || anything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| otop || pro || for any reason<br />
|-<br />
| otos || pro || with anyone<br />
|-<br />
| oz || num || zero<br />
|-<br />
| ozhi || adj || zeroth<br />
|-<br />
| ozi || n || number zero, nought<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ó=== <br />
|-<br />
| ókart || n || hexagon<br />
|-<br />
| ókki || n || number six<br />
|-<br />
| ól || postp || GEN like <br />
|-<br />
| || adverb || similarly<br />
|-<br />
|óomi || n ||largeness <br />
|-<br />
| óp || postp || GEN about; ABL according to<br />
|-<br />
| ópart || n || square<br />
|-<br />
| ópef || n || chicken <br />
|-<br />
| óppi || n || number four <br />
|-<br />
| ótuk || n|| sign<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ø=== <br />
|-<br />
|øfkam || n || pus <br />
|-<br />
|ølep || n || fabric<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===P=== <br />
|-<br />
|paata || n ||separation <br />
|-<br />
| pai || part || verb mirative <br />
|-<br />
| || adv || how (with adj)<br />
|-<br />
| patuk || n || village <br />
|-<br />
|peki || n || enjoyment<br />
|-<br />
|petsip|| n|| clothes <br />
|-<br />
| phe || postp || LAT for the sake of<br />
|-<br />
| phó || postp || LAT along<br />
|-<br />
| pló || postp || LOC opposite to <br />
|-<br />
| po || pro || you (plural)<br />
|-<br />
|pof || n ||feather <br />
|-<br />
| poi || prep || in the middle of, among<br />
|-<br />
| poki || n ||centre <br />
|-<br />
| pón || postp || LAT through<br />
|-<br />
|pos|| n ||servant <br />
|-<br />
|prk || n ||wagon <br />
|-<br />
| puk || n || door<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===Q=== <br />
|-<br />
|qal ||n ||yellowness <br />
|-<br />
| qet || n || wall <br />
|-<br />
|qorel|| n || earth <br />
|-<br />
|qot || n ||rock <br />
|-<br />
|qotol|| n || stone <br />
|-<br />
|qóp||v||do<br />
|-<br />
|qópa||n||act, deed <br />
|-<br />
|qut || n || room<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===QH=== <br />
|-<br />
| qheetu || n || guard <br />
|-<br />
| qhotep || n || spear<br />
|-<br />
| qhók || v || is broken, smashed<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===R=== <br />
|-<br />
| raf || n || foot<br />
|-<br />
|ras||n||horse<br />
|-<br />
| ret || n || floor<br />
|-<br />
|rkil|| n || orange <br />
|-<br />
| roi || prep || above<br />
|-<br />
|rot || v ||leaves, goes <br />
|-<br />
|rul|| n || redness <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===S=== <br />
|-<br />
| sahul || n || beer<br />
|-<br />
| sai || postp || COM including <br />
|-<br />
| saitu || pre || this one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| sak || postp || COM concerning; ABL due to <br />
|-<br />
| sku || pro || where<br />
|-<br />
| sko || pro || when <br />
|-<br />
| so || adj || another <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || something else<br />
|-<br />
| soi || prep || on<br />
|-<br />
| soi || pro || otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| sokho || pro || another time <br />
|-<br />
| sokhu || pro || elsewhere <br />
|-<br />
| sonop || pro || for another reason<br />
|-<br />
| sos || pro || with someone else<br />
|-<br />
| sothi || pro || of another kind<br />
|-<br />
| sós || postp || COM with; ABL without; LAT in addition to <br />
|-<br />
| souso || pro || nobody<br />
|-<br />
| soutu || pro || that one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| || pro || who? <br />
|-<br />
| spe || pro || why?<br />
|-<br />
|spii|| n || length <br />
|-<br />
|stak|| n || fence <br />
|-<br />
|su || n ||it/he? <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SH=== <br />
|-<br />
| shara || n || south <br />
|-<br />
| shi || pro || how?<br />
|-<br />
| sho || adj || which?, what? <br />
|-<br />
| shodh || pro || what kind of<br />
|-<br />
| shos || pro || with whom<br />
|-<br />
|shosleetha|| n || knight <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SL=== <br />
|-<br />
| slada || n || monastery<br />
|-<br />
| slahit || n || flour <br />
|-<br />
|slengu|| n || nose <br />
|-<br />
| slint || n || jug <br />
|-<br />
| slop || n || chair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===T=== <br />
|-<br />
| ta || part || verb conditional <br />
|-<br />
|ta'i || n ||past <br />
|-<br />
|tai || n ||for long <br />
|-<br />
|tes || n ||eye <br />
|-<br />
|tes(os)|| v || is seen <br />
|-<br />
| tesei || part || verb visual evidential<br />
|-<br />
| thol || n || liquid <br />
|-<br />
|tihtóhnah || n ||assassinator <br />
|-<br />
| tis || n || skin <br />
|-<br />
|tlaf || n ||sprig <br />
|-<br />
|tlsl || n ||shallow <br />
|-<br />
| toti || n || one hundred <br />
|-<br />
|trk || n ||smithy <br />
|-<br />
|trs || n ||smith <br />
|-<br />
|tup || n ||stick <br />
|-<br />
| tut || v || wants<br />
|-<br />
|tuta || n ||craving, wish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TH=== <br />
|-<br />
| tha || pro || it (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaka || pro || this (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaso || pro || something else (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thata || pro || anything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
| theso || pro || nothing (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thorka || pro || everything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TS=== <br />
|-<br />
|tsagadhet || n ||bureau <br />
|-<br />
| tsaka || pro || this one (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| tsalka || pro || this one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tseso || pro || neither <br />
|-<br />
|tsma || n ||doubt <br />
|-<br />
| tso || pro || other (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsoi || prep || in front of<br />
|-<br />
| tso'i || n || front<br />
|-<br />
|tsok || n ||letter <br />
|-<br />
|tsoklóp || n ||alphabet <br />
|-<br />
| tsoko || pro || that one (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolko || pro || that one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolo || pro || another (of many) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (one many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolto || pro || any (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsongko || pro || every, each<br />
|-<br />
| tsorko || pro || both <br />
|-<br />
| tsoto || pro || either one <br />
|-<br />
|tsøl || n ||purple <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSL===<br />
|-<br />
| tslap || n || window <br />
|-<br />
| tsleso || pro || none (of many)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSH===<br />
|-<br />
|tshok || n || cabinet, storage<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is stored<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===U=== <br />
|-<br />
|ukop || n ||north <br />
|-<br />
| umah || n || egg<br />
|-<br />
|ura || n ||following day, tomorrow <br />
|-<br />
| utsu || n || person <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===V=== <br />
|-<br />
|vakuh || n ||hand <br />
|-<br />
|vang || n ||throat<br />
|-<br />
|vangos || v ||is drunk, swallowed, devoured <br />
|-<br />
|vangost || n || drink<br />
|-<br />
|vangostéti || n || thirst<br />
|-<br />
|voi || prep || in<br />
|-<br />
| vop || n || roof<br />
|-<br />
|voq || n ||strange thing <br />
|-<br />
| vóna || n || east <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===W=== <br />
|-<br />
|weh||v||is born<br />
|-<br />
| With || pro || You (plural) <br />
|-<br />
| wu || n || youngster <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===Z=== <br />
|-<br />
|za || n ||height <br />
|-<br />
|zait || v ||goes up <br />
|-<br />
|zaivi|| n || song <br />
|-<br />
| ze || adj || no<br />
|-<br />
| zei || pro || in no way<br />
|-<br />
| zenep ||pro || for no reason<br />
|-<br />
| zeng || pro || never <br />
|-<br />
| zengu || pro || nowhere <br />
|-<br />
| zeos || pro || with nobody <br />
|-<br />
| zil || n || salt <br />
|-<br />
| zodhi || pro || of no kind<br />
|-<br />
| zoi || prep || up<br />
|-<br />
| zolo || pro || some, one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
|zurmu || n ||strong person<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===ZH=== <br />
|-<br />
| zhaku || n || seller, vendor <br />
|-<br />
| zho || pro || one (of two) <br />
|}</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian/Dictionary&diff=35732Sceptrian/Dictionary2015-07-08T15:44:43Z<p>Juhhmi: /* F */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
Derived words are shown under the original word. Latin alphabet order is used to help unaccustomed users.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
|Sceptrian || Word Class || English<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===A=== <br />
|-<br />
|aktas|| n || ear <br />
|-<br />
|ala || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
| alké || part || verb permissive<br />
|-<br />
| amu || n || girl<br />
|-<br />
|ara || n ||previous day, yesterday <br />
|-<br />
| atasi || part || verb hearsay evidential<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Æ=== <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===B===<br />
|-<br />
|bak|| n || table <br />
|-<br />
|bap|| n|| word <br />
|-<br />
|baplóp || n ||sentence <br />
|-<br />
|batop|| n || language <br />
|-<br />
| berak || n || tower<br />
|-<br />
| betsla || n || effect<br />
|-<br />
| betsl || v || affect<br />
|-<br />
|birtsil || n ||fire <br />
|-<br />
| boi || prep || down <br />
|-<br />
|bó || n||lowness <br />
|-<br />
|bous || v ||goes down <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===D=== <br />
|-<br />
| darem || v || is ruled <br />
|-<br />
| daremu || n || ruler<br />
|-<br />
| dei || adj || right (side) <br />
|-<br />
| deq || n || cliff <br />
|-<br />
|dldlp|| n || bubble<br />
|-<br />
|doth|| n || man <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===DH=== <br />
|-<br />
|dhoku || n ||head <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===E=== <br />
|-<br />
|eja || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
|eva || n ||light <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===É=== <br />
|-<br />
| éves || n || hair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===F=== <br />
|-<br />
| fas || n || finger<br />
|-<br />
|fatin||n||chain<br />
|-<br />
|fendó ||n ||death <br />
|-<br />
|firut || n || city, town<br />
|-<br />
|fkot|| n|| nest <br />
|-<br />
| fo || pro || you (singular)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===G=== <br />
|-<br />
| gana || part || verb volitive<br />
|-<br />
|gat|| n || house<br />
|-<br />
| gæ || part || in literature for sarcasm <br />
|-<br />
| get || n || mountain <br />
|-<br />
|glerk|| n || mace <br />
|-<br />
|gln || n ||fat <br />
|-<br />
| gót || n || table <br />
|-<br />
|guh || n ||mouth <br />
|-<br />
|gul|| n || blackness <br />
|-<br />
|guts||n||cow<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===H=== <br />
|-<br />
| hara || n || west <br />
|-<br />
| hamisi || n || one million <br />
|-<br />
| hets || v || stands<br />
|-<br />
| hi || pro || it (inanimate)<br />
|-<br />
|hifthil || n || air <br />
|-<br />
|hil || n ||whiteness <br />
|-<br />
| hoi || prep || behind; after<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===I=== <br />
|-<br />
| i || n || concept, abstraction<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===J=== <br />
|-<br />
| jaafa || pro || something (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
|jada|| n || pleasant, nice, good <br />
|-<br />
| jak || postp || ABL away <br />
|-<br />
| jatu || n || father <br />
|-<br />
|jiti|| n || smallness <br />
|-<br />
| jodhi || pro || some kind of<br />
|-<br />
| jofa || adj || some <br />
|-<br />
| jofai || pro || somehow<br />
|-<br />
| jofko || pro || sometime<br />
|-<br />
| jofku || pro || somewhere<br />
|-<br />
| jofo || pro || something (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| jofos || pro || with someone <br />
|-<br />
| jokæ || part || verb exhortative<br />
|-<br />
| jon || prep || between<br />
|-<br />
| jonfu || pro || something (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| jopi || n || number ten <br />
|-<br />
|joqó || n ||disgust <br />
|-<br />
| jov || pro || for some reason<br />
|-<br />
| jø || part || in literature for verbal irony <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===K=== <br />
|-<br />
| ka || pro || this <br />
|-<br />
| kadh || pro || this kind of<br />
|-<br />
|kamps || n ||marsh, swamp <br />
|-<br />
| kap || pro || herefore<br />
|-<br />
|karon || n ||soup <br />
|-<br />
| kas || pro || with this<br />
|-<br />
|kat|| n ||knob, handle <br />
|-<br />
|katpas || n ||fern <br />
|-<br />
| keet || n || hill <br />
|-<br />
|kep || n ||wash, act of washing <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||is washed <br />
|-<br />
| kesl || v || bleed <br />
|-<br />
|keslań|| n || blood <br />
|-<br />
| ket || n || plate <br />
|-<br />
| keva || n || priest <br />
|-<br />
| kha || pro || now<br />
|-<br />
| khai || pro || hereby<br />
|-<br />
| khau || pro || here<br />
|-<br />
| khet || v|| must<br />
|-<br />
|kheti|| n || necessity <br />
|-<br />
| kho || pro || then<br />
|-<br />
| khoi || pro || thereby<br />
|-<br />
| khu || pro || there<br />
|-<br />
| khurd || v || dare<br />
|-<br />
|khurdi|| n || daring <br />
|-<br />
|ki || n ||shortness <br />
|-<br />
| ko || pro || that<br />
|-<br />
| kodh || pro || that kind of<br />
|-<br />
| koi || prep || per <br />
|-<br />
| kop || pro || therefore<br />
|-<br />
| kos || pro || with that<br />
|-<br />
|kos || n ||tree <br />
|-<br />
|koson || n ||wood (also kosoń) <br />
|-<br />
|ksaru || n ||guard<br />
|-<br />
|kusu|| n || friend <br />
|-<br />
|kuth|| n || dog <br />
|-<br />
| kuut || v || can, may<br />
|-<br />
|kuutó|| n || possibility <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===L=== <br />
|-<br />
| lai || adj || left (side) <br />
|-<br />
| lamat || n || field <br />
|-<br />
|latep || n ||dance <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||dances <br />
|-<br />
| leh || n || leg<br />
|-<br />
| lewu || n || mother<br />
|-<br />
| loi || prep || out<br />
|-<br />
|lutu|| n || woman <br />
|-<br />
|luva || n ||pleasure <br />
|-<br />
|luwi|| n || beauty <br />
|-<br />
|lzork || n ||worm <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===M=== <br />
|-<br />
| mai || postp || ABL excluding<br />
|-<br />
| mak || postp || ABL except<br />
|-<br />
|mak || v || ABL is given to DAT by ERG <br />
|-<br />
|math || n ||cat <br />
|-<br />
| mats || postp || ABL instead of <br />
|-<br />
|mel|| n || water <br />
|-<br />
| mép || v || can, knows how to<br />
|-<br />
|mépi || n ||skill <br />
|-<br />
| mitup || n || sea, ocean <br />
|-<br />
|mjula|| n || life <br />
|-<br />
| mo || pro || we<br />
|-<br />
|mofpu|| n || lip <br />
|-<br />
| moi || prep || touching<br />
|-<br />
|mol || n ||blueness <br />
|-<br />
| mopi || n || one thousand <br />
|-<br />
| mots(i) || prep || on side<br />
|-<br />
| mowisi || n || one billion <br />
|-<br />
| mótap || n || bread<br />
|-<br />
|muf|| n || fish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===N=== <br />
|-<br />
| na || pro || I<br />
|-<br />
| nam || n || food<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is eaten, used to sate<br />
|-<br />
|naméti || n || hunger<br />
|-<br />
|nang || n ||sweat <br />
|-<br />
|nat || n ||stain <br />
|-<br />
|nath|| n || beggar <br />
|-<br />
|nek||v||is taken<br />
|-<br />
| nesu || n || boy <br />
|-<br />
|nin || n ||greenness <br />
|-<br />
| Nith || pro || You (singular) <br />
|-<br />
| norka || part || verb dubitative<br />
|-<br />
|not|| n || object <br />
|-<br />
| nuhit || n || carpet <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===NG=== <br />
|-<br />
| nget || n || candle, lamp<br />
|-<br />
| ngofi || n || number thirteen<br />
|-<br />
| ngoipi || n || number nine <br />
|-<br />
| ngoki || n || number eleven <br />
|-<br />
| ngovi || n || number eight <br />
|-<br />
| ngóki || n || number fourteen <br />
|-<br />
| ngópi || n || number twelve<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===O=== <br />
|-<br />
| ofi || n || number five<br />
|-<br />
| ohu || adv || once<br />
|-<br />
| oil(i) || prep || as<br />
|-<br />
| oist(i) || prep || under<br />
|-<br />
| ok || num || three<br />
|-<br />
| okart || n || triangle<br />
|-<br />
| okhi || adj || third<br />
|-<br />
| okhu || adv || thrice<br />
|-<br />
| oki || n || number three<br />
|-<br />
| okitse || adj || threefold<br />
|-<br />
| omi || n || number seven<br />
|-<br />
| onta || pro || anything (animate) <br />
|-<br />
| ongka || pro || everything (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| op || num || two<br />
|-<br />
| opart || n || line<br />
|-<br />
| ophi || adj || second<br />
|-<br />
| ophu || adv || twice<br />
|-<br />
| ophungovi || n || number sixteen<br />
|-<br />
| opi || n || number two<br />
|-<br />
| opisi || n || pair<br />
|-<br />
| opitse || adj || twofold<br />
|-<br />
| orak || n || street, alley <br />
|-<br />
| ordhi || pro || all/every kind of<br />
|-<br />
| orka || adj || every, all <br />
|-<br />
| orkai || pro || in every way<br />
|-<br />
| orkho || pro || always<br />
|-<br />
| orkhu || pro || everywhere <br />
|-<br />
| orko || pro || everything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| orkop || pro || for every reason<br />
|-<br />
| orkos || pro || with everyone<br />
|-<br />
| ota || adj || any <br />
|-<br />
| othi || pro || any kind of <br />
|-<br />
| otko || pro || whenever<br />
|-<br />
| otku || pro || anywhere <br />
|-<br />
| oto || pro || anything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| otop || pro || for any reason<br />
|-<br />
| otos || pro || with anyone<br />
|-<br />
| oz || num || zero<br />
|-<br />
| ozhi || adj || zeroth<br />
|-<br />
| ozi || n || number zero, nought<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ó=== <br />
|-<br />
| ókart || n || hexagon<br />
|-<br />
| ókki || n || number six<br />
|-<br />
| ól || postp || GEN like <br />
|-<br />
| || adverb || similarly<br />
|-<br />
|óomi || n ||largeness <br />
|-<br />
| óp || postp || GEN about; ABL according to<br />
|-<br />
| ópart || n || square<br />
|-<br />
| ópef || n || chicken <br />
|-<br />
| óppi || n || number four <br />
|-<br />
| ótuk || n|| sign<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ø=== <br />
|-<br />
|øfkam || n || pus <br />
|-<br />
|ølep || n || fabric<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===P=== <br />
|-<br />
|paata || n ||separation <br />
|-<br />
| pai || part || verb mirative <br />
|-<br />
| || adv || how (with adj)<br />
|-<br />
| patuk || n || village <br />
|-<br />
|peki || n || enjoyment<br />
|-<br />
|petsip|| n|| clothes <br />
|-<br />
| phe || postp || LAT for the sake of<br />
|-<br />
| phó || postp || LAT along<br />
|-<br />
| pló || postp || LOC opposite to <br />
|-<br />
| po || pro || you (plural)<br />
|-<br />
|pof || n ||feather <br />
|-<br />
| poi || prep || in the middle of, among<br />
|-<br />
| poki || n ||centre <br />
|-<br />
| pón || postp || LAT through<br />
|-<br />
|pos|| n ||servant <br />
|-<br />
|prk || n ||wagon <br />
|-<br />
| puk || n || door<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===Q=== <br />
|-<br />
|qal ||n ||yellowness <br />
|-<br />
| qet || n || wall <br />
|-<br />
|qorel|| n || earth <br />
|-<br />
|qot || n ||rock <br />
|-<br />
|qotol|| n || stone <br />
|-<br />
|qóp||v||do<br />
|-<br />
|qópa||n||act, deed <br />
|-<br />
|qut || n || room<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===QH=== <br />
|-<br />
| qheetu || n || guard <br />
|-<br />
| qhotep || n || spear<br />
|-<br />
| qhók || v || is broken, smashed<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===R=== <br />
|-<br />
| raf || n || foot<br />
|-<br />
|ras||n||horse<br />
|-<br />
| ret || n || floor<br />
|-<br />
|rkil|| n || orange <br />
|-<br />
| roi || prep || above<br />
|-<br />
|rot || v ||leaves, goes <br />
|-<br />
|rul|| n || redness <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===S=== <br />
|-<br />
| sahul || n || beer<br />
|-<br />
| sai || postp || COM including <br />
|-<br />
| saitu || pre || this one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| sak || postp || COM concerning; ABL due to <br />
|-<br />
| sku || pro || where<br />
|-<br />
| sko || pro || when <br />
|-<br />
| so || adj || another <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || something else<br />
|-<br />
| soi || prep || on<br />
|-<br />
| soi || pro || otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| sokho || pro || another time <br />
|-<br />
| sokhu || pro || elsewhere <br />
|-<br />
| sonop || pro || for another reason<br />
|-<br />
| sos || pro || with someone else<br />
|-<br />
| sothi || pro || of another kind<br />
|-<br />
| sós || postp || COM with; ABL without; LAT in addition to <br />
|-<br />
| souso || pro || nobody<br />
|-<br />
| soutu || pro || that one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| || pro || who? <br />
|-<br />
| spe || pro || why?<br />
|-<br />
|spii|| n || length <br />
|-<br />
|stak|| n || fence <br />
|-<br />
|su || n ||it/he? <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SH=== <br />
|-<br />
| shara || n || south <br />
|-<br />
| shi || pro || how?<br />
|-<br />
| sho || adj || which?, what? <br />
|-<br />
| shodh || pro || what kind of<br />
|-<br />
| shos || pro || with whom<br />
|-<br />
|shosleetha|| n || knight <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SL=== <br />
|-<br />
| slada || n || monastery<br />
|-<br />
| slahit || n || flour <br />
|-<br />
|slengu|| n || nose <br />
|-<br />
| slint || n || jug <br />
|-<br />
| slop || n || chair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===T=== <br />
|-<br />
| ta || part || verb conditional <br />
|-<br />
|ta'i || n ||past <br />
|-<br />
|tai || n ||for long <br />
|-<br />
|tes || n ||eye <br />
|-<br />
|tes(os)|| v || is seen <br />
|-<br />
| tesei || part || verb visual evidential<br />
|-<br />
| thol || n || liquid <br />
|-<br />
|tihtóhnah || n ||assassinator <br />
|-<br />
| tis || n || skin <br />
|-<br />
|tlaf || n ||sprig <br />
|-<br />
|tlsl || n ||shallow <br />
|-<br />
| toti || n || one hundred <br />
|-<br />
|trk || n ||smithy <br />
|-<br />
|trs || n ||smith <br />
|-<br />
|tup || n ||stick <br />
|-<br />
| tut || v || wants<br />
|-<br />
|tuta || n ||craving, wish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TH=== <br />
|-<br />
| tha || pro || it (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaka || pro || this (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaso || pro || something else (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thata || pro || anything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
| theso || pro || nothing (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thorka || pro || everything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TS=== <br />
|-<br />
|tsagadhet || n ||bureau <br />
|-<br />
| tsaka || pro || this one (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| tsalka || pro || this one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tseso || pro || neither <br />
|-<br />
|tsma || n ||doubt <br />
|-<br />
| tso || pro || other (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsoi || prep || in front of<br />
|-<br />
| tso'i || n || front<br />
|-<br />
|tsok || n ||letter <br />
|-<br />
|tsoklóp || n ||alphabet <br />
|-<br />
| tsoko || pro || that one (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolko || pro || that one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolo || pro || another (of many) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (one many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolto || pro || any (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsongko || pro || every, each<br />
|-<br />
| tsorko || pro || both <br />
|-<br />
| tsoto || pro || either one <br />
|-<br />
|tsøl || n ||purple <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSL===<br />
|-<br />
| tslap || n || window <br />
|-<br />
| tsleso || pro || none (of many)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSH===<br />
|-<br />
|tshok || n || cabinet, storage<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is stored<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===U=== <br />
|-<br />
|ukop || n ||north <br />
|-<br />
| umah || n || egg<br />
|-<br />
|ura || n ||following day, tomorrow <br />
|-<br />
| utsu || n || person <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===V=== <br />
|-<br />
|vakuh || n ||hand <br />
|-<br />
|vang || n ||throat<br />
|-<br />
|vangos || v ||is drunk, swallowed, devoured <br />
|-<br />
|vangost || n || drink<br />
|-<br />
|vangostéti || n || thirst<br />
|-<br />
|voi || prep || in<br />
|-<br />
| vop || n || roof<br />
|-<br />
|voq || n ||strange thing <br />
|-<br />
| vóna || n || east <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===W=== <br />
|-<br />
|weh||v||is born<br />
|-<br />
| With || pro || You (plural) <br />
|-<br />
| wu || n || youngster <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===Z=== <br />
|-<br />
|za || n ||height <br />
|-<br />
|zait || v ||goes up <br />
|-<br />
|zaivi|| n || song <br />
|-<br />
| ze || adj || no<br />
|-<br />
| zei || pro || in no way<br />
|-<br />
| zenep ||pro || for no reason<br />
|-<br />
| zeng || pro || never <br />
|-<br />
| zengu || pro || nowhere <br />
|-<br />
| zeos || pro || with nobody <br />
|-<br />
| zil || n || salt <br />
|-<br />
| zodhi || pro || of no kind<br />
|-<br />
| zoi || prep || up<br />
|-<br />
| zolo || pro || some, one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
|zurmu || n ||strong person<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===ZH=== <br />
|-<br />
| zhaku || n || seller, vendor <br />
|-<br />
| zho || pro || one (of two) <br />
|}</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian&diff=35730Sceptrian2015-07-08T13:02:09Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Syntax */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Construction}}<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Sceptrian<br />
|nativename = [[File:Lusha_name.png|300px]]<br>''Batop Lushan''<br />
|pronunciation = [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ]<br />
|region = Western Central World<br />
|states = Sceptre<br />
|speakers = 29,200,000 <br />
|date = 7th 641<br />
|familycolor = #d3ffce<br />
|fam1 = West-Herookuan<br />
|fam2 = Lutian<br />
|fam3 = Sceptrian branch<br />
|creator=Ahuelni<br />
|setting=Akekata<br />
|dialects = Yerzonian, Mulish, Fanish <br />
|script = Toneka alphabet<br />
|nation = Empire of Sceptre<br />
|minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia<br />
|agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language)<br />
|map = Lusha_regions.jpg<br />
|mapsize = 300<br />
|mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects<br />
}}<br />
{{ClassMeter<br />
|Name = Sceptrian<br />
|NativeName = Batop Lushan<br />
|Type = Fusional<br />
|Alignment = Absolutive-ergative<br />
<br />
|adjective = final<br />
|adposition = mixed<br />
|adverb= final<br />
|article= mixed<br />
|relativeclause = final<br />
|nounclause = final<br />
|order = VSO<br />
<br />
|Tonal = no<br />
|Genders = 3<br />
|Declined = yes<br />
|Conjugated = yes<br />
|Case = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Definiteness = no<br />
|Gender = yes<br />
|Voice = yes<br />
|Mood = yes<br />
|Person = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Tense = yes<br />
|Aspect = yes<br />
|Phonology = 100<br />
|NounCases = 100<br />
|NounDef = 100<br />
|NounNumbers = 100<br />
|NounGender = 100<br />
|VerbPerson = 100<br />
|VerbNumber = 100<br />
|VerbAspect = 90<br />
|VerbTense = 100<br />
|VerbMood = 90<br />
|VerbVoice = 80<br />
|AdjCase = 100<br />
|AdjNumber = 100<br />
|AdjDef = 100<br />
|AdjGen = 100<br />
|AdjComparative = 100<br />
|AdjSuperlative = 100<br />
|Supine = 90<br />
|Gerund = 90<br />
|Participle = 90<br />
|Infinitive = 90<br />
|Modality = 90<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ] or simply ''lusha'') is an ''a priori'' [[w:Artistic_language|artistic language]] created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 29 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking [[Khattish]] and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian and its dialects feature 51 phonetic consonants, some of them with interesting lateral features. The language also has 25 phonetic vowels: twelve short, nine long and four diphthongs. Nasalization, rhotacization and breathy voice are used phonemically. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
If the romanization symbol is the same as in IPA, it is not duplicated. Not bolded romanization indicates that the sound appears as a vernacular or dialectal version.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 830px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px" colspan="2"|<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Uvular<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| [ɱ]<br />
| <br />
| '''n (ń)''' [n]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''t'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''k'''<br />
| '''q'''<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''b'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''d'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''g'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Breathy<br />
| '''ph bh'''<br>[pʰ] [bʱ]<br />
|<br />
|'''th dh'''<br>[tʰ] [dʱ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''kh gh'''<br>[kʰ] [gʱ]<br />
|'''qh'''<br>[qʰ]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| '''pl bl'''<br />[pˡ] [bˡ]<br />
| <br />
| '''tl dl'''<br />[tˡ] [dˡ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''kl gl'''<br/>[kˡ] [gˡ]<br />
| '''ql'''<br/>[qˡ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| ph [ɸ]<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| '''th''' [θ]<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''sh''' [ʃ]<br />
| '''h''' [ç]<br />
| '''kh h''' [x]<br />
| '''qh''' [χ]<br />
| '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''w''' bh [β]<br />
| '''v'''<br />
| '''dh''' [ð]<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| '''zh''' [ʒ]<br />
| <br />
| gh [ɣ]<br />
| <br />
| h [ɦ]<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''sl''' [ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Affricate<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ts''' [t͡s] <br />
| '''tsh''' [t͡ʃ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''tsl''' [t͡ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Approximant<br />
!Non-lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''j'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''l''' [l] [l̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| pr [ʙ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''r (ŕ)''' [r] [r̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The liquids ''r'' and ''l'' can appear as '''syllabic consonants''': ''tlsl'' /tˡl̩ɬ/ (shallow), ''prk'' /pr̩k/ (wagon) and ''trs'' /tr̩s/ (smith)<br />
*Vernacularly, both syllabic and obstruent-following alveolar trill ''r'' and lateral approximant ''l'' are pronounced as voiceless [r̩̊], [r̥], [l̩̊] and [l̥] when in contact with only voiceless consonants: ''trs'' [tr̩̊s] (smith) contrasting with ''trls'' [tr̩s] (while standard /trəls/) (smiths); ''gatl'' [gɑtl̥] (houses) whose pronunciation approaches [gɑtɬ]. <br />
**'''Meslatu Hirke''' made his disputed suggestion in 7:693 that a similar process had led to the birth of ''sl'' as plural indicator, when original plural ''l'' turned first into voiceless and then into ''sl'' after a word-final glottal stop, which has disappeared entirely. <br />
*In eastern dialects, ''pr'' is realized as [ʙ] and ''tr'', ''tsr'' and ''trs'' often as [r̝]. In the dialects, aspirated plosives have been fully spirantized into their fricative counterparts, e.g. [tʰ]>[θ].<br />
*Fricatives show properties of syllabic consonants word-initially and word-finally.<br />
<br />
Nasal [ɱ] only appears as an allophone of nasals with labio-dental sounds /f/ and /v/. Before velar sounds (e.g. /k/) nasals turn similarly into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
Letter ''h'' has four allophones: initial is always [h] despite frontness, [ç] appears elsewhere with front vowels, [x] appears word-finally and [h~ɦ] word-medially with back vowels ''tihtóhnah'' [tiçˈtɔɦ.näx] (assassinator). It's also used after consonants to indicate breathy voice.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 390px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| <br />
| '''u'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-mid<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| o<br/>[ɘ]<br />
| o<br/>[ɤ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
|<br />
| '''o'''<br/>[ə]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''é ø'''<br />[ɛ] [œ]<br />
|<br />
| '''ó'''<br />[ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
|'''æ'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
|'''a'''<br />[ä]<br />
|a<br />[ɑ]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
All the nine main vowel sounds (bolded) have '''long''' versions as separate phonemes.<br />
<br />
Schwa '''''o''''' is used as an epenthetic vowel (anaptyxis). When it is used to break consonant clusters (not indicated in native script) it is the simple schwa /ə/: *dŧ → ''doth'' /dəθ/ (man). When stressed, it is vernacularly realized as [ɘ], and in western dialects more clearly as [ɤ]: *dŧs → ''dothos'' [dəˈθɘˑs]<br />
<br />
Vowel ''a'' is [ɑ] after voiced consonants. Vowel ''æ'' is often more open [a], though, in Western dialects, it has merged with ''é''. <br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, there are only closing diphthongs which go up in the vowel chart:<br />
*Back: ou /ɔʊ̯/<br />
*Front: ai /äɪ̯/, ei /ei̯/, oi /œi̯/<br />
<br />
If the syllable border (glottal stop) is between vowels and they don't form a diphthong, apostrophe is used: ''tai'' (for long) vs. ''ta'i'' (past)<br />
*In native [[Sceptrian#Script|script]], separate graphemes for diphthongs exist and glottal stop is not marked.<br />
<br />
If diphthongs are followed by vowels, they are separated by a glottal stop in formal register. <br />
*In casual speech, ''ouV'' becomes ''owV'' and ''ViV'' ''VjV'': ''oua→ówa'' and ''aia→aja''. If the following vowel is the same, a glottal stop breaks the former diphthong and the ending vowel is lengthened: ''ai'i→a'ii''<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
<br />
===Onset===<br />
<br />
Basic [[w:Syllable#Structure|syllabic structure]] is CV, where the onset (beginning) consonant can be of any type. <br />
*It is possible to use liquids and approximants as '''glides''' (CLV) between the onset and the rime (ending). <br />
*Up to two consonants with same voicing may appear in the onset (CCV), especially fricative-plosive combinations, but never two plosives: ''stak'' (fence), ''fkot'' (nest), ''ksaru'' (guard). Affricate ''ts'' takes may be accompanied only by ''w'', ''j'', ''n'' or ''m'': ''tsma'' (doubt). Combination /sl/ has turned into /ɬ/.<br />
*Lateralization and aspiration may never appear together, and nasalized rhoticization is only found in Fanish dialect.<br />
<br />
===Nucleus=== <br />
<br />
The nucleus can be either a vowel or a liquid, thus CVC and CLC are also possible syllables. <br />
*Vowels (diphthongs included) may exist as a stand-alone nucleic syllable (V), mostly in the beginning or at the end of a word. <br />
*If nucleus is a liquid, plosives appear in codas only word-finally: ''dldlp'' /dˡl̩ˈdˡl̩p/ (bubble)<br />
<br />
===Coda=== <br />
<br />
The coda (final) may consist of up to three consonants with possible structures: N, P, F, L; NP, FP, LP; NF, PF, LF; NPF, FPF, LFP, LPF (Nasal, Plosive, Fricative, Liquid). <br />
*Final liquids appear as syllabic consonants<br />
*Approximants ''j'', ''w'' and plain voiced plosives never appear as coda (final) even though they may be written that way (no written schwa): ''nad'' /nä.də/ (stainy). Voiced fricatives may appear as coda. <br />
*In coda, plosives with lateral release, however, will reflect the voicing of the onset: ''gatl'' [gädˡl̩] (houses) vs. ''katl'' [kätˡl̩] (knobs). Vernacularly, the lateral approximant weakens into a voiceless variant [l̥] when in contact with voiceless consonants: ''gatl'' [gätl̥].<br />
<br />
Closed syllables, i.e. those ending in coda, are not as common word-medially as open syllables (ending in nucleus) are. When words are inflected, parts of codas tend to become onsets of the following syllable, if possible. Especially three-consonant clusters are rare word-medially and receive a schwa after a non-lateral stop: ''kamps'' /kämps/ (marsh) → ''kampsku'' → ''kamposku'' /ˈkäm.pəs.ku/ (at marsh)<br />
*Voicing status must be the same for consonants touching at syllable boundaries and the voiced one reduces into voiceless: ''*katbas''→''katpas'' /kätˈpäs/ (fern) vs. ''oist baku'' /œi̯st<sup>(h)</sup> bä.ku/ (under a table)<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
Primary '''stress''' in a word is most often on the second syllable, and when there are four or five syllables, secondary stress is placed onto the final syllable. When there are more syllables, minor stress is placed on even-numbered syllables. <br />
*If the to-be-stressed syllable contains the schwa ''o'' /ə/ or a syllabic consonant, the preceding syllable is stressed in two-syllable words and the following in words with more than three syllables.<br />
**In uninflected words, syllable with nuclear ''o'' is only stressed when it comes second and the preceding syllable has also ''o'' as nucleus. Then the stressed nucleus appears as [ɘ]. Contrast between stressed and non-stressed syllabic consonants may occur as voicing and devoicing respectively. <br />
*A non-final syllable with a long vowel or a diphthong is always stressed and steals the stress from its neighboring syllable. This also moves the secondary stress from final to penultimate syllable, if primary stress falls on first syllable.<br />
<br />
Inflected and affixed word forms have almost always the same stress as the base word (even monosyllabic with schwa): ''doth'' (man) → ''dothku'' [ˈdɘθ.ku] (near the man). <br />
*Vocative and ergative cases as well as inflections with long vowels make an exception: ''dothee'' /dəˈθe:/ (by the man), ''dothé'' /dəˈθɛ/ (O man), ''gatóo'' /gɑˈtɔ:/ (to the house)<br />
<br />
Interrogatives are formed by changing the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. This is indicated with ¿: ''¿Eikepoi?'' [ˈei̯˧˦ˈke˩.pœi̯˨˦] (Did you wash it?)<br />
<br />
==Morphophonology==<br />
<br />
===Vowel form===<br />
<br />
There are five ways of sound altering which may be used for grammatical purposes (mainly number, genitive case and imperfective aspect). In the native script the following are marked on the vowel.<br />
*Lengthening: ''paata'' /pä:tä/ (separation), ''ée'' [ɛ:]~[ɛe̯], ''óo'' /ɔ:/<br />
*Lateral (release): ''pló'' /pˡɔ/ (opposite to), ''tlaf'' /tˡäf/ (sprig) <br />
**Western dialects keep the tongue on the alveolar ridge during vowel pronunciation so that the vowels have a distinct l-sound. Historically, this may have lead to the syllabic l.<br />
*Aspiration/breathy voice: ''phó'' [pʰɔ]~[ɸɔ] (along), ''kébhar'' [kɛˈbʱɑ˞]~[kɛˈβɑ˞] (I will wash), ''tha'' [tʰä]~[θä] (abstract "it"), ''dhaka'' [dʱɑkä]~[ðɑkä] (abstract "that"). <br />
**Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head)<br />
*Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]]<br />
**Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as a short syllabic nasal consonant of the same place as the directly preceding or following consonant<br />
**Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!).<br />
*Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) <br />
**Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞:] (soup)<br />
<br />
===Consonant form===<br />
<br />
Combining sounds<br />
*Lateralization<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sl'' and ''zh'' respectively<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' → ''fl'' & ''w''<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' are geminated<br />
**''m'' & ''n'' → ''ng'' and ''ng'' → ''ńg''<br />
* Aspiration<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sh'' and ''zh''<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' are geminated<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' → ''lh'' and ''rh''<br />
* Voicing and aspiration<br />
**''r'' → ''qh'', ''l'' → ''ldh'', ''v'' → ''w''<br />
<br />
===Apophony===<br />
<br />
Apophony in the '''stressed syllable''' is used for example to express adjective gender and to create different verb forms.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Apophony<br />
|-<br />
!Root<br />
!1st<br />
!2nd<br />
|-<br />
|e<br />
|ee<br />
|é<br />
|-<br />
|o<br />
|ó<br />
|ø<br />
|-<br />
|a<br />
|aa<br />
|æ<br />
|-<br />
|u<br />
|uu<br />
|i<br />
|-<br />
|ai<br />
|ii<br />
|ei<br />
|-<br />
|ou<br />
|óo<br />
|oi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*When the stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting)<br />
*With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of ''é''.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Script=== <br />
[[File:Sceptrian.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Toneka script from the early sixth era. Notice that the vowel form info-box romanization should have "o" instead of "a".]]<br />
[[File:SceptrianTsrnet.JPG|500px|thumb|right|Tsrnet cursive script used for handwriting in modern Sceptre.]]<br />
The Sceptrian alphabet script was derived from the ancient temple marks as were the Aoman and Northern (Latin) scripts. The modern alphabet is called ''Tsoklóp Lushan''.<br />
<br />
Diacritics on vowels mark different [[Sceptrian#Vowel_form|sounds]]. The diacritics may be used with consonants as well, especially in the plural forms of consonant-ending nouns: ''gat̆'' (''gatl'' "houses"), ''doŧ̆'' (''dolth'' "men"). With the diacritics, letter ''ts'' can be lateralized into ''tsl'' or aspirated into ''tsh''.<br />
<br />
The native Sceptrian script has a long history of being unicameral, not distinguishing between the upper and lower case. Only during the sixth era under the Tyranny of West, the flow of refugees from the Coast of Temples encouraged the introduction of case separation. In the developed fonts, capital letters were derived from the traditional Toneka and small letters from the cursive Tsrnet.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Short and long letter names with explanations<br />
|-<br />
|aa<br>aat || ee<br>eet || ée<br>eet maatikipi<br>(opened e) || ii<br>iit || oo<br>oot || óo<br>oot guzbikipi<br>(deepened o) || uu<br>uut <br />
|-<br />
|ææ<br>aat evadh<br>(bright a) || øø<br>oot gudh<br>(dark o) || ai<br>aat zaithon<br>(rising a) || ei<br>eet zaithon<br>(rising e) || oi<br>oot zaithon<br>(rising o) || ou<br>óot bousoson<br>(falling o) ||<br />
|-<br />
| po<br>poot || bo<br>bóot || mo<br>mool || wo<br>wool || to<br>toot || do<br>dóot || <br />
|-<br />
| tho<br>toot hifdo<br>(windy t) || dho<br>dóot hifdo<br>(windy d) || no<br>nool || so<br>siit || sho<br>siit hifdo<br>(windy s) || zo<br>ziit || zho<br>ziit gudh<br>(dark z) <br />
|-<br />
| ngo<br>góot slenguhpi<br>(g using nose) || tso<br>tsiit || lo<br>lool || slo<br>lool hifdo<br>(windy l) || fo<br>fiit || vo<br>fiit gudh<br>(dark f) || jo<br>jool <br />
|-<br />
| ko<br>koot || go<br>góot || ho<br>hiit || qho<br>hiit surmudh<br>(strong h) || qo<br>koot venongp<br>(k being<br> swallowed) || ro<br>rool || <br />
|-<br />
|plo<br>looh tisk<br>(with l<br> mark) || pon<br>slenguhpi tisk<br>(using nose<br> mark) || por<br>tisk prung<br>(mark of<br> trill) || pho<br>tisk hifn<br>(mark of<br> wind) || poo<br>tisk spiing<br>(mark of<br> length) || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Romanization===<br />
<br />
====Modern====<br />
Consonant variation:<br />
*Letter ''r'' is used with consonants for /r̩/ and between vowels for /r/, but after vowels in the end of syllables for rhoticization ''or'' /ɚ/. Letter ''ŕ'' is used to emphasize the use of /r/ after vowels ''oŕ'' /ər/.<br />
*Similarly letter ''n'' can appear syllable-finally with nasalization but ''ń'' always as /n/: ''an'' /ã/ vs. ''ań'' /an/. <br />
*With ''ng'' /ŋ/, the accent signals lengthening ''nańgo'' /näŋ:ə/ or ''naŋŋo'' (sweaty).<br />
*Labialization of plosives is indicated by PuV (V is any vowel except ''u'') or with ''w''.<br />
*Breathry voice is indicated with an ''h'' straight after a plosive. The ''h'' is also used for corresponding fricatives which occur word-finally. This risk of confuse is one of the downsides of the simplified modern system: ''nath'' /näθ/ "a beggar" or /nätʰ/ "with stains".<br />
<br />
====Old====<br />
<br />
The old romanization system (or part of it) was used until western regions of Eastern Sceptre were joined with the Western Sceptre empire in 7th era 161, during the war against Empress Renula of Golden Islet. A revision was needed when both Sceptrian and Aoma were used in the same printing press and texts had to be distributed to westlang-using communities. Peter Martyea suggested in 7:189 that the payment according to number of pages may have favoured quick adaptation as the non-diacritic system induced much longer texts (see the comparison example).<br />
<br />
Consonants:<br />
*Nasal: '''ŋ''' ''ng'' /ŋ/<br />
**Texts from the first century of the seventh era use ''ǥ'' for word-initial /ŋ/.<br />
*Fricative: '''ŧ''' ''th'' /θ/, '''đ''' ''dh'' /ð/, '''ś''' ''sh'' /ʃ/, '''ź''' ''zh'' /ʒ/, '''ħ''' ''qh'' /χ/<br />
*Affricate: '''c''' ''ts'' /t͡s/, '''č''' ''tsh'' /t͡ʃ/<br />
*Lateral: '''š''' ''sl'' /ɬ/, '''ǩ''' ''kl'' /kˡ/, '''ǧ''' ''gl'' /gˡ/<br />
<br />
Compact equivalents of sound altering:<br />
*Lengthening with a bar: ''ṓ'' /ɔ:/ and ''ō'' /ə:/<br />
*Lateral release with a breve diacritic: ''tŏ'' /tˡə/<br />
*Nasalization with a tilde: ''õ'' /ə̃/, ''on'' /ən/<br />
*Rhotacization with a diaeresis: ''ö'' /ɚ/, ''or'' /ər/<br />
*Aspiration with a grave accent: ''pò'' /pʰə/, ''pô'' /pʰɔ/<br />
<br />
Comparison between the systems:<br />
*Old: Ǧëǩ śošēŧã <br />
*Modern: Glerkl shosleethan (maces of a knight)<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
The most complete study of the structure of pre-modern Sceptrian words was done by Porutingatu of Jerzónó in year 362 of the seventh era. She collected, grouped and analyzed the fusional morphemes and listed the new rules to replace the outdated writings from the sixth era. By 370, her work had led to a new interest in linguistics and ultimately to the founding of ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan'' (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) which has been unifying and regulating the language along with its orthography since then.<br />
<br />
Sceptrian utilizes [[w:Fusional_language|fusional]] [[w:Inflection|inflections]] and has an [[w:Ergative–absolutive_language|absolutive-ergative]] [[w:Morphosyntactic_alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]. The language is rather [[w:Head-directionality_parameter|head-initial]] and its primary [[w:Word_order|word order]] is verb-agent-object.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns are used to refer to e.g. people or things in sentences instead of using the original nouns. In Sceptrian, they exist in two numbers and are inflected according to six [[Sceptrian#Cases|'''cases''']]. <br />
<br />
====Personal====<br />
Second person includes polite versions as well which were adapted by Aoma-sperkers. Third person singular makes distinction between abstract (Ab), animate (An) and inanimate (In) pronouns while plural only between Ab-An and In. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Personal pronoun inflection'''<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! 1SG !! 1PL !! 2SG !! 2PL !! 2SG.POL !! 2PL.POL !! 3SG.Ab !! 3SG.An !! 3PL.A !! 3SG.In !! 3PL.In<br />
|-<br />
!ABS <br />
| na || mo || fo || po || Nith || With || tha || su || slo || hi || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
| næ || moslo || fø || poslo || Nithe || Widhes || thaa || suu || sloslo || hii || kloslo<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
| nai || mokli || foki || pokli || Nithki || Withkli || thai || swi || slokli || hiki|| klokli<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
| nar || moŕ || for || poŕ || Nithor || Withoŕ || thar || sur || sloŕ || hir || kloŕ<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
| nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh || thas || sus || slosh || his || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
| nape || moplo || fope || poplo || Nitti || Witti || thape || supe || sloplo || hipi || kloplo<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''Comitative''' case is used to indicate company: ''Mo slosh arakha.'' (We were with them yesterday.)<br />
*'''Causal''' describes the cause of an action or origin of something: ''Aitesosai næ su fope'' (I saw him because of (/thanks to) you), ''Hi supe foki.'' (It (is) from him to you.)<br />
<br />
3rd person abstract pronoun is used in the formal register when introducing or referring to a person of higher status.<br />
<br />
====Reflexive====<br />
Self-pronoun ''ru'' for '''reflexive''' and '''reciprocal''': ''tesosón ru'' (they are watching themself), ''ónlatepón ru'' (he is dancing by himself, alone) vs. ''ónlatepón su'' (he is dancing with him); ''sónkephón ru'' (they are washing each other) vs. ''sónkephón sloslo slo/soutu'' (they are washing them)<br />
*reflexive is easier with others: ''anlatepan'' (I'm dancing by myself); ''ankepan'' (I'm washing myself) vs. ''ankep'' ("I'm washing it"), ''kepan'' (I'm being washed)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
<br />
Simple words for "this/these" and "that/those". When demonstratives are used with [[Sceptrian#Nouns|nouns]], they behave similarly to [[Sceptrian#Adjectives|adjectives]]. In the following examples, note that Sceptrian lacks the [[Sceptrian#Verbs|verb "to be"]]: <br />
*As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.)<br />
*For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) <br />
*The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the head acts more like a specifying comment on the true sentence subject: ''Bouson ko qot.'' (That's falling, the rock, I mean.) <br />
<br />
See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]].<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Demonstrative pronoun inflection<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Case <br />
!colspan="2"| Proximal <br />
!colspan="2"| Distal <br />
|-<br />
!SG !! PL !! SG !! PL<br />
|-<br />
!ABS<br />
|ka || kla || ko || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
|kaa || klaa || kó || kló<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
|kai ||klai || koi || kloi<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
|kan ||klang || kon || klong<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
|kas || klash || kos || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
|kap || klapa || kop ||klopo<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Table of correlatives===<br />
<br />
Determiners follow their heads and agree in number and with the cases mentioned above in [[Sceptrian#Demonstrative|the table]], where DAT & LAT, COM & LOC, CAU & ABL and ABS & VOC are corresponding. Words follow the declension shown above or paradigms similar to [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun cases]]. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!rowspan="2"|Interrogative<br />
!colspan="2"|Demonstrative<br />
!colspan="5"|Quantifier<br />
|-<br />
!Proximal !! Distal !! Existential !! Elective !! Universal !! Negatory !! Alternative<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Determiner<br />
| sho || ka (SG)<br/>kla (PL) || ko<br />klo || jofa (some) || ota (any) || orka (every, all) || ze (no) || so (another)<br/>solo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="5"| Pronoun<br />
!Abstract<br />
| ashu || thaka || dhaka || jaafa || thata || thorka || theso || thaso<br />
|-<br />
!Animate<br />
| ¿soutu || saitu || soutu || jonfu || onta || ongka || souso || jonso<br />
|-<br />
!Inanimate <br />
| ¿ko || ka || ko || jofo || oto || orko || ze || so<br />
|-<br />
!Out of two<br />
| ¿tso || tsaka || tsoko || zho || tsoto || tsorko || tseso || tso<br />
|-<br />
!Out of many<br />
| ¿tsolo || tsalka || tsolko || zolo || tsolto || tsongko || tsleso || tsolo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="6"|Pro-adverb<br />
!Locative<br />
| sku || khau || khu || jofku || otku || orkhu || zengu || sokhu<br />
|-<br />
!Temporal<br />
| sko || kha || kho || jofko || otko || orkho || zeng || sokho<br />
|-<br />
!Comitative<br />
| shos || kas || kos || jofos || otos || orkos || zeos || sos<br />
|-<br />
!Causal<br />
| spe || kap || kop || jov || otop || orkop || zenep || sonop<br />
|-<br />
!Manner<br />
| shi || khai || khoi || jofai || otai || orkai || zei || soi<br />
|-<br />
!What kind of<br />
| shodh || kadh || kodh || jodhi || othi || ordhi || zodhi || sothi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Negative determiner ''ze'' has no plural form. Neither have pronouns "Out of two".<br />
*Demonstratives are used when referring to listed items of equal animacy: proximal with the former and distal with the latter: ''Aitesoshóji math kuthos. Óomidh soutu.'' (I saw a cat and a dog. The latter was large.)<br />
*Locative pro-adverb can be conjugated with lative, locative and ablative.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Nouns in Sceptrian form the basis of derivational morphology and even the cases are utilized when forming new words. They are declined according to two numbers and nine cases, and the seven declensions are grouped in three genders which affect the verb conjugation and adjective agreement.<br />
<br />
====Gender====<br />
<br />
There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes.<br />
*Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in vowels ''a, æ, o, ó, ø'' and ''i''. <br />
*Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h'', same voiced and affricates), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings.<br />
*Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group.<br />
In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull). Some archaic words remain in dialects and in poetic use.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
<br />
There are two numbers, singular and plural, but abstract ''i''-nouns and inanimate ''l''-nouns are always singular. The declension according to number is complicated and fused with the class/case system explained and tabulated below.<br />
<br />
====Cases====<br />
<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Unmarked base form for subjects of intransitive and objects of transitive verbs <br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agents of transitive verbs<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect object; alienable possession ''gat dothi'' (a house of (lit. "for") the man); comparison (with ADJ comparative)<br />
*Possessive (POS): Inalienable possession ''dhoku dothor'' (the man's head)<br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS): Using something; "with someone", replaces "and" as Latin [[wikt:-que|-que]]; in antipassive constructions<br />
*Lative (LAT): Movement to; with adpositions<br />
*Locative-temporal (LOC-TEMP): Place; time; with adpositions<br />
*Ablative (ABL): Movement from (+delative); causal<br />
*Vocative (VOC): addressing (people, gods); interjections ''Alæ!'' (Hello! lit. "Day!")<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Genders and desinences'''<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" style="width: 100px"| <br />
!colspan="3"| Abstract <br />
!colspan="6"| Animate <br />
!colspan="3"| Inanimate<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''A'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''i'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''F'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''N'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''u'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"|''P'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''l''<br />
|-<br />
|<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>|| ||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 100px"| Absolutive<br />
| A || Asl || i || F || (o)lF || N || Ning || u || ush || P || Pl || l<br />
|- <br />
! style=""| Ergative <br />
| AA || AslA || ii || Fee || Fele || Nee || Neng || uu || uushu || Pee || Ple || le<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Dative <br />
| Ak || Akl || ik || Fi || Fil || Ni || Nil || (u)ji || (u)wi || Pei || Plei || lei<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Possessive <br />
| An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Instrumental-comitative <br />
| Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Lative <br />
| AgA || AglA || iki || Fko || Fklo || Nong || Nongo || ugu || uglu || Póo || Plóo || lo <br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Locative-temporal <br />
| AkhA || AlkhA || ikhi || Fku || Fklu || Nung || Nungu || ukhu || ulkhu || Pu || Plu || lu<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Ablative <br />
| ApA || AplA || ipi || Fp(o) || Fpl(o) || Nop || Nopl || upu || uplu || PPo || PPol || lp<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Vocative <br />
| Ae || Asl || ii || Fé || lFé || Né || Nin || -wé || -wésh || Pé || Plé || lé<br />
|}<br />
*''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø''<br />
**Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø<br />
*''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts, tsl'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. <br />
*''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng''<br />
*''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q''<br />
**POS ''q''→''ng''<br />
**INS ending Ph marks breathy voice and may turn the plosive into corresponding fricative /ɸ, θ, x, χ/ if followed by a plosive.<br />
*- indicates that the original ending is replaced with the following: ''tup → tu'''m''''' (stick → stick's)<br />
<br />
====Possessive==== <br />
<br />
Different possessive forms and interpretations: <br />
*''Dativus possessivus'' (alienable): ''gat doth'''i''''' "the house which the man has temporarily settled in, i.e. rented"<br />
*Comitative case with alienable possessive suffix: ''doth gat''h'''''os''''' "man with his house which he has purchased"<br />
**Inalienable possessive suffix alters the meaning: ''doth gat''h'''''ozh''''' "man and his birthplace"<br />
*Possessive case (almost inalienable): ''gat doth'''or''''' "the house which was inherited and is now owned by the man". <br />
<br />
The noun in possessive case is not inflected further. With dative case, inflection may be utilized in order to distinguish the ''dativus possessivus'' from the indirect object or benefactive: ''Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli.'' "The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them." (Related to the feather ceremony when welcoming upper class members to a household.)<br />
<br />
'''Possessive affixes''', as shown in examples above, draw a distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: ''Óntesoson dothee gat'''s'''/vakuh'''oz'''.'' (A man is watching his house/ his own hand.) With the basic suffixes, the root is inflected first and then suffixed.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ Possessional suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!Person<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! ALIEN !! INAL !! ALIEN !! INAL <br />
|-<br />
!1st <br />
| (a)ń || (a)nga || (ó)m || (ó)ngó <br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
| (o)f || (ø)fo || (e)v || (ø)vø<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
| (o)s || (o)zh || (o)sl || (o)zhol<br />
|}<br />
*Irregular: Only VOC+possessive with 1SG: ''Pos'''n'''é!'' (My servant!), ''Polsmé!'' (Our servants!)<br />
<br />
'''2nd person polite suffixes''' are added to absolutive base and the endings are then declined according to abstract gender: <br />
*Singular: (a)tha, (a)tazha <br />
*Plural: (a)dhó, (a)dózhó <br />
*Example: ''gat'''atha'''pa'' (from Your house)<br />
<br />
See [[Sceptrian#Adverbial_clauses|adverbial clauses]] which utilize some possessive suffixes with [[Sceptrian#Non-finite_forms|non-finite verb forms]].<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
<br />
Adpositions are used with inflected nouns to add information about its location or relation to other nouns. Some Sceptrian adpositions can be used as stand-alone adverbs which may be conjugated according to noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====Prepositions====<br />
<br />
Prepositions are used with lative (to, towards), locative (at, near) and ablative (from) cases to alter the meaning.<br />
*''voi'' (in) forms illative, inessive, elative <br />
*''loi'' (out) for "out of", "outside" and "from outside"<br />
*''soi'' (on) to emphasize the surface aspect <br />
*''oist(i)'' (under) for movement under something<br />
*''roi'' (above) similarly to ''oist''<br />
*''boi'' (down) for "down (a surface / to)", "down in (somewhere)" and "from down"; as an adverb as well <br />
*''zoi'' (up) used like ''boi''<br />
*''moi'' (touching, around) with lative for terminative, locative for pertingent and ablative for initiative<br />
*''oil(i)'' (as) forms translative, essive, exessive<br />
*''koi'' (per) distribution: "for each", "every" (temporal), "from each"<br />
*''jon'' (... between) <br />
*''poi'' (... the middle of, among)<br />
*''tsoi'' (... front of; preceding) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = before<br />
*''hoi'' (... behind; following) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = after<br />
*''mots(i)'' (... on side)<br />
**combined with postpositional ''dei'' (right) or ''lai'' (left)<br />
**with time nouns in locative = ago<br />
<br />
====Postpositions====<br />
<br />
Postpositions appear with various cases and often come in groups.<br />
*''pón'' (through) with lative<br />
*''phó'' (along) with lative<br />
*''pló'' (opposite to, across) with locative<br />
*''sós'' (with) with comitative to express a greater degree of endowment (ornative); with ablative to indicate "without"; with lative for "in addition to"<br />
*''óp'' (about, concerning) with genitive; with ablative for "according to"<br />
*''ól'' (like) with genitive; as an adverb "similarly"<br />
*''jak'' (away, despite) with ablative; as an adverb as well<br />
*''mai'' (excluding) with ablative<br />
*''mak'' (except) with ablative<br />
*''mats'' (instead of) with ablative<br />
*''sai'' (including) with comitative<br />
*''sak'' (concerning, regarding) with comitative; with ablative to emphasize the causal aspect (due to, because of, thanks to)<br />
*''phe'' (for the sake of) with lative<br />
<br />
====Pronominal====<br />
<br />
When used with pronouns, separate adpositions only come with dative forms to indicate lative. Otherwise adpositions take possessive suffixes, inalienable for locative and alienable for ablative: ''voi nai'' (into me), ''voinga'' (inside me), ''voiń'' (from inside me)<br />
<br />
Of the polite possessive suffixes, alienable is added onto the adposition and then the entire compound is conjugated for lative, locative or ablative: ''voitha'' (in You; attributive), ''voithaga'' (into You), ''voithakha'' (inside You; predicative), ''voithapa'' (from inside You)<br />
<br />
===Derivational Morphology===<br />
<br />
Verbs and adjectives are derived from nouns by adding suffixes and in some cases prefixes as well.<br />
<br />
====Noun====<br />
<br />
Many nouns share same origins and these endings are the most common forms of derivation:<br />
*Suffixing verbs with once established ending vowels or consonant appropriate for the noun class. <br />
*place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix<br />
*collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish)<br />
**Archaic forms also add the prefix ''kl'' <br />
*being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy")<br />
**doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer)<br />
**experiencer, patient: ABS with ''(k)ois'' or ''(k)oit'' depending on animacy: ''kepois'' (person being washed)<br />
**origin: ABL with ''(o)su'': ''ukopposu'' (person from north)<br />
**characteristic (from abstract quality): INS with final duplicated vowel and ''tu'': ''luwishitu'' (beauty)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)n'' (AN) or ''(o)l'' (INAN): ''koson'' (wood), ''qotol'' (stone)<br />
*diminutive: reduplication of final sound with ''t'' between vowels and ''i'' between consonants: ''kosis'' (small tree)<br />
*augmentative: reduplication of final sound with ''g'' between vowels and ''a'' between consonants: ''kosas'' (great tree)<br />
**apotheosis: augmentative with ''a''-ending: ''kosonana'' (godwood)<br />
*abstract quality, feature: ABS suffixed with ''(k)oti'': ''dothoti'' (manliness)<br />
*'''gerund''' (act of doing): via derivated [[Sceptrian#Verb|verb]] suffixed with ''(o)pi'': ''glerkurpi'' (mace-battering)<br />
<br />
====Adjective====<br />
<br />
Different cases and affixes are used for the derivation:<br />
*similarity, having something: ''dh'' suffix to abstract gender and animate ''u''-ending; voicing of fricatives (''h→qh'', no change with affricates); nasals [[Sceptrian#Consonant_form|"lateralized"]] + ''o''; voicing of plosives + ''o'' (''q→g''); l-declension as in INS-COM: ''evadh'' (bright), ''dodh'' (masculine)<br />
**full of, having something: previous suffixed with ''ol'': ''mel muvol'' (waters full of fish)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)p'': ''kosonop'' (wooden)<br />
*origin, relation: ABL form with a final ''ó'' added or replacing the original ending vowel: ''kusupó'' (friendly)<br />
*absence, without: ''ti'' suffixed to VOC form: ''evæti'' (lightless=dark)<br />
*doing: ''on'' added after INS case: ''kephon'' (washing)<br />
*who did: INS with ''ompu'': ''kephompu'' (who washed = ''pessyt'' in Finnish)<br />
*done by: INS with ''empo'' and possibly inalienable possessive suffix: ''kephemponga'' (washed by me)<br />
*not done: LAT suffixed with ''tip'': ''kepóotip'' (unwashed)<br />
*experiencing: LAT suffixed with ''p'': kepóop (being washed)<br />
*result (wanted): LAT suffixed with ''pi'': ''kepóopi'' (washed=clean)<br />
**if unwanted: LAT suffixed with ''pot'': ''vangostóopot'' (drunk)<br />
*possible: POS with ''ta'': ''kenta'' (washable)<br />
*requiring: LOC with ''rt'': ''kepurt'' (needs to be washed)<br />
*opposite, negation: VOC with ''tot''<br />
<br />
Notice that plural forms of adjectives may be derived from plural nouns: ''dolth kep'''s'''on'' (men who are washing)<br />
<br />
====Verb====<br />
<br />
A declined core noun receives an ending which describes how the verb reflects the noun:<br />
*In some cases, the vowel ending of nouns may simply be removed or the absolutive of a consonant-ending noun may also serve as a verb.<br />
*ABS = "happens, is": ''kep'' (is washed)<br />
*COM = "using": ''tuph'' (is poked with a stick), ''glerkh'' (is hit with a mace)<br />
*POS + ''k'' = "similarity": ''melonk'' (is wet)<br />
*DAT + ''k'' = "making/becoming" (no ''k'' with Abstract): ''zurmu'' → ''zurmjik'' (strong person → is strengthened), ''zurp'' → ''zurpeik'' (strong, durable object → hardens) & ''zurma'' → ''zurmak'' (strength → intensifies)<br />
*LAT + ''t'' = "movement, quasi-inceptive": ''glerkóot'' (swings a mace, INTR), ''melot'' (flows), ''latepóot'' (is persuaded to dance, INTR; begins a dance with, TR), ''lehkot'' (runs) <br />
*LOC + ''r'' = "frequentative": ''glerkur'' (is battered with a mace), ''melur'' (rains; drips)<br />
*VOC + ''k'' = "momentane": ''glerkék'' (is hit once with a mace), ''melék'' (splashes once)<br />
*POS + ''(o)v'' = "consider, feel": ''vongv'' (is considered strange = ''oudoksutaan'' in Finnish)<br />
* Several endings can be stacked on verbs without turning it into a noun in between: ''melurék'' (shower of rain falls), ''tup(o)hkur'' (is often poked with a stick). When deriving, the ''r''-ending are declined according to the ''l''-paradigm.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Sceptrian agree with the gender, number and cases of their head. When an adjective is used as a predicative, it comes before its head, but when as an attributive, it comes after. Adjective declension follows approximately the same rules as [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun declension]]. In the common ''dh''-ending F-declension, ''o'' is added between ''dh'' and case-endings with consonants. Changes in both casual and poetic speech include mirroring onset into coda: ''dothklu jadaadh'''ulk''''' (near nice men)<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+DH-declension<br />
! !! ABS !! ERG !! DAT !! POS !! INS !! LAT !! LOC !! ABL !! VOC<br />
|-<br />
!SG<br />
|dh || dhee || dhi || dhor || dhos || dh'''ok''' || dh'''uk''' || dh'''op''' || dhé<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
| ldh(o) || dhele || dhil || dhoŕ || dhosh || dh'''olk''' || dh'''ulk''' || dh'''olp''' || ldhé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Sceptrian#Apophony|Apophony]] in the stressed syllable is used to indicate the gender: base for inanimate, first apophony with animate and second with abstract gender: ''eja jadædh, doth jadaadh, latep jadadh'' <br />
<br />
Polite adjectives are formed from the abstract form with predicative prefix ''nga'' and attributive suffix ''æ'': ''ngaluwidh Nith'' (You are beautiful), ''shosleetha luwidhæ'' (a beautiful knight)<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
<br />
'''Positive''' of an adjective is the base form.<br />
*When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.)<br />
*Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle.<br />
*When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii faaldh dolth lutush.'' (As many men as women.) <br />
<br />
'''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). <br />
*Manner quatifiers ''orkai, jofai'' and ''zei'' can be used to indicate the degree: ''luwidhé orkai'' (much more beautiful), ''luwidhé jofai'' (slightly more beautiful), ''luwidhé zei'' (not more beautiful)<br />
*When comparing two nouns adjective comes first (predicative comparative), the standard acquires the dative case, and comparative forms agree with their head in gender and number: ''luwildhé po swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*Pronoun comparison is also possible to construct with alienable possessional suffixes: ''luwildhév swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*When adjective comparative is not included, postpositional ''fadhé'' (more) or ''føødhi'' (less) can be used with noun plurals: ''dolth faldhé lutwi'' (more men than women)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative''' is similar to noun apotheosis: the ending is reduplicated with ''é'' between consonants and ''j'' between vowels, and an ''a'' added to the end: ''luwidhédha'' (most beautiful). Similarly to comparative, ''ti'' gives the meaning of "least": ''luwidhédhati'' (least beautiful).<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly)<br />
<br />
Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh óomidhé'' (very beautiful < "largely")<br />
<br />
'''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative adverb''' is similar to adjective superlative in its reduplication but with an ''æ''-ending: ''zaivie jadædhédhæ'' (you sing most pleasantly)<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Missing verbs: <br />
*"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man)<br />
**Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith)<br />
**Showing tense-aspect:<br />
***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past)<br />
***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective<br />
***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense<br />
***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" <br />
**Vernacularly, [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|proximal demonstrative pronouns]] are used as copulae with corresponding grammatical gender: ''Trs saitu Berats.'' ("Smith this Berats." Berats is a smith.)<br />
* "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man")<br />
<br />
====Conjugation====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, primary conjugation of verbs indicates person, number and tense-aspect, and it includes affixation and apophony. Conjugation for different [[Sceptrian#Mood|moods]] is slightly more complex.<br />
<br />
=====Root=====<br />
<br />
Verbs are given in their 3SG.INAN GNO form which is used to form all of the third person forms. With first and second person subjects, the first apophony is used in indicative inceptive and future. Polite second person forms use the second apophony<br />
<br />
=====Affixes=====<br />
<br />
Fusional conjugation affixes convey the person, number, tense and aspect (and honorific). Subject and object suffixes are almost always used with verbs, the antipassive being the only exception. Agent prefixes aren't often used in the casual register, mostly to form the [[Sceptrian#Reflexive|reflexive]], but they have to be used in the formal register. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || ha || e || he || ahi || aqhi || ó || hó || (o) || l<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || han || en || hen || ang || aing || ón || hón || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| ast || last || est || lest || æst || hæst || ós || lós || os || osl<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| ajin || hajin || ejin || hejin || azing || izing || ójin || hójin || oin || loin<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || hai || ei || hei || athi || idhi || óji || hóji || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| har || +har || her || +her || athar || idhar || hór || +hór || ho || +ho<br />
|}<br />
* initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive<br />
* initial ''h'' is for aspiration of the final plosive or simply ''h'' after a vowel<br />
**if the final plosive is already breathy, ''o'' is added after it<br />
*+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration<br />
**simple ''h'' becomes ''qh''<br />
*Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.) Note the second apophony due to the abstract gender.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || sa || e || se || æ || hæ || ó || só || o || lo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || san || en || sen || nga || ngai || ón || són || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| tsa || tsla || tse || tsle || tsæ || tshæ || tsó || tsló || so || slo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| jan || zhan || jen || zhen || izæ || izhæ || jón || zhón || i || li<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || sai || ei || sei || thæ || dhæ || jó || zhó || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| ar || sar || er || ser || thar || dhar || ór || sór || or || lor<br />
|}<br />
*Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.)<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ónbouson dothee pof.'' (A man (ERG) is lifting a feather (ABS).), ''Bousón doth.'' (The man falls.) ''Bouson pof.'' (The feather (ABS) falls.).<br />
<br />
====Tense====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, verbs are conjugated for three tenses: past, present and future. These tenses describe when an action took place relative to current moment as their names indicate. <br />
<br />
====Aspect====<br />
<br />
Gnomic-static aspect is used to indicate general truths ''Zaitó Hala.'' (sun rises) and static situations ''Mépa lusha.'' (I can speak Sceptrian). It can be used with expressions of time to specify when something was static ''Petsipha kas arakha.'' (dress-STAT.1SG this.COM yesterday.TEMP "I was dressed in these clothes yesterday (as well).")<br />
<br />
Present progressive describes dynamic actions ''Anbaplóph lusha kha.'' (I'm reading Sceptrian at the moment). Present inceptive is used when an action is about to begin or someone is starting to do something.<br />
*Inceptive is only used once: Subject inceptive with intransitive and mostly agent inceptive with translative verbs. Object ending is either PRES.PROG, when something was begun only a moment ago, or FUT, when something is about to begin.<br />
**Translative object inceptive if the object caused the initialization: ''Órlateepast.'' (He is about to take me to dancing through my initiative.)<br />
<br />
Past imperfective is used with continuous activities which were happening before the present. The contrasting perfective aspect describes the event as a whole and having an endpoint in the past.<br />
<br />
In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used.<br />
<br />
Endings with different tenses and aspects may be mixed in some cases:<br />
*PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) <br />
*PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while))<br />
<br />
====Mood====<br />
<br />
Moods express speaker's attitude towards the subject or their knowledge of it. They are divided into realis and irrealis moods: the former expresses factual statements while the latter indicates that an event hasn't taken place or the speaker is uncertain of a situation.<br />
<br />
=====Realis=====<br />
<br />
'''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well)<br />
<br />
'''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for supposedly factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.)<br />
<br />
=====Irrealis=====<br />
<br />
'''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?)<br />
*The change in stress does not affect the apophony.<br />
<br />
'''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) <br />
*The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!)<br />
<br />
'''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original stressed syllable: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: '''''la'''latép'' (may dance), '''''ak'''aktæsos'' (may hear), ''rorøt'' (may go)<br />
*The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject.<br />
*The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished<br />
<br />
=====Particles=====<br />
<br />
Particles are placed after a verb to alter or to specify its meaning.<br />
<br />
Realis<br />
*''pai'' mirative (with soft imperative in present): ''Rótóji pai!'' (He went!?)<br />
**with adjectives or as an adverb: ''Luwi pai!'' (How beautiful!) <br />
<br />
Evidentials (with causatives)<br />
*''atasi'' hearsay: ''Rotóji tasi fope.'' (I heard from you that he went.)<br />
*''tesei'' visual: ''Rótoutóji tesei nape.'' (I didn't see him go.)<br />
<br />
Irrealis<br />
*''norka'' dubitative (with subjunctive): ''Rorøtóji norka.'' (I doubt he went.)<br />
*''gana'' volitive (with future subjunctive): ''Lalatépar gana.'' (I wish I could dance.)<br />
<br />
Conditional (with subjunctive)<br />
*''ta'' apodosis: ''Arziizeither ta'' (I will raise you...)<br />
*''-ti-'' infixed between reduplicated form for protasis: ''boutiboisen'' (if you fall)<br />
<br />
Hortatives (with soft imperative which itself works as an adhortative or dehortative with negation (unwillingness))<br />
*Cohortative: ''Latéprlast kha!'' (Let's dance now!), ''Rótrlastonget khugu.'' (Let's not go there.)<br />
*''jokæ'' exhortative (inhortative through negation): ''Rótrest jokæ.'' (You really should go.)<br />
<br />
'''Formal''' register differences:<br />
*''aktasosai'' (hears) conjugated for hearsay: ''Røtathi aiaktasosóji.'' (I heard from her that you left.)<br />
*''tesos'' (sees) conjugated for visual evidentiality: ''Rotóji tesosai.'' (I saw her go.)<br />
*''tsmaadhoré'' (doubtfully) used for dubitative<br />
*''tutaadhoré'' (wishfully) used for volitive<br />
*''alké'' permissive with dative: ''Rótest alké foki.'' (You may leave.)<br />
**prohibitive with negated (inability) imperative infinitive: ''Rótrostodi alké foki.'' (You aren't allowed to leave.)<br />
*both conditional particles are used separately and they are prefixed with the subjunctive reduplication: ''Arziizeither zaita bouboisen bouti.'' (I will raise you if you fall.)<br />
<br />
'''In literature''' to express the peaking pitch of ironical statements and lowered pitch of sarcastic expressions:<br />
*''jø'' verbal irony: ''Jótesosoi melurpi, jóbatophoi "Luwidh jø hi loi khu".'' (He saw the rain and said: "''Beautiful'' day out there")<br />
*''gæ'' sarcasm: ''Uu, eiluwikoi gæ pai.'' (Oh, ''how beautiful'' you made it.)<br />
<br />
====Negation====<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Negation affixes<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Manner→<br />
! Inability<br />
!colspan="6"| Unwillingness<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Form→<br />
!2nd apophony +infix<br>(before patient-suffix)<br />
!colspan="3"|Intranslative<br>suffix<br />
!colspan="3"|Translative<br>infix (after agent-prefix)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Person→<br />
!All<br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!SG<br />
|ost<br />
|net<br />
|fep<br />
|set<br />
|no<br />
|fo<br />
|so<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|osht<br />
|nget<br />
|vep<br />
|slet<br />
|ngo<br />
|flo<br />
|slo<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|PST<br />
|out<br />
|colspan="3"|nait<br />
|colspan="3"|me<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|FUT<br />
|oz<br />
|colspan="3"|nort<br />
|colspan="3"|mor<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse'''fo'''lateephar?'' (You don't want to begin dancing with me?)<br />
<br />
'''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.)<br />
<br />
Second apophony of negation affixes with subjunctive mood: ''Rorøthórn'''ø'''rt.'' (He may not be willing to go.)<br />
<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
<br />
=====Gerund=====<br />
*Base nouns or their abstract variants may serve as gerunds, which describe the action of doing, but otherwise they are created with the suffix ''(o)pi'' added to a verb root. The suffic also helps to distinguish the forms.<br />
<br />
=====Infinitives=====<br />
*PRES ''-odi'', PST ''-oudi'', FUT ''ordi''<br />
*used with modal verbs<br />
*subjunctive form created with duplication<br />
<br />
=====Participles=====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian participles work as adjectives. Following table shows which "case" and suffix the verb base (or gerund in formal register) takes.<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Present participle suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!IPFV<br />
!PFV<br />
|-<br />
!Patientive (LAT)<br />
|''p''<br />
|''pi/pot''<br />
|-<br />
!Negative (LAT)<br />
|<br />
|''tip''<br />
|-<br />
!Active (INS)<br />
|rowspan="2"|''on''<br />
|''ompu''<br />
|-<br />
!Agentive (INS)<br />
|''empo''<br />
|}<br />
*Also the "requiring" (FUT) form LOC+''rt'' and "possible" (GNO) POS+''ta'' <br />
*Past forms are created by adding ''i'' to the end: ''kephoni'' (was being washed)<br />
*Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed)<br />
*Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]]<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, auxiliary verbs are conjugated only for subject which may act as the agent of the clause. The verbs can either precede (dynamic, deontic) or come after (epistemic) different verb infinitives. Since regular object-patient conjugation can't be used, objects have to be written (no pro-drop) and they are declined into instrumental-comitative case.<br />
*''tut'' "want" (from ''tuta'' "craving, wish"): ''Tutajin kepoudi his.'' (I wanted to wash it.)<br />
**infinitive in lative case for "want something to be done": ''Tutan kepordiki his.'' (I want it to be washed.)<br />
**"be going to" (FUT): ''Tuutar latepordi.'' (I'm going to dance.)<br />
**"wish" (SBJV) mostly as the subjunctive of the absent ''to be''-verb: ''Tutitan khau fos.'' (I wish you were here) <br />
*''mép'' "can, know how to" (dynamic) (from ''mépi'' "skill"): ''Mépa latepodi'' ("I can dance"; notice gnomic-static mood)<br />
*''kuut'' "can, may" (deontic / epistemic) (from ''kuutó'' "possibility"): ''Kuutest rotordi.'' (You may leave.), ''Fendógópot kuutó pai.'' (He may unexpectedly be dead.)<br />
**particle ''nor'' added after the verb for lower possibility i.e. "could, might": ''Fendógópi kuut nor.'' (It might be dead.)<br />
**particle ''ga'' added for "should, must": ''Fendógópi kuut ga.'' (It should be dead, as we wanted.)<br />
*''khet'' "must" (deontic) (from ''kheti'' "necessity"): ''Khetan rotodi.'' (I must go now), ''Kheetar rotordi.'' (I must go soon)<br />
*''khurd'' "dare" (from ''khurdi'' "daring"): ''¿Khurde glerkékodi nas?'' (Do you dare hit me with a mace?)<br />
<br />
Mixing tenses: <br />
*''Tutitai latepordi.'' SBJV.want-PST.PFV.1SG dance-INF.FUT "I would've wanted to dance"<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian distinguishes between two voices, active and antipassive. Passive is very similar to active since Sceptrian is absolutive-ergative, and thus isn't considered a true change in voice. Antipassive is used to reduce the valency of the verbs by removing the object of a transitive clause.<br />
<br />
Active construction: verb-agent-object and verb-object-agent are used so that a comment (rheme) precedes the topic (theme). [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|Emphasizing clitics]] are used to mark the topic. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Ónzaiton dothee pof.<br />
|IPA = /ɔ̃zaɪ̯tə̃ dəθe: pəf/<br />
| morphemes = ón-zait-on doth-ee pof-Ø<br />
| gloss = 3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV man-ERG feather-ABS<br />
| translation = A man is lifting a feather.<br />
}} <br />
<br />
Passive construction: To demote the agent (ERG), it's either removed or inflected into causal ablative (ABL). Verb is only conjugated for the object.<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Zaiton pof (dothpo).<br />
|IPA = /zaɪ̯tə̃ pəf (dəθpə)/<br />
| morphemes = zait-on pof-Ø (doth-po)<br />
| gloss = lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV feather-ABS (man-ABL)<br />
| translation = A feather is being lifted (by a man).<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Antipassive''' construction: Agent (ERG) transforms into subject (ABS) and object (ABS) takes the instrumental-comitative (INS) case. Word order becomes SV(O), and the verb is conjugated according to the agent only and the stressed syllable undergoes second [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]]. The verb is also suffixed with the emphasizing clitic ''ma'' in the formal register. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Doth ónzeit(ma) (pofos).<br />
|IPA = /dəθ ɔ̃zei̯t(mä) (pəfəs)/<br />
| morphemes = doth-Ø ón-zeit-Ø(or =ma) (pof-os)<br />
| gloss = man-ABS ANTIP\3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-ANTIP(or =ANTIP.FORM) (feather-INS)<br />
| translation = The man is lifting (a feather). <br />
}}<br />
<br />
Instrument and turning it into an agent:<br />
* ''Ónzaiton dothee pof vakuhosozh.'' (...with his own hand...)<br />
**''Ónzaiton pof vakuhp dothir.'' (the feather is raised by the man's hand)<br />
**''Onzaiton pof tuph dothi'''sh''' slokli.'' (The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them.) Inanimate agent conjugation, and dative of possession is inflected to avoid misinterpretation!<br />
* ''Vakuh ónzeit pofos.'' (The hand lifts something, which happens to be a feather)/(someone intentionally lifts a feather with their hand) Notice animate conjugation!<br />
**''Tup onzeit dothpo pofos.'' (The stick, which is being held by a man, lifts something, which happens to be a feather) ABL as causative since inanimate ''tup''.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
Decimal base was adopted due to commerce, but traces of the former octal base remain. <br />
<br />
Numerals are placed before their head. Last part of a cardinal determiner agrees with case through matching declension: ''op'''l''' tupl'' (two sticks)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Numeral system<br />
|-<br />
! Number <br />
! Number !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional !! Multiplicative adverb !! Multiplicative adjective !! Group !! Polygon<br />
|-<br />
!Zero<br />
| ozi || oz || ozhi || - || zeng (never) || - || ze (no) || -<br />
|-<br />
!One<br />
| ipi || ip || iphi || liku (whole) || ohu (once) || ipitse (onefold) || ipisi (singular) || ipirt (dot) <br />
|-<br />
!Two <br />
| opi || op || ophi || lopu (half) || ophu (twice) || opitse (twofold) || opisi (pair) || opart (line)<br />
|-<br />
!Three<br />
| oki || ok || okhi || loku || okhu || okitse || okisi || okart (triangle)<br />
|-<br />
!Four<br />
| óppi || óp || óphi || lóppu || óphu || óphitse || óphisi || ópart <br />
|-<br />
!Five<br />
| ofi || of || offi || lofu || offu || ofitse || ofisi || ofart<br />
|-<br />
!Six<br />
| ókki || ók || ókhi || lókku || ókhu || ókhitse || ókhisi || ókart<br />
|-<br />
!Seven<br />
| omi || om || ongi || lomu || ongu || omitse || omisi || omart<br />
|-<br />
!Eight<br />
| ngovi || ngov || ngovvi || longovu || ngovvu || ngovitse || ngovisi || jart<br />
|-<br />
!Nine<br />
| ngoipi || ngoip || ngoiphi || longoipu || ngoiphu || ngoipitse || ngoipisi || ngoipart<br />
|-<br />
!Ten<br />
| jopi || jop || jophi || lojopu || jophu || jopitse || jopisi || jopart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!Eleven<br />
!Twelve<br />
!Thirteen<br />
!Fourteen<br />
!Fifteen<br />
!Sixteen<br />
!Seventeen<br />
!Eighteen<br />
!Nineteen<br />
!Twenty<br />
|-<br />
| ngoki <br />
| ngópi <br />
| ngofi<br />
| ngóki<br />
| ngomi <br />
| ophungovi <br />
| jopomi<br />
| jopingovi<br />
| jopingoipi<br />
| ophujopi<br />
|-<br />
!Twenty-one<br />
!Thirty<br />
!Fourty<br />
!Fifty<br />
!Sixty<br />
!Sixty-four<br />
!Sixty-five<br />
!Seventy<br />
!Eighty<br />
!Ninety<br />
|-<br />
| ophujopipi <br />
| okhujopi<br />
| offungovi <br />
| offujopi <br />
|ókhujopi<br />
| mouti<br />
| moutipi<br />
|ongujopi<br />
|ngowopi<br />
|ngoiphujopi<br />
|-<br />
!One hundred<br />
!One hundred<br/>and twenty-two<br />
!One hundred<br/>and sixty-six<br />
!Two hundred<br />
!Thousand<br />
!Three thousand<br/>four hundred<br />
!Ten thousand<br />
!Hundred thousand<br />
!Million<br />
!Billion<br />
|-<br />
| toti <br />
|toti(s)<br>ophujopopi<br />
|toti(s)<br>moutókki<br />
|ophutoti<br />
| mopi<br />
|okhumopi(s)<br>óphutoti<br />
|tothutoti<br />
|tothumopi<br />
|hamisi<br />
|mowisi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Multiplicative adverb form is used in front of the powers of ten (tens, hundreds, ...)<br />
*Digits are annexed into the tens by using the cardinal or determiner form depending whether the digit begins with a vowel or not.<br />
*Fractions are constructed by placing the ''l(o)''-prefixed form after the multiplicative number: ''okhu lóppu'' ("thrice one quarter" = three quarters). The noun is in ablative case and only the fraction is inflected: ''lopu'''ji''' tuppo'' (for one half of a stick)<br />
*Large numbers (from hundred) are written separately from smaller, but in formal register ''s''-letter is added between each power of ten.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
* VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive<br />
* often a comment precedes the topic<br />
* numerals precede nouns<br />
* possessives follow nouns<br />
* predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns<br />
* demonstratives come last<br />
<br />
===Emphasizing clitics===<br />
<br />
Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton pof dothee'''noh'''.'' (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. ''Ónzaiton dothee pof'''ma'''.'' (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used in nominalized relative clauses and with verbs in antipassive constructions.<br />
<br />
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) <br />
<br />
The suffixes are also used with alienable possessive forms to separate the possessor from indirect objects. Chosen depending on the ergativity of the possessum: ''Jóvakuhoi suu pof swi'''ma''' swi.'' (He gave her feather to him.)<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
<br />
====Independent====<br />
<br />
Independent clauses make sense by themselves so that they may form their own sentence.<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, the subject is not necessarily a separate word since the verb can convey both the agent and the object. Thus a single verb can be a complete sentence: ''Ainamoi.'' (It was eaten by me.) However, a full clause may a verbless one as well when the gnomic-static aspect is used or because the languages lacks the verbs "to be" and "to have": ''Ksaru lutu(ma).'' (The woman is a guard.), ''Lutugu ksarushos.'' (Lady has their own guards.)<br />
<br />
Traditional Sceptrian language theorists have used the term ''qópó'' (act) when referring to the verb phrase: the main verb, its auxiliaries and particles which wouldn't appear without the verb. It may also refer to the predicative determiners of a verbless clause subject (possibly bearing the emphasizing clitic): e.g. ''ksaru'' (guard) is ''qópó hetson'' ("still" act) of the above example ''Ksaru lutu.''. This may be called predicate in Westlang grammar. <br />
<br />
''Betsloi'ó'' (affectee), that is, the absolutive subject-object may be: <br />
*Noun: ''Lehkotón '''kuth'''.'' ('''A dog''' is running.)<br />
*Pronoun: ''Aiteshóji '''slo'''.'' ('''They''' were seen by me.)<br />
*Gerund: ''Apekingvó '''lateppi'''.'' (I enjoy '''dancing'''.)<br />
*Another clause: ''Aitésoutóji, '''skugu rorøtóji'''.'' (I couldn't see, '''where he went'''.) <br />
*Note that the main verb conjugation is for the abstract subject. In the indirect question, the verb is in subjunctive.<br />
<br />
''Betslaató'' (affecter) refers to the agent which is declined into the ergative case. <br />
*A gerung will be declined if necessary, but an entire clause remains the same. <br />
<br />
Interrogative clauses begin with either the verb or the interrogative. Interrogative mood is indicated by the moving the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. Questions are placed between question marks "¿" and "?". See below in the [[Sceptrian#Noun_clauses|noun clauses]] for more of indirect questions.<br />
*In written language, requests often use only the final question mark: ''Tsemaakor nai?'' (Will you give it to me?)<br />
<br />
====Conjunction====<br />
<br />
coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?)<br />
*and, but, for, so, or<br />
*...<br />
<br />
Demonstratives will take the case ending, if the entire <br />
<br />
====Noun clauses====<br />
<br />
WIP ... to be redone<br />
*Infinitive.tense + ... + causatives: ''Tesosan kepó vakuhos supe.'' (I see that he washes his hands) vs. ''Onluvakan kep'''óo''' vakuhos supe.'' (The washing of his hands brings me pleasure.)<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
<br />
Nominalizing relative clauses with participles is common.<br />
<br />
Using [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|an emphasizing clitic]] to mark the antecedent for the class-appropriate proximal demonstrative pronoun (thaka/saitu/ka declined for number) which works as a relative pronoun - case chosen according to the embedded clause: <br />
*''Rotóji dothma saituh latepai.'' (leave-PST.PFV.3SG man.ABS-EMPH.ABS P.PROX.AN-COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The man, with whom I danced, left.") <br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahul dothelenos saitush latepai.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS man-PL.ERG-EMPH.ERG P.PROX.AN-PL.COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The men with whom I danced are starting to drink beer.")<br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahulma dothele ka tutitai vangosordi.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS-EMPH.ABS man-PL.ERG P.PROX.INAN SBJV-want-PST.PFV.1SG drink-INF.FUT "Men are starting to drink the beer which I would've wanted to drink."<br />
<br />
====Adverbial clauses====<br />
<br />
non-finite forms + possessive suffixes to indicate subject<br />
<br />
====Conditional clauses====<br />
<br />
subjunctive as explained in verb particle section<br />
<br />
====Indirect speech====<br />
<br />
==Register==<br />
<br />
Different endings which reflect the conversation situation: speakers, familiarity, formality, location... <br />
<br />
===Intimate===<br />
<br />
Agent prefixes aren't used. No ''t'' in inceptive. Due to apophony, subject suffix can be dropped from FUT/INCEP if 1st or 2nd person distinction is clear.<br />
<br />
===Casual===<br />
<br />
In casual register, verb forms are chosen differently when the subject is agent-like (he dances) or patient-like (he fell): ''latepóji'' (he danced AN) vs. ''bousoi'' (he fell INAN)<br />
<br />
===Formal===<br />
<br />
Mandatory use of pronouns and agent prefixes.<br />
<br />
One may use inanimate verb forms as anti-honorific? ''Ondakon næ ka Nithki.'' (I humbly offer this to You)<br />
<br />
Apophony of basic prepositions with root ''oi'': ''Oisti Hala, óosti vakuhanga, ousti qorel'' (under the Sun, under my hand, under the earth)<br />
<br />
In formal register, it is preferred to use only animate nouns as agents while abstract and inanimate are as antipassive subjects: ''luwi... nas'' ("beauty-of.yours it-un-eye-ful-makes me-with", your beauty makes me blind) vs. ''en fø na'' (you are making me blind)<br />
<br />
Distinction between abstract and animate in some categories, such as verb conjugation (''wa'')<br />
<br />
Can people with higher status be abstract or do they occupy a special animate category? (æ inside?)<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
See the [[Sceptrian/Dictionary|dictionary page]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian/Dictionary&diff=35717Sceptrian/Dictionary2015-07-08T12:10:29Z<p>Juhhmi: /* P */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
Derived words are shown under the original word. Latin alphabet order is used to help unaccustomed users.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
|Sceptrian || Word Class || English<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===A=== <br />
|-<br />
|aktas|| n || ear <br />
|-<br />
|ala || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
| alké || part || verb permissive<br />
|-<br />
| amu || n || girl<br />
|-<br />
|ara || n ||previous day, yesterday <br />
|-<br />
| atasi || part || verb hearsay evidential<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Æ=== <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===B===<br />
|-<br />
|bak|| n || table <br />
|-<br />
|bap|| n|| word <br />
|-<br />
|baplóp || n ||sentence <br />
|-<br />
|batop|| n || language <br />
|-<br />
| berak || n || tower<br />
|-<br />
| betsla || n || effect<br />
|-<br />
| betsl || v || affect<br />
|-<br />
|birtsil || n ||fire <br />
|-<br />
| boi || prep || down <br />
|-<br />
|bó || n||lowness <br />
|-<br />
|bous || v ||goes down <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===D=== <br />
|-<br />
| darem || v || is ruled <br />
|-<br />
| daremu || n || ruler<br />
|-<br />
| dei || adj || right (side) <br />
|-<br />
| deq || n || cliff <br />
|-<br />
|dldlp|| n || bubble<br />
|-<br />
|doth|| n || man <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===DH=== <br />
|-<br />
|dhoku || n ||head <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===E=== <br />
|-<br />
|eja || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
|eva || n ||light <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===É=== <br />
|-<br />
| éves || n || hair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===F=== <br />
|-<br />
| fas || n || finger<br />
|-<br />
|fendó ||n ||death <br />
|-<br />
|firut || n || city, town<br />
|-<br />
|fkot|| n|| nest <br />
|-<br />
| fo || pro || you (singular)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===G=== <br />
|-<br />
| gana || part || verb volitive<br />
|-<br />
|gat|| n || house<br />
|-<br />
| gæ || part || in literature for sarcasm <br />
|-<br />
| get || n || mountain <br />
|-<br />
|glerk|| n || mace <br />
|-<br />
|gln || n ||fat <br />
|-<br />
| gót || n || table <br />
|-<br />
|guh || n ||mouth <br />
|-<br />
|gul|| n || blackness <br />
|-<br />
|guts||n||cow<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===H=== <br />
|-<br />
| hara || n || west <br />
|-<br />
| hamisi || n || one million <br />
|-<br />
| hets || v || stands<br />
|-<br />
| hi || pro || it (inanimate)<br />
|-<br />
|hifthil || n || air <br />
|-<br />
|hil || n ||whiteness <br />
|-<br />
| hoi || prep || behind; after<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===I=== <br />
|-<br />
| i || n || concept, abstraction<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===J=== <br />
|-<br />
| jaafa || pro || something (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
|jada|| n || pleasant, nice, good <br />
|-<br />
| jak || postp || ABL away <br />
|-<br />
| jatu || n || father <br />
|-<br />
|jiti|| n || smallness <br />
|-<br />
| jodhi || pro || some kind of<br />
|-<br />
| jofa || adj || some <br />
|-<br />
| jofai || pro || somehow<br />
|-<br />
| jofko || pro || sometime<br />
|-<br />
| jofku || pro || somewhere<br />
|-<br />
| jofo || pro || something (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| jofos || pro || with someone <br />
|-<br />
| jokæ || part || verb exhortative<br />
|-<br />
| jon || prep || between<br />
|-<br />
| jonfu || pro || something (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| jopi || n || number ten <br />
|-<br />
|joqó || n ||disgust <br />
|-<br />
| jov || pro || for some reason<br />
|-<br />
| jø || part || in literature for verbal irony <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===K=== <br />
|-<br />
| ka || pro || this <br />
|-<br />
| kadh || pro || this kind of<br />
|-<br />
|kamps || n ||marsh, swamp <br />
|-<br />
| kap || pro || herefore<br />
|-<br />
|karon || n ||soup <br />
|-<br />
| kas || pro || with this<br />
|-<br />
|kat|| n ||knob, handle <br />
|-<br />
|katpas || n ||fern <br />
|-<br />
| keet || n || hill <br />
|-<br />
|kep || n ||wash, act of washing <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||is washed <br />
|-<br />
| kesl || v || bleed <br />
|-<br />
|keslań|| n || blood <br />
|-<br />
| ket || n || plate <br />
|-<br />
| keva || n || priest <br />
|-<br />
| kha || pro || now<br />
|-<br />
| khai || pro || hereby<br />
|-<br />
| khau || pro || here<br />
|-<br />
| khet || v|| must<br />
|-<br />
|kheti|| n || necessity <br />
|-<br />
| kho || pro || then<br />
|-<br />
| khoi || pro || thereby<br />
|-<br />
| khu || pro || there<br />
|-<br />
| khurd || v || dare<br />
|-<br />
|khurdi|| n || daring <br />
|-<br />
|ki || n ||shortness <br />
|-<br />
| ko || pro || that<br />
|-<br />
| kodh || pro || that kind of<br />
|-<br />
| koi || prep || per <br />
|-<br />
| kop || pro || therefore<br />
|-<br />
| kos || pro || with that<br />
|-<br />
|kos || n ||tree <br />
|-<br />
|koson || n ||wood (also kosoń) <br />
|-<br />
|ksaru || n ||guard<br />
|-<br />
|kusu|| n || friend <br />
|-<br />
|kuth|| n || dog <br />
|-<br />
| kuut || v || can, may<br />
|-<br />
|kuutó|| n || possibility <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===L=== <br />
|-<br />
| lai || adj || left (side) <br />
|-<br />
| lamat || n || field <br />
|-<br />
|latep || n ||dance <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||dances <br />
|-<br />
| leh || n || leg<br />
|-<br />
| lewu || n || mother<br />
|-<br />
| loi || prep || out<br />
|-<br />
|lutu|| n || woman <br />
|-<br />
|luva || n ||pleasure <br />
|-<br />
|luwi|| n || beauty <br />
|-<br />
|lzork || n ||worm <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===M=== <br />
|-<br />
| mai || postp || ABL excluding<br />
|-<br />
| mak || postp || ABL except<br />
|-<br />
|mak || v || ABL is given to DAT by ERG <br />
|-<br />
|math || n ||cat <br />
|-<br />
| mats || postp || ABL instead of <br />
|-<br />
|mel|| n || water <br />
|-<br />
| mép || v || can, knows how to<br />
|-<br />
|mépi || n ||skill <br />
|-<br />
| mitup || n || sea, ocean <br />
|-<br />
|mjula|| n || life <br />
|-<br />
| mo || pro || we<br />
|-<br />
|mofpu|| n || lip <br />
|-<br />
| moi || prep || touching<br />
|-<br />
|mol || n ||blueness <br />
|-<br />
| mopi || n || one thousand <br />
|-<br />
| mots(i) || prep || on side<br />
|-<br />
| mowisi || n || one billion <br />
|-<br />
| mótap || n || bread<br />
|-<br />
|muf|| n || fish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===N=== <br />
|-<br />
| na || pro || I<br />
|-<br />
| nam || n || food<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is eaten, used to sate<br />
|-<br />
|naméti || n || hunger<br />
|-<br />
|nang || n ||sweat <br />
|-<br />
|nat || n ||stain <br />
|-<br />
|nath|| n || beggar <br />
|-<br />
|nek||v||is taken<br />
|-<br />
| nesu || n || boy <br />
|-<br />
|nin || n ||greenness <br />
|-<br />
| Nith || pro || You (singular) <br />
|-<br />
| norka || part || verb dubitative<br />
|-<br />
|not|| n || object <br />
|-<br />
| nuhit || n || carpet <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===NG=== <br />
|-<br />
| nget || n || candle, lamp<br />
|-<br />
| ngofi || n || number thirteen<br />
|-<br />
| ngoipi || n || number nine <br />
|-<br />
| ngoki || n || number eleven <br />
|-<br />
| ngovi || n || number eight <br />
|-<br />
| ngóki || n || number fourteen <br />
|-<br />
| ngópi || n || number twelve<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===O=== <br />
|-<br />
| ofi || n || number five<br />
|-<br />
| ohu || adv || once<br />
|-<br />
| oil(i) || prep || as<br />
|-<br />
| oist(i) || prep || under<br />
|-<br />
| ok || num || three<br />
|-<br />
| okart || n || triangle<br />
|-<br />
| okhi || adj || third<br />
|-<br />
| okhu || adv || thrice<br />
|-<br />
| oki || n || number three<br />
|-<br />
| okitse || adj || threefold<br />
|-<br />
| omi || n || number seven<br />
|-<br />
| onta || pro || anything (animate) <br />
|-<br />
| ongka || pro || everything (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| op || num || two<br />
|-<br />
| opart || n || line<br />
|-<br />
| ophi || adj || second<br />
|-<br />
| ophu || adv || twice<br />
|-<br />
| ophungovi || n || number sixteen<br />
|-<br />
| opi || n || number two<br />
|-<br />
| opisi || n || pair<br />
|-<br />
| opitse || adj || twofold<br />
|-<br />
| orak || n || street, alley <br />
|-<br />
| ordhi || pro || all/every kind of<br />
|-<br />
| orka || adj || every, all <br />
|-<br />
| orkai || pro || in every way<br />
|-<br />
| orkho || pro || always<br />
|-<br />
| orkhu || pro || everywhere <br />
|-<br />
| orko || pro || everything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| orkop || pro || for every reason<br />
|-<br />
| orkos || pro || with everyone<br />
|-<br />
| ota || adj || any <br />
|-<br />
| othi || pro || any kind of <br />
|-<br />
| otko || pro || whenever<br />
|-<br />
| otku || pro || anywhere <br />
|-<br />
| oto || pro || anything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| otop || pro || for any reason<br />
|-<br />
| otos || pro || with anyone<br />
|-<br />
| oz || num || zero<br />
|-<br />
| ozhi || adj || zeroth<br />
|-<br />
| ozi || n || number zero, nought<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ó=== <br />
|-<br />
| ókart || n || hexagon<br />
|-<br />
| ókki || n || number six<br />
|-<br />
| ól || postp || GEN like <br />
|-<br />
| || adverb || similarly<br />
|-<br />
|óomi || n ||largeness <br />
|-<br />
| óp || postp || GEN about; ABL according to<br />
|-<br />
| ópart || n || square<br />
|-<br />
| ópef || n || chicken <br />
|-<br />
| óppi || n || number four <br />
|-<br />
| ótuk || n|| sign<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ø=== <br />
|-<br />
|øfkam || n || pus <br />
|-<br />
|ølep || n || fabric<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===P=== <br />
|-<br />
|paata || n ||separation <br />
|-<br />
| pai || part || verb mirative <br />
|-<br />
| || adv || how (with adj)<br />
|-<br />
| patuk || n || village <br />
|-<br />
|peki || n || enjoyment<br />
|-<br />
|petsip|| n|| clothes <br />
|-<br />
| phe || postp || LAT for the sake of<br />
|-<br />
| phó || postp || LAT along<br />
|-<br />
| pló || postp || LOC opposite to <br />
|-<br />
| po || pro || you (plural)<br />
|-<br />
|pof || n ||feather <br />
|-<br />
| poi || prep || in the middle of, among<br />
|-<br />
| poki || n ||centre <br />
|-<br />
| pón || postp || LAT through<br />
|-<br />
|pos|| n ||servant <br />
|-<br />
|prk || n ||wagon <br />
|-<br />
| puk || n || door<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===Q=== <br />
|-<br />
|qal ||n ||yellowness <br />
|-<br />
| qet || n || wall <br />
|-<br />
|qorel|| n || earth <br />
|-<br />
|qot || n ||rock <br />
|-<br />
|qotol|| n || stone <br />
|-<br />
|qóp||v||do<br />
|-<br />
|qópa||n||act, deed <br />
|-<br />
|qut || n || room<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===QH=== <br />
|-<br />
| qheetu || n || guard <br />
|-<br />
| qhotep || n || spear<br />
|-<br />
| qhók || v || is broken, smashed<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===R=== <br />
|-<br />
| raf || n || foot<br />
|-<br />
|ras||n||horse<br />
|-<br />
| ret || n || floor<br />
|-<br />
|rkil|| n || orange <br />
|-<br />
| roi || prep || above<br />
|-<br />
|rot || v ||leaves, goes <br />
|-<br />
|rul|| n || redness <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===S=== <br />
|-<br />
| sahul || n || beer<br />
|-<br />
| sai || postp || COM including <br />
|-<br />
| saitu || pre || this one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| sak || postp || COM concerning; ABL due to <br />
|-<br />
| sku || pro || where<br />
|-<br />
| sko || pro || when <br />
|-<br />
| so || adj || another <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || something else<br />
|-<br />
| soi || prep || on<br />
|-<br />
| soi || pro || otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| sokho || pro || another time <br />
|-<br />
| sokhu || pro || elsewhere <br />
|-<br />
| sonop || pro || for another reason<br />
|-<br />
| sos || pro || with someone else<br />
|-<br />
| sothi || pro || of another kind<br />
|-<br />
| sós || postp || COM with; ABL without; LAT in addition to <br />
|-<br />
| souso || pro || nobody<br />
|-<br />
| soutu || pro || that one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| || pro || who? <br />
|-<br />
| spe || pro || why?<br />
|-<br />
|spii|| n || length <br />
|-<br />
|stak|| n || fence <br />
|-<br />
|su || n ||it/he? <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SH=== <br />
|-<br />
| shara || n || south <br />
|-<br />
| shi || pro || how?<br />
|-<br />
| sho || adj || which?, what? <br />
|-<br />
| shodh || pro || what kind of<br />
|-<br />
| shos || pro || with whom<br />
|-<br />
|shosleetha|| n || knight <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SL=== <br />
|-<br />
| slada || n || monastery<br />
|-<br />
| slahit || n || flour <br />
|-<br />
|slengu|| n || nose <br />
|-<br />
| slint || n || jug <br />
|-<br />
| slop || n || chair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===T=== <br />
|-<br />
| ta || part || verb conditional <br />
|-<br />
|ta'i || n ||past <br />
|-<br />
|tai || n ||for long <br />
|-<br />
|tes || n ||eye <br />
|-<br />
|tes(os)|| v || is seen <br />
|-<br />
| tesei || part || verb visual evidential<br />
|-<br />
| thol || n || liquid <br />
|-<br />
|tihtóhnah || n ||assassinator <br />
|-<br />
| tis || n || skin <br />
|-<br />
|tlaf || n ||sprig <br />
|-<br />
|tlsl || n ||shallow <br />
|-<br />
| toti || n || one hundred <br />
|-<br />
|trk || n ||smithy <br />
|-<br />
|trs || n ||smith <br />
|-<br />
|tup || n ||stick <br />
|-<br />
| tut || v || wants<br />
|-<br />
|tuta || n ||craving, wish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TH=== <br />
|-<br />
| tha || pro || it (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaka || pro || this (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaso || pro || something else (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thata || pro || anything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
| theso || pro || nothing (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thorka || pro || everything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TS=== <br />
|-<br />
|tsagadhet || n ||bureau <br />
|-<br />
| tsaka || pro || this one (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| tsalka || pro || this one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tseso || pro || neither <br />
|-<br />
|tsma || n ||doubt <br />
|-<br />
| tso || pro || other (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsoi || prep || in front of<br />
|-<br />
| tso'i || n || front<br />
|-<br />
|tsok || n ||letter <br />
|-<br />
|tsoklóp || n ||alphabet <br />
|-<br />
| tsoko || pro || that one (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolko || pro || that one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolo || pro || another (of many) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (one many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolto || pro || any (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsongko || pro || every, each<br />
|-<br />
| tsorko || pro || both <br />
|-<br />
| tsoto || pro || either one <br />
|-<br />
|tsøl || n ||purple <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSL===<br />
|-<br />
| tslap || n || window <br />
|-<br />
| tsleso || pro || none (of many)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSH===<br />
|-<br />
|tshok || n || cabinet, storage<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is stored<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===U=== <br />
|-<br />
|ukop || n ||north <br />
|-<br />
| umah || n || egg<br />
|-<br />
|ura || n ||following day, tomorrow <br />
|-<br />
| utsu || n || person <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===V=== <br />
|-<br />
|vakuh || n ||hand <br />
|-<br />
|vang || n ||throat<br />
|-<br />
|vangos || v ||is drunk, swallowed, devoured <br />
|-<br />
|vangost || n || drink<br />
|-<br />
|vangostéti || n || thirst<br />
|-<br />
|voi || prep || in<br />
|-<br />
| vop || n || roof<br />
|-<br />
|voq || n ||strange thing <br />
|-<br />
| vóna || n || east <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===W=== <br />
|-<br />
|weh||v||is born<br />
|-<br />
| With || pro || You (plural) <br />
|-<br />
| wu || n || youngster <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===Z=== <br />
|-<br />
|za || n ||height <br />
|-<br />
|zait || v ||goes up <br />
|-<br />
|zaivi|| n || song <br />
|-<br />
| ze || adj || no<br />
|-<br />
| zei || pro || in no way<br />
|-<br />
| zenep ||pro || for no reason<br />
|-<br />
| zeng || pro || never <br />
|-<br />
| zengu || pro || nowhere <br />
|-<br />
| zeos || pro || with nobody <br />
|-<br />
| zil || n || salt <br />
|-<br />
| zodhi || pro || of no kind<br />
|-<br />
| zoi || prep || up<br />
|-<br />
| zolo || pro || some, one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
|zurmu || n ||strong person<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===ZH=== <br />
|-<br />
| zhaku || n || seller, vendor <br />
|-<br />
| zho || pro || one (of two) <br />
|}</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian/Dictionary&diff=35716Sceptrian/Dictionary2015-07-08T12:05:21Z<p>Juhhmi: /* H */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
Derived words are shown under the original word. Latin alphabet order is used to help unaccustomed users.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
|Sceptrian || Word Class || English<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===A=== <br />
|-<br />
|aktas|| n || ear <br />
|-<br />
|ala || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
| alké || part || verb permissive<br />
|-<br />
| amu || n || girl<br />
|-<br />
|ara || n ||previous day, yesterday <br />
|-<br />
| atasi || part || verb hearsay evidential<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Æ=== <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===B===<br />
|-<br />
|bak|| n || table <br />
|-<br />
|bap|| n|| word <br />
|-<br />
|baplóp || n ||sentence <br />
|-<br />
|batop|| n || language <br />
|-<br />
| berak || n || tower<br />
|-<br />
| betsla || n || effect<br />
|-<br />
| betsl || v || affect<br />
|-<br />
|birtsil || n ||fire <br />
|-<br />
| boi || prep || down <br />
|-<br />
|bó || n||lowness <br />
|-<br />
|bous || v ||goes down <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===D=== <br />
|-<br />
| darem || v || is ruled <br />
|-<br />
| daremu || n || ruler<br />
|-<br />
| dei || adj || right (side) <br />
|-<br />
| deq || n || cliff <br />
|-<br />
|dldlp|| n || bubble<br />
|-<br />
|doth|| n || man <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===DH=== <br />
|-<br />
|dhoku || n ||head <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===E=== <br />
|-<br />
|eja || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
|eva || n ||light <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===É=== <br />
|-<br />
| éves || n || hair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===F=== <br />
|-<br />
| fas || n || finger<br />
|-<br />
|fendó ||n ||death <br />
|-<br />
|firut || n || city, town<br />
|-<br />
|fkot|| n|| nest <br />
|-<br />
| fo || pro || you (singular)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===G=== <br />
|-<br />
| gana || part || verb volitive<br />
|-<br />
|gat|| n || house<br />
|-<br />
| gæ || part || in literature for sarcasm <br />
|-<br />
| get || n || mountain <br />
|-<br />
|glerk|| n || mace <br />
|-<br />
|gln || n ||fat <br />
|-<br />
| gót || n || table <br />
|-<br />
|guh || n ||mouth <br />
|-<br />
|gul|| n || blackness <br />
|-<br />
|guts||n||cow<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===H=== <br />
|-<br />
| hara || n || west <br />
|-<br />
| hamisi || n || one million <br />
|-<br />
| hets || v || stands<br />
|-<br />
| hi || pro || it (inanimate)<br />
|-<br />
|hifthil || n || air <br />
|-<br />
|hil || n ||whiteness <br />
|-<br />
| hoi || prep || behind; after<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===I=== <br />
|-<br />
| i || n || concept, abstraction<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===J=== <br />
|-<br />
| jaafa || pro || something (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
|jada|| n || pleasant, nice, good <br />
|-<br />
| jak || postp || ABL away <br />
|-<br />
| jatu || n || father <br />
|-<br />
|jiti|| n || smallness <br />
|-<br />
| jodhi || pro || some kind of<br />
|-<br />
| jofa || adj || some <br />
|-<br />
| jofai || pro || somehow<br />
|-<br />
| jofko || pro || sometime<br />
|-<br />
| jofku || pro || somewhere<br />
|-<br />
| jofo || pro || something (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| jofos || pro || with someone <br />
|-<br />
| jokæ || part || verb exhortative<br />
|-<br />
| jon || prep || between<br />
|-<br />
| jonfu || pro || something (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| jopi || n || number ten <br />
|-<br />
|joqó || n ||disgust <br />
|-<br />
| jov || pro || for some reason<br />
|-<br />
| jø || part || in literature for verbal irony <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===K=== <br />
|-<br />
| ka || pro || this <br />
|-<br />
| kadh || pro || this kind of<br />
|-<br />
|kamps || n ||marsh, swamp <br />
|-<br />
| kap || pro || herefore<br />
|-<br />
|karon || n ||soup <br />
|-<br />
| kas || pro || with this<br />
|-<br />
|kat|| n ||knob, handle <br />
|-<br />
|katpas || n ||fern <br />
|-<br />
| keet || n || hill <br />
|-<br />
|kep || n ||wash, act of washing <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||is washed <br />
|-<br />
| kesl || v || bleed <br />
|-<br />
|keslań|| n || blood <br />
|-<br />
| ket || n || plate <br />
|-<br />
| keva || n || priest <br />
|-<br />
| kha || pro || now<br />
|-<br />
| khai || pro || hereby<br />
|-<br />
| khau || pro || here<br />
|-<br />
| khet || v|| must<br />
|-<br />
|kheti|| n || necessity <br />
|-<br />
| kho || pro || then<br />
|-<br />
| khoi || pro || thereby<br />
|-<br />
| khu || pro || there<br />
|-<br />
| khurd || v || dare<br />
|-<br />
|khurdi|| n || daring <br />
|-<br />
|ki || n ||shortness <br />
|-<br />
| ko || pro || that<br />
|-<br />
| kodh || pro || that kind of<br />
|-<br />
| koi || prep || per <br />
|-<br />
| kop || pro || therefore<br />
|-<br />
| kos || pro || with that<br />
|-<br />
|kos || n ||tree <br />
|-<br />
|koson || n ||wood (also kosoń) <br />
|-<br />
|ksaru || n ||guard<br />
|-<br />
|kusu|| n || friend <br />
|-<br />
|kuth|| n || dog <br />
|-<br />
| kuut || v || can, may<br />
|-<br />
|kuutó|| n || possibility <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===L=== <br />
|-<br />
| lai || adj || left (side) <br />
|-<br />
| lamat || n || field <br />
|-<br />
|latep || n ||dance <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||dances <br />
|-<br />
| leh || n || leg<br />
|-<br />
| lewu || n || mother<br />
|-<br />
| loi || prep || out<br />
|-<br />
|lutu|| n || woman <br />
|-<br />
|luva || n ||pleasure <br />
|-<br />
|luwi|| n || beauty <br />
|-<br />
|lzork || n ||worm <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===M=== <br />
|-<br />
| mai || postp || ABL excluding<br />
|-<br />
| mak || postp || ABL except<br />
|-<br />
|mak || v || ABL is given to DAT by ERG <br />
|-<br />
|math || n ||cat <br />
|-<br />
| mats || postp || ABL instead of <br />
|-<br />
|mel|| n || water <br />
|-<br />
| mép || v || can, knows how to<br />
|-<br />
|mépi || n ||skill <br />
|-<br />
| mitup || n || sea, ocean <br />
|-<br />
|mjula|| n || life <br />
|-<br />
| mo || pro || we<br />
|-<br />
|mofpu|| n || lip <br />
|-<br />
| moi || prep || touching<br />
|-<br />
|mol || n ||blueness <br />
|-<br />
| mopi || n || one thousand <br />
|-<br />
| mots(i) || prep || on side<br />
|-<br />
| mowisi || n || one billion <br />
|-<br />
| mótap || n || bread<br />
|-<br />
|muf|| n || fish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===N=== <br />
|-<br />
| na || pro || I<br />
|-<br />
| nam || n || food<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is eaten, used to sate<br />
|-<br />
|naméti || n || hunger<br />
|-<br />
|nang || n ||sweat <br />
|-<br />
|nat || n ||stain <br />
|-<br />
|nath|| n || beggar <br />
|-<br />
|nek||v||is taken<br />
|-<br />
| nesu || n || boy <br />
|-<br />
|nin || n ||greenness <br />
|-<br />
| Nith || pro || You (singular) <br />
|-<br />
| norka || part || verb dubitative<br />
|-<br />
|not|| n || object <br />
|-<br />
| nuhit || n || carpet <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===NG=== <br />
|-<br />
| nget || n || candle, lamp<br />
|-<br />
| ngofi || n || number thirteen<br />
|-<br />
| ngoipi || n || number nine <br />
|-<br />
| ngoki || n || number eleven <br />
|-<br />
| ngovi || n || number eight <br />
|-<br />
| ngóki || n || number fourteen <br />
|-<br />
| ngópi || n || number twelve<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===O=== <br />
|-<br />
| ofi || n || number five<br />
|-<br />
| ohu || adv || once<br />
|-<br />
| oil(i) || prep || as<br />
|-<br />
| oist(i) || prep || under<br />
|-<br />
| ok || num || three<br />
|-<br />
| okart || n || triangle<br />
|-<br />
| okhi || adj || third<br />
|-<br />
| okhu || adv || thrice<br />
|-<br />
| oki || n || number three<br />
|-<br />
| okitse || adj || threefold<br />
|-<br />
| omi || n || number seven<br />
|-<br />
| onta || pro || anything (animate) <br />
|-<br />
| ongka || pro || everything (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| op || num || two<br />
|-<br />
| opart || n || line<br />
|-<br />
| ophi || adj || second<br />
|-<br />
| ophu || adv || twice<br />
|-<br />
| ophungovi || n || number sixteen<br />
|-<br />
| opi || n || number two<br />
|-<br />
| opisi || n || pair<br />
|-<br />
| opitse || adj || twofold<br />
|-<br />
| orak || n || street, alley <br />
|-<br />
| ordhi || pro || all/every kind of<br />
|-<br />
| orka || adj || every, all <br />
|-<br />
| orkai || pro || in every way<br />
|-<br />
| orkho || pro || always<br />
|-<br />
| orkhu || pro || everywhere <br />
|-<br />
| orko || pro || everything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| orkop || pro || for every reason<br />
|-<br />
| orkos || pro || with everyone<br />
|-<br />
| ota || adj || any <br />
|-<br />
| othi || pro || any kind of <br />
|-<br />
| otko || pro || whenever<br />
|-<br />
| otku || pro || anywhere <br />
|-<br />
| oto || pro || anything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| otop || pro || for any reason<br />
|-<br />
| otos || pro || with anyone<br />
|-<br />
| oz || num || zero<br />
|-<br />
| ozhi || adj || zeroth<br />
|-<br />
| ozi || n || number zero, nought<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ó=== <br />
|-<br />
| ókart || n || hexagon<br />
|-<br />
| ókki || n || number six<br />
|-<br />
| ól || postp || GEN like <br />
|-<br />
| || adverb || similarly<br />
|-<br />
|óomi || n ||largeness <br />
|-<br />
| óp || postp || GEN about; ABL according to<br />
|-<br />
| ópart || n || square<br />
|-<br />
| ópef || n || chicken <br />
|-<br />
| óppi || n || number four <br />
|-<br />
| ótuk || n|| sign<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ø=== <br />
|-<br />
|øfkam || n || pus <br />
|-<br />
|ølep || n || fabric<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===P=== <br />
|-<br />
|paata || n ||separation <br />
|-<br />
| pai || part || verb mirative <br />
|-<br />
| || adv || how (with adj)<br />
|-<br />
| patuk || n || village <br />
|-<br />
|petsip|| n|| clothes <br />
|-<br />
| phe || postp || LAT for the sake of<br />
|-<br />
| phó || postp || LAT along<br />
|-<br />
| pló || postp || LOC opposite to <br />
|-<br />
| po || pro || you (plural)<br />
|-<br />
|pof || n ||feather <br />
|-<br />
| poi || prep || in the middle of, among<br />
|-<br />
| poki || n ||centre <br />
|-<br />
| pón || postp || LAT through<br />
|-<br />
|pos|| n ||servant <br />
|-<br />
|prk || n ||wagon <br />
|-<br />
| puk || n || door<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Q=== <br />
|-<br />
|qal ||n ||yellowness <br />
|-<br />
| qet || n || wall <br />
|-<br />
|qorel|| n || earth <br />
|-<br />
|qot || n ||rock <br />
|-<br />
|qotol|| n || stone <br />
|-<br />
|qóp||v||do<br />
|-<br />
|qópa||n||act, deed <br />
|-<br />
|qut || n || room<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===QH=== <br />
|-<br />
| qheetu || n || guard <br />
|-<br />
| qhotep || n || spear<br />
|-<br />
| qhók || v || is broken, smashed<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===R=== <br />
|-<br />
| raf || n || foot<br />
|-<br />
|ras||n||horse<br />
|-<br />
| ret || n || floor<br />
|-<br />
|rkil|| n || orange <br />
|-<br />
| roi || prep || above<br />
|-<br />
|rot || v ||leaves, goes <br />
|-<br />
|rul|| n || redness <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===S=== <br />
|-<br />
| sahul || n || beer<br />
|-<br />
| sai || postp || COM including <br />
|-<br />
| saitu || pre || this one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| sak || postp || COM concerning; ABL due to <br />
|-<br />
| sku || pro || where<br />
|-<br />
| sko || pro || when <br />
|-<br />
| so || adj || another <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || something else<br />
|-<br />
| soi || prep || on<br />
|-<br />
| soi || pro || otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| sokho || pro || another time <br />
|-<br />
| sokhu || pro || elsewhere <br />
|-<br />
| sonop || pro || for another reason<br />
|-<br />
| sos || pro || with someone else<br />
|-<br />
| sothi || pro || of another kind<br />
|-<br />
| sós || postp || COM with; ABL without; LAT in addition to <br />
|-<br />
| souso || pro || nobody<br />
|-<br />
| soutu || pro || that one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| || pro || who? <br />
|-<br />
| spe || pro || why?<br />
|-<br />
|spii|| n || length <br />
|-<br />
|stak|| n || fence <br />
|-<br />
|su || n ||it/he? <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SH=== <br />
|-<br />
| shara || n || south <br />
|-<br />
| shi || pro || how?<br />
|-<br />
| sho || adj || which?, what? <br />
|-<br />
| shodh || pro || what kind of<br />
|-<br />
| shos || pro || with whom<br />
|-<br />
|shosleetha|| n || knight <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SL=== <br />
|-<br />
| slada || n || monastery<br />
|-<br />
| slahit || n || flour <br />
|-<br />
|slengu|| n || nose <br />
|-<br />
| slint || n || jug <br />
|-<br />
| slop || n || chair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===T=== <br />
|-<br />
| ta || part || verb conditional <br />
|-<br />
|ta'i || n ||past <br />
|-<br />
|tai || n ||for long <br />
|-<br />
|tes || n ||eye <br />
|-<br />
|tes(os)|| v || is seen <br />
|-<br />
| tesei || part || verb visual evidential<br />
|-<br />
| thol || n || liquid <br />
|-<br />
|tihtóhnah || n ||assassinator <br />
|-<br />
| tis || n || skin <br />
|-<br />
|tlaf || n ||sprig <br />
|-<br />
|tlsl || n ||shallow <br />
|-<br />
| toti || n || one hundred <br />
|-<br />
|trk || n ||smithy <br />
|-<br />
|trs || n ||smith <br />
|-<br />
|tup || n ||stick <br />
|-<br />
| tut || v || wants<br />
|-<br />
|tuta || n ||craving, wish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TH=== <br />
|-<br />
| tha || pro || it (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaka || pro || this (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaso || pro || something else (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thata || pro || anything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
| theso || pro || nothing (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thorka || pro || everything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TS=== <br />
|-<br />
|tsagadhet || n ||bureau <br />
|-<br />
| tsaka || pro || this one (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| tsalka || pro || this one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tseso || pro || neither <br />
|-<br />
|tsma || n ||doubt <br />
|-<br />
| tso || pro || other (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsoi || prep || in front of<br />
|-<br />
| tso'i || n || front<br />
|-<br />
|tsok || n ||letter <br />
|-<br />
|tsoklóp || n ||alphabet <br />
|-<br />
| tsoko || pro || that one (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolko || pro || that one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolo || pro || another (of many) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (one many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolto || pro || any (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsongko || pro || every, each<br />
|-<br />
| tsorko || pro || both <br />
|-<br />
| tsoto || pro || either one <br />
|-<br />
|tsøl || n ||purple <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSL===<br />
|-<br />
| tslap || n || window <br />
|-<br />
| tsleso || pro || none (of many)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSH===<br />
|-<br />
|tshok || n || cabinet, storage<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is stored<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===U=== <br />
|-<br />
|ukop || n ||north <br />
|-<br />
| umah || n || egg<br />
|-<br />
|ura || n ||following day, tomorrow <br />
|-<br />
| utsu || n || person <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===V=== <br />
|-<br />
|vakuh || n ||hand <br />
|-<br />
|vang || n ||throat<br />
|-<br />
|vangos || v ||is drunk, swallowed, devoured <br />
|-<br />
|vangost || n || drink<br />
|-<br />
|vangostéti || n || thirst<br />
|-<br />
|voi || prep || in<br />
|-<br />
| vop || n || roof<br />
|-<br />
|voq || n ||strange thing <br />
|-<br />
| vóna || n || east <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===W=== <br />
|-<br />
|weh||v||is born<br />
|-<br />
| With || pro || You (plural) <br />
|-<br />
| wu || n || youngster <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===Z=== <br />
|-<br />
|za || n ||height <br />
|-<br />
|zait || v ||goes up <br />
|-<br />
|zaivi|| n || song <br />
|-<br />
| ze || adj || no<br />
|-<br />
| zei || pro || in no way<br />
|-<br />
| zenep ||pro || for no reason<br />
|-<br />
| zeng || pro || never <br />
|-<br />
| zengu || pro || nowhere <br />
|-<br />
| zeos || pro || with nobody <br />
|-<br />
| zil || n || salt <br />
|-<br />
| zodhi || pro || of no kind<br />
|-<br />
| zoi || prep || up<br />
|-<br />
| zolo || pro || some, one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
|zurmu || n ||strong person<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===ZH=== <br />
|-<br />
| zhaku || n || seller, vendor <br />
|-<br />
| zho || pro || one (of two) <br />
|}</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian/Dictionary&diff=35715Sceptrian/Dictionary2015-07-08T11:32:03Z<p>Juhhmi: /* B */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
Derived words are shown under the original word. Latin alphabet order is used to help unaccustomed users.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
|Sceptrian || Word Class || English<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===A=== <br />
|-<br />
|aktas|| n || ear <br />
|-<br />
|ala || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
| alké || part || verb permissive<br />
|-<br />
| amu || n || girl<br />
|-<br />
|ara || n ||previous day, yesterday <br />
|-<br />
| atasi || part || verb hearsay evidential<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Æ=== <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===B===<br />
|-<br />
|bak|| n || table <br />
|-<br />
|bap|| n|| word <br />
|-<br />
|baplóp || n ||sentence <br />
|-<br />
|batop|| n || language <br />
|-<br />
| berak || n || tower<br />
|-<br />
| betsla || n || effect<br />
|-<br />
| betsl || v || affect<br />
|-<br />
|birtsil || n ||fire <br />
|-<br />
| boi || prep || down <br />
|-<br />
|bó || n||lowness <br />
|-<br />
|bous || v ||goes down <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===D=== <br />
|-<br />
| darem || v || is ruled <br />
|-<br />
| daremu || n || ruler<br />
|-<br />
| dei || adj || right (side) <br />
|-<br />
| deq || n || cliff <br />
|-<br />
|dldlp|| n || bubble<br />
|-<br />
|doth|| n || man <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===DH=== <br />
|-<br />
|dhoku || n ||head <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===E=== <br />
|-<br />
|eja || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
|eva || n ||light <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===É=== <br />
|-<br />
| éves || n || hair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===F=== <br />
|-<br />
| fas || n || finger<br />
|-<br />
|fendó ||n ||death <br />
|-<br />
|firut || n || city, town<br />
|-<br />
|fkot|| n|| nest <br />
|-<br />
| fo || pro || you (singular)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===G=== <br />
|-<br />
| gana || part || verb volitive<br />
|-<br />
|gat|| n || house<br />
|-<br />
| gæ || part || in literature for sarcasm <br />
|-<br />
| get || n || mountain <br />
|-<br />
|glerk|| n || mace <br />
|-<br />
|gln || n ||fat <br />
|-<br />
| gót || n || table <br />
|-<br />
|guh || n ||mouth <br />
|-<br />
|gul|| n || blackness <br />
|-<br />
|guts||n||cow<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===H=== <br />
|-<br />
| hara || n || west <br />
|-<br />
| hamisi || n || one million <br />
|-<br />
| hi || pro || it (inanimate)<br />
|-<br />
|hifthil || n || air <br />
|-<br />
|hil || n ||whiteness <br />
|-<br />
| hoi || prep || behind; after<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===I=== <br />
|-<br />
| i || n || concept, abstraction<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===J=== <br />
|-<br />
| jaafa || pro || something (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
|jada|| n || pleasant, nice, good <br />
|-<br />
| jak || postp || ABL away <br />
|-<br />
| jatu || n || father <br />
|-<br />
|jiti|| n || smallness <br />
|-<br />
| jodhi || pro || some kind of<br />
|-<br />
| jofa || adj || some <br />
|-<br />
| jofai || pro || somehow<br />
|-<br />
| jofko || pro || sometime<br />
|-<br />
| jofku || pro || somewhere<br />
|-<br />
| jofo || pro || something (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| jofos || pro || with someone <br />
|-<br />
| jokæ || part || verb exhortative<br />
|-<br />
| jon || prep || between<br />
|-<br />
| jonfu || pro || something (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| jopi || n || number ten <br />
|-<br />
|joqó || n ||disgust <br />
|-<br />
| jov || pro || for some reason<br />
|-<br />
| jø || part || in literature for verbal irony <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===K=== <br />
|-<br />
| ka || pro || this <br />
|-<br />
| kadh || pro || this kind of<br />
|-<br />
|kamps || n ||marsh, swamp <br />
|-<br />
| kap || pro || herefore<br />
|-<br />
|karon || n ||soup <br />
|-<br />
| kas || pro || with this<br />
|-<br />
|kat|| n ||knob, handle <br />
|-<br />
|katpas || n ||fern <br />
|-<br />
| keet || n || hill <br />
|-<br />
|kep || n ||wash, act of washing <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||is washed <br />
|-<br />
| kesl || v || bleed <br />
|-<br />
|keslań|| n || blood <br />
|-<br />
| ket || n || plate <br />
|-<br />
| keva || n || priest <br />
|-<br />
| kha || pro || now<br />
|-<br />
| khai || pro || hereby<br />
|-<br />
| khau || pro || here<br />
|-<br />
| khet || v|| must<br />
|-<br />
|kheti|| n || necessity <br />
|-<br />
| kho || pro || then<br />
|-<br />
| khoi || pro || thereby<br />
|-<br />
| khu || pro || there<br />
|-<br />
| khurd || v || dare<br />
|-<br />
|khurdi|| n || daring <br />
|-<br />
|ki || n ||shortness <br />
|-<br />
| ko || pro || that<br />
|-<br />
| kodh || pro || that kind of<br />
|-<br />
| koi || prep || per <br />
|-<br />
| kop || pro || therefore<br />
|-<br />
| kos || pro || with that<br />
|-<br />
|kos || n ||tree <br />
|-<br />
|koson || n ||wood (also kosoń) <br />
|-<br />
|ksaru || n ||guard<br />
|-<br />
|kusu|| n || friend <br />
|-<br />
|kuth|| n || dog <br />
|-<br />
| kuut || v || can, may<br />
|-<br />
|kuutó|| n || possibility <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===L=== <br />
|-<br />
| lai || adj || left (side) <br />
|-<br />
| lamat || n || field <br />
|-<br />
|latep || n ||dance <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||dances <br />
|-<br />
| leh || n || leg<br />
|-<br />
| lewu || n || mother<br />
|-<br />
| loi || prep || out<br />
|-<br />
|lutu|| n || woman <br />
|-<br />
|luva || n ||pleasure <br />
|-<br />
|luwi|| n || beauty <br />
|-<br />
|lzork || n ||worm <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===M=== <br />
|-<br />
| mai || postp || ABL excluding<br />
|-<br />
| mak || postp || ABL except<br />
|-<br />
|mak || v || ABL is given to DAT by ERG <br />
|-<br />
|math || n ||cat <br />
|-<br />
| mats || postp || ABL instead of <br />
|-<br />
|mel|| n || water <br />
|-<br />
| mép || v || can, knows how to<br />
|-<br />
|mépi || n ||skill <br />
|-<br />
| mitup || n || sea, ocean <br />
|-<br />
|mjula|| n || life <br />
|-<br />
| mo || pro || we<br />
|-<br />
|mofpu|| n || lip <br />
|-<br />
| moi || prep || touching<br />
|-<br />
|mol || n ||blueness <br />
|-<br />
| mopi || n || one thousand <br />
|-<br />
| mots(i) || prep || on side<br />
|-<br />
| mowisi || n || one billion <br />
|-<br />
| mótap || n || bread<br />
|-<br />
|muf|| n || fish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===N=== <br />
|-<br />
| na || pro || I<br />
|-<br />
| nam || n || food<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is eaten, used to sate<br />
|-<br />
|naméti || n || hunger<br />
|-<br />
|nang || n ||sweat <br />
|-<br />
|nat || n ||stain <br />
|-<br />
|nath|| n || beggar <br />
|-<br />
|nek||v||is taken<br />
|-<br />
| nesu || n || boy <br />
|-<br />
|nin || n ||greenness <br />
|-<br />
| Nith || pro || You (singular) <br />
|-<br />
| norka || part || verb dubitative<br />
|-<br />
|not|| n || object <br />
|-<br />
| nuhit || n || carpet <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===NG=== <br />
|-<br />
| nget || n || candle, lamp<br />
|-<br />
| ngofi || n || number thirteen<br />
|-<br />
| ngoipi || n || number nine <br />
|-<br />
| ngoki || n || number eleven <br />
|-<br />
| ngovi || n || number eight <br />
|-<br />
| ngóki || n || number fourteen <br />
|-<br />
| ngópi || n || number twelve<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===O=== <br />
|-<br />
| ofi || n || number five<br />
|-<br />
| ohu || adv || once<br />
|-<br />
| oil(i) || prep || as<br />
|-<br />
| oist(i) || prep || under<br />
|-<br />
| ok || num || three<br />
|-<br />
| okart || n || triangle<br />
|-<br />
| okhi || adj || third<br />
|-<br />
| okhu || adv || thrice<br />
|-<br />
| oki || n || number three<br />
|-<br />
| okitse || adj || threefold<br />
|-<br />
| omi || n || number seven<br />
|-<br />
| onta || pro || anything (animate) <br />
|-<br />
| ongka || pro || everything (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| op || num || two<br />
|-<br />
| opart || n || line<br />
|-<br />
| ophi || adj || second<br />
|-<br />
| ophu || adv || twice<br />
|-<br />
| ophungovi || n || number sixteen<br />
|-<br />
| opi || n || number two<br />
|-<br />
| opisi || n || pair<br />
|-<br />
| opitse || adj || twofold<br />
|-<br />
| orak || n || street, alley <br />
|-<br />
| ordhi || pro || all/every kind of<br />
|-<br />
| orka || adj || every, all <br />
|-<br />
| orkai || pro || in every way<br />
|-<br />
| orkho || pro || always<br />
|-<br />
| orkhu || pro || everywhere <br />
|-<br />
| orko || pro || everything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| orkop || pro || for every reason<br />
|-<br />
| orkos || pro || with everyone<br />
|-<br />
| ota || adj || any <br />
|-<br />
| othi || pro || any kind of <br />
|-<br />
| otko || pro || whenever<br />
|-<br />
| otku || pro || anywhere <br />
|-<br />
| oto || pro || anything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| otop || pro || for any reason<br />
|-<br />
| otos || pro || with anyone<br />
|-<br />
| oz || num || zero<br />
|-<br />
| ozhi || adj || zeroth<br />
|-<br />
| ozi || n || number zero, nought<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ó=== <br />
|-<br />
| ókart || n || hexagon<br />
|-<br />
| ókki || n || number six<br />
|-<br />
| ól || postp || GEN like <br />
|-<br />
| || adverb || similarly<br />
|-<br />
|óomi || n ||largeness <br />
|-<br />
| óp || postp || GEN about; ABL according to<br />
|-<br />
| ópart || n || square<br />
|-<br />
| ópef || n || chicken <br />
|-<br />
| óppi || n || number four <br />
|-<br />
| ótuk || n|| sign<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ø=== <br />
|-<br />
|øfkam || n || pus <br />
|-<br />
|ølep || n || fabric<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===P=== <br />
|-<br />
|paata || n ||separation <br />
|-<br />
| pai || part || verb mirative <br />
|-<br />
| || adv || how (with adj)<br />
|-<br />
| patuk || n || village <br />
|-<br />
|petsip|| n|| clothes <br />
|-<br />
| phe || postp || LAT for the sake of<br />
|-<br />
| phó || postp || LAT along<br />
|-<br />
| pló || postp || LOC opposite to <br />
|-<br />
| po || pro || you (plural)<br />
|-<br />
|pof || n ||feather <br />
|-<br />
| poi || prep || in the middle of, among<br />
|-<br />
| poki || n ||centre <br />
|-<br />
| pón || postp || LAT through<br />
|-<br />
|pos|| n ||servant <br />
|-<br />
|prk || n ||wagon <br />
|-<br />
| puk || n || door<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Q=== <br />
|-<br />
|qal ||n ||yellowness <br />
|-<br />
| qet || n || wall <br />
|-<br />
|qorel|| n || earth <br />
|-<br />
|qot || n ||rock <br />
|-<br />
|qotol|| n || stone <br />
|-<br />
|qóp||v||do<br />
|-<br />
|qópa||n||act, deed <br />
|-<br />
|qut || n || room<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===QH=== <br />
|-<br />
| qheetu || n || guard <br />
|-<br />
| qhotep || n || spear<br />
|-<br />
| qhók || v || is broken, smashed<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===R=== <br />
|-<br />
| raf || n || foot<br />
|-<br />
|ras||n||horse<br />
|-<br />
| ret || n || floor<br />
|-<br />
|rkil|| n || orange <br />
|-<br />
| roi || prep || above<br />
|-<br />
|rot || v ||leaves, goes <br />
|-<br />
|rul|| n || redness <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===S=== <br />
|-<br />
| sahul || n || beer<br />
|-<br />
| sai || postp || COM including <br />
|-<br />
| saitu || pre || this one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| sak || postp || COM concerning; ABL due to <br />
|-<br />
| sku || pro || where<br />
|-<br />
| sko || pro || when <br />
|-<br />
| so || adj || another <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || something else<br />
|-<br />
| soi || prep || on<br />
|-<br />
| soi || pro || otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| sokho || pro || another time <br />
|-<br />
| sokhu || pro || elsewhere <br />
|-<br />
| sonop || pro || for another reason<br />
|-<br />
| sos || pro || with someone else<br />
|-<br />
| sothi || pro || of another kind<br />
|-<br />
| sós || postp || COM with; ABL without; LAT in addition to <br />
|-<br />
| souso || pro || nobody<br />
|-<br />
| soutu || pro || that one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| || pro || who? <br />
|-<br />
| spe || pro || why?<br />
|-<br />
|spii|| n || length <br />
|-<br />
|stak|| n || fence <br />
|-<br />
|su || n ||it/he? <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SH=== <br />
|-<br />
| shara || n || south <br />
|-<br />
| shi || pro || how?<br />
|-<br />
| sho || adj || which?, what? <br />
|-<br />
| shodh || pro || what kind of<br />
|-<br />
| shos || pro || with whom<br />
|-<br />
|shosleetha|| n || knight <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SL=== <br />
|-<br />
| slada || n || monastery<br />
|-<br />
| slahit || n || flour <br />
|-<br />
|slengu|| n || nose <br />
|-<br />
| slint || n || jug <br />
|-<br />
| slop || n || chair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===T=== <br />
|-<br />
| ta || part || verb conditional <br />
|-<br />
|ta'i || n ||past <br />
|-<br />
|tai || n ||for long <br />
|-<br />
|tes || n ||eye <br />
|-<br />
|tes(os)|| v || is seen <br />
|-<br />
| tesei || part || verb visual evidential<br />
|-<br />
| thol || n || liquid <br />
|-<br />
|tihtóhnah || n ||assassinator <br />
|-<br />
| tis || n || skin <br />
|-<br />
|tlaf || n ||sprig <br />
|-<br />
|tlsl || n ||shallow <br />
|-<br />
| toti || n || one hundred <br />
|-<br />
|trk || n ||smithy <br />
|-<br />
|trs || n ||smith <br />
|-<br />
|tup || n ||stick <br />
|-<br />
| tut || v || wants<br />
|-<br />
|tuta || n ||craving, wish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TH=== <br />
|-<br />
| tha || pro || it (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaka || pro || this (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaso || pro || something else (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thata || pro || anything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
| theso || pro || nothing (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thorka || pro || everything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TS=== <br />
|-<br />
|tsagadhet || n ||bureau <br />
|-<br />
| tsaka || pro || this one (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| tsalka || pro || this one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tseso || pro || neither <br />
|-<br />
|tsma || n ||doubt <br />
|-<br />
| tso || pro || other (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsoi || prep || in front of<br />
|-<br />
| tso'i || n || front<br />
|-<br />
|tsok || n ||letter <br />
|-<br />
|tsoklóp || n ||alphabet <br />
|-<br />
| tsoko || pro || that one (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolko || pro || that one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolo || pro || another (of many) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (one many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolto || pro || any (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsongko || pro || every, each<br />
|-<br />
| tsorko || pro || both <br />
|-<br />
| tsoto || pro || either one <br />
|-<br />
|tsøl || n ||purple <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSL===<br />
|-<br />
| tslap || n || window <br />
|-<br />
| tsleso || pro || none (of many)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSH===<br />
|-<br />
|tshok || n || cabinet, storage<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is stored<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===U=== <br />
|-<br />
|ukop || n ||north <br />
|-<br />
| umah || n || egg<br />
|-<br />
|ura || n ||following day, tomorrow <br />
|-<br />
| utsu || n || person <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===V=== <br />
|-<br />
|vakuh || n ||hand <br />
|-<br />
|vang || n ||throat<br />
|-<br />
|vangos || v ||is drunk, swallowed, devoured <br />
|-<br />
|vangost || n || drink<br />
|-<br />
|vangostéti || n || thirst<br />
|-<br />
|voi || prep || in<br />
|-<br />
| vop || n || roof<br />
|-<br />
|voq || n ||strange thing <br />
|-<br />
| vóna || n || east <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===W=== <br />
|-<br />
|weh||v||is born<br />
|-<br />
| With || pro || You (plural) <br />
|-<br />
| wu || n || youngster <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===Z=== <br />
|-<br />
|za || n ||height <br />
|-<br />
|zait || v ||goes up <br />
|-<br />
|zaivi|| n || song <br />
|-<br />
| ze || adj || no<br />
|-<br />
| zei || pro || in no way<br />
|-<br />
| zenep ||pro || for no reason<br />
|-<br />
| zeng || pro || never <br />
|-<br />
| zengu || pro || nowhere <br />
|-<br />
| zeos || pro || with nobody <br />
|-<br />
| zil || n || salt <br />
|-<br />
| zodhi || pro || of no kind<br />
|-<br />
| zoi || prep || up<br />
|-<br />
| zolo || pro || some, one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
|zurmu || n ||strong person<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===ZH=== <br />
|-<br />
| zhaku || n || seller, vendor <br />
|-<br />
| zho || pro || one (of two) <br />
|}</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian/Dictionary&diff=35714Sceptrian/Dictionary2015-07-08T11:15:49Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Q */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
Derived words are shown under the original word. Latin alphabet order is used to help unaccustomed users.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
|Sceptrian || Word Class || English<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===A=== <br />
|-<br />
|aktas|| n || ear <br />
|-<br />
|ala || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
| alké || part || verb permissive<br />
|-<br />
| amu || n || girl<br />
|-<br />
|ara || n ||previous day, yesterday <br />
|-<br />
| atasi || part || verb hearsay evidential<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Æ=== <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===B===<br />
|-<br />
|bak|| n || table <br />
|-<br />
|bap|| n|| word <br />
|-<br />
|baplóp || n ||sentence <br />
|-<br />
|batop|| n || language <br />
|-<br />
| berak || n || tower<br />
|-<br />
|birtsil || n ||fire <br />
|-<br />
| boi || prep || down <br />
|-<br />
|bó || n||lowness <br />
|-<br />
|bous || v ||goes down <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===D=== <br />
|-<br />
| darem || v || is ruled <br />
|-<br />
| daremu || n || ruler<br />
|-<br />
| dei || adj || right (side) <br />
|-<br />
| deq || n || cliff <br />
|-<br />
|dldlp|| n || bubble<br />
|-<br />
|doth|| n || man <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===DH=== <br />
|-<br />
|dhoku || n ||head <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===E=== <br />
|-<br />
|eja || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
|eva || n ||light <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===É=== <br />
|-<br />
| éves || n || hair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===F=== <br />
|-<br />
| fas || n || finger<br />
|-<br />
|fendó ||n ||death <br />
|-<br />
|firut || n || city, town<br />
|-<br />
|fkot|| n|| nest <br />
|-<br />
| fo || pro || you (singular)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===G=== <br />
|-<br />
| gana || part || verb volitive<br />
|-<br />
|gat|| n || house<br />
|-<br />
| gæ || part || in literature for sarcasm <br />
|-<br />
| get || n || mountain <br />
|-<br />
|glerk|| n || mace <br />
|-<br />
|gln || n ||fat <br />
|-<br />
| gót || n || table <br />
|-<br />
|guh || n ||mouth <br />
|-<br />
|gul|| n || blackness <br />
|-<br />
|guts||n||cow<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===H=== <br />
|-<br />
| hara || n || west <br />
|-<br />
| hamisi || n || one million <br />
|-<br />
| hi || pro || it (inanimate)<br />
|-<br />
|hifthil || n || air <br />
|-<br />
|hil || n ||whiteness <br />
|-<br />
| hoi || prep || behind; after<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===I=== <br />
|-<br />
| i || n || concept, abstraction<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===J=== <br />
|-<br />
| jaafa || pro || something (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
|jada|| n || pleasant, nice, good <br />
|-<br />
| jak || postp || ABL away <br />
|-<br />
| jatu || n || father <br />
|-<br />
|jiti|| n || smallness <br />
|-<br />
| jodhi || pro || some kind of<br />
|-<br />
| jofa || adj || some <br />
|-<br />
| jofai || pro || somehow<br />
|-<br />
| jofko || pro || sometime<br />
|-<br />
| jofku || pro || somewhere<br />
|-<br />
| jofo || pro || something (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| jofos || pro || with someone <br />
|-<br />
| jokæ || part || verb exhortative<br />
|-<br />
| jon || prep || between<br />
|-<br />
| jonfu || pro || something (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| jopi || n || number ten <br />
|-<br />
|joqó || n ||disgust <br />
|-<br />
| jov || pro || for some reason<br />
|-<br />
| jø || part || in literature for verbal irony <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===K=== <br />
|-<br />
| ka || pro || this <br />
|-<br />
| kadh || pro || this kind of<br />
|-<br />
|kamps || n ||marsh, swamp <br />
|-<br />
| kap || pro || herefore<br />
|-<br />
|karon || n ||soup <br />
|-<br />
| kas || pro || with this<br />
|-<br />
|kat|| n ||knob, handle <br />
|-<br />
|katpas || n ||fern <br />
|-<br />
| keet || n || hill <br />
|-<br />
|kep || n ||wash, act of washing <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||is washed <br />
|-<br />
| kesl || v || bleed <br />
|-<br />
|keslań|| n || blood <br />
|-<br />
| ket || n || plate <br />
|-<br />
| keva || n || priest <br />
|-<br />
| kha || pro || now<br />
|-<br />
| khai || pro || hereby<br />
|-<br />
| khau || pro || here<br />
|-<br />
| khet || v|| must<br />
|-<br />
|kheti|| n || necessity <br />
|-<br />
| kho || pro || then<br />
|-<br />
| khoi || pro || thereby<br />
|-<br />
| khu || pro || there<br />
|-<br />
| khurd || v || dare<br />
|-<br />
|khurdi|| n || daring <br />
|-<br />
|ki || n ||shortness <br />
|-<br />
| ko || pro || that<br />
|-<br />
| kodh || pro || that kind of<br />
|-<br />
| koi || prep || per <br />
|-<br />
| kop || pro || therefore<br />
|-<br />
| kos || pro || with that<br />
|-<br />
|kos || n ||tree <br />
|-<br />
|koson || n ||wood (also kosoń) <br />
|-<br />
|ksaru || n ||guard<br />
|-<br />
|kusu|| n || friend <br />
|-<br />
|kuth|| n || dog <br />
|-<br />
| kuut || v || can, may<br />
|-<br />
|kuutó|| n || possibility <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===L=== <br />
|-<br />
| lai || adj || left (side) <br />
|-<br />
| lamat || n || field <br />
|-<br />
|latep || n ||dance <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||dances <br />
|-<br />
| leh || n || leg<br />
|-<br />
| lewu || n || mother<br />
|-<br />
| loi || prep || out<br />
|-<br />
|lutu|| n || woman <br />
|-<br />
|luva || n ||pleasure <br />
|-<br />
|luwi|| n || beauty <br />
|-<br />
|lzork || n ||worm <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===M=== <br />
|-<br />
| mai || postp || ABL excluding<br />
|-<br />
| mak || postp || ABL except<br />
|-<br />
|mak || v || ABL is given to DAT by ERG <br />
|-<br />
|math || n ||cat <br />
|-<br />
| mats || postp || ABL instead of <br />
|-<br />
|mel|| n || water <br />
|-<br />
| mép || v || can, knows how to<br />
|-<br />
|mépi || n ||skill <br />
|-<br />
| mitup || n || sea, ocean <br />
|-<br />
|mjula|| n || life <br />
|-<br />
| mo || pro || we<br />
|-<br />
|mofpu|| n || lip <br />
|-<br />
| moi || prep || touching<br />
|-<br />
|mol || n ||blueness <br />
|-<br />
| mopi || n || one thousand <br />
|-<br />
| mots(i) || prep || on side<br />
|-<br />
| mowisi || n || one billion <br />
|-<br />
| mótap || n || bread<br />
|-<br />
|muf|| n || fish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===N=== <br />
|-<br />
| na || pro || I<br />
|-<br />
| nam || n || food<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is eaten, used to sate<br />
|-<br />
|naméti || n || hunger<br />
|-<br />
|nang || n ||sweat <br />
|-<br />
|nat || n ||stain <br />
|-<br />
|nath|| n || beggar <br />
|-<br />
|nek||v||is taken<br />
|-<br />
| nesu || n || boy <br />
|-<br />
|nin || n ||greenness <br />
|-<br />
| Nith || pro || You (singular) <br />
|-<br />
| norka || part || verb dubitative<br />
|-<br />
|not|| n || object <br />
|-<br />
| nuhit || n || carpet <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===NG=== <br />
|-<br />
| nget || n || candle, lamp<br />
|-<br />
| ngofi || n || number thirteen<br />
|-<br />
| ngoipi || n || number nine <br />
|-<br />
| ngoki || n || number eleven <br />
|-<br />
| ngovi || n || number eight <br />
|-<br />
| ngóki || n || number fourteen <br />
|-<br />
| ngópi || n || number twelve<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===O=== <br />
|-<br />
| ofi || n || number five<br />
|-<br />
| ohu || adv || once<br />
|-<br />
| oil(i) || prep || as<br />
|-<br />
| oist(i) || prep || under<br />
|-<br />
| ok || num || three<br />
|-<br />
| okart || n || triangle<br />
|-<br />
| okhi || adj || third<br />
|-<br />
| okhu || adv || thrice<br />
|-<br />
| oki || n || number three<br />
|-<br />
| okitse || adj || threefold<br />
|-<br />
| omi || n || number seven<br />
|-<br />
| onta || pro || anything (animate) <br />
|-<br />
| ongka || pro || everything (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| op || num || two<br />
|-<br />
| opart || n || line<br />
|-<br />
| ophi || adj || second<br />
|-<br />
| ophu || adv || twice<br />
|-<br />
| ophungovi || n || number sixteen<br />
|-<br />
| opi || n || number two<br />
|-<br />
| opisi || n || pair<br />
|-<br />
| opitse || adj || twofold<br />
|-<br />
| orak || n || street, alley <br />
|-<br />
| ordhi || pro || all/every kind of<br />
|-<br />
| orka || adj || every, all <br />
|-<br />
| orkai || pro || in every way<br />
|-<br />
| orkho || pro || always<br />
|-<br />
| orkhu || pro || everywhere <br />
|-<br />
| orko || pro || everything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| orkop || pro || for every reason<br />
|-<br />
| orkos || pro || with everyone<br />
|-<br />
| ota || adj || any <br />
|-<br />
| othi || pro || any kind of <br />
|-<br />
| otko || pro || whenever<br />
|-<br />
| otku || pro || anywhere <br />
|-<br />
| oto || pro || anything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| otop || pro || for any reason<br />
|-<br />
| otos || pro || with anyone<br />
|-<br />
| oz || num || zero<br />
|-<br />
| ozhi || adj || zeroth<br />
|-<br />
| ozi || n || number zero, nought<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ó=== <br />
|-<br />
| ókart || n || hexagon<br />
|-<br />
| ókki || n || number six<br />
|-<br />
| ól || postp || GEN like <br />
|-<br />
| || adverb || similarly<br />
|-<br />
|óomi || n ||largeness <br />
|-<br />
| óp || postp || GEN about; ABL according to<br />
|-<br />
| ópart || n || square<br />
|-<br />
| ópef || n || chicken <br />
|-<br />
| óppi || n || number four <br />
|-<br />
| ótuk || n|| sign<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ø=== <br />
|-<br />
|øfkam || n || pus <br />
|-<br />
|ølep || n || fabric<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===P=== <br />
|-<br />
|paata || n ||separation <br />
|-<br />
| pai || part || verb mirative <br />
|-<br />
| || adv || how (with adj)<br />
|-<br />
| patuk || n || village <br />
|-<br />
|petsip|| n|| clothes <br />
|-<br />
| phe || postp || LAT for the sake of<br />
|-<br />
| phó || postp || LAT along<br />
|-<br />
| pló || postp || LOC opposite to <br />
|-<br />
| po || pro || you (plural)<br />
|-<br />
|pof || n ||feather <br />
|-<br />
| poi || prep || in the middle of, among<br />
|-<br />
| poki || n ||centre <br />
|-<br />
| pón || postp || LAT through<br />
|-<br />
|pos|| n ||servant <br />
|-<br />
|prk || n ||wagon <br />
|-<br />
| puk || n || door<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Q=== <br />
|-<br />
|qal ||n ||yellowness <br />
|-<br />
| qet || n || wall <br />
|-<br />
|qorel|| n || earth <br />
|-<br />
|qot || n ||rock <br />
|-<br />
|qotol|| n || stone <br />
|-<br />
|qóp||v||do<br />
|-<br />
|qópa||n||act, deed <br />
|-<br />
|qut || n || room<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===QH=== <br />
|-<br />
| qheetu || n || guard <br />
|-<br />
| qhotep || n || spear<br />
|-<br />
| qhók || v || is broken, smashed<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===R=== <br />
|-<br />
| raf || n || foot<br />
|-<br />
|ras||n||horse<br />
|-<br />
| ret || n || floor<br />
|-<br />
|rkil|| n || orange <br />
|-<br />
| roi || prep || above<br />
|-<br />
|rot || v ||leaves, goes <br />
|-<br />
|rul|| n || redness <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===S=== <br />
|-<br />
| sahul || n || beer<br />
|-<br />
| sai || postp || COM including <br />
|-<br />
| saitu || pre || this one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| sak || postp || COM concerning; ABL due to <br />
|-<br />
| sku || pro || where<br />
|-<br />
| sko || pro || when <br />
|-<br />
| so || adj || another <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || something else<br />
|-<br />
| soi || prep || on<br />
|-<br />
| soi || pro || otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| sokho || pro || another time <br />
|-<br />
| sokhu || pro || elsewhere <br />
|-<br />
| sonop || pro || for another reason<br />
|-<br />
| sos || pro || with someone else<br />
|-<br />
| sothi || pro || of another kind<br />
|-<br />
| sós || postp || COM with; ABL without; LAT in addition to <br />
|-<br />
| souso || pro || nobody<br />
|-<br />
| soutu || pro || that one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| || pro || who? <br />
|-<br />
| spe || pro || why?<br />
|-<br />
|spii|| n || length <br />
|-<br />
|stak|| n || fence <br />
|-<br />
|su || n ||it/he? <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SH=== <br />
|-<br />
| shara || n || south <br />
|-<br />
| shi || pro || how?<br />
|-<br />
| sho || adj || which?, what? <br />
|-<br />
| shodh || pro || what kind of<br />
|-<br />
| shos || pro || with whom<br />
|-<br />
|shosleetha|| n || knight <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SL=== <br />
|-<br />
| slada || n || monastery<br />
|-<br />
| slahit || n || flour <br />
|-<br />
|slengu|| n || nose <br />
|-<br />
| slint || n || jug <br />
|-<br />
| slop || n || chair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===T=== <br />
|-<br />
| ta || part || verb conditional <br />
|-<br />
|ta'i || n ||past <br />
|-<br />
|tai || n ||for long <br />
|-<br />
|tes || n ||eye <br />
|-<br />
|tes(os)|| v || is seen <br />
|-<br />
| tesei || part || verb visual evidential<br />
|-<br />
| thol || n || liquid <br />
|-<br />
|tihtóhnah || n ||assassinator <br />
|-<br />
| tis || n || skin <br />
|-<br />
|tlaf || n ||sprig <br />
|-<br />
|tlsl || n ||shallow <br />
|-<br />
| toti || n || one hundred <br />
|-<br />
|trk || n ||smithy <br />
|-<br />
|trs || n ||smith <br />
|-<br />
|tup || n ||stick <br />
|-<br />
| tut || v || wants<br />
|-<br />
|tuta || n ||craving, wish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TH=== <br />
|-<br />
| tha || pro || it (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaka || pro || this (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaso || pro || something else (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thata || pro || anything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
| theso || pro || nothing (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thorka || pro || everything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TS=== <br />
|-<br />
|tsagadhet || n ||bureau <br />
|-<br />
| tsaka || pro || this one (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| tsalka || pro || this one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tseso || pro || neither <br />
|-<br />
|tsma || n ||doubt <br />
|-<br />
| tso || pro || other (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsoi || prep || in front of<br />
|-<br />
| tso'i || n || front<br />
|-<br />
|tsok || n ||letter <br />
|-<br />
|tsoklóp || n ||alphabet <br />
|-<br />
| tsoko || pro || that one (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolko || pro || that one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolo || pro || another (of many) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (one many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolto || pro || any (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsongko || pro || every, each<br />
|-<br />
| tsorko || pro || both <br />
|-<br />
| tsoto || pro || either one <br />
|-<br />
|tsøl || n ||purple <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSL===<br />
|-<br />
| tslap || n || window <br />
|-<br />
| tsleso || pro || none (of many)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSH===<br />
|-<br />
|tshok || n || cabinet, storage<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is stored<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===U=== <br />
|-<br />
|ukop || n ||north <br />
|-<br />
| umah || n || egg<br />
|-<br />
|ura || n ||following day, tomorrow <br />
|-<br />
| utsu || n || person <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===V=== <br />
|-<br />
|vakuh || n ||hand <br />
|-<br />
|vang || n ||throat<br />
|-<br />
|vangos || v ||is drunk, swallowed, devoured <br />
|-<br />
|vangost || n || drink<br />
|-<br />
|vangostéti || n || thirst<br />
|-<br />
|voi || prep || in<br />
|-<br />
| vop || n || roof<br />
|-<br />
|voq || n ||strange thing <br />
|-<br />
| vóna || n || east <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===W=== <br />
|-<br />
|weh||v||is born<br />
|-<br />
| With || pro || You (plural) <br />
|-<br />
| wu || n || youngster <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===Z=== <br />
|-<br />
|za || n ||height <br />
|-<br />
|zait || v ||goes up <br />
|-<br />
|zaivi|| n || song <br />
|-<br />
| ze || adj || no<br />
|-<br />
| zei || pro || in no way<br />
|-<br />
| zenep ||pro || for no reason<br />
|-<br />
| zeng || pro || never <br />
|-<br />
| zengu || pro || nowhere <br />
|-<br />
| zeos || pro || with nobody <br />
|-<br />
| zil || n || salt <br />
|-<br />
| zodhi || pro || of no kind<br />
|-<br />
| zoi || prep || up<br />
|-<br />
| zolo || pro || some, one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
|zurmu || n ||strong person<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===ZH=== <br />
|-<br />
| zhaku || n || seller, vendor <br />
|-<br />
| zho || pro || one (of two) <br />
|}</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian/Dictionary&diff=35713Sceptrian/Dictionary2015-07-08T11:14:44Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Q */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
Derived words are shown under the original word. Latin alphabet order is used to help unaccustomed users.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
|Sceptrian || Word Class || English<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===A=== <br />
|-<br />
|aktas|| n || ear <br />
|-<br />
|ala || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
| alké || part || verb permissive<br />
|-<br />
| amu || n || girl<br />
|-<br />
|ara || n ||previous day, yesterday <br />
|-<br />
| atasi || part || verb hearsay evidential<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Æ=== <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===B===<br />
|-<br />
|bak|| n || table <br />
|-<br />
|bap|| n|| word <br />
|-<br />
|baplóp || n ||sentence <br />
|-<br />
|batop|| n || language <br />
|-<br />
| berak || n || tower<br />
|-<br />
|birtsil || n ||fire <br />
|-<br />
| boi || prep || down <br />
|-<br />
|bó || n||lowness <br />
|-<br />
|bous || v ||goes down <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===D=== <br />
|-<br />
| darem || v || is ruled <br />
|-<br />
| daremu || n || ruler<br />
|-<br />
| dei || adj || right (side) <br />
|-<br />
| deq || n || cliff <br />
|-<br />
|dldlp|| n || bubble<br />
|-<br />
|doth|| n || man <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===DH=== <br />
|-<br />
|dhoku || n ||head <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===E=== <br />
|-<br />
|eja || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
|eva || n ||light <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===É=== <br />
|-<br />
| éves || n || hair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===F=== <br />
|-<br />
| fas || n || finger<br />
|-<br />
|fendó ||n ||death <br />
|-<br />
|firut || n || city, town<br />
|-<br />
|fkot|| n|| nest <br />
|-<br />
| fo || pro || you (singular)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===G=== <br />
|-<br />
| gana || part || verb volitive<br />
|-<br />
|gat|| n || house<br />
|-<br />
| gæ || part || in literature for sarcasm <br />
|-<br />
| get || n || mountain <br />
|-<br />
|glerk|| n || mace <br />
|-<br />
|gln || n ||fat <br />
|-<br />
| gót || n || table <br />
|-<br />
|guh || n ||mouth <br />
|-<br />
|gul|| n || blackness <br />
|-<br />
|guts||n||cow<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===H=== <br />
|-<br />
| hara || n || west <br />
|-<br />
| hamisi || n || one million <br />
|-<br />
| hi || pro || it (inanimate)<br />
|-<br />
|hifthil || n || air <br />
|-<br />
|hil || n ||whiteness <br />
|-<br />
| hoi || prep || behind; after<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===I=== <br />
|-<br />
| i || n || concept, abstraction<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===J=== <br />
|-<br />
| jaafa || pro || something (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
|jada|| n || pleasant, nice, good <br />
|-<br />
| jak || postp || ABL away <br />
|-<br />
| jatu || n || father <br />
|-<br />
|jiti|| n || smallness <br />
|-<br />
| jodhi || pro || some kind of<br />
|-<br />
| jofa || adj || some <br />
|-<br />
| jofai || pro || somehow<br />
|-<br />
| jofko || pro || sometime<br />
|-<br />
| jofku || pro || somewhere<br />
|-<br />
| jofo || pro || something (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| jofos || pro || with someone <br />
|-<br />
| jokæ || part || verb exhortative<br />
|-<br />
| jon || prep || between<br />
|-<br />
| jonfu || pro || something (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| jopi || n || number ten <br />
|-<br />
|joqó || n ||disgust <br />
|-<br />
| jov || pro || for some reason<br />
|-<br />
| jø || part || in literature for verbal irony <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===K=== <br />
|-<br />
| ka || pro || this <br />
|-<br />
| kadh || pro || this kind of<br />
|-<br />
|kamps || n ||marsh, swamp <br />
|-<br />
| kap || pro || herefore<br />
|-<br />
|karon || n ||soup <br />
|-<br />
| kas || pro || with this<br />
|-<br />
|kat|| n ||knob, handle <br />
|-<br />
|katpas || n ||fern <br />
|-<br />
| keet || n || hill <br />
|-<br />
|kep || n ||wash, act of washing <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||is washed <br />
|-<br />
| kesl || v || bleed <br />
|-<br />
|keslań|| n || blood <br />
|-<br />
| ket || n || plate <br />
|-<br />
| keva || n || priest <br />
|-<br />
| kha || pro || now<br />
|-<br />
| khai || pro || hereby<br />
|-<br />
| khau || pro || here<br />
|-<br />
| khet || v|| must<br />
|-<br />
|kheti|| n || necessity <br />
|-<br />
| kho || pro || then<br />
|-<br />
| khoi || pro || thereby<br />
|-<br />
| khu || pro || there<br />
|-<br />
| khurd || v || dare<br />
|-<br />
|khurdi|| n || daring <br />
|-<br />
|ki || n ||shortness <br />
|-<br />
| ko || pro || that<br />
|-<br />
| kodh || pro || that kind of<br />
|-<br />
| koi || prep || per <br />
|-<br />
| kop || pro || therefore<br />
|-<br />
| kos || pro || with that<br />
|-<br />
|kos || n ||tree <br />
|-<br />
|koson || n ||wood (also kosoń) <br />
|-<br />
|ksaru || n ||guard<br />
|-<br />
|kusu|| n || friend <br />
|-<br />
|kuth|| n || dog <br />
|-<br />
| kuut || v || can, may<br />
|-<br />
|kuutó|| n || possibility <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===L=== <br />
|-<br />
| lai || adj || left (side) <br />
|-<br />
| lamat || n || field <br />
|-<br />
|latep || n ||dance <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||dances <br />
|-<br />
| leh || n || leg<br />
|-<br />
| lewu || n || mother<br />
|-<br />
| loi || prep || out<br />
|-<br />
|lutu|| n || woman <br />
|-<br />
|luva || n ||pleasure <br />
|-<br />
|luwi|| n || beauty <br />
|-<br />
|lzork || n ||worm <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===M=== <br />
|-<br />
| mai || postp || ABL excluding<br />
|-<br />
| mak || postp || ABL except<br />
|-<br />
|mak || v || ABL is given to DAT by ERG <br />
|-<br />
|math || n ||cat <br />
|-<br />
| mats || postp || ABL instead of <br />
|-<br />
|mel|| n || water <br />
|-<br />
| mép || v || can, knows how to<br />
|-<br />
|mépi || n ||skill <br />
|-<br />
| mitup || n || sea, ocean <br />
|-<br />
|mjula|| n || life <br />
|-<br />
| mo || pro || we<br />
|-<br />
|mofpu|| n || lip <br />
|-<br />
| moi || prep || touching<br />
|-<br />
|mol || n ||blueness <br />
|-<br />
| mopi || n || one thousand <br />
|-<br />
| mots(i) || prep || on side<br />
|-<br />
| mowisi || n || one billion <br />
|-<br />
| mótap || n || bread<br />
|-<br />
|muf|| n || fish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===N=== <br />
|-<br />
| na || pro || I<br />
|-<br />
| nam || n || food<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is eaten, used to sate<br />
|-<br />
|naméti || n || hunger<br />
|-<br />
|nang || n ||sweat <br />
|-<br />
|nat || n ||stain <br />
|-<br />
|nath|| n || beggar <br />
|-<br />
|nek||v||is taken<br />
|-<br />
| nesu || n || boy <br />
|-<br />
|nin || n ||greenness <br />
|-<br />
| Nith || pro || You (singular) <br />
|-<br />
| norka || part || verb dubitative<br />
|-<br />
|not|| n || object <br />
|-<br />
| nuhit || n || carpet <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===NG=== <br />
|-<br />
| nget || n || candle, lamp<br />
|-<br />
| ngofi || n || number thirteen<br />
|-<br />
| ngoipi || n || number nine <br />
|-<br />
| ngoki || n || number eleven <br />
|-<br />
| ngovi || n || number eight <br />
|-<br />
| ngóki || n || number fourteen <br />
|-<br />
| ngópi || n || number twelve<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===O=== <br />
|-<br />
| ofi || n || number five<br />
|-<br />
| ohu || adv || once<br />
|-<br />
| oil(i) || prep || as<br />
|-<br />
| oist(i) || prep || under<br />
|-<br />
| ok || num || three<br />
|-<br />
| okart || n || triangle<br />
|-<br />
| okhi || adj || third<br />
|-<br />
| okhu || adv || thrice<br />
|-<br />
| oki || n || number three<br />
|-<br />
| okitse || adj || threefold<br />
|-<br />
| omi || n || number seven<br />
|-<br />
| onta || pro || anything (animate) <br />
|-<br />
| ongka || pro || everything (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| op || num || two<br />
|-<br />
| opart || n || line<br />
|-<br />
| ophi || adj || second<br />
|-<br />
| ophu || adv || twice<br />
|-<br />
| ophungovi || n || number sixteen<br />
|-<br />
| opi || n || number two<br />
|-<br />
| opisi || n || pair<br />
|-<br />
| opitse || adj || twofold<br />
|-<br />
| orak || n || street, alley <br />
|-<br />
| ordhi || pro || all/every kind of<br />
|-<br />
| orka || adj || every, all <br />
|-<br />
| orkai || pro || in every way<br />
|-<br />
| orkho || pro || always<br />
|-<br />
| orkhu || pro || everywhere <br />
|-<br />
| orko || pro || everything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| orkop || pro || for every reason<br />
|-<br />
| orkos || pro || with everyone<br />
|-<br />
| ota || adj || any <br />
|-<br />
| othi || pro || any kind of <br />
|-<br />
| otko || pro || whenever<br />
|-<br />
| otku || pro || anywhere <br />
|-<br />
| oto || pro || anything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| otop || pro || for any reason<br />
|-<br />
| otos || pro || with anyone<br />
|-<br />
| oz || num || zero<br />
|-<br />
| ozhi || adj || zeroth<br />
|-<br />
| ozi || n || number zero, nought<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ó=== <br />
|-<br />
| ókart || n || hexagon<br />
|-<br />
| ókki || n || number six<br />
|-<br />
| ól || postp || GEN like <br />
|-<br />
| || adverb || similarly<br />
|-<br />
|óomi || n ||largeness <br />
|-<br />
| óp || postp || GEN about; ABL according to<br />
|-<br />
| ópart || n || square<br />
|-<br />
| ópef || n || chicken <br />
|-<br />
| óppi || n || number four <br />
|-<br />
| ótuk || n|| sign<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ø=== <br />
|-<br />
|øfkam || n || pus <br />
|-<br />
|ølep || n || fabric<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===P=== <br />
|-<br />
|paata || n ||separation <br />
|-<br />
| pai || part || verb mirative <br />
|-<br />
| || adv || how (with adj)<br />
|-<br />
| patuk || n || village <br />
|-<br />
|petsip|| n|| clothes <br />
|-<br />
| phe || postp || LAT for the sake of<br />
|-<br />
| phó || postp || LAT along<br />
|-<br />
| pló || postp || LOC opposite to <br />
|-<br />
| po || pro || you (plural)<br />
|-<br />
|pof || n ||feather <br />
|-<br />
| poi || prep || in the middle of, among<br />
|-<br />
| poki || n ||centre <br />
|-<br />
| pón || postp || LAT through<br />
|-<br />
|pos|| n ||servant <br />
|-<br />
|prk || n ||wagon <br />
|-<br />
| puk || n || door<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Q=== <br />
|-<br />
|qal ||n ||yellowness <br />
|-<br />
| qet || n || wall <br />
|-<br />
|qorel|| n || earth <br />
|-<br />
|qot || n ||rock <br />
|-<br />
|qotol|| n || stone <br />
|-<br />
|qóp||n||act, deed <br />
|-<br />
|||v||do<br />
|-<br />
|qut || n || room<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===QH=== <br />
|-<br />
| qheetu || n || guard <br />
|-<br />
| qhotep || n || spear<br />
|-<br />
| qhók || v || is broken, smashed<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===R=== <br />
|-<br />
| raf || n || foot<br />
|-<br />
|ras||n||horse<br />
|-<br />
| ret || n || floor<br />
|-<br />
|rkil|| n || orange <br />
|-<br />
| roi || prep || above<br />
|-<br />
|rot || v ||leaves, goes <br />
|-<br />
|rul|| n || redness <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===S=== <br />
|-<br />
| sahul || n || beer<br />
|-<br />
| sai || postp || COM including <br />
|-<br />
| saitu || pre || this one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| sak || postp || COM concerning; ABL due to <br />
|-<br />
| sku || pro || where<br />
|-<br />
| sko || pro || when <br />
|-<br />
| so || adj || another <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || something else<br />
|-<br />
| soi || prep || on<br />
|-<br />
| soi || pro || otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| sokho || pro || another time <br />
|-<br />
| sokhu || pro || elsewhere <br />
|-<br />
| sonop || pro || for another reason<br />
|-<br />
| sos || pro || with someone else<br />
|-<br />
| sothi || pro || of another kind<br />
|-<br />
| sós || postp || COM with; ABL without; LAT in addition to <br />
|-<br />
| souso || pro || nobody<br />
|-<br />
| soutu || pro || that one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| || pro || who? <br />
|-<br />
| spe || pro || why?<br />
|-<br />
|spii|| n || length <br />
|-<br />
|stak|| n || fence <br />
|-<br />
|su || n ||it/he? <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SH=== <br />
|-<br />
| shara || n || south <br />
|-<br />
| shi || pro || how?<br />
|-<br />
| sho || adj || which?, what? <br />
|-<br />
| shodh || pro || what kind of<br />
|-<br />
| shos || pro || with whom<br />
|-<br />
|shosleetha|| n || knight <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SL=== <br />
|-<br />
| slada || n || monastery<br />
|-<br />
| slahit || n || flour <br />
|-<br />
|slengu|| n || nose <br />
|-<br />
| slint || n || jug <br />
|-<br />
| slop || n || chair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===T=== <br />
|-<br />
| ta || part || verb conditional <br />
|-<br />
|ta'i || n ||past <br />
|-<br />
|tai || n ||for long <br />
|-<br />
|tes || n ||eye <br />
|-<br />
|tes(os)|| v || is seen <br />
|-<br />
| tesei || part || verb visual evidential<br />
|-<br />
| thol || n || liquid <br />
|-<br />
|tihtóhnah || n ||assassinator <br />
|-<br />
| tis || n || skin <br />
|-<br />
|tlaf || n ||sprig <br />
|-<br />
|tlsl || n ||shallow <br />
|-<br />
| toti || n || one hundred <br />
|-<br />
|trk || n ||smithy <br />
|-<br />
|trs || n ||smith <br />
|-<br />
|tup || n ||stick <br />
|-<br />
| tut || v || wants<br />
|-<br />
|tuta || n ||craving, wish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TH=== <br />
|-<br />
| tha || pro || it (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaka || pro || this (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaso || pro || something else (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thata || pro || anything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
| theso || pro || nothing (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thorka || pro || everything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TS=== <br />
|-<br />
|tsagadhet || n ||bureau <br />
|-<br />
| tsaka || pro || this one (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| tsalka || pro || this one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tseso || pro || neither <br />
|-<br />
|tsma || n ||doubt <br />
|-<br />
| tso || pro || other (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsoi || prep || in front of<br />
|-<br />
| tso'i || n || front<br />
|-<br />
|tsok || n ||letter <br />
|-<br />
|tsoklóp || n ||alphabet <br />
|-<br />
| tsoko || pro || that one (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolko || pro || that one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolo || pro || another (of many) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (one many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolto || pro || any (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsongko || pro || every, each<br />
|-<br />
| tsorko || pro || both <br />
|-<br />
| tsoto || pro || either one <br />
|-<br />
|tsøl || n ||purple <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSL===<br />
|-<br />
| tslap || n || window <br />
|-<br />
| tsleso || pro || none (of many)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSH===<br />
|-<br />
|tshok || n || cabinet, storage<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is stored<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===U=== <br />
|-<br />
|ukop || n ||north <br />
|-<br />
| umah || n || egg<br />
|-<br />
|ura || n ||following day, tomorrow <br />
|-<br />
| utsu || n || person <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===V=== <br />
|-<br />
|vakuh || n ||hand <br />
|-<br />
|vang || n ||throat<br />
|-<br />
|vangos || v ||is drunk, swallowed, devoured <br />
|-<br />
|vangost || n || drink<br />
|-<br />
|vangostéti || n || thirst<br />
|-<br />
|voi || prep || in<br />
|-<br />
| vop || n || roof<br />
|-<br />
|voq || n ||strange thing <br />
|-<br />
| vóna || n || east <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===W=== <br />
|-<br />
|weh||v||is born<br />
|-<br />
| With || pro || You (plural) <br />
|-<br />
| wu || n || youngster <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===Z=== <br />
|-<br />
|za || n ||height <br />
|-<br />
|zait || v ||goes up <br />
|-<br />
|zaivi|| n || song <br />
|-<br />
| ze || adj || no<br />
|-<br />
| zei || pro || in no way<br />
|-<br />
| zenep ||pro || for no reason<br />
|-<br />
| zeng || pro || never <br />
|-<br />
| zengu || pro || nowhere <br />
|-<br />
| zeos || pro || with nobody <br />
|-<br />
| zil || n || salt <br />
|-<br />
| zodhi || pro || of no kind<br />
|-<br />
| zoi || prep || up<br />
|-<br />
| zolo || pro || some, one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
|zurmu || n ||strong person<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===ZH=== <br />
|-<br />
| zhaku || n || seller, vendor <br />
|-<br />
| zho || pro || one (of two) <br />
|}</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian/Dictionary&diff=35712Sceptrian/Dictionary2015-07-08T11:13:34Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Q */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
Derived words are shown under the original word. Latin alphabet order is used to help unaccustomed users.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
|Sceptrian || Word Class || English<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===A=== <br />
|-<br />
|aktas|| n || ear <br />
|-<br />
|ala || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
| alké || part || verb permissive<br />
|-<br />
| amu || n || girl<br />
|-<br />
|ara || n ||previous day, yesterday <br />
|-<br />
| atasi || part || verb hearsay evidential<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Æ=== <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===B===<br />
|-<br />
|bak|| n || table <br />
|-<br />
|bap|| n|| word <br />
|-<br />
|baplóp || n ||sentence <br />
|-<br />
|batop|| n || language <br />
|-<br />
| berak || n || tower<br />
|-<br />
|birtsil || n ||fire <br />
|-<br />
| boi || prep || down <br />
|-<br />
|bó || n||lowness <br />
|-<br />
|bous || v ||goes down <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===D=== <br />
|-<br />
| darem || v || is ruled <br />
|-<br />
| daremu || n || ruler<br />
|-<br />
| dei || adj || right (side) <br />
|-<br />
| deq || n || cliff <br />
|-<br />
|dldlp|| n || bubble<br />
|-<br />
|doth|| n || man <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===DH=== <br />
|-<br />
|dhoku || n ||head <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===E=== <br />
|-<br />
|eja || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
|eva || n ||light <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===É=== <br />
|-<br />
| éves || n || hair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===F=== <br />
|-<br />
| fas || n || finger<br />
|-<br />
|fendó ||n ||death <br />
|-<br />
|firut || n || city, town<br />
|-<br />
|fkot|| n|| nest <br />
|-<br />
| fo || pro || you (singular)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===G=== <br />
|-<br />
| gana || part || verb volitive<br />
|-<br />
|gat|| n || house<br />
|-<br />
| gæ || part || in literature for sarcasm <br />
|-<br />
| get || n || mountain <br />
|-<br />
|glerk|| n || mace <br />
|-<br />
|gln || n ||fat <br />
|-<br />
| gót || n || table <br />
|-<br />
|guh || n ||mouth <br />
|-<br />
|gul|| n || blackness <br />
|-<br />
|guts||n||cow<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===H=== <br />
|-<br />
| hara || n || west <br />
|-<br />
| hamisi || n || one million <br />
|-<br />
| hi || pro || it (inanimate)<br />
|-<br />
|hifthil || n || air <br />
|-<br />
|hil || n ||whiteness <br />
|-<br />
| hoi || prep || behind; after<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===I=== <br />
|-<br />
| i || n || concept, abstraction<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===J=== <br />
|-<br />
| jaafa || pro || something (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
|jada|| n || pleasant, nice, good <br />
|-<br />
| jak || postp || ABL away <br />
|-<br />
| jatu || n || father <br />
|-<br />
|jiti|| n || smallness <br />
|-<br />
| jodhi || pro || some kind of<br />
|-<br />
| jofa || adj || some <br />
|-<br />
| jofai || pro || somehow<br />
|-<br />
| jofko || pro || sometime<br />
|-<br />
| jofku || pro || somewhere<br />
|-<br />
| jofo || pro || something (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| jofos || pro || with someone <br />
|-<br />
| jokæ || part || verb exhortative<br />
|-<br />
| jon || prep || between<br />
|-<br />
| jonfu || pro || something (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| jopi || n || number ten <br />
|-<br />
|joqó || n ||disgust <br />
|-<br />
| jov || pro || for some reason<br />
|-<br />
| jø || part || in literature for verbal irony <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===K=== <br />
|-<br />
| ka || pro || this <br />
|-<br />
| kadh || pro || this kind of<br />
|-<br />
|kamps || n ||marsh, swamp <br />
|-<br />
| kap || pro || herefore<br />
|-<br />
|karon || n ||soup <br />
|-<br />
| kas || pro || with this<br />
|-<br />
|kat|| n ||knob, handle <br />
|-<br />
|katpas || n ||fern <br />
|-<br />
| keet || n || hill <br />
|-<br />
|kep || n ||wash, act of washing <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||is washed <br />
|-<br />
| kesl || v || bleed <br />
|-<br />
|keslań|| n || blood <br />
|-<br />
| ket || n || plate <br />
|-<br />
| keva || n || priest <br />
|-<br />
| kha || pro || now<br />
|-<br />
| khai || pro || hereby<br />
|-<br />
| khau || pro || here<br />
|-<br />
| khet || v|| must<br />
|-<br />
|kheti|| n || necessity <br />
|-<br />
| kho || pro || then<br />
|-<br />
| khoi || pro || thereby<br />
|-<br />
| khu || pro || there<br />
|-<br />
| khurd || v || dare<br />
|-<br />
|khurdi|| n || daring <br />
|-<br />
|ki || n ||shortness <br />
|-<br />
| ko || pro || that<br />
|-<br />
| kodh || pro || that kind of<br />
|-<br />
| koi || prep || per <br />
|-<br />
| kop || pro || therefore<br />
|-<br />
| kos || pro || with that<br />
|-<br />
|kos || n ||tree <br />
|-<br />
|koson || n ||wood (also kosoń) <br />
|-<br />
|ksaru || n ||guard<br />
|-<br />
|kusu|| n || friend <br />
|-<br />
|kuth|| n || dog <br />
|-<br />
| kuut || v || can, may<br />
|-<br />
|kuutó|| n || possibility <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===L=== <br />
|-<br />
| lai || adj || left (side) <br />
|-<br />
| lamat || n || field <br />
|-<br />
|latep || n ||dance <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||dances <br />
|-<br />
| leh || n || leg<br />
|-<br />
| lewu || n || mother<br />
|-<br />
| loi || prep || out<br />
|-<br />
|lutu|| n || woman <br />
|-<br />
|luva || n ||pleasure <br />
|-<br />
|luwi|| n || beauty <br />
|-<br />
|lzork || n ||worm <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===M=== <br />
|-<br />
| mai || postp || ABL excluding<br />
|-<br />
| mak || postp || ABL except<br />
|-<br />
|mak || v || ABL is given to DAT by ERG <br />
|-<br />
|math || n ||cat <br />
|-<br />
| mats || postp || ABL instead of <br />
|-<br />
|mel|| n || water <br />
|-<br />
| mép || v || can, knows how to<br />
|-<br />
|mépi || n ||skill <br />
|-<br />
| mitup || n || sea, ocean <br />
|-<br />
|mjula|| n || life <br />
|-<br />
| mo || pro || we<br />
|-<br />
|mofpu|| n || lip <br />
|-<br />
| moi || prep || touching<br />
|-<br />
|mol || n ||blueness <br />
|-<br />
| mopi || n || one thousand <br />
|-<br />
| mots(i) || prep || on side<br />
|-<br />
| mowisi || n || one billion <br />
|-<br />
| mótap || n || bread<br />
|-<br />
|muf|| n || fish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===N=== <br />
|-<br />
| na || pro || I<br />
|-<br />
| nam || n || food<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is eaten, used to sate<br />
|-<br />
|naméti || n || hunger<br />
|-<br />
|nang || n ||sweat <br />
|-<br />
|nat || n ||stain <br />
|-<br />
|nath|| n || beggar <br />
|-<br />
|nek||v||is taken<br />
|-<br />
| nesu || n || boy <br />
|-<br />
|nin || n ||greenness <br />
|-<br />
| Nith || pro || You (singular) <br />
|-<br />
| norka || part || verb dubitative<br />
|-<br />
|not|| n || object <br />
|-<br />
| nuhit || n || carpet <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===NG=== <br />
|-<br />
| nget || n || candle, lamp<br />
|-<br />
| ngofi || n || number thirteen<br />
|-<br />
| ngoipi || n || number nine <br />
|-<br />
| ngoki || n || number eleven <br />
|-<br />
| ngovi || n || number eight <br />
|-<br />
| ngóki || n || number fourteen <br />
|-<br />
| ngópi || n || number twelve<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===O=== <br />
|-<br />
| ofi || n || number five<br />
|-<br />
| ohu || adv || once<br />
|-<br />
| oil(i) || prep || as<br />
|-<br />
| oist(i) || prep || under<br />
|-<br />
| ok || num || three<br />
|-<br />
| okart || n || triangle<br />
|-<br />
| okhi || adj || third<br />
|-<br />
| okhu || adv || thrice<br />
|-<br />
| oki || n || number three<br />
|-<br />
| okitse || adj || threefold<br />
|-<br />
| omi || n || number seven<br />
|-<br />
| onta || pro || anything (animate) <br />
|-<br />
| ongka || pro || everything (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| op || num || two<br />
|-<br />
| opart || n || line<br />
|-<br />
| ophi || adj || second<br />
|-<br />
| ophu || adv || twice<br />
|-<br />
| ophungovi || n || number sixteen<br />
|-<br />
| opi || n || number two<br />
|-<br />
| opisi || n || pair<br />
|-<br />
| opitse || adj || twofold<br />
|-<br />
| orak || n || street, alley <br />
|-<br />
| ordhi || pro || all/every kind of<br />
|-<br />
| orka || adj || every, all <br />
|-<br />
| orkai || pro || in every way<br />
|-<br />
| orkho || pro || always<br />
|-<br />
| orkhu || pro || everywhere <br />
|-<br />
| orko || pro || everything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| orkop || pro || for every reason<br />
|-<br />
| orkos || pro || with everyone<br />
|-<br />
| ota || adj || any <br />
|-<br />
| othi || pro || any kind of <br />
|-<br />
| otko || pro || whenever<br />
|-<br />
| otku || pro || anywhere <br />
|-<br />
| oto || pro || anything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| otop || pro || for any reason<br />
|-<br />
| otos || pro || with anyone<br />
|-<br />
| oz || num || zero<br />
|-<br />
| ozhi || adj || zeroth<br />
|-<br />
| ozi || n || number zero, nought<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ó=== <br />
|-<br />
| ókart || n || hexagon<br />
|-<br />
| ókki || n || number six<br />
|-<br />
| ól || postp || GEN like <br />
|-<br />
| || adverb || similarly<br />
|-<br />
|óomi || n ||largeness <br />
|-<br />
| óp || postp || GEN about; ABL according to<br />
|-<br />
| ópart || n || square<br />
|-<br />
| ópef || n || chicken <br />
|-<br />
| óppi || n || number four <br />
|-<br />
| ótuk || n|| sign<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ø=== <br />
|-<br />
|øfkam || n || pus <br />
|-<br />
|ølep || n || fabric<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===P=== <br />
|-<br />
|paata || n ||separation <br />
|-<br />
| pai || part || verb mirative <br />
|-<br />
| || adv || how (with adj)<br />
|-<br />
| patuk || n || village <br />
|-<br />
|petsip|| n|| clothes <br />
|-<br />
| phe || postp || LAT for the sake of<br />
|-<br />
| phó || postp || LAT along<br />
|-<br />
| pló || postp || LOC opposite to <br />
|-<br />
| po || pro || you (plural)<br />
|-<br />
|pof || n ||feather <br />
|-<br />
| poi || prep || in the middle of, among<br />
|-<br />
| poki || n ||centre <br />
|-<br />
| pón || postp || LAT through<br />
|-<br />
|pos|| n ||servant <br />
|-<br />
|prk || n ||wagon <br />
|-<br />
| puk || n || door<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Q=== <br />
|-<br />
|qal ||n ||yellowness <br />
|-<br />
| qet || n || wall <br />
|-<br />
|qorel|| n || earth <br />
|-<br />
|qot || n ||rock <br />
|-<br />
|qotol|| n || stone <br />
|-<br />
|qóp||v||do<br />
|-<br />
|qut || n || room<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===QH=== <br />
|-<br />
| qheetu || n || guard <br />
|-<br />
| qhotep || n || spear<br />
|-<br />
| qhók || v || is broken, smashed<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===R=== <br />
|-<br />
| raf || n || foot<br />
|-<br />
|ras||n||horse<br />
|-<br />
| ret || n || floor<br />
|-<br />
|rkil|| n || orange <br />
|-<br />
| roi || prep || above<br />
|-<br />
|rot || v ||leaves, goes <br />
|-<br />
|rul|| n || redness <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===S=== <br />
|-<br />
| sahul || n || beer<br />
|-<br />
| sai || postp || COM including <br />
|-<br />
| saitu || pre || this one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| sak || postp || COM concerning; ABL due to <br />
|-<br />
| sku || pro || where<br />
|-<br />
| sko || pro || when <br />
|-<br />
| so || adj || another <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || something else<br />
|-<br />
| soi || prep || on<br />
|-<br />
| soi || pro || otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| sokho || pro || another time <br />
|-<br />
| sokhu || pro || elsewhere <br />
|-<br />
| sonop || pro || for another reason<br />
|-<br />
| sos || pro || with someone else<br />
|-<br />
| sothi || pro || of another kind<br />
|-<br />
| sós || postp || COM with; ABL without; LAT in addition to <br />
|-<br />
| souso || pro || nobody<br />
|-<br />
| soutu || pro || that one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| || pro || who? <br />
|-<br />
| spe || pro || why?<br />
|-<br />
|spii|| n || length <br />
|-<br />
|stak|| n || fence <br />
|-<br />
|su || n ||it/he? <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SH=== <br />
|-<br />
| shara || n || south <br />
|-<br />
| shi || pro || how?<br />
|-<br />
| sho || adj || which?, what? <br />
|-<br />
| shodh || pro || what kind of<br />
|-<br />
| shos || pro || with whom<br />
|-<br />
|shosleetha|| n || knight <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SL=== <br />
|-<br />
| slada || n || monastery<br />
|-<br />
| slahit || n || flour <br />
|-<br />
|slengu|| n || nose <br />
|-<br />
| slint || n || jug <br />
|-<br />
| slop || n || chair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===T=== <br />
|-<br />
| ta || part || verb conditional <br />
|-<br />
|ta'i || n ||past <br />
|-<br />
|tai || n ||for long <br />
|-<br />
|tes || n ||eye <br />
|-<br />
|tes(os)|| v || is seen <br />
|-<br />
| tesei || part || verb visual evidential<br />
|-<br />
| thol || n || liquid <br />
|-<br />
|tihtóhnah || n ||assassinator <br />
|-<br />
| tis || n || skin <br />
|-<br />
|tlaf || n ||sprig <br />
|-<br />
|tlsl || n ||shallow <br />
|-<br />
| toti || n || one hundred <br />
|-<br />
|trk || n ||smithy <br />
|-<br />
|trs || n ||smith <br />
|-<br />
|tup || n ||stick <br />
|-<br />
| tut || v || wants<br />
|-<br />
|tuta || n ||craving, wish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TH=== <br />
|-<br />
| tha || pro || it (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaka || pro || this (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaso || pro || something else (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thata || pro || anything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
| theso || pro || nothing (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thorka || pro || everything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TS=== <br />
|-<br />
|tsagadhet || n ||bureau <br />
|-<br />
| tsaka || pro || this one (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| tsalka || pro || this one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tseso || pro || neither <br />
|-<br />
|tsma || n ||doubt <br />
|-<br />
| tso || pro || other (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsoi || prep || in front of<br />
|-<br />
| tso'i || n || front<br />
|-<br />
|tsok || n ||letter <br />
|-<br />
|tsoklóp || n ||alphabet <br />
|-<br />
| tsoko || pro || that one (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolko || pro || that one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolo || pro || another (of many) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (one many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolto || pro || any (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsongko || pro || every, each<br />
|-<br />
| tsorko || pro || both <br />
|-<br />
| tsoto || pro || either one <br />
|-<br />
|tsøl || n ||purple <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSL===<br />
|-<br />
| tslap || n || window <br />
|-<br />
| tsleso || pro || none (of many)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSH===<br />
|-<br />
|tshok || n || cabinet, storage<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is stored<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===U=== <br />
|-<br />
|ukop || n ||north <br />
|-<br />
| umah || n || egg<br />
|-<br />
|ura || n ||following day, tomorrow <br />
|-<br />
| utsu || n || person <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===V=== <br />
|-<br />
|vakuh || n ||hand <br />
|-<br />
|vang || n ||throat<br />
|-<br />
|vangos || v ||is drunk, swallowed, devoured <br />
|-<br />
|vangost || n || drink<br />
|-<br />
|vangostéti || n || thirst<br />
|-<br />
|voi || prep || in<br />
|-<br />
| vop || n || roof<br />
|-<br />
|voq || n ||strange thing <br />
|-<br />
| vóna || n || east <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===W=== <br />
|-<br />
|weh||v||is born<br />
|-<br />
| With || pro || You (plural) <br />
|-<br />
| wu || n || youngster <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===Z=== <br />
|-<br />
|za || n ||height <br />
|-<br />
|zait || v ||goes up <br />
|-<br />
|zaivi|| n || song <br />
|-<br />
| ze || adj || no<br />
|-<br />
| zei || pro || in no way<br />
|-<br />
| zenep ||pro || for no reason<br />
|-<br />
| zeng || pro || never <br />
|-<br />
| zengu || pro || nowhere <br />
|-<br />
| zeos || pro || with nobody <br />
|-<br />
| zil || n || salt <br />
|-<br />
| zodhi || pro || of no kind<br />
|-<br />
| zoi || prep || up<br />
|-<br />
| zolo || pro || some, one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
|zurmu || n ||strong person<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===ZH=== <br />
|-<br />
| zhaku || n || seller, vendor <br />
|-<br />
| zho || pro || one (of two) <br />
|}</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian/Dictionary&diff=35711Sceptrian/Dictionary2015-07-08T10:58:41Z<p>Juhhmi: /* TSH */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
Derived words are shown under the original word. Latin alphabet order is used to help unaccustomed users.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
|Sceptrian || Word Class || English<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===A=== <br />
|-<br />
|aktas|| n || ear <br />
|-<br />
|ala || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
| alké || part || verb permissive<br />
|-<br />
| amu || n || girl<br />
|-<br />
|ara || n ||previous day, yesterday <br />
|-<br />
| atasi || part || verb hearsay evidential<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Æ=== <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===B===<br />
|-<br />
|bak|| n || table <br />
|-<br />
|bap|| n|| word <br />
|-<br />
|baplóp || n ||sentence <br />
|-<br />
|batop|| n || language <br />
|-<br />
| berak || n || tower<br />
|-<br />
|birtsil || n ||fire <br />
|-<br />
| boi || prep || down <br />
|-<br />
|bó || n||lowness <br />
|-<br />
|bous || v ||goes down <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===D=== <br />
|-<br />
| darem || v || is ruled <br />
|-<br />
| daremu || n || ruler<br />
|-<br />
| dei || adj || right (side) <br />
|-<br />
| deq || n || cliff <br />
|-<br />
|dldlp|| n || bubble<br />
|-<br />
|doth|| n || man <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===DH=== <br />
|-<br />
|dhoku || n ||head <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===E=== <br />
|-<br />
|eja || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
|eva || n ||light <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===É=== <br />
|-<br />
| éves || n || hair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===F=== <br />
|-<br />
| fas || n || finger<br />
|-<br />
|fendó ||n ||death <br />
|-<br />
|firut || n || city, town<br />
|-<br />
|fkot|| n|| nest <br />
|-<br />
| fo || pro || you (singular)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===G=== <br />
|-<br />
| gana || part || verb volitive<br />
|-<br />
|gat|| n || house<br />
|-<br />
| gæ || part || in literature for sarcasm <br />
|-<br />
| get || n || mountain <br />
|-<br />
|glerk|| n || mace <br />
|-<br />
|gln || n ||fat <br />
|-<br />
| gót || n || table <br />
|-<br />
|guh || n ||mouth <br />
|-<br />
|gul|| n || blackness <br />
|-<br />
|guts||n||cow<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===H=== <br />
|-<br />
| hara || n || west <br />
|-<br />
| hamisi || n || one million <br />
|-<br />
| hi || pro || it (inanimate)<br />
|-<br />
|hifthil || n || air <br />
|-<br />
|hil || n ||whiteness <br />
|-<br />
| hoi || prep || behind; after<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===I=== <br />
|-<br />
| i || n || concept, abstraction<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===J=== <br />
|-<br />
| jaafa || pro || something (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
|jada|| n || pleasant, nice, good <br />
|-<br />
| jak || postp || ABL away <br />
|-<br />
| jatu || n || father <br />
|-<br />
|jiti|| n || smallness <br />
|-<br />
| jodhi || pro || some kind of<br />
|-<br />
| jofa || adj || some <br />
|-<br />
| jofai || pro || somehow<br />
|-<br />
| jofko || pro || sometime<br />
|-<br />
| jofku || pro || somewhere<br />
|-<br />
| jofo || pro || something (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| jofos || pro || with someone <br />
|-<br />
| jokæ || part || verb exhortative<br />
|-<br />
| jon || prep || between<br />
|-<br />
| jonfu || pro || something (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| jopi || n || number ten <br />
|-<br />
|joqó || n ||disgust <br />
|-<br />
| jov || pro || for some reason<br />
|-<br />
| jø || part || in literature for verbal irony <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===K=== <br />
|-<br />
| ka || pro || this <br />
|-<br />
| kadh || pro || this kind of<br />
|-<br />
|kamps || n ||marsh, swamp <br />
|-<br />
| kap || pro || herefore<br />
|-<br />
|karon || n ||soup <br />
|-<br />
| kas || pro || with this<br />
|-<br />
|kat|| n ||knob, handle <br />
|-<br />
|katpas || n ||fern <br />
|-<br />
| keet || n || hill <br />
|-<br />
|kep || n ||wash, act of washing <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||is washed <br />
|-<br />
| kesl || v || bleed <br />
|-<br />
|keslań|| n || blood <br />
|-<br />
| ket || n || plate <br />
|-<br />
| keva || n || priest <br />
|-<br />
| kha || pro || now<br />
|-<br />
| khai || pro || hereby<br />
|-<br />
| khau || pro || here<br />
|-<br />
| khet || v|| must<br />
|-<br />
|kheti|| n || necessity <br />
|-<br />
| kho || pro || then<br />
|-<br />
| khoi || pro || thereby<br />
|-<br />
| khu || pro || there<br />
|-<br />
| khurd || v || dare<br />
|-<br />
|khurdi|| n || daring <br />
|-<br />
|ki || n ||shortness <br />
|-<br />
| ko || pro || that<br />
|-<br />
| kodh || pro || that kind of<br />
|-<br />
| koi || prep || per <br />
|-<br />
| kop || pro || therefore<br />
|-<br />
| kos || pro || with that<br />
|-<br />
|kos || n ||tree <br />
|-<br />
|koson || n ||wood (also kosoń) <br />
|-<br />
|ksaru || n ||guard<br />
|-<br />
|kusu|| n || friend <br />
|-<br />
|kuth|| n || dog <br />
|-<br />
| kuut || v || can, may<br />
|-<br />
|kuutó|| n || possibility <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===L=== <br />
|-<br />
| lai || adj || left (side) <br />
|-<br />
| lamat || n || field <br />
|-<br />
|latep || n ||dance <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||dances <br />
|-<br />
| leh || n || leg<br />
|-<br />
| lewu || n || mother<br />
|-<br />
| loi || prep || out<br />
|-<br />
|lutu|| n || woman <br />
|-<br />
|luva || n ||pleasure <br />
|-<br />
|luwi|| n || beauty <br />
|-<br />
|lzork || n ||worm <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===M=== <br />
|-<br />
| mai || postp || ABL excluding<br />
|-<br />
| mak || postp || ABL except<br />
|-<br />
|mak || v || ABL is given to DAT by ERG <br />
|-<br />
|math || n ||cat <br />
|-<br />
| mats || postp || ABL instead of <br />
|-<br />
|mel|| n || water <br />
|-<br />
| mép || v || can, knows how to<br />
|-<br />
|mépi || n ||skill <br />
|-<br />
| mitup || n || sea, ocean <br />
|-<br />
|mjula|| n || life <br />
|-<br />
| mo || pro || we<br />
|-<br />
|mofpu|| n || lip <br />
|-<br />
| moi || prep || touching<br />
|-<br />
|mol || n ||blueness <br />
|-<br />
| mopi || n || one thousand <br />
|-<br />
| mots(i) || prep || on side<br />
|-<br />
| mowisi || n || one billion <br />
|-<br />
| mótap || n || bread<br />
|-<br />
|muf|| n || fish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===N=== <br />
|-<br />
| na || pro || I<br />
|-<br />
| nam || n || food<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is eaten, used to sate<br />
|-<br />
|naméti || n || hunger<br />
|-<br />
|nang || n ||sweat <br />
|-<br />
|nat || n ||stain <br />
|-<br />
|nath|| n || beggar <br />
|-<br />
|nek||v||is taken<br />
|-<br />
| nesu || n || boy <br />
|-<br />
|nin || n ||greenness <br />
|-<br />
| Nith || pro || You (singular) <br />
|-<br />
| norka || part || verb dubitative<br />
|-<br />
|not|| n || object <br />
|-<br />
| nuhit || n || carpet <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===NG=== <br />
|-<br />
| nget || n || candle, lamp<br />
|-<br />
| ngofi || n || number thirteen<br />
|-<br />
| ngoipi || n || number nine <br />
|-<br />
| ngoki || n || number eleven <br />
|-<br />
| ngovi || n || number eight <br />
|-<br />
| ngóki || n || number fourteen <br />
|-<br />
| ngópi || n || number twelve<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===O=== <br />
|-<br />
| ofi || n || number five<br />
|-<br />
| ohu || adv || once<br />
|-<br />
| oil(i) || prep || as<br />
|-<br />
| oist(i) || prep || under<br />
|-<br />
| ok || num || three<br />
|-<br />
| okart || n || triangle<br />
|-<br />
| okhi || adj || third<br />
|-<br />
| okhu || adv || thrice<br />
|-<br />
| oki || n || number three<br />
|-<br />
| okitse || adj || threefold<br />
|-<br />
| omi || n || number seven<br />
|-<br />
| onta || pro || anything (animate) <br />
|-<br />
| ongka || pro || everything (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| op || num || two<br />
|-<br />
| opart || n || line<br />
|-<br />
| ophi || adj || second<br />
|-<br />
| ophu || adv || twice<br />
|-<br />
| ophungovi || n || number sixteen<br />
|-<br />
| opi || n || number two<br />
|-<br />
| opisi || n || pair<br />
|-<br />
| opitse || adj || twofold<br />
|-<br />
| orak || n || street, alley <br />
|-<br />
| ordhi || pro || all/every kind of<br />
|-<br />
| orka || adj || every, all <br />
|-<br />
| orkai || pro || in every way<br />
|-<br />
| orkho || pro || always<br />
|-<br />
| orkhu || pro || everywhere <br />
|-<br />
| orko || pro || everything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| orkop || pro || for every reason<br />
|-<br />
| orkos || pro || with everyone<br />
|-<br />
| ota || adj || any <br />
|-<br />
| othi || pro || any kind of <br />
|-<br />
| otko || pro || whenever<br />
|-<br />
| otku || pro || anywhere <br />
|-<br />
| oto || pro || anything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| otop || pro || for any reason<br />
|-<br />
| otos || pro || with anyone<br />
|-<br />
| oz || num || zero<br />
|-<br />
| ozhi || adj || zeroth<br />
|-<br />
| ozi || n || number zero, nought<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ó=== <br />
|-<br />
| ókart || n || hexagon<br />
|-<br />
| ókki || n || number six<br />
|-<br />
| ól || postp || GEN like <br />
|-<br />
| || adverb || similarly<br />
|-<br />
|óomi || n ||largeness <br />
|-<br />
| óp || postp || GEN about; ABL according to<br />
|-<br />
| ópart || n || square<br />
|-<br />
| ópef || n || chicken <br />
|-<br />
| óppi || n || number four <br />
|-<br />
| ótuk || n|| sign<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ø=== <br />
|-<br />
|øfkam || n || pus <br />
|-<br />
|ølep || n || fabric<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===P=== <br />
|-<br />
|paata || n ||separation <br />
|-<br />
| pai || part || verb mirative <br />
|-<br />
| || adv || how (with adj)<br />
|-<br />
| patuk || n || village <br />
|-<br />
|petsip|| n|| clothes <br />
|-<br />
| phe || postp || LAT for the sake of<br />
|-<br />
| phó || postp || LAT along<br />
|-<br />
| pló || postp || LOC opposite to <br />
|-<br />
| po || pro || you (plural)<br />
|-<br />
|pof || n ||feather <br />
|-<br />
| poi || prep || in the middle of, among<br />
|-<br />
| poki || n ||centre <br />
|-<br />
| pón || postp || LAT through<br />
|-<br />
|pos|| n ||servant <br />
|-<br />
|prk || n ||wagon <br />
|-<br />
| puk || n || door<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Q=== <br />
|-<br />
|qal ||n ||yellowness <br />
|-<br />
| qet || n || wall <br />
|-<br />
|qorel|| n || earth <br />
|-<br />
|qot || n ||rock <br />
|-<br />
|qotol|| n || stone <br />
|-<br />
|qut || n || room<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===QH=== <br />
|-<br />
| qheetu || n || guard <br />
|-<br />
| qhotep || n || spear<br />
|-<br />
| qhók || v || is broken, smashed<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===R=== <br />
|-<br />
| raf || n || foot<br />
|-<br />
|ras||n||horse<br />
|-<br />
| ret || n || floor<br />
|-<br />
|rkil|| n || orange <br />
|-<br />
| roi || prep || above<br />
|-<br />
|rot || v ||leaves, goes <br />
|-<br />
|rul|| n || redness <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===S=== <br />
|-<br />
| sahul || n || beer<br />
|-<br />
| sai || postp || COM including <br />
|-<br />
| saitu || pre || this one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| sak || postp || COM concerning; ABL due to <br />
|-<br />
| sku || pro || where<br />
|-<br />
| sko || pro || when <br />
|-<br />
| so || adj || another <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || something else<br />
|-<br />
| soi || prep || on<br />
|-<br />
| soi || pro || otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| sokho || pro || another time <br />
|-<br />
| sokhu || pro || elsewhere <br />
|-<br />
| sonop || pro || for another reason<br />
|-<br />
| sos || pro || with someone else<br />
|-<br />
| sothi || pro || of another kind<br />
|-<br />
| sós || postp || COM with; ABL without; LAT in addition to <br />
|-<br />
| souso || pro || nobody<br />
|-<br />
| soutu || pro || that one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| || pro || who? <br />
|-<br />
| spe || pro || why?<br />
|-<br />
|spii|| n || length <br />
|-<br />
|stak|| n || fence <br />
|-<br />
|su || n ||it/he? <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SH=== <br />
|-<br />
| shara || n || south <br />
|-<br />
| shi || pro || how?<br />
|-<br />
| sho || adj || which?, what? <br />
|-<br />
| shodh || pro || what kind of<br />
|-<br />
| shos || pro || with whom<br />
|-<br />
|shosleetha|| n || knight <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SL=== <br />
|-<br />
| slada || n || monastery<br />
|-<br />
| slahit || n || flour <br />
|-<br />
|slengu|| n || nose <br />
|-<br />
| slint || n || jug <br />
|-<br />
| slop || n || chair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===T=== <br />
|-<br />
| ta || part || verb conditional <br />
|-<br />
|ta'i || n ||past <br />
|-<br />
|tai || n ||for long <br />
|-<br />
|tes || n ||eye <br />
|-<br />
|tes(os)|| v || is seen <br />
|-<br />
| tesei || part || verb visual evidential<br />
|-<br />
| thol || n || liquid <br />
|-<br />
|tihtóhnah || n ||assassinator <br />
|-<br />
| tis || n || skin <br />
|-<br />
|tlaf || n ||sprig <br />
|-<br />
|tlsl || n ||shallow <br />
|-<br />
| toti || n || one hundred <br />
|-<br />
|trk || n ||smithy <br />
|-<br />
|trs || n ||smith <br />
|-<br />
|tup || n ||stick <br />
|-<br />
| tut || v || wants<br />
|-<br />
|tuta || n ||craving, wish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TH=== <br />
|-<br />
| tha || pro || it (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaka || pro || this (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaso || pro || something else (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thata || pro || anything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
| theso || pro || nothing (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thorka || pro || everything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TS=== <br />
|-<br />
|tsagadhet || n ||bureau <br />
|-<br />
| tsaka || pro || this one (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| tsalka || pro || this one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tseso || pro || neither <br />
|-<br />
|tsma || n ||doubt <br />
|-<br />
| tso || pro || other (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsoi || prep || in front of<br />
|-<br />
| tso'i || n || front<br />
|-<br />
|tsok || n ||letter <br />
|-<br />
|tsoklóp || n ||alphabet <br />
|-<br />
| tsoko || pro || that one (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolko || pro || that one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolo || pro || another (of many) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (one many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolto || pro || any (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsongko || pro || every, each<br />
|-<br />
| tsorko || pro || both <br />
|-<br />
| tsoto || pro || either one <br />
|-<br />
|tsøl || n ||purple <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSL===<br />
|-<br />
| tslap || n || window <br />
|-<br />
| tsleso || pro || none (of many)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSH===<br />
|-<br />
|tshok || n || cabinet, storage<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is stored<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===U=== <br />
|-<br />
|ukop || n ||north <br />
|-<br />
| umah || n || egg<br />
|-<br />
|ura || n ||following day, tomorrow <br />
|-<br />
| utsu || n || person <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===V=== <br />
|-<br />
|vakuh || n ||hand <br />
|-<br />
|vang || n ||throat<br />
|-<br />
|vangos || v ||is drunk, swallowed, devoured <br />
|-<br />
|vangost || n || drink<br />
|-<br />
|vangostéti || n || thirst<br />
|-<br />
|voi || prep || in<br />
|-<br />
| vop || n || roof<br />
|-<br />
|voq || n ||strange thing <br />
|-<br />
| vóna || n || east <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===W=== <br />
|-<br />
|weh||v||is born<br />
|-<br />
| With || pro || You (plural) <br />
|-<br />
| wu || n || youngster <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===Z=== <br />
|-<br />
|za || n ||height <br />
|-<br />
|zait || v ||goes up <br />
|-<br />
|zaivi|| n || song <br />
|-<br />
| ze || adj || no<br />
|-<br />
| zei || pro || in no way<br />
|-<br />
| zenep ||pro || for no reason<br />
|-<br />
| zeng || pro || never <br />
|-<br />
| zengu || pro || nowhere <br />
|-<br />
| zeos || pro || with nobody <br />
|-<br />
| zil || n || salt <br />
|-<br />
| zodhi || pro || of no kind<br />
|-<br />
| zoi || prep || up<br />
|-<br />
| zolo || pro || some, one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
|zurmu || n ||strong person<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===ZH=== <br />
|-<br />
| zhaku || n || seller, vendor <br />
|-<br />
| zho || pro || one (of two) <br />
|}</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian/Dictionary&diff=35710Sceptrian/Dictionary2015-07-08T10:57:16Z<p>Juhhmi: /* TSH */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
Derived words are shown under the original word. Latin alphabet order is used to help unaccustomed users.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
|Sceptrian || Word Class || English<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===A=== <br />
|-<br />
|aktas|| n || ear <br />
|-<br />
|ala || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
| alké || part || verb permissive<br />
|-<br />
| amu || n || girl<br />
|-<br />
|ara || n ||previous day, yesterday <br />
|-<br />
| atasi || part || verb hearsay evidential<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Æ=== <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===B===<br />
|-<br />
|bak|| n || table <br />
|-<br />
|bap|| n|| word <br />
|-<br />
|baplóp || n ||sentence <br />
|-<br />
|batop|| n || language <br />
|-<br />
| berak || n || tower<br />
|-<br />
|birtsil || n ||fire <br />
|-<br />
| boi || prep || down <br />
|-<br />
|bó || n||lowness <br />
|-<br />
|bous || v ||goes down <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===D=== <br />
|-<br />
| darem || v || is ruled <br />
|-<br />
| daremu || n || ruler<br />
|-<br />
| dei || adj || right (side) <br />
|-<br />
| deq || n || cliff <br />
|-<br />
|dldlp|| n || bubble<br />
|-<br />
|doth|| n || man <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===DH=== <br />
|-<br />
|dhoku || n ||head <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===E=== <br />
|-<br />
|eja || n ||day <br />
|-<br />
|eva || n ||light <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===É=== <br />
|-<br />
| éves || n || hair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===F=== <br />
|-<br />
| fas || n || finger<br />
|-<br />
|fendó ||n ||death <br />
|-<br />
|firut || n || city, town<br />
|-<br />
|fkot|| n|| nest <br />
|-<br />
| fo || pro || you (singular)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===G=== <br />
|-<br />
| gana || part || verb volitive<br />
|-<br />
|gat|| n || house<br />
|-<br />
| gæ || part || in literature for sarcasm <br />
|-<br />
| get || n || mountain <br />
|-<br />
|glerk|| n || mace <br />
|-<br />
|gln || n ||fat <br />
|-<br />
| gót || n || table <br />
|-<br />
|guh || n ||mouth <br />
|-<br />
|gul|| n || blackness <br />
|-<br />
|guts||n||cow<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===H=== <br />
|-<br />
| hara || n || west <br />
|-<br />
| hamisi || n || one million <br />
|-<br />
| hi || pro || it (inanimate)<br />
|-<br />
|hifthil || n || air <br />
|-<br />
|hil || n ||whiteness <br />
|-<br />
| hoi || prep || behind; after<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===I=== <br />
|-<br />
| i || n || concept, abstraction<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===J=== <br />
|-<br />
| jaafa || pro || something (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
|jada|| n || pleasant, nice, good <br />
|-<br />
| jak || postp || ABL away <br />
|-<br />
| jatu || n || father <br />
|-<br />
|jiti|| n || smallness <br />
|-<br />
| jodhi || pro || some kind of<br />
|-<br />
| jofa || adj || some <br />
|-<br />
| jofai || pro || somehow<br />
|-<br />
| jofko || pro || sometime<br />
|-<br />
| jofku || pro || somewhere<br />
|-<br />
| jofo || pro || something (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| jofos || pro || with someone <br />
|-<br />
| jokæ || part || verb exhortative<br />
|-<br />
| jon || prep || between<br />
|-<br />
| jonfu || pro || something (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| jopi || n || number ten <br />
|-<br />
|joqó || n ||disgust <br />
|-<br />
| jov || pro || for some reason<br />
|-<br />
| jø || part || in literature for verbal irony <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===K=== <br />
|-<br />
| ka || pro || this <br />
|-<br />
| kadh || pro || this kind of<br />
|-<br />
|kamps || n ||marsh, swamp <br />
|-<br />
| kap || pro || herefore<br />
|-<br />
|karon || n ||soup <br />
|-<br />
| kas || pro || with this<br />
|-<br />
|kat|| n ||knob, handle <br />
|-<br />
|katpas || n ||fern <br />
|-<br />
| keet || n || hill <br />
|-<br />
|kep || n ||wash, act of washing <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||is washed <br />
|-<br />
| kesl || v || bleed <br />
|-<br />
|keslań|| n || blood <br />
|-<br />
| ket || n || plate <br />
|-<br />
| keva || n || priest <br />
|-<br />
| kha || pro || now<br />
|-<br />
| khai || pro || hereby<br />
|-<br />
| khau || pro || here<br />
|-<br />
| khet || v|| must<br />
|-<br />
|kheti|| n || necessity <br />
|-<br />
| kho || pro || then<br />
|-<br />
| khoi || pro || thereby<br />
|-<br />
| khu || pro || there<br />
|-<br />
| khurd || v || dare<br />
|-<br />
|khurdi|| n || daring <br />
|-<br />
|ki || n ||shortness <br />
|-<br />
| ko || pro || that<br />
|-<br />
| kodh || pro || that kind of<br />
|-<br />
| koi || prep || per <br />
|-<br />
| kop || pro || therefore<br />
|-<br />
| kos || pro || with that<br />
|-<br />
|kos || n ||tree <br />
|-<br />
|koson || n ||wood (also kosoń) <br />
|-<br />
|ksaru || n ||guard<br />
|-<br />
|kusu|| n || friend <br />
|-<br />
|kuth|| n || dog <br />
|-<br />
| kuut || v || can, may<br />
|-<br />
|kuutó|| n || possibility <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===L=== <br />
|-<br />
| lai || adj || left (side) <br />
|-<br />
| lamat || n || field <br />
|-<br />
|latep || n ||dance <br />
|-<br />
| || v ||dances <br />
|-<br />
| leh || n || leg<br />
|-<br />
| lewu || n || mother<br />
|-<br />
| loi || prep || out<br />
|-<br />
|lutu|| n || woman <br />
|-<br />
|luva || n ||pleasure <br />
|-<br />
|luwi|| n || beauty <br />
|-<br />
|lzork || n ||worm <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===M=== <br />
|-<br />
| mai || postp || ABL excluding<br />
|-<br />
| mak || postp || ABL except<br />
|-<br />
|mak || v || ABL is given to DAT by ERG <br />
|-<br />
|math || n ||cat <br />
|-<br />
| mats || postp || ABL instead of <br />
|-<br />
|mel|| n || water <br />
|-<br />
| mép || v || can, knows how to<br />
|-<br />
|mépi || n ||skill <br />
|-<br />
| mitup || n || sea, ocean <br />
|-<br />
|mjula|| n || life <br />
|-<br />
| mo || pro || we<br />
|-<br />
|mofpu|| n || lip <br />
|-<br />
| moi || prep || touching<br />
|-<br />
|mol || n ||blueness <br />
|-<br />
| mopi || n || one thousand <br />
|-<br />
| mots(i) || prep || on side<br />
|-<br />
| mowisi || n || one billion <br />
|-<br />
| mótap || n || bread<br />
|-<br />
|muf|| n || fish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===N=== <br />
|-<br />
| na || pro || I<br />
|-<br />
| nam || n || food<br />
|-<br />
| || v || is eaten, used to sate<br />
|-<br />
|naméti || n || hunger<br />
|-<br />
|nang || n ||sweat <br />
|-<br />
|nat || n ||stain <br />
|-<br />
|nath|| n || beggar <br />
|-<br />
|nek||v||is taken<br />
|-<br />
| nesu || n || boy <br />
|-<br />
|nin || n ||greenness <br />
|-<br />
| Nith || pro || You (singular) <br />
|-<br />
| norka || part || verb dubitative<br />
|-<br />
|not|| n || object <br />
|-<br />
| nuhit || n || carpet <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===NG=== <br />
|-<br />
| nget || n || candle, lamp<br />
|-<br />
| ngofi || n || number thirteen<br />
|-<br />
| ngoipi || n || number nine <br />
|-<br />
| ngoki || n || number eleven <br />
|-<br />
| ngovi || n || number eight <br />
|-<br />
| ngóki || n || number fourteen <br />
|-<br />
| ngópi || n || number twelve<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===O=== <br />
|-<br />
| ofi || n || number five<br />
|-<br />
| ohu || adv || once<br />
|-<br />
| oil(i) || prep || as<br />
|-<br />
| oist(i) || prep || under<br />
|-<br />
| ok || num || three<br />
|-<br />
| okart || n || triangle<br />
|-<br />
| okhi || adj || third<br />
|-<br />
| okhu || adv || thrice<br />
|-<br />
| oki || n || number three<br />
|-<br />
| okitse || adj || threefold<br />
|-<br />
| omi || n || number seven<br />
|-<br />
| onta || pro || anything (animate) <br />
|-<br />
| ongka || pro || everything (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| op || num || two<br />
|-<br />
| opart || n || line<br />
|-<br />
| ophi || adj || second<br />
|-<br />
| ophu || adv || twice<br />
|-<br />
| ophungovi || n || number sixteen<br />
|-<br />
| opi || n || number two<br />
|-<br />
| opisi || n || pair<br />
|-<br />
| opitse || adj || twofold<br />
|-<br />
| orak || n || street, alley <br />
|-<br />
| ordhi || pro || all/every kind of<br />
|-<br />
| orka || adj || every, all <br />
|-<br />
| orkai || pro || in every way<br />
|-<br />
| orkho || pro || always<br />
|-<br />
| orkhu || pro || everywhere <br />
|-<br />
| orko || pro || everything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| orkop || pro || for every reason<br />
|-<br />
| orkos || pro || with everyone<br />
|-<br />
| ota || adj || any <br />
|-<br />
| othi || pro || any kind of <br />
|-<br />
| otko || pro || whenever<br />
|-<br />
| otku || pro || anywhere <br />
|-<br />
| oto || pro || anything (inanimate) <br />
|-<br />
| otop || pro || for any reason<br />
|-<br />
| otos || pro || with anyone<br />
|-<br />
| oz || num || zero<br />
|-<br />
| ozhi || adj || zeroth<br />
|-<br />
| ozi || n || number zero, nought<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ó=== <br />
|-<br />
| ókart || n || hexagon<br />
|-<br />
| ókki || n || number six<br />
|-<br />
| ól || postp || GEN like <br />
|-<br />
| || adverb || similarly<br />
|-<br />
|óomi || n ||largeness <br />
|-<br />
| óp || postp || GEN about; ABL according to<br />
|-<br />
| ópart || n || square<br />
|-<br />
| ópef || n || chicken <br />
|-<br />
| óppi || n || number four <br />
|-<br />
| ótuk || n|| sign<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Ø=== <br />
|-<br />
|øfkam || n || pus <br />
|-<br />
|ølep || n || fabric<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===P=== <br />
|-<br />
|paata || n ||separation <br />
|-<br />
| pai || part || verb mirative <br />
|-<br />
| || adv || how (with adj)<br />
|-<br />
| patuk || n || village <br />
|-<br />
|petsip|| n|| clothes <br />
|-<br />
| phe || postp || LAT for the sake of<br />
|-<br />
| phó || postp || LAT along<br />
|-<br />
| pló || postp || LOC opposite to <br />
|-<br />
| po || pro || you (plural)<br />
|-<br />
|pof || n ||feather <br />
|-<br />
| poi || prep || in the middle of, among<br />
|-<br />
| poki || n ||centre <br />
|-<br />
| pón || postp || LAT through<br />
|-<br />
|pos|| n ||servant <br />
|-<br />
|prk || n ||wagon <br />
|-<br />
| puk || n || door<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===Q=== <br />
|-<br />
|qal ||n ||yellowness <br />
|-<br />
| qet || n || wall <br />
|-<br />
|qorel|| n || earth <br />
|-<br />
|qot || n ||rock <br />
|-<br />
|qotol|| n || stone <br />
|-<br />
|qut || n || room<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===QH=== <br />
|-<br />
| qheetu || n || guard <br />
|-<br />
| qhotep || n || spear<br />
|-<br />
| qhók || v || is broken, smashed<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===R=== <br />
|-<br />
| raf || n || foot<br />
|-<br />
|ras||n||horse<br />
|-<br />
| ret || n || floor<br />
|-<br />
|rkil|| n || orange <br />
|-<br />
| roi || prep || above<br />
|-<br />
|rot || v ||leaves, goes <br />
|-<br />
|rul|| n || redness <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===S=== <br />
|-<br />
| sahul || n || beer<br />
|-<br />
| sai || postp || COM including <br />
|-<br />
| saitu || pre || this one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| sak || postp || COM concerning; ABL due to <br />
|-<br />
| sku || pro || where<br />
|-<br />
| sko || pro || when <br />
|-<br />
| so || adj || another <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || something else<br />
|-<br />
| soi || prep || on<br />
|-<br />
| soi || pro || otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| sokho || pro || another time <br />
|-<br />
| sokhu || pro || elsewhere <br />
|-<br />
| sonop || pro || for another reason<br />
|-<br />
| sos || pro || with someone else<br />
|-<br />
| sothi || pro || of another kind<br />
|-<br />
| sós || postp || COM with; ABL without; LAT in addition to <br />
|-<br />
| souso || pro || nobody<br />
|-<br />
| soutu || pro || that one (animate)<br />
|-<br />
| || pro || who? <br />
|-<br />
| spe || pro || why?<br />
|-<br />
|spii|| n || length <br />
|-<br />
|stak|| n || fence <br />
|-<br />
|su || n ||it/he? <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SH=== <br />
|-<br />
| shara || n || south <br />
|-<br />
| shi || pro || how?<br />
|-<br />
| sho || adj || which?, what? <br />
|-<br />
| shodh || pro || what kind of<br />
|-<br />
| shos || pro || with whom<br />
|-<br />
|shosleetha|| n || knight <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===SL=== <br />
|-<br />
| slada || n || monastery<br />
|-<br />
| slahit || n || flour <br />
|-<br />
|slengu|| n || nose <br />
|-<br />
| slint || n || jug <br />
|-<br />
| slop || n || chair<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===T=== <br />
|-<br />
| ta || part || verb conditional <br />
|-<br />
|ta'i || n ||past <br />
|-<br />
|tai || n ||for long <br />
|-<br />
|tes || n ||eye <br />
|-<br />
|tes(os)|| v || is seen <br />
|-<br />
| tesei || part || verb visual evidential<br />
|-<br />
| thol || n || liquid <br />
|-<br />
|tihtóhnah || n ||assassinator <br />
|-<br />
| tis || n || skin <br />
|-<br />
|tlaf || n ||sprig <br />
|-<br />
|tlsl || n ||shallow <br />
|-<br />
| toti || n || one hundred <br />
|-<br />
|trk || n ||smithy <br />
|-<br />
|trs || n ||smith <br />
|-<br />
|tup || n ||stick <br />
|-<br />
| tut || v || wants<br />
|-<br />
|tuta || n ||craving, wish <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TH=== <br />
|-<br />
| tha || pro || it (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaka || pro || this (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thaso || pro || something else (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thata || pro || anything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
| theso || pro || nothing (abstract) <br />
|-<br />
| thorka || pro || everything (abstract)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TS=== <br />
|-<br />
|tsagadhet || n ||bureau <br />
|-<br />
| tsaka || pro || this one (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| tsalka || pro || this one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tseso || pro || neither <br />
|-<br />
|tsma || n ||doubt <br />
|-<br />
| tso || pro || other (of two) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsoi || prep || in front of<br />
|-<br />
| tso'i || n || front<br />
|-<br />
|tsok || n ||letter <br />
|-<br />
|tsoklóp || n ||alphabet <br />
|-<br />
| tsoko || pro || that one (of two)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolko || pro || that one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolo || pro || another (of many) <br />
|-<br />
| || pro || which one? (one many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsolto || pro || any (of many)<br />
|-<br />
| tsongko || pro || every, each<br />
|-<br />
| tsorko || pro || both <br />
|-<br />
| tsoto || pro || either one <br />
|-<br />
|tsøl || n ||purple <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSL===<br />
|-<br />
| tslap || n || window <br />
|-<br />
| tsleso || pro || none (of many)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===TSH===<br />
|-<br />
|tshok || n || cabinet, storage<br />
|-<br />
| || v || store<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===U=== <br />
|-<br />
|ukop || n ||north <br />
|-<br />
| umah || n || egg<br />
|-<br />
|ura || n ||following day, tomorrow <br />
|-<br />
| utsu || n || person <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===V=== <br />
|-<br />
|vakuh || n ||hand <br />
|-<br />
|vang || n ||throat<br />
|-<br />
|vangos || v ||is drunk, swallowed, devoured <br />
|-<br />
|vangost || n || drink<br />
|-<br />
|vangostéti || n || thirst<br />
|-<br />
|voi || prep || in<br />
|-<br />
| vop || n || roof<br />
|-<br />
|voq || n ||strange thing <br />
|-<br />
| vóna || n || east <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===W=== <br />
|-<br />
|weh||v||is born<br />
|-<br />
| With || pro || You (plural) <br />
|-<br />
| wu || n || youngster <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
<br />
===Z=== <br />
|-<br />
|za || n ||height <br />
|-<br />
|zait || v ||goes up <br />
|-<br />
|zaivi|| n || song <br />
|-<br />
| ze || adj || no<br />
|-<br />
| zei || pro || in no way<br />
|-<br />
| zenep ||pro || for no reason<br />
|-<br />
| zeng || pro || never <br />
|-<br />
| zengu || pro || nowhere <br />
|-<br />
| zeos || pro || with nobody <br />
|-<br />
| zil || n || salt <br />
|-<br />
| zodhi || pro || of no kind<br />
|-<br />
| zoi || prep || up<br />
|-<br />
| zolo || pro || some, one (of many)<br />
|-<br />
|zurmu || n ||strong person<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3"|<br />
===ZH=== <br />
|-<br />
| zhaku || n || seller, vendor <br />
|-<br />
| zho || pro || one (of two) <br />
|}</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian&diff=35709Sceptrian2015-07-08T10:30:29Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Demonstrative */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Construction}}<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Sceptrian<br />
|nativename = [[File:Lusha_name.png|300px]]<br>''Batop Lushan''<br />
|pronunciation = [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ]<br />
|region = Western Central World<br />
|states = Sceptre<br />
|speakers = 29,200,000 <br />
|date = 7th 641<br />
|familycolor = #d3ffce<br />
|fam1 = West-Herookuan<br />
|fam2 = Lutian<br />
|fam3 = Sceptrian branch<br />
|creator=Ahuelni<br />
|setting=Akekata<br />
|dialects = Yerzonian, Mulish, Fanish <br />
|script = Toneka alphabet<br />
|nation = Empire of Sceptre<br />
|minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia<br />
|agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language)<br />
|map = Lusha_regions.jpg<br />
|mapsize = 300<br />
|mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects<br />
}}<br />
{{ClassMeter<br />
|Name = Sceptrian<br />
|NativeName = Batop Lushan<br />
|Type = Fusional<br />
|Alignment = Absolutive-ergative<br />
<br />
|adjective = final<br />
|adposition = mixed<br />
|adverb= final<br />
|article= mixed<br />
|relativeclause = final<br />
|nounclause = final<br />
|order = VSO<br />
<br />
|Tonal = no<br />
|Genders = 3<br />
|Declined = yes<br />
|Conjugated = yes<br />
|Case = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Definiteness = no<br />
|Gender = yes<br />
|Voice = yes<br />
|Mood = yes<br />
|Person = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Tense = yes<br />
|Aspect = yes<br />
|Phonology = 100<br />
|NounCases = 100<br />
|NounDef = 100<br />
|NounNumbers = 100<br />
|NounGender = 100<br />
|VerbPerson = 100<br />
|VerbNumber = 100<br />
|VerbAspect = 90<br />
|VerbTense = 100<br />
|VerbMood = 90<br />
|VerbVoice = 80<br />
|AdjCase = 100<br />
|AdjNumber = 100<br />
|AdjDef = 100<br />
|AdjGen = 100<br />
|AdjComparative = 100<br />
|AdjSuperlative = 100<br />
|Supine = 90<br />
|Gerund = 90<br />
|Participle = 90<br />
|Infinitive = 90<br />
|Modality = 90<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ] or simply ''lusha'') is an ''a priori'' [[w:Artistic_language|artistic language]] created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 29 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking [[Khattish]] and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian and its dialects feature 51 phonetic consonants, some of them with interesting lateral features. The language also has 25 phonetic vowels: twelve short, nine long and four diphthongs. Nasalization, rhotacization and breathy voice are used phonemically. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
If the romanization symbol is the same as in IPA, it is not duplicated. Not bolded romanization indicates that the sound appears as a vernacular or dialectal version.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 830px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px" colspan="2"|<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Uvular<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| [ɱ]<br />
| <br />
| '''n (ń)''' [n]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''t'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''k'''<br />
| '''q'''<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''b'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''d'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''g'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Breathy<br />
| '''ph bh'''<br>[pʰ] [bʱ]<br />
|<br />
|'''th dh'''<br>[tʰ] [dʱ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''kh gh'''<br>[kʰ] [gʱ]<br />
|'''qh'''<br>[qʰ]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| '''pl bl'''<br />[pˡ] [bˡ]<br />
| <br />
| '''tl dl'''<br />[tˡ] [dˡ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''kl gl'''<br/>[kˡ] [gˡ]<br />
| '''ql'''<br/>[qˡ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| ph [ɸ]<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| '''th''' [θ]<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''sh''' [ʃ]<br />
| '''h''' [ç]<br />
| '''kh h''' [x]<br />
| '''qh''' [χ]<br />
| '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''w''' bh [β]<br />
| '''v'''<br />
| '''dh''' [ð]<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| '''zh''' [ʒ]<br />
| <br />
| gh [ɣ]<br />
| <br />
| h [ɦ]<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''sl''' [ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Affricate<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ts''' [t͡s] <br />
| '''tsh''' [t͡ʃ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''tsl''' [t͡ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Approximant<br />
!Non-lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''j'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''l''' [l] [l̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| pr [ʙ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''r (ŕ)''' [r] [r̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The liquids ''r'' and ''l'' can appear as '''syllabic consonants''': ''tlsl'' /tˡl̩ɬ/ (shallow), ''prk'' /pr̩k/ (wagon) and ''trs'' /tr̩s/ (smith)<br />
*Vernacularly, both syllabic and obstruent-following alveolar trill ''r'' and lateral approximant ''l'' are pronounced as voiceless [r̩̊], [r̥], [l̩̊] and [l̥] when in contact with only voiceless consonants: ''trs'' [tr̩̊s] (smith) contrasting with ''trls'' [tr̩s] (while standard /trəls/) (smiths); ''gatl'' [gɑtl̥] (houses) whose pronunciation approaches [gɑtɬ]. <br />
**'''Meslatu Hirke''' made his disputed suggestion in 7:693 that a similar process had led to the birth of ''sl'' as plural indicator, when original plural ''l'' turned first into voiceless and then into ''sl'' after a word-final glottal stop, which has disappeared entirely. <br />
*In eastern dialects, ''pr'' is realized as [ʙ] and ''tr'', ''tsr'' and ''trs'' often as [r̝]. In the dialects, aspirated plosives have been fully spirantized into their fricative counterparts, e.g. [tʰ]>[θ].<br />
*Fricatives show properties of syllabic consonants word-initially and word-finally.<br />
<br />
Nasal [ɱ] only appears as an allophone of nasals with labio-dental sounds /f/ and /v/. Before velar sounds (e.g. /k/) nasals turn similarly into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
Letter ''h'' has four allophones: initial is always [h] despite frontness, [ç] appears elsewhere with front vowels, [x] appears word-finally and [h~ɦ] word-medially with back vowels ''tihtóhnah'' [tiçˈtɔɦ.näx] (assassinator). It's also used after consonants to indicate breathy voice.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 390px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| <br />
| '''u'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-mid<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| o<br/>[ɘ]<br />
| o<br/>[ɤ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
|<br />
| '''o'''<br/>[ə]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''é ø'''<br />[ɛ] [œ]<br />
|<br />
| '''ó'''<br />[ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
|'''æ'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
|'''a'''<br />[ä]<br />
|a<br />[ɑ]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
All the nine main vowel sounds (bolded) have '''long''' versions as separate phonemes.<br />
<br />
Schwa '''''o''''' is used as an epenthetic vowel (anaptyxis). When it is used to break consonant clusters (not indicated in native script) it is the simple schwa /ə/: *dŧ → ''doth'' /dəθ/ (man). When stressed, it is vernacularly realized as [ɘ], and in western dialects more clearly as [ɤ]: *dŧs → ''dothos'' [dəˈθɘˑs]<br />
<br />
Vowel ''a'' is [ɑ] after voiced consonants. Vowel ''æ'' is often more open [a], though, in Western dialects, it has merged with ''é''. <br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, there are only closing diphthongs which go up in the vowel chart:<br />
*Back: ou /ɔʊ̯/<br />
*Front: ai /äɪ̯/, ei /ei̯/, oi /œi̯/<br />
<br />
If the syllable border (glottal stop) is between vowels and they don't form a diphthong, apostrophe is used: ''tai'' (for long) vs. ''ta'i'' (past)<br />
*In native [[Sceptrian#Script|script]], separate graphemes for diphthongs exist and glottal stop is not marked.<br />
<br />
If diphthongs are followed by vowels, they are separated by a glottal stop in formal register. <br />
*In casual speech, ''ouV'' becomes ''owV'' and ''ViV'' ''VjV'': ''oua→ówa'' and ''aia→aja''. If the following vowel is the same, a glottal stop breaks the former diphthong and the ending vowel is lengthened: ''ai'i→a'ii''<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
<br />
===Onset===<br />
<br />
Basic [[w:Syllable#Structure|syllabic structure]] is CV, where the onset (beginning) consonant can be of any type. <br />
*It is possible to use liquids and approximants as '''glides''' (CLV) between the onset and the rime (ending). <br />
*Up to two consonants with same voicing may appear in the onset (CCV), especially fricative-plosive combinations, but never two plosives: ''stak'' (fence), ''fkot'' (nest), ''ksaru'' (guard). Affricate ''ts'' takes may be accompanied only by ''w'', ''j'', ''n'' or ''m'': ''tsma'' (doubt). Combination /sl/ has turned into /ɬ/.<br />
*Lateralization and aspiration may never appear together, and nasalized rhoticization is only found in Fanish dialect.<br />
<br />
===Nucleus=== <br />
<br />
The nucleus can be either a vowel or a liquid, thus CVC and CLC are also possible syllables. <br />
*Vowels (diphthongs included) may exist as a stand-alone nucleic syllable (V), mostly in the beginning or at the end of a word. <br />
*If nucleus is a liquid, plosives appear in codas only word-finally: ''dldlp'' /dˡl̩ˈdˡl̩p/ (bubble)<br />
<br />
===Coda=== <br />
<br />
The coda (final) may consist of up to three consonants with possible structures: N, P, F, L; NP, FP, LP; NF, PF, LF; NPF, FPF, LFP, LPF (Nasal, Plosive, Fricative, Liquid). <br />
*Final liquids appear as syllabic consonants<br />
*Approximants ''j'', ''w'' and plain voiced plosives never appear as coda (final) even though they may be written that way (no written schwa): ''nad'' /nä.də/ (stainy). Voiced fricatives may appear as coda. <br />
*In coda, plosives with lateral release, however, will reflect the voicing of the onset: ''gatl'' [gädˡl̩] (houses) vs. ''katl'' [kätˡl̩] (knobs). Vernacularly, the lateral approximant weakens into a voiceless variant [l̥] when in contact with voiceless consonants: ''gatl'' [gätl̥].<br />
<br />
Closed syllables, i.e. those ending in coda, are not as common word-medially as open syllables (ending in nucleus) are. When words are inflected, parts of codas tend to become onsets of the following syllable, if possible. Especially three-consonant clusters are rare word-medially and receive a schwa after a non-lateral stop: ''kamps'' /kämps/ (marsh) → ''kampsku'' → ''kamposku'' /ˈkäm.pəs.ku/ (at marsh)<br />
*Voicing status must be the same for consonants touching at syllable boundaries and the voiced one reduces into voiceless: ''*katbas''→''katpas'' /kätˈpäs/ (fern) vs. ''oist baku'' /œi̯st<sup>(h)</sup> bä.ku/ (under a table)<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
Primary '''stress''' in a word is most often on the second syllable, and when there are four or five syllables, secondary stress is placed onto the final syllable. When there are more syllables, minor stress is placed on even-numbered syllables. <br />
*If the to-be-stressed syllable contains the schwa ''o'' /ə/ or a syllabic consonant, the preceding syllable is stressed in two-syllable words and the following in words with more than three syllables.<br />
**In uninflected words, syllable with nuclear ''o'' is only stressed when it comes second and the preceding syllable has also ''o'' as nucleus. Then the stressed nucleus appears as [ɘ]. Contrast between stressed and non-stressed syllabic consonants may occur as voicing and devoicing respectively. <br />
*A non-final syllable with a long vowel or a diphthong is always stressed and steals the stress from its neighboring syllable. This also moves the secondary stress from final to penultimate syllable, if primary stress falls on first syllable.<br />
<br />
Inflected and affixed word forms have almost always the same stress as the base word (even monosyllabic with schwa): ''doth'' (man) → ''dothku'' [ˈdɘθ.ku] (near the man). <br />
*Vocative and ergative cases as well as inflections with long vowels make an exception: ''dothee'' /dəˈθe:/ (by the man), ''dothé'' /dəˈθɛ/ (O man), ''gatóo'' /gɑˈtɔ:/ (to the house)<br />
<br />
Interrogatives are formed by changing the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. This is indicated with ¿: ''¿Eikepoi?'' [ˈei̯˧˦ˈke˩.pœi̯˨˦] (Did you wash it?)<br />
<br />
==Morphophonology==<br />
<br />
===Vowel form===<br />
<br />
There are five ways of sound altering which may be used for grammatical purposes (mainly number, genitive case and imperfective aspect). In the native script the following are marked on the vowel.<br />
*Lengthening: ''paata'' /pä:tä/ (separation), ''ée'' [ɛ:]~[ɛe̯], ''óo'' /ɔ:/<br />
*Lateral (release): ''pló'' /pˡɔ/ (opposite to), ''tlaf'' /tˡäf/ (sprig) <br />
**Western dialects keep the tongue on the alveolar ridge during vowel pronunciation so that the vowels have a distinct l-sound. Historically, this may have lead to the syllabic l.<br />
*Aspiration/breathy voice: ''phó'' [pʰɔ]~[ɸɔ] (along), ''kébhar'' [kɛˈbʱɑ˞]~[kɛˈβɑ˞] (I will wash), ''tha'' [tʰä]~[θä] (abstract "it"), ''dhaka'' [dʱɑkä]~[ðɑkä] (abstract "that"). <br />
**Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head)<br />
*Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]]<br />
**Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as a short syllabic nasal consonant of the same place as the directly preceding or following consonant<br />
**Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!).<br />
*Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) <br />
**Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞:] (soup)<br />
<br />
===Consonant form===<br />
<br />
Combining sounds<br />
*Lateralization<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sl'' and ''zh'' respectively<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' → ''fl'' & ''w''<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' are geminated<br />
**''m'' & ''n'' → ''ng'' and ''ng'' → ''ńg''<br />
* Aspiration<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sh'' and ''zh''<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' are geminated<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' → ''lh'' and ''rh''<br />
* Voicing and aspiration<br />
**''r'' → ''qh'', ''l'' → ''ldh'', ''v'' → ''w''<br />
<br />
===Apophony===<br />
<br />
Apophony in the '''stressed syllable''' is used for example to express adjective gender and to create different verb forms.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Apophony<br />
|-<br />
!Root<br />
!1st<br />
!2nd<br />
|-<br />
|e<br />
|ee<br />
|é<br />
|-<br />
|o<br />
|ó<br />
|ø<br />
|-<br />
|a<br />
|aa<br />
|æ<br />
|-<br />
|u<br />
|uu<br />
|i<br />
|-<br />
|ai<br />
|ii<br />
|ei<br />
|-<br />
|ou<br />
|óo<br />
|oi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*When the stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting)<br />
*With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of ''é''.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Script=== <br />
[[File:Sceptrian.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Toneka script from the early sixth era. Notice that the vowel form info-box romanization should have "o" instead of "a".]]<br />
[[File:SceptrianTsrnet.JPG|500px|thumb|right|Tsrnet cursive script used for handwriting in modern Sceptre.]]<br />
The Sceptrian alphabet script was derived from the ancient temple marks as were the Aoman and Northern (Latin) scripts. The modern alphabet is called ''Tsoklóp Lushan''.<br />
<br />
Diacritics on vowels mark different [[Sceptrian#Vowel_form|sounds]]. The diacritics may be used with consonants as well, especially in the plural forms of consonant-ending nouns: ''gat̆'' (''gatl'' "houses"), ''doŧ̆'' (''dolth'' "men"). With the diacritics, letter ''ts'' can be lateralized into ''tsl'' or aspirated into ''tsh''.<br />
<br />
The native Sceptrian script has a long history of being unicameral, not distinguishing between the upper and lower case. Only during the sixth era under the Tyranny of West, the flow of refugees from the Coast of Temples encouraged the introduction of case separation. In the developed fonts, capital letters were derived from the traditional Toneka and small letters from the cursive Tsrnet.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Short and long letter names with explanations<br />
|-<br />
|aa<br>aat || ee<br>eet || ée<br>eet maatikipi<br>(opened e) || ii<br>iit || oo<br>oot || óo<br>oot guzbikipi<br>(deepened o) || uu<br>uut <br />
|-<br />
|ææ<br>aat evadh<br>(bright a) || øø<br>oot gudh<br>(dark o) || ai<br>aat zaithon<br>(rising a) || ei<br>eet zaithon<br>(rising e) || oi<br>oot zaithon<br>(rising o) || ou<br>óot bousoson<br>(falling o) ||<br />
|-<br />
| po<br>poot || bo<br>bóot || mo<br>mool || wo<br>wool || to<br>toot || do<br>dóot || <br />
|-<br />
| tho<br>toot hifdo<br>(windy t) || dho<br>dóot hifdo<br>(windy d) || no<br>nool || so<br>siit || sho<br>siit hifdo<br>(windy s) || zo<br>ziit || zho<br>ziit gudh<br>(dark z) <br />
|-<br />
| ngo<br>góot slenguhpi<br>(g using nose) || tso<br>tsiit || lo<br>lool || slo<br>lool hifdo<br>(windy l) || fo<br>fiit || vo<br>fiit gudh<br>(dark f) || jo<br>jool <br />
|-<br />
| ko<br>koot || go<br>góot || ho<br>hiit || qho<br>hiit surmudh<br>(strong h) || qo<br>koot venongp<br>(k being<br> swallowed) || ro<br>rool || <br />
|-<br />
|plo<br>looh tisk<br>(with l<br> mark) || pon<br>slenguhpi tisk<br>(using nose<br> mark) || por<br>tisk prung<br>(mark of<br> trill) || pho<br>tisk hifn<br>(mark of<br> wind) || poo<br>tisk spiing<br>(mark of<br> length) || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Romanization===<br />
<br />
====Modern====<br />
Consonant variation:<br />
*Letter ''r'' is used with consonants for /r̩/ and between vowels for /r/, but after vowels in the end of syllables for rhoticization ''or'' /ɚ/. Letter ''ŕ'' is used to emphasize the use of /r/ after vowels ''oŕ'' /ər/.<br />
*Similarly letter ''n'' can appear syllable-finally with nasalization but ''ń'' always as /n/: ''an'' /ã/ vs. ''ań'' /an/. <br />
*With ''ng'' /ŋ/, the accent signals lengthening ''nańgo'' /näŋ:ə/ or ''naŋŋo'' (sweaty).<br />
*Labialization of plosives is indicated by PuV (V is any vowel except ''u'') or with ''w''.<br />
*Breathry voice is indicated with an ''h'' straight after a plosive. The ''h'' is also used for corresponding fricatives which occur word-finally. This risk of confuse is one of the downsides of the simplified modern system: ''nath'' /näθ/ "a beggar" or /nätʰ/ "with stains".<br />
<br />
====Old====<br />
<br />
The old romanization system (or part of it) was used until western regions of Eastern Sceptre were joined with the Western Sceptre empire in 7th era 161, during the war against Empress Renula of Golden Islet. A revision was needed when both Sceptrian and Aoma were used in the same printing press and texts had to be distributed to westlang-using communities. Peter Martyea suggested in 7:189 that the payment according to number of pages may have favoured quick adaptation as the non-diacritic system induced much longer texts (see the comparison example).<br />
<br />
Consonants:<br />
*Nasal: '''ŋ''' ''ng'' /ŋ/<br />
**Texts from the first century of the seventh era use ''ǥ'' for word-initial /ŋ/.<br />
*Fricative: '''ŧ''' ''th'' /θ/, '''đ''' ''dh'' /ð/, '''ś''' ''sh'' /ʃ/, '''ź''' ''zh'' /ʒ/, '''ħ''' ''qh'' /χ/<br />
*Affricate: '''c''' ''ts'' /t͡s/, '''č''' ''tsh'' /t͡ʃ/<br />
*Lateral: '''š''' ''sl'' /ɬ/, '''ǩ''' ''kl'' /kˡ/, '''ǧ''' ''gl'' /gˡ/<br />
<br />
Compact equivalents of sound altering:<br />
*Lengthening with a bar: ''ṓ'' /ɔ:/ and ''ō'' /ə:/<br />
*Lateral release with a breve diacritic: ''tŏ'' /tˡə/<br />
*Nasalization with a tilde: ''õ'' /ə̃/, ''on'' /ən/<br />
*Rhotacization with a diaeresis: ''ö'' /ɚ/, ''or'' /ər/<br />
*Aspiration with a grave accent: ''pò'' /pʰə/, ''pô'' /pʰɔ/<br />
<br />
Comparison between the systems:<br />
*Old: Ǧëǩ śošēŧã <br />
*Modern: Glerkl shosleethan (maces of a knight)<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
The most complete study of the structure of pre-modern Sceptrian words was done by Porutingatu of Jerzónó in year 362 of the seventh era. She collected, grouped and analyzed the fusional morphemes and listed the new rules to replace the outdated writings from the sixth era. By 370, her work had led to a new interest in linguistics and ultimately to the founding of ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan'' (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) which has been unifying and regulating the language along with its orthography since then.<br />
<br />
Sceptrian utilizes [[w:Fusional_language|fusional]] [[w:Inflection|inflections]] and has an [[w:Ergative–absolutive_language|absolutive-ergative]] [[w:Morphosyntactic_alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]. The language is rather [[w:Head-directionality_parameter|head-initial]] and its primary [[w:Word_order|word order]] is verb-agent-object.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns are used to refer to e.g. people or things in sentences instead of using the original nouns. In Sceptrian, they exist in two numbers and are inflected according to six [[Sceptrian#Cases|'''cases''']]. <br />
<br />
====Personal====<br />
Second person includes polite versions as well which were adapted by Aoma-sperkers. Third person singular makes distinction between abstract (Ab), animate (An) and inanimate (In) pronouns while plural only between Ab-An and In. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Personal pronoun inflection'''<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! 1SG !! 1PL !! 2SG !! 2PL !! 2SG.POL !! 2PL.POL !! 3SG.Ab !! 3SG.An !! 3PL.A !! 3SG.In !! 3PL.In<br />
|-<br />
!ABS <br />
| na || mo || fo || po || Nith || With || tha || su || slo || hi || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
| næ || moslo || fø || poslo || Nithe || Widhes || thaa || suu || sloslo || hii || kloslo<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
| nai || mokli || foki || pokli || Nithki || Withkli || thai || swi || slokli || hiki|| klokli<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
| nar || moŕ || for || poŕ || Nithor || Withoŕ || thar || sur || sloŕ || hir || kloŕ<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
| nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh || thas || sus || slosh || his || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
| nape || moplo || fope || poplo || Nitti || Witti || thape || supe || sloplo || hipi || kloplo<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''Comitative''' case is used to indicate company: ''Mo slosh arakha.'' (We were with them yesterday.)<br />
*'''Causal''' describes the cause of an action or origin of something: ''Aitesosai næ su fope'' (I saw him because of (/thanks to) you), ''Hi supe foki.'' (It (is) from him to you.)<br />
<br />
3rd person abstract pronoun is used in the formal register when introducing or referring to a person of higher status.<br />
<br />
====Reflexive====<br />
Self-pronoun ''ru'' for '''reflexive''' and '''reciprocal''': ''tesosón ru'' (they are watching themself), ''ónlatepón ru'' (he is dancing by himself, alone) vs. ''ónlatepón su'' (he is dancing with him); ''sónkephón ru'' (they are washing each other) vs. ''sónkephón sloslo slo/soutu'' (they are washing them)<br />
*reflexive is easier with others: ''anlatepan'' (I'm dancing by myself); ''ankepan'' (I'm washing myself) vs. ''ankep'' ("I'm washing it"), ''kepan'' (I'm being washed)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
<br />
Simple words for "this/these" and "that/those". When demonstratives are used with [[Sceptrian#Nouns|nouns]], they behave similarly to [[Sceptrian#Adjectives|adjectives]]. In the following examples, note that Sceptrian lacks the [[Sceptrian#Verbs|verb "to be"]]: <br />
*As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.)<br />
*For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) <br />
*The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the head acts more like a specifying comment on the true sentence subject: ''Bouson ko qot.'' (That's falling, the rock, I mean.) <br />
<br />
See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]].<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Demonstrative pronoun inflection<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Case <br />
!colspan="2"| Proximal <br />
!colspan="2"| Distal <br />
|-<br />
!SG !! PL !! SG !! PL<br />
|-<br />
!ABS<br />
|ka || kla || ko || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
|kaa || klaa || kó || kló<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
|kai ||klai || koi || kloi<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
|kan ||klang || kon || klong<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
|kas || klash || kos || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
|kap || klapa || kop ||klopo<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Table of correlatives===<br />
<br />
Determiners follow their heads and agree in number and with the cases mentioned above in [[Sceptrian#Demonstrative|the table]], where DAT & LAT, COM & LOC, CAU & ABL and ABS & VOC are corresponding. Words follow the declension shown above or paradigms similar to [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun cases]]. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!rowspan="2"|Interrogative<br />
!colspan="2"|Demonstrative<br />
!colspan="5"|Quantifier<br />
|-<br />
!Proximal !! Distal !! Existential !! Elective !! Universal !! Negatory !! Alternative<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Determiner<br />
| sho || ka (SG)<br/>kla (PL) || ko<br />klo || jofa (some) || ota (any) || orka (every, all) || ze (no) || so (another)<br/>solo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="5"| Pronoun<br />
!Abstract<br />
| ashu || thaka || dhaka || jaafa || thata || thorka || theso || thaso<br />
|-<br />
!Animate<br />
| ¿soutu || saitu || soutu || jonfu || onta || ongka || souso || jonso<br />
|-<br />
!Inanimate <br />
| ¿ko || ka || ko || jofo || oto || orko || ze || so<br />
|-<br />
!Out of two<br />
| ¿tso || tsaka || tsoko || zho || tsoto || tsorko || tseso || tso<br />
|-<br />
!Out of many<br />
| ¿tsolo || tsalka || tsolko || zolo || tsolto || tsongko || tsleso || tsolo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="6"|Pro-adverb<br />
!Locative<br />
| sku || khau || khu || jofku || otku || orkhu || zengu || sokhu<br />
|-<br />
!Temporal<br />
| sko || kha || kho || jofko || otko || orkho || zeng || sokho<br />
|-<br />
!Comitative<br />
| shos || kas || kos || jofos || otos || orkos || zeos || sos<br />
|-<br />
!Causal<br />
| spe || kap || kop || jov || otop || orkop || zenep || sonop<br />
|-<br />
!Manner<br />
| shi || khai || khoi || jofai || otai || orkai || zei || soi<br />
|-<br />
!What kind of<br />
| shodh || kadh || kodh || jodhi || othi || ordhi || zodhi || sothi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Negative determiner ''ze'' has no plural form. Neither have pronouns "Out of two".<br />
*Demonstratives are used when referring to listed items of equal animacy: proximal with the former and distal with the latter: ''Aitesoshóji math kuthos. Óomidh soutu.'' (I saw a cat and a dog. The latter was large.)<br />
*Locative pro-adverb can be conjugated with lative, locative and ablative.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Nouns in Sceptrian form the basis of derivational morphology and even the cases are utilized when forming new words. They are declined according to two numbers and nine cases, and the seven declensions are grouped in three genders which affect the verb conjugation and adjective agreement.<br />
<br />
====Gender====<br />
<br />
There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes.<br />
*Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in vowels ''a, æ, o, ó, ø'' and ''i''. <br />
*Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h'', same voiced and affricates), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings.<br />
*Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group.<br />
In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull). Some archaic words remain in dialects and in poetic use.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
<br />
There are two numbers, singular and plural, but abstract ''i''-nouns and inanimate ''l''-nouns are always singular. The declension according to number is complicated and fused with the class/case system explained and tabulated below.<br />
<br />
====Cases====<br />
<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Unmarked base form for subjects of intransitive and objects of transitive verbs <br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agents of transitive verbs<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect object; alienable possession ''gat dothi'' (a house of (lit. "for") the man); comparison (with ADJ comparative)<br />
*Possessive (POS): Inalienable possession ''dhoku dothor'' (the man's head)<br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS): Using something; "with someone", replaces "and" as Latin [[wikt:-que|-que]]; in antipassive constructions<br />
*Lative (LAT): Movement to; with adpositions<br />
*Locative-temporal (LOC-TEMP): Place; time; with adpositions<br />
*Ablative (ABL): Movement from (+delative); causal<br />
*Vocative (VOC): addressing (people, gods); interjections ''Alæ!'' (Hello! lit. "Day!")<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Genders and desinences'''<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" style="width: 100px"| <br />
!colspan="3"| Abstract <br />
!colspan="6"| Animate <br />
!colspan="3"| Inanimate<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''A'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''i'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''F'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''N'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''u'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"|''P'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''l''<br />
|-<br />
|<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>|| ||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 100px"| Absolutive<br />
| A || Asl || i || F || (o)lF || N || Ning || u || ush || P || Pl || l<br />
|- <br />
! style=""| Ergative <br />
| AA || AslA || ii || Fee || Fele || Nee || Neng || uu || uushu || Pee || Ple || le<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Dative <br />
| Ak || Akl || ik || Fi || Fil || Ni || Nil || (u)ji || (u)wi || Pei || Plei || lei<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Possessive <br />
| An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Instrumental-comitative <br />
| Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Lative <br />
| AgA || AglA || iki || Fko || Fklo || Nong || Nongo || ugu || uglu || Póo || Plóo || lo <br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Locative-temporal <br />
| AkhA || AlkhA || ikhi || Fku || Fklu || Nung || Nungu || ukhu || ulkhu || Pu || Plu || lu<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Ablative <br />
| ApA || AplA || ipi || Fp(o) || Fpl(o) || Nop || Nopl || upu || uplu || PPo || PPol || lp<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Vocative <br />
| Ae || Asl || ii || Fé || lFé || Né || Nin || -wé || -wésh || Pé || Plé || lé<br />
|}<br />
*''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø''<br />
**Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø<br />
*''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts, tsl'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. <br />
*''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng''<br />
*''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q''<br />
**POS ''q''→''ng''<br />
**INS ending Ph marks breathy voice and may turn the plosive into corresponding fricative /ɸ, θ, x, χ/ if followed by a plosive.<br />
*- indicates that the original ending is replaced with the following: ''tup → tu'''m''''' (stick → stick's)<br />
<br />
====Possessive==== <br />
<br />
Different possessive forms and interpretations: <br />
*''Dativus possessivus'' (alienable): ''gat doth'''i''''' "the house which the man has temporarily settled in, i.e. rented"<br />
*Comitative case with alienable possessive suffix: ''doth gat''h'''''os''''' "man with his house which he has purchased"<br />
**Inalienable possessive suffix alters the meaning: ''doth gat''h'''''ozh''''' "man and his birthplace"<br />
*Possessive case (almost inalienable): ''gat doth'''or''''' "the house which was inherited and is now owned by the man". <br />
<br />
The noun in possessive case is not inflected further. With dative case, inflection may be utilized in order to distinguish the ''dativus possessivus'' from the indirect object or benefactive: ''Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli.'' "The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them." (Related to the feather ceremony when welcoming upper class members to a household.)<br />
<br />
'''Possessive affixes''', as shown in examples above, draw a distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: ''Óntesoson dothee gat'''s'''/vakuh'''oz'''.'' (A man is watching his house/ his own hand.) With the basic suffixes, the root is inflected first and then suffixed.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ Possessional suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!Person<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! ALIEN !! INAL !! ALIEN !! INAL <br />
|-<br />
!1st <br />
| (a)ń || (a)nga || (ó)m || (ó)ngó <br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
| (o)f || (ø)fo || (e)v || (ø)vø<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
| (o)s || (o)zh || (o)sl || (o)zhol<br />
|}<br />
*Irregular: Only VOC+possessive with 1SG: ''Pos'''n'''é!'' (My servant!), ''Polsmé!'' (Our servants!)<br />
<br />
'''2nd person polite suffixes''' are added to absolutive base and the endings are then declined according to abstract gender: <br />
*Singular: (a)tha, (a)tazha <br />
*Plural: (a)dhó, (a)dózhó <br />
*Example: ''gat'''atha'''pa'' (from Your house)<br />
<br />
See [[Sceptrian#Adverbial_clauses|adverbial clauses]] which utilize some possessive suffixes with [[Sceptrian#Non-finite_forms|non-finite verb forms]].<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
<br />
Adpositions are used with inflected nouns to add information about its location or relation to other nouns. Some Sceptrian adpositions can be used as stand-alone adverbs which may be conjugated according to noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====Prepositions====<br />
<br />
Prepositions are used with lative (to, towards), locative (at, near) and ablative (from) cases to alter the meaning.<br />
*''voi'' (in) forms illative, inessive, elative <br />
*''loi'' (out) for "out of", "outside" and "from outside"<br />
*''soi'' (on) to emphasize the surface aspect <br />
*''oist(i)'' (under) for movement under something<br />
*''roi'' (above) similarly to ''oist''<br />
*''boi'' (down) for "down (a surface / to)", "down in (somewhere)" and "from down"; as an adverb as well <br />
*''zoi'' (up) used like ''boi''<br />
*''moi'' (touching, around) with lative for terminative, locative for pertingent and ablative for initiative<br />
*''oil(i)'' (as) forms translative, essive, exessive<br />
*''koi'' (per) distribution: "for each", "every" (temporal), "from each"<br />
*''jon'' (... between) <br />
*''poi'' (... the middle of, among)<br />
*''tsoi'' (... front of; preceding) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = before<br />
*''hoi'' (... behind; following) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = after<br />
*''mots(i)'' (... on side)<br />
**combined with postpositional ''dei'' (right) or ''lai'' (left)<br />
**with time nouns in locative = ago<br />
<br />
====Postpositions====<br />
<br />
Postpositions appear with various cases and often come in groups.<br />
*''pón'' (through) with lative<br />
*''phó'' (along) with lative<br />
*''pló'' (opposite to, across) with locative<br />
*''sós'' (with) with comitative to express a greater degree of endowment (ornative); with ablative to indicate "without"; with lative for "in addition to"<br />
*''óp'' (about, concerning) with genitive; with ablative for "according to"<br />
*''ól'' (like) with genitive; as an adverb "similarly"<br />
*''jak'' (away, despite) with ablative; as an adverb as well<br />
*''mai'' (excluding) with ablative<br />
*''mak'' (except) with ablative<br />
*''mats'' (instead of) with ablative<br />
*''sai'' (including) with comitative<br />
*''sak'' (concerning, regarding) with comitative; with ablative to emphasize the causal aspect (due to, because of, thanks to)<br />
*''phe'' (for the sake of) with lative<br />
<br />
====Pronominal====<br />
<br />
When used with pronouns, separate adpositions only come with dative forms to indicate lative. Otherwise adpositions take possessive suffixes, inalienable for locative and alienable for ablative: ''voi nai'' (into me), ''voinga'' (inside me), ''voiń'' (from inside me)<br />
<br />
Of the polite possessive suffixes, alienable is added onto the adposition and then the entire compound is conjugated for lative, locative or ablative: ''voitha'' (in You; attributive), ''voithaga'' (into You), ''voithakha'' (inside You; predicative), ''voithapa'' (from inside You)<br />
<br />
===Derivational Morphology===<br />
<br />
Verbs and adjectives are derived from nouns by adding suffixes and in some cases prefixes as well.<br />
<br />
====Noun====<br />
<br />
Many nouns share same origins and these endings are the most common forms of derivation:<br />
*Suffixing verbs with once established ending vowels or consonant appropriate for the noun class. <br />
*place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix<br />
*collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish)<br />
**Archaic forms also add the prefix ''kl'' <br />
*being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy")<br />
**doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer)<br />
**experiencer, patient: ABS with ''(k)ois'' or ''(k)oit'' depending on animacy: ''kepois'' (person being washed)<br />
**origin: ABL with ''(o)su'': ''ukopposu'' (person from north)<br />
**characteristic (from abstract quality): INS with final duplicated vowel and ''tu'': ''luwishitu'' (beauty)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)n'' (AN) or ''(o)l'' (INAN): ''koson'' (wood), ''qotol'' (stone)<br />
*diminutive: reduplication of final sound with ''t'' between vowels and ''i'' between consonants: ''kosis'' (small tree)<br />
*augmentative: reduplication of final sound with ''g'' between vowels and ''a'' between consonants: ''kosas'' (great tree)<br />
**apotheosis: augmentative with ''a''-ending: ''kosonana'' (godwood)<br />
*abstract quality, feature: ABS suffixed with ''(k)oti'': ''dothoti'' (manliness)<br />
*'''gerund''' (act of doing): via derivated [[Sceptrian#Verb|verb]] suffixed with ''(o)pi'': ''glerkurpi'' (mace-battering)<br />
<br />
====Adjective====<br />
<br />
Different cases and affixes are used for the derivation:<br />
*similarity, having something: ''dh'' suffix to abstract gender and animate ''u''-ending; voicing of fricatives (''h→qh'', no change with affricates); nasals [[Sceptrian#Consonant_form|"lateralized"]] + ''o''; voicing of plosives + ''o'' (''q→g''); l-declension as in INS-COM: ''evadh'' (bright), ''dodh'' (masculine)<br />
**full of, having something: previous suffixed with ''ol'': ''mel muvol'' (waters full of fish)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)p'': ''kosonop'' (wooden)<br />
*origin, relation: ABL form with a final ''ó'' added or replacing the original ending vowel: ''kusupó'' (friendly)<br />
*absence, without: ''ti'' suffixed to VOC form: ''evæti'' (lightless=dark)<br />
*doing: ''on'' added after INS case: ''kephon'' (washing)<br />
*who did: INS with ''ompu'': ''kephompu'' (who washed = ''pessyt'' in Finnish)<br />
*done by: INS with ''empo'' and possibly inalienable possessive suffix: ''kephemponga'' (washed by me)<br />
*not done: LAT suffixed with ''tip'': ''kepóotip'' (unwashed)<br />
*experiencing: LAT suffixed with ''p'': kepóop (being washed)<br />
*result (wanted): LAT suffixed with ''pi'': ''kepóopi'' (washed=clean)<br />
**if unwanted: LAT suffixed with ''pot'': ''vangostóopot'' (drunk)<br />
*possible: POS with ''ta'': ''kenta'' (washable)<br />
*requiring: LOC with ''rt'': ''kepurt'' (needs to be washed)<br />
*opposite, negation: VOC with ''tot''<br />
<br />
Notice that plural forms of adjectives may be derived from plural nouns: ''dolth kep'''s'''on'' (men who are washing)<br />
<br />
====Verb====<br />
<br />
A declined core noun receives an ending which describes how the verb reflects the noun:<br />
*In some cases, the vowel ending of nouns may simply be removed or the absolutive of a consonant-ending noun may also serve as a verb.<br />
*ABS = "happens, is": ''kep'' (is washed)<br />
*COM = "using": ''tuph'' (is poked with a stick), ''glerkh'' (is hit with a mace)<br />
*POS + ''k'' = "similarity": ''melonk'' (is wet)<br />
*DAT + ''k'' = "making/becoming" (no ''k'' with Abstract): ''zurmu'' → ''zurmjik'' (strong person → is strengthened), ''zurp'' → ''zurpeik'' (strong, durable object → hardens) & ''zurma'' → ''zurmak'' (strength → intensifies)<br />
*LAT + ''t'' = "movement, quasi-inceptive": ''glerkóot'' (swings a mace, INTR), ''melot'' (flows), ''latepóot'' (is persuaded to dance, INTR; begins a dance with, TR), ''lehkot'' (runs) <br />
*LOC + ''r'' = "frequentative": ''glerkur'' (is battered with a mace), ''melur'' (rains; drips)<br />
*VOC + ''k'' = "momentane": ''glerkék'' (is hit once with a mace), ''melék'' (splashes once)<br />
*POS + ''(o)v'' = "consider, feel": ''vongv'' (is considered strange = ''oudoksutaan'' in Finnish)<br />
* Several endings can be stacked on verbs without turning it into a noun in between: ''melurék'' (shower of rain falls), ''tup(o)hkur'' (is often poked with a stick). When deriving, the ''r''-ending are declined according to the ''l''-paradigm.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Sceptrian agree with the gender, number and cases of their head. When an adjective is used as a predicative, it comes before its head, but when as an attributive, it comes after. Adjective declension follows approximately the same rules as [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun declension]]. In the common ''dh''-ending F-declension, ''o'' is added between ''dh'' and case-endings with consonants. Changes in both casual and poetic speech include mirroring onset into coda: ''dothklu jadaadh'''ulk''''' (near nice men)<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+DH-declension<br />
! !! ABS !! ERG !! DAT !! POS !! INS !! LAT !! LOC !! ABL !! VOC<br />
|-<br />
!SG<br />
|dh || dhee || dhi || dhor || dhos || dh'''ok''' || dh'''uk''' || dh'''op''' || dhé<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
| ldh(o) || dhele || dhil || dhoŕ || dhosh || dh'''olk''' || dh'''ulk''' || dh'''olp''' || ldhé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Sceptrian#Apophony|Apophony]] in the stressed syllable is used to indicate the gender: base for inanimate, first apophony with animate and second with abstract gender: ''eja jadædh, doth jadaadh, latep jadadh'' <br />
<br />
Polite adjectives are formed from the abstract form with predicative prefix ''nga'' and attributive suffix ''æ'': ''ngaluwidh Nith'' (You are beautiful), ''shosleetha luwidhæ'' (a beautiful knight)<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
<br />
'''Positive''' of an adjective is the base form.<br />
*When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.)<br />
*Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle.<br />
*When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii faaldh dolth lutush.'' (As many men as women.) <br />
<br />
'''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). <br />
*Manner quatifiers ''orkai, jofai'' and ''zei'' can be used to indicate the degree: ''luwidhé orkai'' (much more beautiful), ''luwidhé jofai'' (slightly more beautiful), ''luwidhé zei'' (not more beautiful)<br />
*When comparing two nouns adjective comes first (predicative comparative), the standard acquires the dative case, and comparative forms agree with their head in gender and number: ''luwildhé po swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*Pronoun comparison is also possible to construct with alienable possessional suffixes: ''luwildhév swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*When adjective comparative is not included, postpositional ''fadhé'' (more) or ''føødhi'' (less) can be used with noun plurals: ''dolth faldhé lutwi'' (more men than women)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative''' is similar to noun apotheosis: the ending is reduplicated with ''é'' between consonants and ''j'' between vowels, and an ''a'' added to the end: ''luwidhédha'' (most beautiful). Similarly to comparative, ''ti'' gives the meaning of "least": ''luwidhédhati'' (least beautiful).<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly)<br />
<br />
Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh óomidhé'' (very beautiful < "largely")<br />
<br />
'''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative adverb''' is similar to adjective superlative in its reduplication but with an ''æ''-ending: ''zaivie jadædhédhæ'' (you sing most pleasantly)<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Missing verbs: <br />
*"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man)<br />
**Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith)<br />
**Showing tense-aspect:<br />
***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past)<br />
***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective<br />
***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense<br />
***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" <br />
**Vernacularly, [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|proximal demonstrative pronouns]] are used as copulae with corresponding grammatical gender: ''Trs saitu Berats.'' ("Smith this Berats." Berats is a smith.)<br />
* "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man")<br />
<br />
====Conjugation====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, primary conjugation of verbs indicates person, number and tense-aspect, and it includes affixation and apophony. Conjugation for different [[Sceptrian#Mood|moods]] is slightly more complex.<br />
<br />
=====Root=====<br />
<br />
Verbs are given in their 3SG.INAN GNO form which is used to form all of the third person forms. With first and second person subjects, the first apophony is used in indicative inceptive and future. Polite second person forms use the second apophony<br />
<br />
=====Affixes=====<br />
<br />
Fusional conjugation affixes convey the person, number, tense and aspect (and honorific). Subject and object suffixes are almost always used with verbs, the antipassive being the only exception. Agent prefixes aren't often used in the casual register, mostly to form the [[Sceptrian#Reflexive|reflexive]], but they have to be used in the formal register. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || ha || e || he || ahi || aqhi || ó || hó || (o) || l<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || han || en || hen || ang || aing || ón || hón || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| ast || last || est || lest || æst || hæst || ós || lós || os || osl<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| ajin || hajin || ejin || hejin || azing || izing || ójin || hójin || oin || loin<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || hai || ei || hei || athi || idhi || óji || hóji || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| har || +har || her || +her || athar || idhar || hór || +hór || ho || +ho<br />
|}<br />
* initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive<br />
* initial ''h'' is for aspiration of the final plosive or simply ''h'' after a vowel<br />
**if the final plosive is already breathy, ''o'' is added after it<br />
*+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration<br />
**simple ''h'' becomes ''qh''<br />
*Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.) Note the second apophony due to the abstract gender.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || sa || e || se || æ || hæ || ó || só || o || lo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || san || en || sen || nga || ngai || ón || són || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| tsa || tsla || tse || tsle || tsæ || tshæ || tsó || tsló || so || slo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| jan || zhan || jen || zhen || izæ || izhæ || jón || zhón || i || li<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || sai || ei || sei || thæ || dhæ || jó || zhó || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| ar || sar || er || ser || thar || dhar || ór || sór || or || lor<br />
|}<br />
*Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.)<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ónbouson dothee pof.'' (A man (ERG) is lifting a feather (ABS).), ''Bousón doth.'' (The man falls.) ''Bouson pof.'' (The feather (ABS) falls.).<br />
<br />
====Tense====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, verbs are conjugated for three tenses: past, present and future. These tenses describe when an action took place relative to current moment as their names indicate. <br />
<br />
====Aspect====<br />
<br />
Gnomic-static aspect is used to indicate general truths ''Zaitó Hala.'' (sun rises) and static situations ''Mépa lusha.'' (I can speak Sceptrian). It can be used with expressions of time to specify when something was static ''Petsipha kas arakha.'' (dress-STAT.1SG this.COM yesterday.TEMP "I was dressed in these clothes yesterday (as well).")<br />
<br />
Present progressive describes dynamic actions ''Anbaplóph lusha kha.'' (I'm reading Sceptrian at the moment). Present inceptive is used when an action is about to begin or someone is starting to do something.<br />
*Inceptive is only used once: Subject inceptive with intransitive and mostly agent inceptive with translative verbs. Object ending is either PRES.PROG, when something was begun only a moment ago, or FUT, when something is about to begin.<br />
**Translative object inceptive if the object caused the initialization: ''Órlateepast.'' (He is about to take me to dancing through my initiative.)<br />
<br />
Past imperfective is used with continuous activities which were happening before the present. The contrasting perfective aspect describes the event as a whole and having an endpoint in the past.<br />
<br />
In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used.<br />
<br />
Endings with different tenses and aspects may be mixed in some cases:<br />
*PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) <br />
*PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while))<br />
<br />
====Mood====<br />
<br />
Moods express speaker's attitude towards the subject or their knowledge of it. They are divided into realis and irrealis moods: the former expresses factual statements while the latter indicates that an event hasn't taken place or the speaker is uncertain of a situation.<br />
<br />
=====Realis=====<br />
<br />
'''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well)<br />
<br />
'''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for supposedly factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.)<br />
<br />
=====Irrealis=====<br />
<br />
'''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?)<br />
*The change in stress does not affect the apophony.<br />
<br />
'''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) <br />
*The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!)<br />
<br />
'''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original stressed syllable: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: '''''la'''latép'' (may dance), '''''ak'''aktæsos'' (may hear), ''rorøt'' (may go)<br />
*The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject.<br />
*The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished<br />
<br />
=====Particles=====<br />
<br />
Particles are placed after a verb to alter or to specify its meaning.<br />
<br />
Realis<br />
*''pai'' mirative (with soft imperative in present): ''Rótóji pai!'' (He went!?)<br />
**with adjectives or as an adverb: ''Luwi pai!'' (How beautiful!) <br />
<br />
Evidentials (with causatives)<br />
*''atasi'' hearsay: ''Rotóji tasi fope.'' (I heard from you that he went.)<br />
*''tesei'' visual: ''Rótoutóji tesei nape.'' (I didn't see him go.)<br />
<br />
Irrealis<br />
*''norka'' dubitative (with subjunctive): ''Rorøtóji norka.'' (I doubt he went.)<br />
*''gana'' volitive (with future subjunctive): ''Lalatépar gana.'' (I wish I could dance.)<br />
<br />
Conditional (with subjunctive)<br />
*''ta'' apodosis: ''Arziizeither ta'' (I will raise you...)<br />
*''-ti-'' infixed between reduplicated form for protasis: ''boutiboisen'' (if you fall)<br />
<br />
Hortatives (with soft imperative which itself works as an adhortative or dehortative with negation (unwillingness))<br />
*Cohortative: ''Latéprlast kha!'' (Let's dance now!), ''Rótrlastonget khugu.'' (Let's not go there.)<br />
*''jokæ'' exhortative (inhortative through negation): ''Rótrest jokæ.'' (You really should go.)<br />
<br />
'''Formal''' register differences:<br />
*''aktasosai'' (hears) conjugated for hearsay: ''Røtathi aiaktasosóji.'' (I heard from her that you left.)<br />
*''tesos'' (sees) conjugated for visual evidentiality: ''Rotóji tesosai.'' (I saw her go.)<br />
*''tsmaadhoré'' (doubtfully) used for dubitative<br />
*''tutaadhoré'' (wishfully) used for volitive<br />
*''alké'' permissive with dative: ''Rótest alké foki.'' (You may leave.)<br />
**prohibitive with negated (inability) imperative infinitive: ''Rótrostodi alké foki.'' (You aren't allowed to leave.)<br />
*both conditional particles are used separately and they are prefixed with the subjunctive reduplication: ''Arziizeither zaita bouboisen bouti.'' (I will raise you if you fall.)<br />
<br />
'''In literature''' to express the peaking pitch of ironical statements and lowered pitch of sarcastic expressions:<br />
*''jø'' verbal irony: ''Jótesosoi melurpi, jóbatophoi "Luwidh jø hi loi khu".'' (He saw the rain and said: "''Beautiful'' day out there")<br />
*''gæ'' sarcasm: ''Uu, eiluwikoi gæ pai.'' (Oh, ''how beautiful'' you made it.)<br />
<br />
====Negation====<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Negation affixes<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Manner→<br />
! Inability<br />
!colspan="6"| Unwillingness<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Form→<br />
!2nd apophony +infix<br>(before patient-suffix)<br />
!colspan="3"|Intranslative<br>suffix<br />
!colspan="3"|Translative<br>infix (after agent-prefix)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Person→<br />
!All<br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!SG<br />
|ost<br />
|net<br />
|fep<br />
|set<br />
|no<br />
|fo<br />
|so<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|osht<br />
|nget<br />
|vep<br />
|slet<br />
|ngo<br />
|flo<br />
|slo<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|PST<br />
|out<br />
|colspan="3"|nait<br />
|colspan="3"|me<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|FUT<br />
|oz<br />
|colspan="3"|nort<br />
|colspan="3"|mor<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse'''fo'''lateephar?'' (You don't want to begin dancing with me?)<br />
<br />
'''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.)<br />
<br />
Second apophony of negation affixes with subjunctive mood: ''Rorøthórn'''ø'''rt.'' (He may not be willing to go.)<br />
<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
<br />
=====Gerund=====<br />
*Base nouns or their abstract variants may serve as gerunds, which describe the action of doing, but otherwise they are created with the suffix ''(o)pi'' added to a verb root. The suffic also helps to distinguish the forms.<br />
<br />
=====Infinitives=====<br />
*PRES ''-odi'', PST ''-oudi'', FUT ''ordi''<br />
*used with modal verbs<br />
*subjunctive form created with duplication<br />
<br />
=====Participles=====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian participles work as adjectives. Following table shows which "case" and suffix the verb base (or gerund in formal register) takes.<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Present participle suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!IPFV<br />
!PFV<br />
|-<br />
!Patientive (LAT)<br />
|''p''<br />
|''pi/pot''<br />
|-<br />
!Negative (LAT)<br />
|<br />
|''tip''<br />
|-<br />
!Active (INS)<br />
|rowspan="2"|''on''<br />
|''ompu''<br />
|-<br />
!Agentive (INS)<br />
|''empo''<br />
|}<br />
*Also the "requiring" (FUT) form LOC+''rt'' and "possible" (GNO) POS+''ta'' <br />
*Past forms are created by adding ''i'' to the end: ''kephoni'' (was being washed)<br />
*Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed)<br />
*Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]]<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, auxiliary verbs are conjugated only for subject which may act as the agent of the clause. The verbs can either precede (dynamic, deontic) or come after (epistemic) different verb infinitives. Since regular object-patient conjugation can't be used, objects have to be written (no pro-drop) and they are declined into instrumental-comitative case.<br />
*''tut'' "want" (from ''tuta'' "craving, wish"): ''Tutajin kepoudi his.'' (I wanted to wash it.)<br />
**infinitive in lative case for "want something to be done": ''Tutan kepordiki his.'' (I want it to be washed.)<br />
**"be going to" (FUT): ''Tuutar latepordi.'' (I'm going to dance.)<br />
**"wish" (SBJV) mostly as the subjunctive of the absent ''to be''-verb: ''Tutitan khau fos.'' (I wish you were here) <br />
*''mép'' "can, know how to" (dynamic) (from ''mépi'' "skill"): ''Mépa latepodi'' ("I can dance"; notice gnomic-static mood)<br />
*''kuut'' "can, may" (deontic / epistemic) (from ''kuutó'' "possibility"): ''Kuutest rotordi.'' (You may leave.), ''Fendógópot kuutó pai.'' (He may unexpectedly be dead.)<br />
**particle ''nor'' added after the verb for lower possibility i.e. "could, might": ''Fendógópi kuut nor.'' (It might be dead.)<br />
**particle ''ga'' added for "should, must": ''Fendógópi kuut ga.'' (It should be dead, as we wanted.)<br />
*''khet'' "must" (deontic) (from ''kheti'' "necessity"): ''Khetan rotodi.'' (I must go now), ''Kheetar rotordi.'' (I must go soon)<br />
*''khurd'' "dare" (from ''khurdi'' "daring"): ''¿Khurde glerkékodi nas?'' (Do you dare hit me with a mace?)<br />
<br />
Mixing tenses: <br />
*''Tutitai latepordi.'' SBJV.want-PST.PFV.1SG dance-INF.FUT "I would've wanted to dance"<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian distinguishes between two voices, active and antipassive. Passive is very similar to active since Sceptrian is absolutive-ergative, and thus isn't considered a true change in voice. Antipassive is used to reduce the valency of the verbs by removing the object of a transitive clause.<br />
<br />
Active construction: verb-agent-object and verb-object-agent are used so that a comment (rheme) precedes the topic (theme). [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|Emphasizing clitics]] are used to mark the topic. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Ónzaiton dothee pof.<br />
|IPA = /ɔ̃zaɪ̯tə̃ dəθe: pəf/<br />
| morphemes = ón-zait-on doth-ee pof-Ø<br />
| gloss = 3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV man-ERG feather-ABS<br />
| translation = A man is lifting a feather.<br />
}} <br />
<br />
Passive construction: To demote the agent (ERG), it's either removed or inflected into causal ablative (ABL). Verb is only conjugated for the object.<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Zaiton pof (dothpo).<br />
|IPA = /zaɪ̯tə̃ pəf (dəθpə)/<br />
| morphemes = zait-on pof-Ø (doth-po)<br />
| gloss = lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV feather-ABS (man-ABL)<br />
| translation = A feather is being lifted (by a man).<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Antipassive''' construction: Agent (ERG) transforms into subject (ABS) and object (ABS) takes the instrumental-comitative (INS) case. Word order becomes SV(O), and the verb is conjugated according to the agent only and the stressed syllable undergoes second [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]]. The verb is also suffixed with the emphasizing clitic ''ma'' in the formal register. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Doth ónzeit(ma) (pofos).<br />
|IPA = /dəθ ɔ̃zei̯t(mä) (pəfəs)/<br />
| morphemes = doth-Ø ón-zeit-Ø(or =ma) (pof-os)<br />
| gloss = man-ABS ANTIP\3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-ANTIP(or =ANTIP.FORM) (feather-INS)<br />
| translation = The man is lifting (a feather). <br />
}}<br />
<br />
Instrument and turning it into an agent:<br />
* ''Ónzaiton dothee pof vakuhosozh.'' (...with his own hand...)<br />
**''Ónzaiton pof vakuhp dothir.'' (the feather is raised by the man's hand)<br />
**''Onzaiton pof tuph dothi'''sh''' slokli.'' (The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them.) Inanimate agent conjugation, and dative of possession is inflected to avoid misinterpretation!<br />
* ''Vakuh ónzeit pofos.'' (The hand lifts something, which happens to be a feather)/(someone intentionally lifts a feather with their hand) Notice animate conjugation!<br />
**''Tup onzeit dothpo pofos.'' (The stick, which is being held by a man, lifts something, which happens to be a feather) ABL as causative since inanimate ''tup''.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
Decimal base was adopted due to commerce, but traces of the former octal base remain. <br />
<br />
Numerals are placed before their head. Last part of a cardinal determiner agrees with case through matching declension: ''op'''l''' tupl'' (two sticks)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Numeral system<br />
|-<br />
! Number <br />
! Number !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional !! Multiplicative adverb !! Multiplicative adjective !! Group !! Polygon<br />
|-<br />
!Zero<br />
| ozi || oz || ozhi || - || zeng (never) || - || ze (no) || -<br />
|-<br />
!One<br />
| ipi || ip || iphi || liku (whole) || ohu (once) || ipitse (onefold) || ipisi (singular) || ipirt (dot) <br />
|-<br />
!Two <br />
| opi || op || ophi || lopu (half) || ophu (twice) || opitse (twofold) || opisi (pair) || opart (line)<br />
|-<br />
!Three<br />
| oki || ok || okhi || loku || okhu || okitse || okisi || okart (triangle)<br />
|-<br />
!Four<br />
| óppi || óp || óphi || lóppu || óphu || óphitse || óphisi || ópart <br />
|-<br />
!Five<br />
| ofi || of || offi || lofu || offu || ofitse || ofisi || ofart<br />
|-<br />
!Six<br />
| ókki || ók || ókhi || lókku || ókhu || ókhitse || ókhisi || ókart<br />
|-<br />
!Seven<br />
| omi || om || ongi || lomu || ongu || omitse || omisi || omart<br />
|-<br />
!Eight<br />
| ngovi || ngov || ngovvi || longovu || ngovvu || ngovitse || ngovisi || jart<br />
|-<br />
!Nine<br />
| ngoipi || ngoip || ngoiphi || longoipu || ngoiphu || ngoipitse || ngoipisi || ngoipart<br />
|-<br />
!Ten<br />
| jopi || jop || jophi || lojopu || jophu || jopitse || jopisi || jopart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!Eleven<br />
!Twelve<br />
!Thirteen<br />
!Fourteen<br />
!Fifteen<br />
!Sixteen<br />
!Seventeen<br />
!Eighteen<br />
!Nineteen<br />
!Twenty<br />
|-<br />
| ngoki <br />
| ngópi <br />
| ngofi<br />
| ngóki<br />
| ngomi <br />
| ophungovi <br />
| jopomi<br />
| jopingovi<br />
| jopingoipi<br />
| ophujopi<br />
|-<br />
!Twenty-one<br />
!Thirty<br />
!Fourty<br />
!Fifty<br />
!Sixty<br />
!Sixty-four<br />
!Sixty-five<br />
!Seventy<br />
!Eighty<br />
!Ninety<br />
|-<br />
| ophujopipi <br />
| okhujopi<br />
| offungovi <br />
| offujopi <br />
|ókhujopi<br />
| mouti<br />
| moutipi<br />
|ongujopi<br />
|ngowopi<br />
|ngoiphujopi<br />
|-<br />
!One hundred<br />
!One hundred<br/>and twenty-two<br />
!One hundred<br/>and sixty-six<br />
!Two hundred<br />
!Thousand<br />
!Three thousand<br/>four hundred<br />
!Ten thousand<br />
!Hundred thousand<br />
!Million<br />
!Billion<br />
|-<br />
| toti <br />
|toti(s)<br>ophujopopi<br />
|toti(s)<br>moutókki<br />
|ophutoti<br />
| mopi<br />
|okhumopi(s)<br>óphutoti<br />
|tothutoti<br />
|tothumopi<br />
|hamisi<br />
|mowisi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Multiplicative adverb form is used in front of the powers of ten (tens, hundreds, ...)<br />
*Digits are annexed into the tens by using the cardinal or determiner form depending whether the digit begins with a vowel or not.<br />
*Fractions are constructed by placing the ''l(o)''-prefixed form after the multiplicative number: ''okhu lóppu'' ("thrice one quarter" = three quarters). The noun is in ablative case and only the fraction is inflected: ''lopu'''ji''' tuppo'' (for one half of a stick)<br />
*Large numbers (from hundred) are written separately from smaller, but in formal register ''s''-letter is added between each power of ten.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
*VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive<br />
* possessives follow nouns<br />
* predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns<br />
<br />
===Emphasizing clitics===<br />
<br />
Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton dothee'''noh''' pof.'' (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. ''Ónzaiton dothee pof'''ma'''.'' (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used with verbs in antipassive constructions.<br />
<br />
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) <br />
<br />
The suffixes are also used with alienable possessive forms to separate the possessor from indirect objects. Chosen depending on the ergativity of the possessum: ''Jóvakuhoi suu pof swi'''ma''' swi.'' (He gave her feather to him.)<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
<br />
====Independent====<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Conjunction====<br />
<br />
coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?)<br />
<br />
====Noun clauses====<br />
<br />
WIP ... to be redone<br />
*Infinitive.tense + ... + causatives: ''Tesosan kepó vakuhos supe.'' (I see that he washes his hands) vs. ''Onluvakan kep'''óo''' vakuhos supe.'' (The washing of his hands brings me pleasure.)<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
<br />
Nominalizing relative clauses with participles is common.<br />
<br />
Using [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|an emphasizing clitic]] to mark the antecedent for the class-appropriate proximal demonstrative pronoun (thaka/saitu/ka declined for number) which works as a relative pronoun - case chosen according to the embedded clause: <br />
*''Rotóji dothma saituh latepai.'' (leave-PST.PFV.3SG man.ABS-EMPH.ABS P.PROX.AN-COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The man, with whom I danced, left.") <br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahul dothelenos saitush latepai.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS man-PL.ERG-EMPH.ERG P.PROX.AN-PL.COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The men with whom I danced are starting to drink beer.")<br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahulma dothele ka tutitai vangosordi.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS-EMPH.ABS man-PL.ERG P.PROX.INAN SBJV-want-PST.PFV.1SG drink-INF.FUT "Men are starting to drink the beer which I would've wanted to drink."<br />
<br />
====Adverbial clauses====<br />
<br />
non-finite forms + possessive suffixes to indicate subject<br />
<br />
====Conditional clauses====<br />
<br />
subjunctive as explained in verb particle section<br />
<br />
====Indirect speech====<br />
<br />
==Register==<br />
<br />
Different endings which reflect the conversation situation: speakers, familiarity, formality, location... <br />
<br />
===Intimate===<br />
<br />
Agent prefixes aren't used. No ''t'' in inceptive. Due to apophony, subject suffix can be dropped from FUT/INCEP if 1st or 2nd person distinction is clear.<br />
<br />
===Casual===<br />
<br />
In casual register, verb forms are chosen differently when the subject is agent-like (he dances) or patient-like (he fell): ''latepóji'' (he danced AN) vs. ''bousoi'' (he fell INAN)<br />
<br />
===Formal===<br />
<br />
Mandatory use of pronouns and agent prefixes.<br />
<br />
One may use inanimate verb forms as anti-honorific? ''Ondakon næ ka Nithki.'' (I humbly offer this to You)<br />
<br />
Apophony of basic prepositions with root ''oi'': ''Oisti Hala, óosti vakuhanga, ousti qorel'' (under the Sun, under my hand, under the earth)<br />
<br />
In formal register, it is preferred to use only animate nouns as agents while abstract and inanimate are as antipassive subjects: ''luwi... nas'' ("beauty-of.yours it-un-eye-ful-makes me-with", your beauty makes me blind) vs. ''en fø na'' (you are making me blind)<br />
<br />
Distinction between abstract and animate in some categories, such as verb conjugation (''wa'')<br />
<br />
Can people with higher status be abstract or do they occupy a special animate category? (æ inside?)<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
See the [[Sceptrian/Dictionary|dictionary page]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian&diff=35708Sceptrian2015-07-08T10:19:20Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Participles */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Construction}}<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Sceptrian<br />
|nativename = [[File:Lusha_name.png|300px]]<br>''Batop Lushan''<br />
|pronunciation = [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ]<br />
|region = Western Central World<br />
|states = Sceptre<br />
|speakers = 29,200,000 <br />
|date = 7th 641<br />
|familycolor = #d3ffce<br />
|fam1 = West-Herookuan<br />
|fam2 = Lutian<br />
|fam3 = Sceptrian branch<br />
|creator=Ahuelni<br />
|setting=Akekata<br />
|dialects = Yerzonian, Mulish, Fanish <br />
|script = Toneka alphabet<br />
|nation = Empire of Sceptre<br />
|minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia<br />
|agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language)<br />
|map = Lusha_regions.jpg<br />
|mapsize = 300<br />
|mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects<br />
}}<br />
{{ClassMeter<br />
|Name = Sceptrian<br />
|NativeName = Batop Lushan<br />
|Type = Fusional<br />
|Alignment = Absolutive-ergative<br />
<br />
|adjective = final<br />
|adposition = mixed<br />
|adverb= final<br />
|article= mixed<br />
|relativeclause = final<br />
|nounclause = final<br />
|order = VSO<br />
<br />
|Tonal = no<br />
|Genders = 3<br />
|Declined = yes<br />
|Conjugated = yes<br />
|Case = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Definiteness = no<br />
|Gender = yes<br />
|Voice = yes<br />
|Mood = yes<br />
|Person = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Tense = yes<br />
|Aspect = yes<br />
|Phonology = 100<br />
|NounCases = 100<br />
|NounDef = 100<br />
|NounNumbers = 100<br />
|NounGender = 100<br />
|VerbPerson = 100<br />
|VerbNumber = 100<br />
|VerbAspect = 90<br />
|VerbTense = 100<br />
|VerbMood = 90<br />
|VerbVoice = 80<br />
|AdjCase = 100<br />
|AdjNumber = 100<br />
|AdjDef = 100<br />
|AdjGen = 100<br />
|AdjComparative = 100<br />
|AdjSuperlative = 100<br />
|Supine = 90<br />
|Gerund = 90<br />
|Participle = 90<br />
|Infinitive = 90<br />
|Modality = 90<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ] or simply ''lusha'') is an ''a priori'' [[w:Artistic_language|artistic language]] created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 29 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking [[Khattish]] and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian and its dialects feature 51 phonetic consonants, some of them with interesting lateral features. The language also has 25 phonetic vowels: twelve short, nine long and four diphthongs. Nasalization, rhotacization and breathy voice are used phonemically. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
If the romanization symbol is the same as in IPA, it is not duplicated. Not bolded romanization indicates that the sound appears as a vernacular or dialectal version.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 830px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px" colspan="2"|<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Uvular<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| [ɱ]<br />
| <br />
| '''n (ń)''' [n]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''t'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''k'''<br />
| '''q'''<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''b'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''d'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''g'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Breathy<br />
| '''ph bh'''<br>[pʰ] [bʱ]<br />
|<br />
|'''th dh'''<br>[tʰ] [dʱ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''kh gh'''<br>[kʰ] [gʱ]<br />
|'''qh'''<br>[qʰ]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| '''pl bl'''<br />[pˡ] [bˡ]<br />
| <br />
| '''tl dl'''<br />[tˡ] [dˡ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''kl gl'''<br/>[kˡ] [gˡ]<br />
| '''ql'''<br/>[qˡ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| ph [ɸ]<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| '''th''' [θ]<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''sh''' [ʃ]<br />
| '''h''' [ç]<br />
| '''kh h''' [x]<br />
| '''qh''' [χ]<br />
| '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''w''' bh [β]<br />
| '''v'''<br />
| '''dh''' [ð]<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| '''zh''' [ʒ]<br />
| <br />
| gh [ɣ]<br />
| <br />
| h [ɦ]<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''sl''' [ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Affricate<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ts''' [t͡s] <br />
| '''tsh''' [t͡ʃ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''tsl''' [t͡ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Approximant<br />
!Non-lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''j'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''l''' [l] [l̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| pr [ʙ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''r (ŕ)''' [r] [r̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The liquids ''r'' and ''l'' can appear as '''syllabic consonants''': ''tlsl'' /tˡl̩ɬ/ (shallow), ''prk'' /pr̩k/ (wagon) and ''trs'' /tr̩s/ (smith)<br />
*Vernacularly, both syllabic and obstruent-following alveolar trill ''r'' and lateral approximant ''l'' are pronounced as voiceless [r̩̊], [r̥], [l̩̊] and [l̥] when in contact with only voiceless consonants: ''trs'' [tr̩̊s] (smith) contrasting with ''trls'' [tr̩s] (while standard /trəls/) (smiths); ''gatl'' [gɑtl̥] (houses) whose pronunciation approaches [gɑtɬ]. <br />
**'''Meslatu Hirke''' made his disputed suggestion in 7:693 that a similar process had led to the birth of ''sl'' as plural indicator, when original plural ''l'' turned first into voiceless and then into ''sl'' after a word-final glottal stop, which has disappeared entirely. <br />
*In eastern dialects, ''pr'' is realized as [ʙ] and ''tr'', ''tsr'' and ''trs'' often as [r̝]. In the dialects, aspirated plosives have been fully spirantized into their fricative counterparts, e.g. [tʰ]>[θ].<br />
*Fricatives show properties of syllabic consonants word-initially and word-finally.<br />
<br />
Nasal [ɱ] only appears as an allophone of nasals with labio-dental sounds /f/ and /v/. Before velar sounds (e.g. /k/) nasals turn similarly into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
Letter ''h'' has four allophones: initial is always [h] despite frontness, [ç] appears elsewhere with front vowels, [x] appears word-finally and [h~ɦ] word-medially with back vowels ''tihtóhnah'' [tiçˈtɔɦ.näx] (assassinator). It's also used after consonants to indicate breathy voice.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 390px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| <br />
| '''u'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-mid<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| o<br/>[ɘ]<br />
| o<br/>[ɤ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
|<br />
| '''o'''<br/>[ə]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''é ø'''<br />[ɛ] [œ]<br />
|<br />
| '''ó'''<br />[ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
|'''æ'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
|'''a'''<br />[ä]<br />
|a<br />[ɑ]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
All the nine main vowel sounds (bolded) have '''long''' versions as separate phonemes.<br />
<br />
Schwa '''''o''''' is used as an epenthetic vowel (anaptyxis). When it is used to break consonant clusters (not indicated in native script) it is the simple schwa /ə/: *dŧ → ''doth'' /dəθ/ (man). When stressed, it is vernacularly realized as [ɘ], and in western dialects more clearly as [ɤ]: *dŧs → ''dothos'' [dəˈθɘˑs]<br />
<br />
Vowel ''a'' is [ɑ] after voiced consonants. Vowel ''æ'' is often more open [a], though, in Western dialects, it has merged with ''é''. <br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, there are only closing diphthongs which go up in the vowel chart:<br />
*Back: ou /ɔʊ̯/<br />
*Front: ai /äɪ̯/, ei /ei̯/, oi /œi̯/<br />
<br />
If the syllable border (glottal stop) is between vowels and they don't form a diphthong, apostrophe is used: ''tai'' (for long) vs. ''ta'i'' (past)<br />
*In native [[Sceptrian#Script|script]], separate graphemes for diphthongs exist and glottal stop is not marked.<br />
<br />
If diphthongs are followed by vowels, they are separated by a glottal stop in formal register. <br />
*In casual speech, ''ouV'' becomes ''owV'' and ''ViV'' ''VjV'': ''oua→ówa'' and ''aia→aja''. If the following vowel is the same, a glottal stop breaks the former diphthong and the ending vowel is lengthened: ''ai'i→a'ii''<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
<br />
===Onset===<br />
<br />
Basic [[w:Syllable#Structure|syllabic structure]] is CV, where the onset (beginning) consonant can be of any type. <br />
*It is possible to use liquids and approximants as '''glides''' (CLV) between the onset and the rime (ending). <br />
*Up to two consonants with same voicing may appear in the onset (CCV), especially fricative-plosive combinations, but never two plosives: ''stak'' (fence), ''fkot'' (nest), ''ksaru'' (guard). Affricate ''ts'' takes may be accompanied only by ''w'', ''j'', ''n'' or ''m'': ''tsma'' (doubt). Combination /sl/ has turned into /ɬ/.<br />
*Lateralization and aspiration may never appear together, and nasalized rhoticization is only found in Fanish dialect.<br />
<br />
===Nucleus=== <br />
<br />
The nucleus can be either a vowel or a liquid, thus CVC and CLC are also possible syllables. <br />
*Vowels (diphthongs included) may exist as a stand-alone nucleic syllable (V), mostly in the beginning or at the end of a word. <br />
*If nucleus is a liquid, plosives appear in codas only word-finally: ''dldlp'' /dˡl̩ˈdˡl̩p/ (bubble)<br />
<br />
===Coda=== <br />
<br />
The coda (final) may consist of up to three consonants with possible structures: N, P, F, L; NP, FP, LP; NF, PF, LF; NPF, FPF, LFP, LPF (Nasal, Plosive, Fricative, Liquid). <br />
*Final liquids appear as syllabic consonants<br />
*Approximants ''j'', ''w'' and plain voiced plosives never appear as coda (final) even though they may be written that way (no written schwa): ''nad'' /nä.də/ (stainy). Voiced fricatives may appear as coda. <br />
*In coda, plosives with lateral release, however, will reflect the voicing of the onset: ''gatl'' [gädˡl̩] (houses) vs. ''katl'' [kätˡl̩] (knobs). Vernacularly, the lateral approximant weakens into a voiceless variant [l̥] when in contact with voiceless consonants: ''gatl'' [gätl̥].<br />
<br />
Closed syllables, i.e. those ending in coda, are not as common word-medially as open syllables (ending in nucleus) are. When words are inflected, parts of codas tend to become onsets of the following syllable, if possible. Especially three-consonant clusters are rare word-medially and receive a schwa after a non-lateral stop: ''kamps'' /kämps/ (marsh) → ''kampsku'' → ''kamposku'' /ˈkäm.pəs.ku/ (at marsh)<br />
*Voicing status must be the same for consonants touching at syllable boundaries and the voiced one reduces into voiceless: ''*katbas''→''katpas'' /kätˈpäs/ (fern) vs. ''oist baku'' /œi̯st<sup>(h)</sup> bä.ku/ (under a table)<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
Primary '''stress''' in a word is most often on the second syllable, and when there are four or five syllables, secondary stress is placed onto the final syllable. When there are more syllables, minor stress is placed on even-numbered syllables. <br />
*If the to-be-stressed syllable contains the schwa ''o'' /ə/ or a syllabic consonant, the preceding syllable is stressed in two-syllable words and the following in words with more than three syllables.<br />
**In uninflected words, syllable with nuclear ''o'' is only stressed when it comes second and the preceding syllable has also ''o'' as nucleus. Then the stressed nucleus appears as [ɘ]. Contrast between stressed and non-stressed syllabic consonants may occur as voicing and devoicing respectively. <br />
*A non-final syllable with a long vowel or a diphthong is always stressed and steals the stress from its neighboring syllable. This also moves the secondary stress from final to penultimate syllable, if primary stress falls on first syllable.<br />
<br />
Inflected and affixed word forms have almost always the same stress as the base word (even monosyllabic with schwa): ''doth'' (man) → ''dothku'' [ˈdɘθ.ku] (near the man). <br />
*Vocative and ergative cases as well as inflections with long vowels make an exception: ''dothee'' /dəˈθe:/ (by the man), ''dothé'' /dəˈθɛ/ (O man), ''gatóo'' /gɑˈtɔ:/ (to the house)<br />
<br />
Interrogatives are formed by changing the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. This is indicated with ¿: ''¿Eikepoi?'' [ˈei̯˧˦ˈke˩.pœi̯˨˦] (Did you wash it?)<br />
<br />
==Morphophonology==<br />
<br />
===Vowel form===<br />
<br />
There are five ways of sound altering which may be used for grammatical purposes (mainly number, genitive case and imperfective aspect). In the native script the following are marked on the vowel.<br />
*Lengthening: ''paata'' /pä:tä/ (separation), ''ée'' [ɛ:]~[ɛe̯], ''óo'' /ɔ:/<br />
*Lateral (release): ''pló'' /pˡɔ/ (opposite to), ''tlaf'' /tˡäf/ (sprig) <br />
**Western dialects keep the tongue on the alveolar ridge during vowel pronunciation so that the vowels have a distinct l-sound. Historically, this may have lead to the syllabic l.<br />
*Aspiration/breathy voice: ''phó'' [pʰɔ]~[ɸɔ] (along), ''kébhar'' [kɛˈbʱɑ˞]~[kɛˈβɑ˞] (I will wash), ''tha'' [tʰä]~[θä] (abstract "it"), ''dhaka'' [dʱɑkä]~[ðɑkä] (abstract "that"). <br />
**Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head)<br />
*Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]]<br />
**Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as a short syllabic nasal consonant of the same place as the directly preceding or following consonant<br />
**Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!).<br />
*Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) <br />
**Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞:] (soup)<br />
<br />
===Consonant form===<br />
<br />
Combining sounds<br />
*Lateralization<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sl'' and ''zh'' respectively<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' → ''fl'' & ''w''<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' are geminated<br />
**''m'' & ''n'' → ''ng'' and ''ng'' → ''ńg''<br />
* Aspiration<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sh'' and ''zh''<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' are geminated<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' → ''lh'' and ''rh''<br />
* Voicing and aspiration<br />
**''r'' → ''qh'', ''l'' → ''ldh'', ''v'' → ''w''<br />
<br />
===Apophony===<br />
<br />
Apophony in the '''stressed syllable''' is used for example to express adjective gender and to create different verb forms.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Apophony<br />
|-<br />
!Root<br />
!1st<br />
!2nd<br />
|-<br />
|e<br />
|ee<br />
|é<br />
|-<br />
|o<br />
|ó<br />
|ø<br />
|-<br />
|a<br />
|aa<br />
|æ<br />
|-<br />
|u<br />
|uu<br />
|i<br />
|-<br />
|ai<br />
|ii<br />
|ei<br />
|-<br />
|ou<br />
|óo<br />
|oi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*When the stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting)<br />
*With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of ''é''.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Script=== <br />
[[File:Sceptrian.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Toneka script from the early sixth era. Notice that the vowel form info-box romanization should have "o" instead of "a".]]<br />
[[File:SceptrianTsrnet.JPG|500px|thumb|right|Tsrnet cursive script used for handwriting in modern Sceptre.]]<br />
The Sceptrian alphabet script was derived from the ancient temple marks as were the Aoman and Northern (Latin) scripts. The modern alphabet is called ''Tsoklóp Lushan''.<br />
<br />
Diacritics on vowels mark different [[Sceptrian#Vowel_form|sounds]]. The diacritics may be used with consonants as well, especially in the plural forms of consonant-ending nouns: ''gat̆'' (''gatl'' "houses"), ''doŧ̆'' (''dolth'' "men"). With the diacritics, letter ''ts'' can be lateralized into ''tsl'' or aspirated into ''tsh''.<br />
<br />
The native Sceptrian script has a long history of being unicameral, not distinguishing between the upper and lower case. Only during the sixth era under the Tyranny of West, the flow of refugees from the Coast of Temples encouraged the introduction of case separation. In the developed fonts, capital letters were derived from the traditional Toneka and small letters from the cursive Tsrnet.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Short and long letter names with explanations<br />
|-<br />
|aa<br>aat || ee<br>eet || ée<br>eet maatikipi<br>(opened e) || ii<br>iit || oo<br>oot || óo<br>oot guzbikipi<br>(deepened o) || uu<br>uut <br />
|-<br />
|ææ<br>aat evadh<br>(bright a) || øø<br>oot gudh<br>(dark o) || ai<br>aat zaithon<br>(rising a) || ei<br>eet zaithon<br>(rising e) || oi<br>oot zaithon<br>(rising o) || ou<br>óot bousoson<br>(falling o) ||<br />
|-<br />
| po<br>poot || bo<br>bóot || mo<br>mool || wo<br>wool || to<br>toot || do<br>dóot || <br />
|-<br />
| tho<br>toot hifdo<br>(windy t) || dho<br>dóot hifdo<br>(windy d) || no<br>nool || so<br>siit || sho<br>siit hifdo<br>(windy s) || zo<br>ziit || zho<br>ziit gudh<br>(dark z) <br />
|-<br />
| ngo<br>góot slenguhpi<br>(g using nose) || tso<br>tsiit || lo<br>lool || slo<br>lool hifdo<br>(windy l) || fo<br>fiit || vo<br>fiit gudh<br>(dark f) || jo<br>jool <br />
|-<br />
| ko<br>koot || go<br>góot || ho<br>hiit || qho<br>hiit surmudh<br>(strong h) || qo<br>koot venongp<br>(k being<br> swallowed) || ro<br>rool || <br />
|-<br />
|plo<br>looh tisk<br>(with l<br> mark) || pon<br>slenguhpi tisk<br>(using nose<br> mark) || por<br>tisk prung<br>(mark of<br> trill) || pho<br>tisk hifn<br>(mark of<br> wind) || poo<br>tisk spiing<br>(mark of<br> length) || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Romanization===<br />
<br />
====Modern====<br />
Consonant variation:<br />
*Letter ''r'' is used with consonants for /r̩/ and between vowels for /r/, but after vowels in the end of syllables for rhoticization ''or'' /ɚ/. Letter ''ŕ'' is used to emphasize the use of /r/ after vowels ''oŕ'' /ər/.<br />
*Similarly letter ''n'' can appear syllable-finally with nasalization but ''ń'' always as /n/: ''an'' /ã/ vs. ''ań'' /an/. <br />
*With ''ng'' /ŋ/, the accent signals lengthening ''nańgo'' /näŋ:ə/ or ''naŋŋo'' (sweaty).<br />
*Labialization of plosives is indicated by PuV (V is any vowel except ''u'') or with ''w''.<br />
*Breathry voice is indicated with an ''h'' straight after a plosive. The ''h'' is also used for corresponding fricatives which occur word-finally. This risk of confuse is one of the downsides of the simplified modern system: ''nath'' /näθ/ "a beggar" or /nätʰ/ "with stains".<br />
<br />
====Old====<br />
<br />
The old romanization system (or part of it) was used until western regions of Eastern Sceptre were joined with the Western Sceptre empire in 7th era 161, during the war against Empress Renula of Golden Islet. A revision was needed when both Sceptrian and Aoma were used in the same printing press and texts had to be distributed to westlang-using communities. Peter Martyea suggested in 7:189 that the payment according to number of pages may have favoured quick adaptation as the non-diacritic system induced much longer texts (see the comparison example).<br />
<br />
Consonants:<br />
*Nasal: '''ŋ''' ''ng'' /ŋ/<br />
**Texts from the first century of the seventh era use ''ǥ'' for word-initial /ŋ/.<br />
*Fricative: '''ŧ''' ''th'' /θ/, '''đ''' ''dh'' /ð/, '''ś''' ''sh'' /ʃ/, '''ź''' ''zh'' /ʒ/, '''ħ''' ''qh'' /χ/<br />
*Affricate: '''c''' ''ts'' /t͡s/, '''č''' ''tsh'' /t͡ʃ/<br />
*Lateral: '''š''' ''sl'' /ɬ/, '''ǩ''' ''kl'' /kˡ/, '''ǧ''' ''gl'' /gˡ/<br />
<br />
Compact equivalents of sound altering:<br />
*Lengthening with a bar: ''ṓ'' /ɔ:/ and ''ō'' /ə:/<br />
*Lateral release with a breve diacritic: ''tŏ'' /tˡə/<br />
*Nasalization with a tilde: ''õ'' /ə̃/, ''on'' /ən/<br />
*Rhotacization with a diaeresis: ''ö'' /ɚ/, ''or'' /ər/<br />
*Aspiration with a grave accent: ''pò'' /pʰə/, ''pô'' /pʰɔ/<br />
<br />
Comparison between the systems:<br />
*Old: Ǧëǩ śošēŧã <br />
*Modern: Glerkl shosleethan (maces of a knight)<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
The most complete study of the structure of pre-modern Sceptrian words was done by Porutingatu of Jerzónó in year 362 of the seventh era. She collected, grouped and analyzed the fusional morphemes and listed the new rules to replace the outdated writings from the sixth era. By 370, her work had led to a new interest in linguistics and ultimately to the founding of ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan'' (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) which has been unifying and regulating the language along with its orthography since then.<br />
<br />
Sceptrian utilizes [[w:Fusional_language|fusional]] [[w:Inflection|inflections]] and has an [[w:Ergative–absolutive_language|absolutive-ergative]] [[w:Morphosyntactic_alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]. The language is rather [[w:Head-directionality_parameter|head-initial]] and its primary [[w:Word_order|word order]] is verb-agent-object.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns are used to refer to e.g. people or things in sentences instead of using the original nouns. In Sceptrian, they exist in two numbers and are inflected according to six [[Sceptrian#Cases|'''cases''']]. <br />
<br />
====Personal====<br />
Second person includes polite versions as well which were adapted by Aoma-sperkers. Third person singular makes distinction between abstract (Ab), animate (An) and inanimate (In) pronouns while plural only between Ab-An and In. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Personal pronoun inflection'''<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! 1SG !! 1PL !! 2SG !! 2PL !! 2SG.POL !! 2PL.POL !! 3SG.Ab !! 3SG.An !! 3PL.A !! 3SG.In !! 3PL.In<br />
|-<br />
!ABS <br />
| na || mo || fo || po || Nith || With || tha || su || slo || hi || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
| næ || moslo || fø || poslo || Nithe || Widhes || thaa || suu || sloslo || hii || kloslo<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
| nai || mokli || foki || pokli || Nithki || Withkli || thai || swi || slokli || hiki|| klokli<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
| nar || moŕ || for || poŕ || Nithor || Withoŕ || thar || sur || sloŕ || hir || kloŕ<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
| nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh || thas || sus || slosh || his || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
| nape || moplo || fope || poplo || Nitti || Witti || thape || supe || sloplo || hipi || kloplo<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''Comitative''' case is used to indicate company: ''Mo slosh arakha.'' (We were with them yesterday.)<br />
*'''Causal''' describes the cause of an action or origin of something: ''Aitesosai næ su fope'' (I saw him because of (/thanks to) you), ''Hi supe foki.'' (It (is) from him to you.)<br />
<br />
3rd person abstract pronoun is used in the formal register when introducing or referring to a person of higher status.<br />
<br />
====Reflexive====<br />
Self-pronoun ''ru'' for '''reflexive''' and '''reciprocal''': ''tesosón ru'' (they are watching themself), ''ónlatepón ru'' (he is dancing by himself, alone) vs. ''ónlatepón su'' (he is dancing with him); ''sónkephón ru'' (they are washing each other) vs. ''sónkephón sloslo slo/soutu'' (they are washing them)<br />
*reflexive is easier with others: ''anlatepan'' (I'm dancing by myself); ''ankepan'' (I'm washing myself) vs. ''ankep'' ("I'm washing it"), ''kepan'' (I'm being washed)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
<br />
Simple words for "this/these" and "that/those". When demonstratives are used with [[Sceptrian#Nouns|nouns]], they behave similarly to [[Sceptrian#Adjectives|adjectives]]. In the following examples, note that Sceptrian lacks the [[Sceptrian#Verbs|verb "to be"]]: <br />
*As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.)<br />
*For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) <br />
*The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the "head" can rather be considered an attribute of the pronoun: ''Bouson ko qot.'' (That's falling, the rock, I mean.) <br />
<br />
See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]].<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Demonstrative pronoun inflection<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Case <br />
!colspan="2"| Proximal <br />
!colspan="2"| Distal <br />
|-<br />
!SG !! PL !! SG !! PL<br />
|-<br />
!ABS<br />
|ka || kla || ko || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
|kaa || klaa || kó || kló<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
|kai ||klai || koi || kloi<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
|kan ||klang || kon || klong<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
|kas || klash || kos || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
|kap || klapa || kop ||klopo<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Table of correlatives===<br />
<br />
Determiners follow their heads and agree in number and with the cases mentioned above in [[Sceptrian#Demonstrative|the table]], where DAT & LAT, COM & LOC, CAU & ABL and ABS & VOC are corresponding. Words follow the declension shown above or paradigms similar to [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun cases]]. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!rowspan="2"|Interrogative<br />
!colspan="2"|Demonstrative<br />
!colspan="5"|Quantifier<br />
|-<br />
!Proximal !! Distal !! Existential !! Elective !! Universal !! Negatory !! Alternative<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Determiner<br />
| sho || ka (SG)<br/>kla (PL) || ko<br />klo || jofa (some) || ota (any) || orka (every, all) || ze (no) || so (another)<br/>solo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="5"| Pronoun<br />
!Abstract<br />
| ashu || thaka || dhaka || jaafa || thata || thorka || theso || thaso<br />
|-<br />
!Animate<br />
| ¿soutu || saitu || soutu || jonfu || onta || ongka || souso || jonso<br />
|-<br />
!Inanimate <br />
| ¿ko || ka || ko || jofo || oto || orko || ze || so<br />
|-<br />
!Out of two<br />
| ¿tso || tsaka || tsoko || zho || tsoto || tsorko || tseso || tso<br />
|-<br />
!Out of many<br />
| ¿tsolo || tsalka || tsolko || zolo || tsolto || tsongko || tsleso || tsolo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="6"|Pro-adverb<br />
!Locative<br />
| sku || khau || khu || jofku || otku || orkhu || zengu || sokhu<br />
|-<br />
!Temporal<br />
| sko || kha || kho || jofko || otko || orkho || zeng || sokho<br />
|-<br />
!Comitative<br />
| shos || kas || kos || jofos || otos || orkos || zeos || sos<br />
|-<br />
!Causal<br />
| spe || kap || kop || jov || otop || orkop || zenep || sonop<br />
|-<br />
!Manner<br />
| shi || khai || khoi || jofai || otai || orkai || zei || soi<br />
|-<br />
!What kind of<br />
| shodh || kadh || kodh || jodhi || othi || ordhi || zodhi || sothi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Negative determiner ''ze'' has no plural form. Neither have pronouns "Out of two".<br />
*Demonstratives are used when referring to listed items of equal animacy: proximal with the former and distal with the latter: ''Aitesoshóji math kuthos. Óomidh soutu.'' (I saw a cat and a dog. The latter was large.)<br />
*Locative pro-adverb can be conjugated with lative, locative and ablative.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Nouns in Sceptrian form the basis of derivational morphology and even the cases are utilized when forming new words. They are declined according to two numbers and nine cases, and the seven declensions are grouped in three genders which affect the verb conjugation and adjective agreement.<br />
<br />
====Gender====<br />
<br />
There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes.<br />
*Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in vowels ''a, æ, o, ó, ø'' and ''i''. <br />
*Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h'', same voiced and affricates), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings.<br />
*Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group.<br />
In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull). Some archaic words remain in dialects and in poetic use.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
<br />
There are two numbers, singular and plural, but abstract ''i''-nouns and inanimate ''l''-nouns are always singular. The declension according to number is complicated and fused with the class/case system explained and tabulated below.<br />
<br />
====Cases====<br />
<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Unmarked base form for subjects of intransitive and objects of transitive verbs <br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agents of transitive verbs<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect object; alienable possession ''gat dothi'' (a house of (lit. "for") the man); comparison (with ADJ comparative)<br />
*Possessive (POS): Inalienable possession ''dhoku dothor'' (the man's head)<br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS): Using something; "with someone", replaces "and" as Latin [[wikt:-que|-que]]; in antipassive constructions<br />
*Lative (LAT): Movement to; with adpositions<br />
*Locative-temporal (LOC-TEMP): Place; time; with adpositions<br />
*Ablative (ABL): Movement from (+delative); causal<br />
*Vocative (VOC): addressing (people, gods); interjections ''Alæ!'' (Hello! lit. "Day!")<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Genders and desinences'''<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" style="width: 100px"| <br />
!colspan="3"| Abstract <br />
!colspan="6"| Animate <br />
!colspan="3"| Inanimate<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''A'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''i'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''F'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''N'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''u'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"|''P'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''l''<br />
|-<br />
|<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>|| ||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 100px"| Absolutive<br />
| A || Asl || i || F || (o)lF || N || Ning || u || ush || P || Pl || l<br />
|- <br />
! style=""| Ergative <br />
| AA || AslA || ii || Fee || Fele || Nee || Neng || uu || uushu || Pee || Ple || le<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Dative <br />
| Ak || Akl || ik || Fi || Fil || Ni || Nil || (u)ji || (u)wi || Pei || Plei || lei<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Possessive <br />
| An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Instrumental-comitative <br />
| Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Lative <br />
| AgA || AglA || iki || Fko || Fklo || Nong || Nongo || ugu || uglu || Póo || Plóo || lo <br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Locative-temporal <br />
| AkhA || AlkhA || ikhi || Fku || Fklu || Nung || Nungu || ukhu || ulkhu || Pu || Plu || lu<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Ablative <br />
| ApA || AplA || ipi || Fp(o) || Fpl(o) || Nop || Nopl || upu || uplu || PPo || PPol || lp<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Vocative <br />
| Ae || Asl || ii || Fé || lFé || Né || Nin || -wé || -wésh || Pé || Plé || lé<br />
|}<br />
*''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø''<br />
**Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø<br />
*''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts, tsl'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. <br />
*''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng''<br />
*''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q''<br />
**POS ''q''→''ng''<br />
**INS ending Ph marks breathy voice and may turn the plosive into corresponding fricative /ɸ, θ, x, χ/ if followed by a plosive.<br />
*- indicates that the original ending is replaced with the following: ''tup → tu'''m''''' (stick → stick's)<br />
<br />
====Possessive==== <br />
<br />
Different possessive forms and interpretations: <br />
*''Dativus possessivus'' (alienable): ''gat doth'''i''''' "the house which the man has temporarily settled in, i.e. rented"<br />
*Comitative case with alienable possessive suffix: ''doth gat''h'''''os''''' "man with his house which he has purchased"<br />
**Inalienable possessive suffix alters the meaning: ''doth gat''h'''''ozh''''' "man and his birthplace"<br />
*Possessive case (almost inalienable): ''gat doth'''or''''' "the house which was inherited and is now owned by the man". <br />
<br />
The noun in possessive case is not inflected further. With dative case, inflection may be utilized in order to distinguish the ''dativus possessivus'' from the indirect object or benefactive: ''Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli.'' "The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them." (Related to the feather ceremony when welcoming upper class members to a household.)<br />
<br />
'''Possessive affixes''', as shown in examples above, draw a distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: ''Óntesoson dothee gat'''s'''/vakuh'''oz'''.'' (A man is watching his house/ his own hand.) With the basic suffixes, the root is inflected first and then suffixed.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ Possessional suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!Person<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! ALIEN !! INAL !! ALIEN !! INAL <br />
|-<br />
!1st <br />
| (a)ń || (a)nga || (ó)m || (ó)ngó <br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
| (o)f || (ø)fo || (e)v || (ø)vø<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
| (o)s || (o)zh || (o)sl || (o)zhol<br />
|}<br />
*Irregular: Only VOC+possessive with 1SG: ''Pos'''n'''é!'' (My servant!), ''Polsmé!'' (Our servants!)<br />
<br />
'''2nd person polite suffixes''' are added to absolutive base and the endings are then declined according to abstract gender: <br />
*Singular: (a)tha, (a)tazha <br />
*Plural: (a)dhó, (a)dózhó <br />
*Example: ''gat'''atha'''pa'' (from Your house)<br />
<br />
See [[Sceptrian#Adverbial_clauses|adverbial clauses]] which utilize some possessive suffixes with [[Sceptrian#Non-finite_forms|non-finite verb forms]].<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
<br />
Adpositions are used with inflected nouns to add information about its location or relation to other nouns. Some Sceptrian adpositions can be used as stand-alone adverbs which may be conjugated according to noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====Prepositions====<br />
<br />
Prepositions are used with lative (to, towards), locative (at, near) and ablative (from) cases to alter the meaning.<br />
*''voi'' (in) forms illative, inessive, elative <br />
*''loi'' (out) for "out of", "outside" and "from outside"<br />
*''soi'' (on) to emphasize the surface aspect <br />
*''oist(i)'' (under) for movement under something<br />
*''roi'' (above) similarly to ''oist''<br />
*''boi'' (down) for "down (a surface / to)", "down in (somewhere)" and "from down"; as an adverb as well <br />
*''zoi'' (up) used like ''boi''<br />
*''moi'' (touching, around) with lative for terminative, locative for pertingent and ablative for initiative<br />
*''oil(i)'' (as) forms translative, essive, exessive<br />
*''koi'' (per) distribution: "for each", "every" (temporal), "from each"<br />
*''jon'' (... between) <br />
*''poi'' (... the middle of, among)<br />
*''tsoi'' (... front of; preceding) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = before<br />
*''hoi'' (... behind; following) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = after<br />
*''mots(i)'' (... on side)<br />
**combined with postpositional ''dei'' (right) or ''lai'' (left)<br />
**with time nouns in locative = ago<br />
<br />
====Postpositions====<br />
<br />
Postpositions appear with various cases and often come in groups.<br />
*''pón'' (through) with lative<br />
*''phó'' (along) with lative<br />
*''pló'' (opposite to, across) with locative<br />
*''sós'' (with) with comitative to express a greater degree of endowment (ornative); with ablative to indicate "without"; with lative for "in addition to"<br />
*''óp'' (about, concerning) with genitive; with ablative for "according to"<br />
*''ól'' (like) with genitive; as an adverb "similarly"<br />
*''jak'' (away, despite) with ablative; as an adverb as well<br />
*''mai'' (excluding) with ablative<br />
*''mak'' (except) with ablative<br />
*''mats'' (instead of) with ablative<br />
*''sai'' (including) with comitative<br />
*''sak'' (concerning, regarding) with comitative; with ablative to emphasize the causal aspect (due to, because of, thanks to)<br />
*''phe'' (for the sake of) with lative<br />
<br />
====Pronominal====<br />
<br />
When used with pronouns, separate adpositions only come with dative forms to indicate lative. Otherwise adpositions take possessive suffixes, inalienable for locative and alienable for ablative: ''voi nai'' (into me), ''voinga'' (inside me), ''voiń'' (from inside me)<br />
<br />
Of the polite possessive suffixes, alienable is added onto the adposition and then the entire compound is conjugated for lative, locative or ablative: ''voitha'' (in You; attributive), ''voithaga'' (into You), ''voithakha'' (inside You; predicative), ''voithapa'' (from inside You)<br />
<br />
===Derivational Morphology===<br />
<br />
Verbs and adjectives are derived from nouns by adding suffixes and in some cases prefixes as well.<br />
<br />
====Noun====<br />
<br />
Many nouns share same origins and these endings are the most common forms of derivation:<br />
*Suffixing verbs with once established ending vowels or consonant appropriate for the noun class. <br />
*place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix<br />
*collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish)<br />
**Archaic forms also add the prefix ''kl'' <br />
*being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy")<br />
**doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer)<br />
**experiencer, patient: ABS with ''(k)ois'' or ''(k)oit'' depending on animacy: ''kepois'' (person being washed)<br />
**origin: ABL with ''(o)su'': ''ukopposu'' (person from north)<br />
**characteristic (from abstract quality): INS with final duplicated vowel and ''tu'': ''luwishitu'' (beauty)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)n'' (AN) or ''(o)l'' (INAN): ''koson'' (wood), ''qotol'' (stone)<br />
*diminutive: reduplication of final sound with ''t'' between vowels and ''i'' between consonants: ''kosis'' (small tree)<br />
*augmentative: reduplication of final sound with ''g'' between vowels and ''a'' between consonants: ''kosas'' (great tree)<br />
**apotheosis: augmentative with ''a''-ending: ''kosonana'' (godwood)<br />
*abstract quality, feature: ABS suffixed with ''(k)oti'': ''dothoti'' (manliness)<br />
*'''gerund''' (act of doing): via derivated [[Sceptrian#Verb|verb]] suffixed with ''(o)pi'': ''glerkurpi'' (mace-battering)<br />
<br />
====Adjective====<br />
<br />
Different cases and affixes are used for the derivation:<br />
*similarity, having something: ''dh'' suffix to abstract gender and animate ''u''-ending; voicing of fricatives (''h→qh'', no change with affricates); nasals [[Sceptrian#Consonant_form|"lateralized"]] + ''o''; voicing of plosives + ''o'' (''q→g''); l-declension as in INS-COM: ''evadh'' (bright), ''dodh'' (masculine)<br />
**full of, having something: previous suffixed with ''ol'': ''mel muvol'' (waters full of fish)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)p'': ''kosonop'' (wooden)<br />
*origin, relation: ABL form with a final ''ó'' added or replacing the original ending vowel: ''kusupó'' (friendly)<br />
*absence, without: ''ti'' suffixed to VOC form: ''evæti'' (lightless=dark)<br />
*doing: ''on'' added after INS case: ''kephon'' (washing)<br />
*who did: INS with ''ompu'': ''kephompu'' (who washed = ''pessyt'' in Finnish)<br />
*done by: INS with ''empo'' and possibly inalienable possessive suffix: ''kephemponga'' (washed by me)<br />
*not done: LAT suffixed with ''tip'': ''kepóotip'' (unwashed)<br />
*experiencing: LAT suffixed with ''p'': kepóop (being washed)<br />
*result (wanted): LAT suffixed with ''pi'': ''kepóopi'' (washed=clean)<br />
**if unwanted: LAT suffixed with ''pot'': ''vangostóopot'' (drunk)<br />
*possible: POS with ''ta'': ''kenta'' (washable)<br />
*requiring: LOC with ''rt'': ''kepurt'' (needs to be washed)<br />
*opposite, negation: VOC with ''tot''<br />
<br />
Notice that plural forms of adjectives may be derived from plural nouns: ''dolth kep'''s'''on'' (men who are washing)<br />
<br />
====Verb====<br />
<br />
A declined core noun receives an ending which describes how the verb reflects the noun:<br />
*In some cases, the vowel ending of nouns may simply be removed or the absolutive of a consonant-ending noun may also serve as a verb.<br />
*ABS = "happens, is": ''kep'' (is washed)<br />
*COM = "using": ''tuph'' (is poked with a stick), ''glerkh'' (is hit with a mace)<br />
*POS + ''k'' = "similarity": ''melonk'' (is wet)<br />
*DAT + ''k'' = "making/becoming" (no ''k'' with Abstract): ''zurmu'' → ''zurmjik'' (strong person → is strengthened), ''zurp'' → ''zurpeik'' (strong, durable object → hardens) & ''zurma'' → ''zurmak'' (strength → intensifies)<br />
*LAT + ''t'' = "movement, quasi-inceptive": ''glerkóot'' (swings a mace, INTR), ''melot'' (flows), ''latepóot'' (is persuaded to dance, INTR; begins a dance with, TR), ''lehkot'' (runs) <br />
*LOC + ''r'' = "frequentative": ''glerkur'' (is battered with a mace), ''melur'' (rains; drips)<br />
*VOC + ''k'' = "momentane": ''glerkék'' (is hit once with a mace), ''melék'' (splashes once)<br />
*POS + ''(o)v'' = "consider, feel": ''vongv'' (is considered strange = ''oudoksutaan'' in Finnish)<br />
* Several endings can be stacked on verbs without turning it into a noun in between: ''melurék'' (shower of rain falls), ''tup(o)hkur'' (is often poked with a stick). When deriving, the ''r''-ending are declined according to the ''l''-paradigm.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Sceptrian agree with the gender, number and cases of their head. When an adjective is used as a predicative, it comes before its head, but when as an attributive, it comes after. Adjective declension follows approximately the same rules as [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun declension]]. In the common ''dh''-ending F-declension, ''o'' is added between ''dh'' and case-endings with consonants. Changes in both casual and poetic speech include mirroring onset into coda: ''dothklu jadaadh'''ulk''''' (near nice men)<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+DH-declension<br />
! !! ABS !! ERG !! DAT !! POS !! INS !! LAT !! LOC !! ABL !! VOC<br />
|-<br />
!SG<br />
|dh || dhee || dhi || dhor || dhos || dh'''ok''' || dh'''uk''' || dh'''op''' || dhé<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
| ldh(o) || dhele || dhil || dhoŕ || dhosh || dh'''olk''' || dh'''ulk''' || dh'''olp''' || ldhé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Sceptrian#Apophony|Apophony]] in the stressed syllable is used to indicate the gender: base for inanimate, first apophony with animate and second with abstract gender: ''eja jadædh, doth jadaadh, latep jadadh'' <br />
<br />
Polite adjectives are formed from the abstract form with predicative prefix ''nga'' and attributive suffix ''æ'': ''ngaluwidh Nith'' (You are beautiful), ''shosleetha luwidhæ'' (a beautiful knight)<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
<br />
'''Positive''' of an adjective is the base form.<br />
*When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.)<br />
*Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle.<br />
*When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii faaldh dolth lutush.'' (As many men as women.) <br />
<br />
'''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). <br />
*Manner quatifiers ''orkai, jofai'' and ''zei'' can be used to indicate the degree: ''luwidhé orkai'' (much more beautiful), ''luwidhé jofai'' (slightly more beautiful), ''luwidhé zei'' (not more beautiful)<br />
*When comparing two nouns adjective comes first (predicative comparative), the standard acquires the dative case, and comparative forms agree with their head in gender and number: ''luwildhé po swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*Pronoun comparison is also possible to construct with alienable possessional suffixes: ''luwildhév swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*When adjective comparative is not included, postpositional ''fadhé'' (more) or ''føødhi'' (less) can be used with noun plurals: ''dolth faldhé lutwi'' (more men than women)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative''' is similar to noun apotheosis: the ending is reduplicated with ''é'' between consonants and ''j'' between vowels, and an ''a'' added to the end: ''luwidhédha'' (most beautiful). Similarly to comparative, ''ti'' gives the meaning of "least": ''luwidhédhati'' (least beautiful).<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly)<br />
<br />
Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh óomidhé'' (very beautiful < "largely")<br />
<br />
'''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative adverb''' is similar to adjective superlative in its reduplication but with an ''æ''-ending: ''zaivie jadædhédhæ'' (you sing most pleasantly)<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Missing verbs: <br />
*"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man)<br />
**Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith)<br />
**Showing tense-aspect:<br />
***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past)<br />
***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective<br />
***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense<br />
***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" <br />
**Vernacularly, [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|proximal demonstrative pronouns]] are used as copulae with corresponding grammatical gender: ''Trs saitu Berats.'' ("Smith this Berats." Berats is a smith.)<br />
* "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man")<br />
<br />
====Conjugation====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, primary conjugation of verbs indicates person, number and tense-aspect, and it includes affixation and apophony. Conjugation for different [[Sceptrian#Mood|moods]] is slightly more complex.<br />
<br />
=====Root=====<br />
<br />
Verbs are given in their 3SG.INAN GNO form which is used to form all of the third person forms. With first and second person subjects, the first apophony is used in indicative inceptive and future. Polite second person forms use the second apophony<br />
<br />
=====Affixes=====<br />
<br />
Fusional conjugation affixes convey the person, number, tense and aspect (and honorific). Subject and object suffixes are almost always used with verbs, the antipassive being the only exception. Agent prefixes aren't often used in the casual register, mostly to form the [[Sceptrian#Reflexive|reflexive]], but they have to be used in the formal register. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || ha || e || he || ahi || aqhi || ó || hó || (o) || l<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || han || en || hen || ang || aing || ón || hón || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| ast || last || est || lest || æst || hæst || ós || lós || os || osl<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| ajin || hajin || ejin || hejin || azing || izing || ójin || hójin || oin || loin<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || hai || ei || hei || athi || idhi || óji || hóji || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| har || +har || her || +her || athar || idhar || hór || +hór || ho || +ho<br />
|}<br />
* initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive<br />
* initial ''h'' is for aspiration of the final plosive or simply ''h'' after a vowel<br />
**if the final plosive is already breathy, ''o'' is added after it<br />
*+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration<br />
**simple ''h'' becomes ''qh''<br />
*Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.) Note the second apophony due to the abstract gender.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || sa || e || se || æ || hæ || ó || só || o || lo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || san || en || sen || nga || ngai || ón || són || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| tsa || tsla || tse || tsle || tsæ || tshæ || tsó || tsló || so || slo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| jan || zhan || jen || zhen || izæ || izhæ || jón || zhón || i || li<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || sai || ei || sei || thæ || dhæ || jó || zhó || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| ar || sar || er || ser || thar || dhar || ór || sór || or || lor<br />
|}<br />
*Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.)<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ónbouson dothee pof.'' (A man (ERG) is lifting a feather (ABS).), ''Bousón doth.'' (The man falls.) ''Bouson pof.'' (The feather (ABS) falls.).<br />
<br />
====Tense====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, verbs are conjugated for three tenses: past, present and future. These tenses describe when an action took place relative to current moment as their names indicate. <br />
<br />
====Aspect====<br />
<br />
Gnomic-static aspect is used to indicate general truths ''Zaitó Hala.'' (sun rises) and static situations ''Mépa lusha.'' (I can speak Sceptrian). It can be used with expressions of time to specify when something was static ''Petsipha kas arakha.'' (dress-STAT.1SG this.COM yesterday.TEMP "I was dressed in these clothes yesterday (as well).")<br />
<br />
Present progressive describes dynamic actions ''Anbaplóph lusha kha.'' (I'm reading Sceptrian at the moment). Present inceptive is used when an action is about to begin or someone is starting to do something.<br />
*Inceptive is only used once: Subject inceptive with intransitive and mostly agent inceptive with translative verbs. Object ending is either PRES.PROG, when something was begun only a moment ago, or FUT, when something is about to begin.<br />
**Translative object inceptive if the object caused the initialization: ''Órlateepast.'' (He is about to take me to dancing through my initiative.)<br />
<br />
Past imperfective is used with continuous activities which were happening before the present. The contrasting perfective aspect describes the event as a whole and having an endpoint in the past.<br />
<br />
In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used.<br />
<br />
Endings with different tenses and aspects may be mixed in some cases:<br />
*PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) <br />
*PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while))<br />
<br />
====Mood====<br />
<br />
Moods express speaker's attitude towards the subject or their knowledge of it. They are divided into realis and irrealis moods: the former expresses factual statements while the latter indicates that an event hasn't taken place or the speaker is uncertain of a situation.<br />
<br />
=====Realis=====<br />
<br />
'''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well)<br />
<br />
'''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for supposedly factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.)<br />
<br />
=====Irrealis=====<br />
<br />
'''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?)<br />
*The change in stress does not affect the apophony.<br />
<br />
'''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) <br />
*The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!)<br />
<br />
'''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original stressed syllable: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: '''''la'''latép'' (may dance), '''''ak'''aktæsos'' (may hear), ''rorøt'' (may go)<br />
*The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject.<br />
*The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished<br />
<br />
=====Particles=====<br />
<br />
Particles are placed after a verb to alter or to specify its meaning.<br />
<br />
Realis<br />
*''pai'' mirative (with soft imperative in present): ''Rótóji pai!'' (He went!?)<br />
**with adjectives or as an adverb: ''Luwi pai!'' (How beautiful!) <br />
<br />
Evidentials (with causatives)<br />
*''atasi'' hearsay: ''Rotóji tasi fope.'' (I heard from you that he went.)<br />
*''tesei'' visual: ''Rótoutóji tesei nape.'' (I didn't see him go.)<br />
<br />
Irrealis<br />
*''norka'' dubitative (with subjunctive): ''Rorøtóji norka.'' (I doubt he went.)<br />
*''gana'' volitive (with future subjunctive): ''Lalatépar gana.'' (I wish I could dance.)<br />
<br />
Conditional (with subjunctive)<br />
*''ta'' apodosis: ''Arziizeither ta'' (I will raise you...)<br />
*''-ti-'' infixed between reduplicated form for protasis: ''boutiboisen'' (if you fall)<br />
<br />
Hortatives (with soft imperative which itself works as an adhortative or dehortative with negation (unwillingness))<br />
*Cohortative: ''Latéprlast kha!'' (Let's dance now!), ''Rótrlastonget khugu.'' (Let's not go there.)<br />
*''jokæ'' exhortative (inhortative through negation): ''Rótrest jokæ.'' (You really should go.)<br />
<br />
'''Formal''' register differences:<br />
*''aktasosai'' (hears) conjugated for hearsay: ''Røtathi aiaktasosóji.'' (I heard from her that you left.)<br />
*''tesos'' (sees) conjugated for visual evidentiality: ''Rotóji tesosai.'' (I saw her go.)<br />
*''tsmaadhoré'' (doubtfully) used for dubitative<br />
*''tutaadhoré'' (wishfully) used for volitive<br />
*''alké'' permissive with dative: ''Rótest alké foki.'' (You may leave.)<br />
**prohibitive with negated (inability) imperative infinitive: ''Rótrostodi alké foki.'' (You aren't allowed to leave.)<br />
*both conditional particles are used separately and they are prefixed with the subjunctive reduplication: ''Arziizeither zaita bouboisen bouti.'' (I will raise you if you fall.)<br />
<br />
'''In literature''' to express the peaking pitch of ironical statements and lowered pitch of sarcastic expressions:<br />
*''jø'' verbal irony: ''Jótesosoi melurpi, jóbatophoi "Luwidh jø hi loi khu".'' (He saw the rain and said: "''Beautiful'' day out there")<br />
*''gæ'' sarcasm: ''Uu, eiluwikoi gæ pai.'' (Oh, ''how beautiful'' you made it.)<br />
<br />
====Negation====<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Negation affixes<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Manner→<br />
! Inability<br />
!colspan="6"| Unwillingness<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Form→<br />
!2nd apophony +infix<br>(before patient-suffix)<br />
!colspan="3"|Intranslative<br>suffix<br />
!colspan="3"|Translative<br>infix (after agent-prefix)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Person→<br />
!All<br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!SG<br />
|ost<br />
|net<br />
|fep<br />
|set<br />
|no<br />
|fo<br />
|so<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|osht<br />
|nget<br />
|vep<br />
|slet<br />
|ngo<br />
|flo<br />
|slo<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|PST<br />
|out<br />
|colspan="3"|nait<br />
|colspan="3"|me<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|FUT<br />
|oz<br />
|colspan="3"|nort<br />
|colspan="3"|mor<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse'''fo'''lateephar?'' (You don't want to begin dancing with me?)<br />
<br />
'''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.)<br />
<br />
Second apophony of negation affixes with subjunctive mood: ''Rorøthórn'''ø'''rt.'' (He may not be willing to go.)<br />
<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
<br />
=====Gerund=====<br />
*Base nouns or their abstract variants may serve as gerunds, which describe the action of doing, but otherwise they are created with the suffix ''(o)pi'' added to a verb root. The suffic also helps to distinguish the forms.<br />
<br />
=====Infinitives=====<br />
*PRES ''-odi'', PST ''-oudi'', FUT ''ordi''<br />
*used with modal verbs<br />
*subjunctive form created with duplication<br />
<br />
=====Participles=====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian participles work as adjectives. Following table shows which "case" and suffix the verb base (or gerund in formal register) takes.<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Present participle suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!IPFV<br />
!PFV<br />
|-<br />
!Patientive (LAT)<br />
|''p''<br />
|''pi/pot''<br />
|-<br />
!Negative (LAT)<br />
|<br />
|''tip''<br />
|-<br />
!Active (INS)<br />
|rowspan="2"|''on''<br />
|''ompu''<br />
|-<br />
!Agentive (INS)<br />
|''empo''<br />
|}<br />
*Also the "requiring" (FUT) form LOC+''rt'' and "possible" (GNO) POS+''ta'' <br />
*Past forms are created by adding ''i'' to the end: ''kephoni'' (was being washed)<br />
*Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed)<br />
*Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]]<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, auxiliary verbs are conjugated only for subject which may act as the agent of the clause. The verbs can either precede (dynamic, deontic) or come after (epistemic) different verb infinitives. Since regular object-patient conjugation can't be used, objects have to be written (no pro-drop) and they are declined into instrumental-comitative case.<br />
*''tut'' "want" (from ''tuta'' "craving, wish"): ''Tutajin kepoudi his.'' (I wanted to wash it.)<br />
**infinitive in lative case for "want something to be done": ''Tutan kepordiki his.'' (I want it to be washed.)<br />
**"be going to" (FUT): ''Tuutar latepordi.'' (I'm going to dance.)<br />
**"wish" (SBJV) mostly as the subjunctive of the absent ''to be''-verb: ''Tutitan khau fos.'' (I wish you were here) <br />
*''mép'' "can, know how to" (dynamic) (from ''mépi'' "skill"): ''Mépa latepodi'' ("I can dance"; notice gnomic-static mood)<br />
*''kuut'' "can, may" (deontic / epistemic) (from ''kuutó'' "possibility"): ''Kuutest rotordi.'' (You may leave.), ''Fendógópot kuutó pai.'' (He may unexpectedly be dead.)<br />
**particle ''nor'' added after the verb for lower possibility i.e. "could, might": ''Fendógópi kuut nor.'' (It might be dead.)<br />
**particle ''ga'' added for "should, must": ''Fendógópi kuut ga.'' (It should be dead, as we wanted.)<br />
*''khet'' "must" (deontic) (from ''kheti'' "necessity"): ''Khetan rotodi.'' (I must go now), ''Kheetar rotordi.'' (I must go soon)<br />
*''khurd'' "dare" (from ''khurdi'' "daring"): ''¿Khurde glerkékodi nas?'' (Do you dare hit me with a mace?)<br />
<br />
Mixing tenses: <br />
*''Tutitai latepordi.'' SBJV.want-PST.PFV.1SG dance-INF.FUT "I would've wanted to dance"<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian distinguishes between two voices, active and antipassive. Passive is very similar to active since Sceptrian is absolutive-ergative, and thus isn't considered a true change in voice. Antipassive is used to reduce the valency of the verbs by removing the object of a transitive clause.<br />
<br />
Active construction: verb-agent-object and verb-object-agent are used so that a comment (rheme) precedes the topic (theme). [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|Emphasizing clitics]] are used to mark the topic. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Ónzaiton dothee pof.<br />
|IPA = /ɔ̃zaɪ̯tə̃ dəθe: pəf/<br />
| morphemes = ón-zait-on doth-ee pof-Ø<br />
| gloss = 3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV man-ERG feather-ABS<br />
| translation = A man is lifting a feather.<br />
}} <br />
<br />
Passive construction: To demote the agent (ERG), it's either removed or inflected into causal ablative (ABL). Verb is only conjugated for the object.<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Zaiton pof (dothpo).<br />
|IPA = /zaɪ̯tə̃ pəf (dəθpə)/<br />
| morphemes = zait-on pof-Ø (doth-po)<br />
| gloss = lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV feather-ABS (man-ABL)<br />
| translation = A feather is being lifted (by a man).<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Antipassive''' construction: Agent (ERG) transforms into subject (ABS) and object (ABS) takes the instrumental-comitative (INS) case. Word order becomes SV(O), and the verb is conjugated according to the agent only and the stressed syllable undergoes second [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]]. The verb is also suffixed with the emphasizing clitic ''ma'' in the formal register. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Doth ónzeit(ma) (pofos).<br />
|IPA = /dəθ ɔ̃zei̯t(mä) (pəfəs)/<br />
| morphemes = doth-Ø ón-zeit-Ø(or =ma) (pof-os)<br />
| gloss = man-ABS ANTIP\3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-ANTIP(or =ANTIP.FORM) (feather-INS)<br />
| translation = The man is lifting (a feather). <br />
}}<br />
<br />
Instrument and turning it into an agent:<br />
* ''Ónzaiton dothee pof vakuhosozh.'' (...with his own hand...)<br />
**''Ónzaiton pof vakuhp dothir.'' (the feather is raised by the man's hand)<br />
**''Onzaiton pof tuph dothi'''sh''' slokli.'' (The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them.) Inanimate agent conjugation, and dative of possession is inflected to avoid misinterpretation!<br />
* ''Vakuh ónzeit pofos.'' (The hand lifts something, which happens to be a feather)/(someone intentionally lifts a feather with their hand) Notice animate conjugation!<br />
**''Tup onzeit dothpo pofos.'' (The stick, which is being held by a man, lifts something, which happens to be a feather) ABL as causative since inanimate ''tup''.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
Decimal base was adopted due to commerce, but traces of the former octal base remain. <br />
<br />
Numerals are placed before their head. Last part of a cardinal determiner agrees with case through matching declension: ''op'''l''' tupl'' (two sticks)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Numeral system<br />
|-<br />
! Number <br />
! Number !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional !! Multiplicative adverb !! Multiplicative adjective !! Group !! Polygon<br />
|-<br />
!Zero<br />
| ozi || oz || ozhi || - || zeng (never) || - || ze (no) || -<br />
|-<br />
!One<br />
| ipi || ip || iphi || liku (whole) || ohu (once) || ipitse (onefold) || ipisi (singular) || ipirt (dot) <br />
|-<br />
!Two <br />
| opi || op || ophi || lopu (half) || ophu (twice) || opitse (twofold) || opisi (pair) || opart (line)<br />
|-<br />
!Three<br />
| oki || ok || okhi || loku || okhu || okitse || okisi || okart (triangle)<br />
|-<br />
!Four<br />
| óppi || óp || óphi || lóppu || óphu || óphitse || óphisi || ópart <br />
|-<br />
!Five<br />
| ofi || of || offi || lofu || offu || ofitse || ofisi || ofart<br />
|-<br />
!Six<br />
| ókki || ók || ókhi || lókku || ókhu || ókhitse || ókhisi || ókart<br />
|-<br />
!Seven<br />
| omi || om || ongi || lomu || ongu || omitse || omisi || omart<br />
|-<br />
!Eight<br />
| ngovi || ngov || ngovvi || longovu || ngovvu || ngovitse || ngovisi || jart<br />
|-<br />
!Nine<br />
| ngoipi || ngoip || ngoiphi || longoipu || ngoiphu || ngoipitse || ngoipisi || ngoipart<br />
|-<br />
!Ten<br />
| jopi || jop || jophi || lojopu || jophu || jopitse || jopisi || jopart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!Eleven<br />
!Twelve<br />
!Thirteen<br />
!Fourteen<br />
!Fifteen<br />
!Sixteen<br />
!Seventeen<br />
!Eighteen<br />
!Nineteen<br />
!Twenty<br />
|-<br />
| ngoki <br />
| ngópi <br />
| ngofi<br />
| ngóki<br />
| ngomi <br />
| ophungovi <br />
| jopomi<br />
| jopingovi<br />
| jopingoipi<br />
| ophujopi<br />
|-<br />
!Twenty-one<br />
!Thirty<br />
!Fourty<br />
!Fifty<br />
!Sixty<br />
!Sixty-four<br />
!Sixty-five<br />
!Seventy<br />
!Eighty<br />
!Ninety<br />
|-<br />
| ophujopipi <br />
| okhujopi<br />
| offungovi <br />
| offujopi <br />
|ókhujopi<br />
| mouti<br />
| moutipi<br />
|ongujopi<br />
|ngowopi<br />
|ngoiphujopi<br />
|-<br />
!One hundred<br />
!One hundred<br/>and twenty-two<br />
!One hundred<br/>and sixty-six<br />
!Two hundred<br />
!Thousand<br />
!Three thousand<br/>four hundred<br />
!Ten thousand<br />
!Hundred thousand<br />
!Million<br />
!Billion<br />
|-<br />
| toti <br />
|toti(s)<br>ophujopopi<br />
|toti(s)<br>moutókki<br />
|ophutoti<br />
| mopi<br />
|okhumopi(s)<br>óphutoti<br />
|tothutoti<br />
|tothumopi<br />
|hamisi<br />
|mowisi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Multiplicative adverb form is used in front of the powers of ten (tens, hundreds, ...)<br />
*Digits are annexed into the tens by using the cardinal or determiner form depending whether the digit begins with a vowel or not.<br />
*Fractions are constructed by placing the ''l(o)''-prefixed form after the multiplicative number: ''okhu lóppu'' ("thrice one quarter" = three quarters). The noun is in ablative case and only the fraction is inflected: ''lopu'''ji''' tuppo'' (for one half of a stick)<br />
*Large numbers (from hundred) are written separately from smaller, but in formal register ''s''-letter is added between each power of ten.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
*VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive<br />
* possessives follow nouns<br />
* predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns<br />
<br />
===Emphasizing clitics===<br />
<br />
Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton dothee'''noh''' pof.'' (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. ''Ónzaiton dothee pof'''ma'''.'' (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used with verbs in antipassive constructions.<br />
<br />
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) <br />
<br />
The suffixes are also used with alienable possessive forms to separate the possessor from indirect objects. Chosen depending on the ergativity of the possessum: ''Jóvakuhoi suu pof swi'''ma''' swi.'' (He gave her feather to him.)<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
<br />
====Independent====<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Conjunction====<br />
<br />
coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?)<br />
<br />
====Noun clauses====<br />
<br />
WIP ... to be redone<br />
*Infinitive.tense + ... + causatives: ''Tesosan kepó vakuhos supe.'' (I see that he washes his hands) vs. ''Onluvakan kep'''óo''' vakuhos supe.'' (The washing of his hands brings me pleasure.)<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
<br />
Nominalizing relative clauses with participles is common.<br />
<br />
Using [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|an emphasizing clitic]] to mark the antecedent for the class-appropriate proximal demonstrative pronoun (thaka/saitu/ka declined for number) which works as a relative pronoun - case chosen according to the embedded clause: <br />
*''Rotóji dothma saituh latepai.'' (leave-PST.PFV.3SG man.ABS-EMPH.ABS P.PROX.AN-COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The man, with whom I danced, left.") <br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahul dothelenos saitush latepai.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS man-PL.ERG-EMPH.ERG P.PROX.AN-PL.COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The men with whom I danced are starting to drink beer.")<br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahulma dothele ka tutitai vangosordi.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS-EMPH.ABS man-PL.ERG P.PROX.INAN SBJV-want-PST.PFV.1SG drink-INF.FUT "Men are starting to drink the beer which I would've wanted to drink."<br />
<br />
====Adverbial clauses====<br />
<br />
non-finite forms + possessive suffixes to indicate subject<br />
<br />
====Conditional clauses====<br />
<br />
subjunctive as explained in verb particle section<br />
<br />
====Indirect speech====<br />
<br />
==Register==<br />
<br />
Different endings which reflect the conversation situation: speakers, familiarity, formality, location... <br />
<br />
===Intimate===<br />
<br />
Agent prefixes aren't used. No ''t'' in inceptive. Due to apophony, subject suffix can be dropped from FUT/INCEP if 1st or 2nd person distinction is clear.<br />
<br />
===Casual===<br />
<br />
In casual register, verb forms are chosen differently when the subject is agent-like (he dances) or patient-like (he fell): ''latepóji'' (he danced AN) vs. ''bousoi'' (he fell INAN)<br />
<br />
===Formal===<br />
<br />
Mandatory use of pronouns and agent prefixes.<br />
<br />
One may use inanimate verb forms as anti-honorific? ''Ondakon næ ka Nithki.'' (I humbly offer this to You)<br />
<br />
Apophony of basic prepositions with root ''oi'': ''Oisti Hala, óosti vakuhanga, ousti qorel'' (under the Sun, under my hand, under the earth)<br />
<br />
In formal register, it is preferred to use only animate nouns as agents while abstract and inanimate are as antipassive subjects: ''luwi... nas'' ("beauty-of.yours it-un-eye-ful-makes me-with", your beauty makes me blind) vs. ''en fø na'' (you are making me blind)<br />
<br />
Distinction between abstract and animate in some categories, such as verb conjugation (''wa'')<br />
<br />
Can people with higher status be abstract or do they occupy a special animate category? (æ inside?)<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
See the [[Sceptrian/Dictionary|dictionary page]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian&diff=35656Sceptrian2015-07-07T22:55:12Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Verbs */ O Deity of Kitchen Sinks, what have I created!?</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Construction}}<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Sceptrian<br />
|nativename = [[File:Lusha_name.png|300px]]<br>''Batop Lushan''<br />
|pronunciation = [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ]<br />
|region = Western Central World<br />
|states = Sceptre<br />
|speakers = 29,200,000 <br />
|date = 7th 641<br />
|familycolor = #d3ffce<br />
|fam1 = West-Herookuan<br />
|fam2 = Lutian<br />
|fam3 = Sceptrian branch<br />
|creator=Ahuelni<br />
|setting=Akekata<br />
|dialects = Yerzonian, Mulish, Fanish <br />
|script = Toneka alphabet<br />
|nation = Empire of Sceptre<br />
|minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia<br />
|agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language)<br />
|map = Lusha_regions.jpg<br />
|mapsize = 300<br />
|mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects<br />
}}<br />
{{ClassMeter<br />
|Name = Sceptrian<br />
|NativeName = Batop Lushan<br />
|Type = Fusional<br />
|Alignment = Absolutive-ergative<br />
<br />
|adjective = final<br />
|adposition = mixed<br />
|adverb= final<br />
|article= mixed<br />
|relativeclause = final<br />
|nounclause = final<br />
|order = VSO<br />
<br />
|Tonal = no<br />
|Genders = 3<br />
|Declined = yes<br />
|Conjugated = yes<br />
|Case = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Definiteness = no<br />
|Gender = yes<br />
|Voice = yes<br />
|Mood = yes<br />
|Person = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Tense = yes<br />
|Aspect = yes<br />
|Phonology = 100<br />
|NounCases = 100<br />
|NounDef = 100<br />
|NounNumbers = 100<br />
|NounGender = 100<br />
|VerbPerson = 100<br />
|VerbNumber = 100<br />
|VerbAspect = 90<br />
|VerbTense = 100<br />
|VerbMood = 90<br />
|VerbVoice = 80<br />
|AdjCase = 100<br />
|AdjNumber = 100<br />
|AdjDef = 100<br />
|AdjGen = 100<br />
|AdjComparative = 100<br />
|AdjSuperlative = 100<br />
|Supine = 90<br />
|Gerund = 90<br />
|Participle = 90<br />
|Infinitive = 90<br />
|Modality = 90<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ] or simply ''lusha'') is an ''a priori'' [[w:Artistic_language|artistic language]] created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 29 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking [[Khattish]] and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian and its dialects feature 51 phonetic consonants, some of them with interesting lateral features. The language also has 25 phonetic vowels: twelve short, nine long and four diphthongs. Nasalization, rhotacization and breathy voice are used phonemically. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
If the romanization symbol is the same as in IPA, it is not duplicated. Not bolded romanization indicates that the sound appears as a vernacular or dialectal version.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 830px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px" colspan="2"|<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Uvular<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| [ɱ]<br />
| <br />
| '''n (ń)''' [n]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''t'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''k'''<br />
| '''q'''<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''b'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''d'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''g'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Breathy<br />
| '''ph bh'''<br>[pʰ] [bʱ]<br />
|<br />
|'''th dh'''<br>[tʰ] [dʱ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''kh gh'''<br>[kʰ] [gʱ]<br />
|'''qh'''<br>[qʰ]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| '''pl bl'''<br />[pˡ] [bˡ]<br />
| <br />
| '''tl dl'''<br />[tˡ] [dˡ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''kl gl'''<br/>[kˡ] [gˡ]<br />
| '''ql'''<br/>[qˡ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| ph [ɸ]<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| '''th''' [θ]<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''sh''' [ʃ]<br />
| '''h''' [ç]<br />
| '''kh h''' [x]<br />
| '''qh''' [χ]<br />
| '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''w''' bh [β]<br />
| '''v'''<br />
| '''dh''' [ð]<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| '''zh''' [ʒ]<br />
| <br />
| gh [ɣ]<br />
| <br />
| h [ɦ]<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''sl''' [ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Affricate<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ts''' [t͡s] <br />
| '''tsh''' [t͡ʃ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''tsl''' [t͡ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Approximant<br />
!Non-lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''j'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''l''' [l] [l̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| pr [ʙ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''r (ŕ)''' [r] [r̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The liquids ''r'' and ''l'' can appear as '''syllabic consonants''': ''tlsl'' /tˡl̩ɬ/ (shallow), ''prk'' /pr̩k/ (wagon) and ''trs'' /tr̩s/ (smith)<br />
*Vernacularly, both syllabic and obstruent-following alveolar trill ''r'' and lateral approximant ''l'' are pronounced as voiceless [r̩̊], [r̥], [l̩̊] and [l̥] when in contact with only voiceless consonants: ''trs'' [tr̩̊s] (smith) contrasting with ''trls'' [tr̩s] (while standard /trəls/) (smiths); ''gatl'' [gɑtl̥] (houses) whose pronunciation approaches [gɑtɬ]. <br />
**'''Meslatu Hirke''' made his disputed suggestion in 7:693 that a similar process had led to the birth of ''sl'' as plural indicator, when original plural ''l'' turned first into voiceless and then into ''sl'' after a word-final glottal stop, which has disappeared entirely. <br />
*In eastern dialects, ''pr'' is realized as [ʙ] and ''tr'', ''tsr'' and ''trs'' often as [r̝]. In the dialects, aspirated plosives have been fully spirantized into their fricative counterparts, e.g. [tʰ]>[θ].<br />
*Fricatives show properties of syllabic consonants word-initially and word-finally.<br />
<br />
Nasal [ɱ] only appears as an allophone of nasals with labio-dental sounds /f/ and /v/. Before velar sounds (e.g. /k/) nasals turn similarly into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
Letter ''h'' has four allophones: initial is always [h] despite frontness, [ç] appears elsewhere with front vowels, [x] appears word-finally and [h~ɦ] word-medially with back vowels ''tihtóhnah'' [tiçˈtɔɦ.näx] (assassinator). It's also used after consonants to indicate breathy voice.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 390px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| <br />
| '''u'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-mid<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| o<br/>[ɘ]<br />
| o<br/>[ɤ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
|<br />
| '''o'''<br/>[ə]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''é ø'''<br />[ɛ] [œ]<br />
|<br />
| '''ó'''<br />[ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
|'''æ'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
|'''a'''<br />[ä]<br />
|a<br />[ɑ]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
All the nine main vowel sounds (bolded) have '''long''' versions as separate phonemes.<br />
<br />
Schwa '''''o''''' is used as an epenthetic vowel (anaptyxis). When it is used to break consonant clusters (not indicated in native script) it is the simple schwa /ə/: *dŧ → ''doth'' /dəθ/ (man). When stressed, it is vernacularly realized as [ɘ], and in western dialects more clearly as [ɤ]: *dŧs → ''dothos'' [dəˈθɘˑs]<br />
<br />
Vowel ''a'' is [ɑ] after voiced consonants. Vowel ''æ'' is often more open [a], though, in Western dialects, it has merged with ''é''. <br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, there are only closing diphthongs which go up in the vowel chart:<br />
*Back: ou /ɔʊ̯/<br />
*Front: ai /äɪ̯/, ei /ei̯/, oi /œi̯/<br />
<br />
If the syllable border (glottal stop) is between vowels and they don't form a diphthong, apostrophe is used: ''tai'' (for long) vs. ''ta'i'' (past)<br />
*In native [[Sceptrian#Script|script]], separate graphemes for diphthongs exist and glottal stop is not marked.<br />
<br />
If diphthongs are followed by vowels, they are separated by a glottal stop in formal register. <br />
*In casual speech, ''ouV'' becomes ''owV'' and ''ViV'' ''VjV'': ''oua→ówa'' and ''aia→aja''. If the following vowel is the same, a glottal stop breaks the former diphthong and the ending vowel is lengthened: ''ai'i→a'ii''<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
<br />
===Onset===<br />
<br />
Basic [[w:Syllable#Structure|syllabic structure]] is CV, where the onset (beginning) consonant can be of any type. <br />
*It is possible to use liquids and approximants as '''glides''' (CLV) between the onset and the rime (ending). <br />
*Up to two consonants with same voicing may appear in the onset (CCV), especially fricative-plosive combinations, but never two plosives: ''stak'' (fence), ''fkot'' (nest), ''ksaru'' (guard). Affricate ''ts'' takes may be accompanied only by ''w'', ''j'', ''n'' or ''m'': ''tsma'' (doubt). Combination /sl/ has turned into /ɬ/.<br />
*Lateralization and aspiration may never appear together, and nasalized rhoticization is only found in Fanish dialect.<br />
<br />
===Nucleus=== <br />
<br />
The nucleus can be either a vowel or a liquid, thus CVC and CLC are also possible syllables. <br />
*Vowels (diphthongs included) may exist as a stand-alone nucleic syllable (V), mostly in the beginning or at the end of a word. <br />
*If nucleus is a liquid, plosives appear in codas only word-finally: ''dldlp'' /dˡl̩ˈdˡl̩p/ (bubble)<br />
<br />
===Coda=== <br />
<br />
The coda (final) may consist of up to three consonants with possible structures: N, P, F, L; NP, FP, LP; NF, PF, LF; NPF, FPF, LFP, LPF (Nasal, Plosive, Fricative, Liquid). <br />
*Final liquids appear as syllabic consonants<br />
*Approximants ''j'', ''w'' and plain voiced plosives never appear as coda (final) even though they may be written that way (no written schwa): ''nad'' /nä.də/ (stainy). Voiced fricatives may appear as coda. <br />
*In coda, plosives with lateral release, however, will reflect the voicing of the onset: ''gatl'' [gädˡl̩] (houses) vs. ''katl'' [kätˡl̩] (knobs). Vernacularly, the lateral approximant weakens into a voiceless variant [l̥] when in contact with voiceless consonants: ''gatl'' [gätl̥].<br />
<br />
Closed syllables, i.e. those ending in coda, are not as common word-medially as open syllables (ending in nucleus) are. When words are inflected, parts of codas tend to become onsets of the following syllable, if possible. Especially three-consonant clusters are rare word-medially and receive a schwa after a non-lateral stop: ''kamps'' /kämps/ (marsh) → ''kampsku'' → ''kamposku'' /ˈkäm.pəs.ku/ (at marsh)<br />
*Voicing status must be the same for consonants touching at syllable boundaries and the voiced one reduces into voiceless: ''*katbas''→''katpas'' /kätˈpäs/ (fern) vs. ''oist baku'' /œi̯st<sup>(h)</sup> bä.ku/ (under a table)<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
Primary '''stress''' in a word is most often on the second syllable, and when there are four or five syllables, secondary stress is placed onto the final syllable. When there are more syllables, minor stress is placed on even-numbered syllables. <br />
*If the to-be-stressed syllable contains the schwa ''o'' /ə/ or a syllabic consonant, the preceding syllable is stressed in two-syllable words and the following in words with more than three syllables.<br />
**In uninflected words, syllable with nuclear ''o'' is only stressed when it comes second and the preceding syllable has also ''o'' as nucleus. Then the stressed nucleus appears as [ɘ]. Contrast between stressed and non-stressed syllabic consonants may occur as voicing and devoicing respectively. <br />
*A non-final syllable with a long vowel or a diphthong is always stressed and steals the stress from its neighboring syllable. This also moves the secondary stress from final to penultimate syllable, if primary stress falls on first syllable.<br />
<br />
Inflected and affixed word forms have almost always the same stress as the base word (even monosyllabic with schwa): ''doth'' (man) → ''dothku'' [ˈdɘθ.ku] (near the man). <br />
*Vocative and ergative cases as well as inflections with long vowels make an exception: ''dothee'' /dəˈθe:/ (by the man), ''dothé'' /dəˈθɛ/ (O man), ''gatóo'' /gɑˈtɔ:/ (to the house)<br />
<br />
Interrogatives are formed by changing the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. This is indicated with ¿: ''¿Eikepoi?'' [ˈei̯˧˦ˈke˩.pœi̯˨˦] (Did you wash it?)<br />
<br />
==Morphophonology==<br />
<br />
===Vowel form===<br />
<br />
There are five ways of sound altering which may be used for grammatical purposes (mainly number, genitive case and imperfective aspect). In the native script the following are marked on the vowel.<br />
*Lengthening: ''paata'' /pä:tä/ (separation), ''ée'' [ɛ:]~[ɛe̯], ''óo'' /ɔ:/<br />
*Lateral (release): ''pló'' /pˡɔ/ (opposite to), ''tlaf'' /tˡäf/ (sprig) <br />
**Western dialects keep the tongue on the alveolar ridge during vowel pronunciation so that the vowels have a distinct l-sound. Historically, this may have lead to the syllabic l.<br />
*Aspiration/breathy voice: ''phó'' [pʰɔ]~[ɸɔ] (along), ''kébhar'' [kɛˈbʱɑ˞]~[kɛˈβɑ˞] (I will wash), ''tha'' [tʰä]~[θä] (abstract "it"), ''dhaka'' [dʱɑkä]~[ðɑkä] (abstract "that"). <br />
**Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head)<br />
*Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]]<br />
**Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as a short syllabic nasal consonant of the same place as the directly preceding or following consonant<br />
**Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!).<br />
*Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) <br />
**Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞:] (soup)<br />
<br />
===Consonant form===<br />
<br />
Combining sounds<br />
*Lateralization<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sl'' and ''zh'' respectively<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' → ''fl'' & ''w''<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' are geminated<br />
**''m'' & ''n'' → ''ng'' and ''ng'' → ''ńg''<br />
* Aspiration<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sh'' and ''zh''<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' are geminated<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' → ''lh'' and ''rh''<br />
* Voicing and aspiration<br />
**''r'' → ''qh'', ''l'' → ''ldh'', ''v'' → ''w''<br />
<br />
===Apophony===<br />
<br />
Apophony in the '''stressed syllable''' is used for example to express adjective gender and to create different verb forms.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Apophony<br />
|-<br />
!Root<br />
!1st<br />
!2nd<br />
|-<br />
|e<br />
|ee<br />
|é<br />
|-<br />
|o<br />
|ó<br />
|ø<br />
|-<br />
|a<br />
|aa<br />
|æ<br />
|-<br />
|u<br />
|uu<br />
|i<br />
|-<br />
|ai<br />
|ii<br />
|ei<br />
|-<br />
|ou<br />
|óo<br />
|oi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*When the stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting)<br />
*With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of ''é''.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Script=== <br />
[[File:Sceptrian.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Toneka script from the early sixth era. Notice that the vowel form info-box romanization should have "o" instead of "a".]]<br />
[[File:SceptrianTsrnet.JPG|500px|thumb|right|Tsrnet cursive script used for handwriting in modern Sceptre.]]<br />
The Sceptrian alphabet script was derived from the ancient temple marks as were the Aoman and Northern (Latin) scripts. The modern alphabet is called ''Tsoklóp Lushan''.<br />
<br />
Diacritics on vowels mark different [[Sceptrian#Vowel_form|sounds]]. The diacritics may be used with consonants as well, especially in the plural forms of consonant-ending nouns: ''gat̆'' (''gatl'' "houses"), ''doŧ̆'' (''dolth'' "men"). With the diacritics, letter ''ts'' can be lateralized into ''tsl'' or aspirated into ''tsh''.<br />
<br />
The native Sceptrian script has a long history of being unicameral, not distinguishing between the upper and lower case. Only during the sixth era under the Tyranny of West, the flow of refugees from the Coast of Temples encouraged the introduction of case separation. In the developed fonts, capital letters were derived from the traditional Toneka and small letters from the cursive Tsrnet.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Short and long letter names with explanations<br />
|-<br />
|aa<br>aat || ee<br>eet || ée<br>eet maatikipi<br>(opened e) || ii<br>iit || oo<br>oot || óo<br>oot guzbikipi<br>(deepened o) || uu<br>uut <br />
|-<br />
|ææ<br>aat evadh<br>(bright a) || øø<br>oot gudh<br>(dark o) || ai<br>aat zaithon<br>(rising a) || ei<br>eet zaithon<br>(rising e) || oi<br>oot zaithon<br>(rising o) || ou<br>óot bousoson<br>(falling o) ||<br />
|-<br />
| po<br>poot || bo<br>bóot || mo<br>mool || wo<br>wool || to<br>toot || do<br>dóot || <br />
|-<br />
| tho<br>toot hifdo<br>(windy t) || dho<br>dóot hifdo<br>(windy d) || no<br>nool || so<br>siit || sho<br>siit hifdo<br>(windy s) || zo<br>ziit || zho<br>ziit gudh<br>(dark z) <br />
|-<br />
| ngo<br>góot slenguhpi<br>(g using nose) || tso<br>tsiit || lo<br>lool || slo<br>lool hifdo<br>(windy l) || fo<br>fiit || vo<br>fiit gudh<br>(dark f) || jo<br>jool <br />
|-<br />
| ko<br>koot || go<br>góot || ho<br>hiit || qho<br>hiit surmudh<br>(strong h) || qo<br>koot venongp<br>(k being<br> swallowed) || ro<br>rool || <br />
|-<br />
|plo<br>looh tisk<br>(with l<br> mark) || pon<br>slenguhpi tisk<br>(using nose<br> mark) || por<br>tisk prung<br>(mark of<br> trill) || pho<br>tisk hifn<br>(mark of<br> wind) || poo<br>tisk spiing<br>(mark of<br> length) || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Romanization===<br />
<br />
====Modern====<br />
Consonant variation:<br />
*Letter ''r'' is used with consonants for /r̩/ and between vowels for /r/, but after vowels in the end of syllables for rhoticization ''or'' /ɚ/. Letter ''ŕ'' is used to emphasize the use of /r/ after vowels ''oŕ'' /ər/.<br />
*Similarly letter ''n'' can appear syllable-finally with nasalization but ''ń'' always as /n/: ''an'' /ã/ vs. ''ań'' /an/. <br />
*With ''ng'' /ŋ/, the accent signals lengthening ''nańgo'' /näŋ:ə/ or ''naŋŋo'' (sweaty).<br />
*Labialization of plosives is indicated by PuV (V is any vowel except ''u'') or with ''w''.<br />
*Breathry voice is indicated with an ''h'' straight after a plosive. The ''h'' is also used for corresponding fricatives which occur word-finally. This risk of confuse is one of the downsides of the simplified modern system: ''nath'' /näθ/ "a beggar" or /nätʰ/ "with stains".<br />
<br />
====Old====<br />
<br />
The old romanization system (or part of it) was used until western regions of Eastern Sceptre were joined with the Western Sceptre empire in 7th era 161, during the war against Empress Renula of Golden Islet. A revision was needed when both Sceptrian and Aoma were used in the same printing press and texts had to be distributed to westlang-using communities. Peter Martyea suggested in 7:189 that the payment according to number of pages may have favoured quick adaptation as the non-diacritic system induced much longer texts (see the comparison example).<br />
<br />
Consonants:<br />
*Nasal: '''ŋ''' ''ng'' /ŋ/<br />
**Texts from the first century of the seventh era use ''ǥ'' for word-initial /ŋ/.<br />
*Fricative: '''ŧ''' ''th'' /θ/, '''đ''' ''dh'' /ð/, '''ś''' ''sh'' /ʃ/, '''ź''' ''zh'' /ʒ/, '''ħ''' ''qh'' /χ/<br />
*Affricate: '''c''' ''ts'' /t͡s/, '''č''' ''tsh'' /t͡ʃ/<br />
*Lateral: '''š''' ''sl'' /ɬ/, '''ǩ''' ''kl'' /kˡ/, '''ǧ''' ''gl'' /gˡ/<br />
<br />
Compact equivalents of sound altering:<br />
*Lengthening with a bar: ''ṓ'' /ɔ:/ and ''ō'' /ə:/<br />
*Lateral release with a breve diacritic: ''tŏ'' /tˡə/<br />
*Nasalization with a tilde: ''õ'' /ə̃/, ''on'' /ən/<br />
*Rhotacization with a diaeresis: ''ö'' /ɚ/, ''or'' /ər/<br />
*Aspiration with a grave accent: ''pò'' /pʰə/, ''pô'' /pʰɔ/<br />
<br />
Comparison between the systems:<br />
*Old: Ǧëǩ śošēŧã <br />
*Modern: Glerkl shosleethan (maces of a knight)<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
The most complete study of the structure of pre-modern Sceptrian words was done by Porutingatu of Jerzónó in year 362 of the seventh era. She collected, grouped and analyzed the fusional morphemes and listed the new rules to replace the outdated writings from the sixth era. By 370, her work had led to a new interest in linguistics and ultimately to the founding of ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan'' (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) which has been unifying and regulating the language along with its orthography since then.<br />
<br />
Sceptrian utilizes [[w:Fusional_language|fusional]] [[w:Inflection|inflections]] and has an [[w:Ergative–absolutive_language|absolutive-ergative]] [[w:Morphosyntactic_alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]. The language is rather [[w:Head-directionality_parameter|head-initial]] and its primary [[w:Word_order|word order]] is verb-agent-object.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns are used to refer to e.g. people or things in sentences instead of using the original nouns. In Sceptrian, they exist in two numbers and are inflected according to six [[Sceptrian#Cases|'''cases''']]. <br />
<br />
====Personal====<br />
Second person includes polite versions as well which were adapted by Aoma-sperkers. Third person singular makes distinction between abstract (Ab), animate (An) and inanimate (In) pronouns while plural only between Ab-An and In. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Personal pronoun inflection'''<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! 1SG !! 1PL !! 2SG !! 2PL !! 2SG.POL !! 2PL.POL !! 3SG.Ab !! 3SG.An !! 3PL.A !! 3SG.In !! 3PL.In<br />
|-<br />
!ABS <br />
| na || mo || fo || po || Nith || With || tha || su || slo || hi || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
| næ || moslo || fø || poslo || Nithe || Widhes || thaa || suu || sloslo || hii || kloslo<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
| nai || mokli || foki || pokli || Nithki || Withkli || thai || swi || slokli || hiki|| klokli<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
| nar || moŕ || for || poŕ || Nithor || Withoŕ || thar || sur || sloŕ || hir || kloŕ<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
| nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh || thas || sus || slosh || his || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
| nape || moplo || fope || poplo || Nitti || Witti || thape || supe || sloplo || hipi || kloplo<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''Comitative''' case is used to indicate company: ''Mo slosh arakha.'' (We were with them yesterday.)<br />
*'''Causal''' describes the cause of an action or origin of something: ''Aitesosai næ su fope'' (I saw him because of (/thanks to) you), ''Hi supe foki.'' (It (is) from him to you.)<br />
<br />
3rd person abstract pronoun is used in the formal register when introducing or referring to a person of higher status.<br />
<br />
====Reflexive====<br />
Self-pronoun ''ru'' for '''reflexive''' and '''reciprocal''': ''tesosón ru'' (they are watching themself), ''ónlatepón ru'' (he is dancing by himself, alone) vs. ''ónlatepón su'' (he is dancing with him); ''sónkephón ru'' (they are washing each other) vs. ''sónkephón sloslo slo/soutu'' (they are washing them)<br />
*reflexive is easier with others: ''anlatepan'' (I'm dancing by myself); ''ankepan'' (I'm washing myself) vs. ''ankep'' ("I'm washing it"), ''kepan'' (I'm being washed)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
<br />
Simple words for "this/these" and "that/those". When demonstratives are used with [[Sceptrian#Nouns|nouns]], they behave similarly to [[Sceptrian#Adjectives|adjectives]]. In the following examples, note that Sceptrian lacks the [[Sceptrian#Verbs|verb "to be"]]: <br />
*As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.)<br />
*For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) <br />
*The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the "head" can rather be considered an attribute of the pronoun: ''Bouson ko qot.'' (That's falling, the rock, I mean.) <br />
<br />
See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]].<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Demonstrative pronoun inflection<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Case <br />
!colspan="2"| Proximal <br />
!colspan="2"| Distal <br />
|-<br />
!SG !! PL !! SG !! PL<br />
|-<br />
!ABS<br />
|ka || kla || ko || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
|kaa || klaa || kó || kló<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
|kai ||klai || koi || kloi<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
|kan ||klang || kon || klong<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
|kas || klash || kos || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
|kap || klapa || kop ||klopo<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Table of correlatives===<br />
<br />
Determiners follow their heads and agree in number and with the cases mentioned above in [[Sceptrian#Demonstrative|the table]], where DAT & LAT, COM & LOC, CAU & ABL and ABS & VOC are corresponding. Words follow the declension shown above or paradigms similar to [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun cases]]. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!rowspan="2"|Interrogative<br />
!colspan="2"|Demonstrative<br />
!colspan="5"|Quantifier<br />
|-<br />
!Proximal !! Distal !! Existential !! Elective !! Universal !! Negatory !! Alternative<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Determiner<br />
| sho || ka (SG)<br/>kla (PL) || ko<br />klo || jofa (some) || ota (any) || orka (every, all) || ze (no) || so (another)<br/>solo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="5"| Pronoun<br />
!Abstract<br />
| ashu || thaka || dhaka || jaafa || thata || thorka || theso || thaso<br />
|-<br />
!Animate<br />
| ¿soutu || saitu || soutu || jonfu || onta || ongka || souso || jonso<br />
|-<br />
!Inanimate <br />
| ¿ko || ka || ko || jofo || oto || orko || ze || so<br />
|-<br />
!Out of two<br />
| ¿tso || tsaka || tsoko || zho || tsoto || tsorko || tseso || tso<br />
|-<br />
!Out of many<br />
| ¿tsolo || tsalka || tsolko || zolo || tsolto || tsongko || tsleso || tsolo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="6"|Pro-adverb<br />
!Locative<br />
| sku || khau || khu || jofku || otku || orkhu || zengu || sokhu<br />
|-<br />
!Temporal<br />
| sko || kha || kho || jofko || otko || orkho || zeng || sokho<br />
|-<br />
!Comitative<br />
| shos || kas || kos || jofos || otos || orkos || zeos || sos<br />
|-<br />
!Causal<br />
| spe || kap || kop || jov || otop || orkop || zenep || sonop<br />
|-<br />
!Manner<br />
| shi || khai || khoi || jofai || otai || orkai || zei || soi<br />
|-<br />
!What kind of<br />
| shodh || kadh || kodh || jodhi || othi || ordhi || zodhi || sothi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Negative determiner ''ze'' has no plural form. Neither have pronouns "Out of two".<br />
*Demonstratives are used when referring to listed items of equal animacy: proximal with the former and distal with the latter: ''Aitesoshóji math kuthos. Óomidh soutu.'' (I saw a cat and a dog. The latter was large.)<br />
*Locative pro-adverb can be conjugated with lative, locative and ablative.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Nouns in Sceptrian form the basis of derivational morphology and even the cases are utilized when forming new words. They are declined according to two numbers and nine cases, and the seven declensions are grouped in three genders which affect the verb conjugation and adjective agreement.<br />
<br />
====Gender====<br />
<br />
There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes.<br />
*Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in vowels ''a, æ, o, ó, ø'' and ''i''. <br />
*Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h'', same voiced and affricates), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings.<br />
*Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group.<br />
In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull). Some archaic words remain in dialects and in poetic use.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
<br />
There are two numbers, singular and plural, but abstract ''i''-nouns and inanimate ''l''-nouns are always singular. The declension according to number is complicated and fused with the class/case system explained and tabulated below.<br />
<br />
====Cases====<br />
<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Unmarked base form for subjects of intransitive and objects of transitive verbs <br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agents of transitive verbs<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect object; alienable possession ''gat dothi'' (a house of (lit. "for") the man); comparison (with ADJ comparative)<br />
*Possessive (POS): Inalienable possession ''dhoku dothor'' (the man's head)<br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS): Using something; "with someone", replaces "and" as Latin [[wikt:-que|-que]]; in antipassive constructions<br />
*Lative (LAT): Movement to; with adpositions<br />
*Locative-temporal (LOC-TEMP): Place; time; with adpositions<br />
*Ablative (ABL): Movement from (+delative); causal<br />
*Vocative (VOC): addressing (people, gods); interjections ''Alæ!'' (Hello! lit. "Day!")<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Genders and desinences'''<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" style="width: 100px"| <br />
!colspan="3"| Abstract <br />
!colspan="6"| Animate <br />
!colspan="3"| Inanimate<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''A'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''i'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''F'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''N'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''u'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"|''P'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''l''<br />
|-<br />
|<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>|| ||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 100px"| Absolutive<br />
| A || Asl || i || F || (o)lF || N || Ning || u || ush || P || Pl || l<br />
|- <br />
! style=""| Ergative <br />
| AA || AslA || ii || Fee || Fele || Nee || Neng || uu || uushu || Pee || Ple || le<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Dative <br />
| Ak || Akl || ik || Fi || Fil || Ni || Nil || (u)ji || (u)wi || Pei || Plei || lei<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Possessive <br />
| An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Instrumental-comitative <br />
| Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Lative <br />
| AgA || AglA || iki || Fko || Fklo || Nong || Nongo || ugu || uglu || Póo || Plóo || lo <br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Locative-temporal <br />
| AkhA || AlkhA || ikhi || Fku || Fklu || Nung || Nungu || ukhu || ulkhu || Pu || Plu || lu<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Ablative <br />
| ApA || AplA || ipi || Fp(o) || Fpl(o) || Nop || Nopl || upu || uplu || PPo || PPol || lp<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Vocative <br />
| Ae || Asl || ii || Fé || lFé || Né || Nin || -wé || -wésh || Pé || Plé || lé<br />
|}<br />
*''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø''<br />
**Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø<br />
*''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts, tsl'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. <br />
*''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng''<br />
*''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q''<br />
**POS ''q''→''ng''<br />
**INS ending Ph marks breathy voice and may turn the plosive into corresponding fricative /ɸ, θ, x, χ/ if followed by a plosive.<br />
*- indicates that the original ending is replaced with the following: ''tup → tu'''m''''' (stick → stick's)<br />
<br />
====Possessive==== <br />
<br />
Different possessive forms and interpretations: <br />
*''Dativus possessivus'' (alienable): ''gat doth'''i''''' "the house which the man has temporarily settled in, i.e. rented"<br />
*Comitative case with alienable possessive suffix: ''doth gat''h'''''os''''' "man with his house which he has purchased"<br />
**Inalienable possessive suffix alters the meaning: ''doth gat''h'''''ozh''''' "man and his birthplace"<br />
*Possessive case (almost inalienable): ''gat doth'''or''''' "the house which was inherited and is now owned by the man". <br />
<br />
The noun in possessive case is not inflected further. With dative case, inflection may be utilized in order to distinguish the ''dativus possessivus'' from the indirect object or benefactive: ''Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli.'' "The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them." (Related to the feather ceremony when welcoming upper class members to a household.)<br />
<br />
'''Possessive affixes''', as shown in examples above, draw a distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: ''Óntesoson dothee gat'''s'''/vakuh'''oz'''.'' (A man is watching his house/ his own hand.) With the basic suffixes, the root is inflected first and then suffixed.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ Possessional suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!Person<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! ALIEN !! INAL !! ALIEN !! INAL <br />
|-<br />
!1st <br />
| (a)ń || (a)nga || (ó)m || (ó)ngó <br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
| (o)f || (ø)fo || (e)v || (ø)vø<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
| (o)s || (o)zh || (o)sl || (o)zhol<br />
|}<br />
*Irregular: Only VOC+possessive with 1SG: ''Pos'''n'''é!'' (My servant!), ''Polsmé!'' (Our servants!)<br />
<br />
'''2nd person polite suffixes''' are added to absolutive base and the endings are then declined according to abstract gender: <br />
*Singular: (a)tha, (a)tazha <br />
*Plural: (a)dhó, (a)dózhó <br />
*Example: ''gat'''atha'''pa'' (from Your house)<br />
<br />
See [[Sceptrian#Adverbial_clauses|adverbial clauses]] which utilize some possessive suffixes with [[Sceptrian#Non-finite_forms|non-finite verb forms]].<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
<br />
Adpositions are used with inflected nouns to add information about its location or relation to other nouns. Some Sceptrian adpositions can be used as stand-alone adverbs which may be conjugated according to noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====Prepositions====<br />
<br />
Prepositions are used with lative (to, towards), locative (at, near) and ablative (from) cases to alter the meaning.<br />
*''voi'' (in) forms illative, inessive, elative <br />
*''loi'' (out) for "out of", "outside" and "from outside"<br />
*''soi'' (on) to emphasize the surface aspect <br />
*''oist(i)'' (under) for movement under something<br />
*''roi'' (above) similarly to ''oist''<br />
*''boi'' (down) for "down (a surface / to)", "down in (somewhere)" and "from down"; as an adverb as well <br />
*''zoi'' (up) used like ''boi''<br />
*''moi'' (touching, around) with lative for terminative, locative for pertingent and ablative for initiative<br />
*''oil(i)'' (as) forms translative, essive, exessive<br />
*''koi'' (per) distribution: "for each", "every" (temporal), "from each"<br />
*''jon'' (... between) <br />
*''poi'' (... the middle of, among)<br />
*''tsoi'' (... front of; preceding) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = before<br />
*''hoi'' (... behind; following) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = after<br />
*''mots(i)'' (... on side)<br />
**combined with postpositional ''dei'' (right) or ''lai'' (left)<br />
**with time nouns in locative = ago<br />
<br />
====Postpositions====<br />
<br />
Postpositions appear with various cases and often come in groups.<br />
*''pón'' (through) with lative<br />
*''phó'' (along) with lative<br />
*''pló'' (opposite to, across) with locative<br />
*''sós'' (with) with comitative to express a greater degree of endowment (ornative); with ablative to indicate "without"; with lative for "in addition to"<br />
*''óp'' (about, concerning) with genitive; with ablative for "according to"<br />
*''ól'' (like) with genitive; as an adverb "similarly"<br />
*''jak'' (away, despite) with ablative; as an adverb as well<br />
*''mai'' (excluding) with ablative<br />
*''mak'' (except) with ablative<br />
*''mats'' (instead of) with ablative<br />
*''sai'' (including) with comitative<br />
*''sak'' (concerning, regarding) with comitative; with ablative to emphasize the causal aspect (due to, because of, thanks to)<br />
*''phe'' (for the sake of) with lative<br />
<br />
====Pronominal====<br />
<br />
When used with pronouns, separate adpositions only come with dative forms to indicate lative. Otherwise adpositions take possessive suffixes, inalienable for locative and alienable for ablative: ''voi nai'' (into me), ''voinga'' (inside me), ''voiń'' (from inside me)<br />
<br />
Of the polite possessive suffixes, alienable is added onto the adposition and then the entire compound is conjugated for lative, locative or ablative: ''voitha'' (in You; attributive), ''voithaga'' (into You), ''voithakha'' (inside You; predicative), ''voithapa'' (from inside You)<br />
<br />
===Derivational Morphology===<br />
<br />
Verbs and adjectives are derived from nouns by adding suffixes and in some cases prefixes as well.<br />
<br />
====Noun====<br />
<br />
Many nouns share same origins and these endings are the most common forms of derivation:<br />
*Suffixing verbs with once established ending vowels or consonant appropriate for the noun class. <br />
*place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix<br />
*collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish)<br />
**Archaic forms also add the prefix ''kl'' <br />
*being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy")<br />
**doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer)<br />
**experiencer, patient: ABS with ''(k)ois'' or ''(k)oit'' depending on animacy: ''kepois'' (person being washed)<br />
**origin: ABL with ''(o)su'': ''ukopposu'' (person from north)<br />
**characteristic (from abstract quality): INS with final duplicated vowel and ''tu'': ''luwishitu'' (beauty)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)n'' (AN) or ''(o)l'' (INAN): ''koson'' (wood), ''qotol'' (stone)<br />
*diminutive: reduplication of final sound with ''t'' between vowels and ''i'' between consonants: ''kosis'' (small tree)<br />
*augmentative: reduplication of final sound with ''g'' between vowels and ''a'' between consonants: ''kosas'' (great tree)<br />
**apotheosis: augmentative with ''a''-ending: ''kosonana'' (godwood)<br />
*abstract quality, feature: ABS suffixed with ''(k)oti'': ''dothoti'' (manliness)<br />
*'''gerund''' (act of doing): via derivated [[Sceptrian#Verb|verb]] suffixed with ''(o)pi'': ''glerkurpi'' (mace-battering)<br />
<br />
====Adjective====<br />
<br />
Different cases and affixes are used for the derivation:<br />
*similarity, having something: ''dh'' suffix to abstract gender and animate ''u''-ending; voicing of fricatives (''h→qh'', no change with affricates); nasals [[Sceptrian#Consonant_form|"lateralized"]] + ''o''; voicing of plosives + ''o'' (''q→g''); l-declension as in INS-COM: ''evadh'' (bright), ''dodh'' (masculine)<br />
**full of, having something: previous suffixed with ''ol'': ''mel muvol'' (waters full of fish)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)p'': ''kosonop'' (wooden)<br />
*origin, relation: ABL form with a final ''ó'' added or replacing the original ending vowel: ''kusupó'' (friendly)<br />
*absence, without: ''ti'' suffixed to VOC form: ''evæti'' (lightless=dark)<br />
*doing: ''on'' added after INS case: ''kephon'' (washing)<br />
*who did: INS with ''ompu'': ''kephompu'' (who washed = ''pessyt'' in Finnish)<br />
*done by: INS with ''empo'' and possibly inalienable possessive suffix: ''kephemponga'' (washed by me)<br />
*not done: LAT suffixed with ''tip'': ''kepóotip'' (unwashed)<br />
*experiencing: LAT suffixed with ''p'': kepóop (being washed)<br />
*result (wanted): LAT suffixed with ''pi'': ''kepóopi'' (washed=clean)<br />
**if unwanted: LAT suffixed with ''pot'': ''vangostóopot'' (drunk)<br />
*possible: POS with ''ta'': ''kenta'' (washable)<br />
*requiring: LOC with ''rt'': ''kepurt'' (needs to be washed)<br />
*opposite, negation: VOC with ''tot''<br />
<br />
Notice that plural forms of adjectives may be derived from plural nouns: ''dolth kep'''s'''on'' (men who are washing)<br />
<br />
====Verb====<br />
<br />
A declined core noun receives an ending which describes how the verb reflects the noun:<br />
*In some cases, the vowel ending of nouns may simply be removed or the absolutive of a consonant-ending noun may also serve as a verb.<br />
*ABS = "happens, is": ''kep'' (is washed)<br />
*COM = "using": ''tuph'' (is poked with a stick), ''glerkh'' (is hit with a mace)<br />
*POS + ''k'' = "similarity": ''melonk'' (is wet)<br />
*DAT + ''k'' = "making/becoming" (no ''k'' with Abstract): ''zurmu'' → ''zurmjik'' (strong person → is strengthened), ''zurp'' → ''zurpeik'' (strong, durable object → hardens) & ''zurma'' → ''zurmak'' (strength → intensifies)<br />
*LAT + ''t'' = "movement, quasi-inceptive": ''glerkóot'' (swings a mace, INTR), ''melot'' (flows), ''latepóot'' (is persuaded to dance, INTR; begins a dance with, TR), ''lehkot'' (runs) <br />
*LOC + ''r'' = "frequentative": ''glerkur'' (is battered with a mace), ''melur'' (rains; drips)<br />
*VOC + ''k'' = "momentane": ''glerkék'' (is hit once with a mace), ''melék'' (splashes once)<br />
*POS + ''(o)v'' = "consider, feel": ''vongv'' (is considered strange = ''oudoksutaan'' in Finnish)<br />
* Several endings can be stacked on verbs without turning it into a noun in between: ''melurék'' (shower of rain falls), ''tup(o)hkur'' (is often poked with a stick). When deriving, the ''r''-ending are declined according to the ''l''-paradigm.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Sceptrian agree with the gender, number and cases of their head. When an adjective is used as a predicative, it comes before its head, but when as an attributive, it comes after. Adjective declension follows approximately the same rules as [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun declension]]. In the common ''dh''-ending F-declension, ''o'' is added between ''dh'' and case-endings with consonants. Changes in both casual and poetic speech include mirroring onset into coda: ''dothklu jadaadh'''ulk''''' (near nice men)<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+DH-declension<br />
! !! ABS !! ERG !! DAT !! POS !! INS !! LAT !! LOC !! ABL !! VOC<br />
|-<br />
!SG<br />
|dh || dhee || dhi || dhor || dhos || dh'''ok''' || dh'''uk''' || dh'''op''' || dhé<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
| ldh(o) || dhele || dhil || dhoŕ || dhosh || dh'''olk''' || dh'''ulk''' || dh'''olp''' || ldhé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Sceptrian#Apophony|Apophony]] in the stressed syllable is used to indicate the gender: base for inanimate, first apophony with animate and second with abstract gender: ''eja jadædh, doth jadaadh, latep jadadh'' <br />
<br />
Polite adjectives are formed from the abstract form with predicative prefix ''nga'' and attributive suffix ''æ'': ''ngaluwidh Nith'' (You are beautiful), ''shosleetha luwidhæ'' (a beautiful knight)<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
<br />
'''Positive''' of an adjective is the base form.<br />
*When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.)<br />
*Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle.<br />
*When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii faaldh dolth lutush.'' (As many men as women.) <br />
<br />
'''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). <br />
*Manner quatifiers ''orkai, jofai'' and ''zei'' can be used to indicate the degree: ''luwidhé orkai'' (much more beautiful), ''luwidhé jofai'' (slightly more beautiful), ''luwidhé zei'' (not more beautiful)<br />
*When comparing two nouns adjective comes first (predicative comparative), the standard acquires the dative case, and comparative forms agree with their head in gender and number: ''luwildhé po swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*Pronoun comparison is also possible to construct with alienable possessional suffixes: ''luwildhév swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*When adjective comparative is not included, postpositional ''fadhé'' (more) or ''føødhi'' (less) can be used with noun plurals: ''dolth faldhé lutwi'' (more men than women)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative''' is similar to noun apotheosis: the ending is reduplicated with ''é'' between consonants and ''j'' between vowels, and an ''a'' added to the end: ''luwidhédha'' (most beautiful). Similarly to comparative, ''ti'' gives the meaning of "least": ''luwidhédhati'' (least beautiful).<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly)<br />
<br />
Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh óomidhé'' (very beautiful < "largely")<br />
<br />
'''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative adverb''' is similar to adjective superlative in its reduplication but with an ''æ''-ending: ''zaivie jadædhédhæ'' (you sing most pleasantly)<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Missing verbs: <br />
*"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man)<br />
**Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith)<br />
**Showing tense-aspect:<br />
***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past)<br />
***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective<br />
***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense<br />
***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" <br />
**Vernacularly, [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|proximal demonstrative pronouns]] are used as copulae with corresponding grammatical gender: ''Trs saitu Berats.'' ("Smith this Berats." Berats is a smith.)<br />
* "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man")<br />
<br />
====Conjugation====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, primary conjugation of verbs indicates person, number and tense-aspect, and it includes affixation and apophony. Conjugation for different [[Sceptrian#Mood|moods]] is slightly more complex.<br />
<br />
=====Root=====<br />
<br />
Verbs are given in their 3SG.INAN GNO form which is used to form all of the third person forms. With first and second person subjects, the first apophony is used in indicative inceptive and future. Polite second person forms use the second apophony<br />
<br />
=====Affixes=====<br />
<br />
Fusional conjugation affixes convey the person, number, tense and aspect (and honorific). Subject and object suffixes are almost always used with verbs, the antipassive being the only exception. Agent prefixes aren't often used in the casual register, mostly to form the [[Sceptrian#Reflexive|reflexive]], but they have to be used in the formal register. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || ha || e || he || ahi || aqhi || ó || hó || (o) || l<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || han || en || hen || ang || aing || ón || hón || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| ast || last || est || lest || æst || hæst || ós || lós || os || osl<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| ajin || hajin || ejin || hejin || azing || izing || ójin || hójin || oin || loin<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || hai || ei || hei || athi || idhi || óji || hóji || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| har || +har || her || +her || athar || idhar || hór || +hór || ho || +ho<br />
|}<br />
* initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive<br />
* initial ''h'' is for aspiration of the final plosive or simply ''h'' after a vowel<br />
**if the final plosive is already breathy, ''o'' is added after it<br />
*+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration<br />
**simple ''h'' becomes ''qh''<br />
*Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.) Note the second apophony due to the abstract gender.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || sa || e || se || æ || hæ || ó || só || o || lo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || san || en || sen || nga || ngai || ón || són || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| tsa || tsla || tse || tsle || tsæ || tshæ || tsó || tsló || so || slo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| jan || zhan || jen || zhen || izæ || izhæ || jón || zhón || i || li<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || sai || ei || sei || thæ || dhæ || jó || zhó || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| ar || sar || er || ser || thar || dhar || ór || sór || or || lor<br />
|}<br />
*Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.)<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ónbouson dothee pof.'' (A man (ERG) is lifting a feather (ABS).), ''Bousón doth.'' (The man falls.) ''Bouson pof.'' (The feather (ABS) falls.).<br />
<br />
====Tense====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, verbs are conjugated for three tenses: past, present and future. These tenses describe when an action took place relative to current moment as their names indicate. <br />
<br />
====Aspect====<br />
<br />
Gnomic-static aspect is used to indicate general truths ''Zaitó Hala.'' (sun rises) and static situations ''Mépa lusha.'' (I can speak Sceptrian). It can be used with expressions of time to specify when something was static ''Petsipha kas arakha.'' (dress-STAT.1SG this.COM yesterday.TEMP "I was dressed in these clothes yesterday (as well).")<br />
<br />
Present progressive describes dynamic actions ''Anbaplóph lusha kha.'' (I'm reading Sceptrian at the moment). Present inceptive is used when an action is about to begin or someone is starting to do something.<br />
*Inceptive is only used once: Subject inceptive with intransitive and mostly agent inceptive with translative verbs. Object ending is either PRES.PROG, when something was begun only a moment ago, or FUT, when something is about to begin.<br />
**Translative object inceptive if the object caused the initialization: ''Órlateepast.'' (He is about to take me to dancing through my initiative.)<br />
<br />
Past imperfective is used with continuous activities which were happening before the present. The contrasting perfective aspect describes the event as a whole and having an endpoint in the past.<br />
<br />
In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used.<br />
<br />
Endings with different tenses and aspects may be mixed in some cases:<br />
*PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) <br />
*PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while))<br />
<br />
====Mood====<br />
<br />
Moods express speaker's attitude towards the subject or their knowledge of it. They are divided into realis and irrealis moods: the former expresses factual statements while the latter indicates that an event hasn't taken place or the speaker is uncertain of a situation.<br />
<br />
=====Realis=====<br />
<br />
'''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well)<br />
<br />
'''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for supposedly factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.)<br />
<br />
=====Irrealis=====<br />
<br />
'''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?)<br />
*The change in stress does not affect the apophony.<br />
<br />
'''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) <br />
*The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!)<br />
<br />
'''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original stressed syllable: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: '''''la'''latép'' (may dance), '''''ak'''aktæsos'' (may hear), ''rorøt'' (may go)<br />
*The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject.<br />
*The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished<br />
<br />
=====Particles=====<br />
<br />
Particles are placed after a verb to alter or to specify its meaning.<br />
<br />
Realis<br />
*''pai'' mirative (with soft imperative in present): ''Rótóji pai!'' (He went!?)<br />
**with adjectives or as an adverb: ''Luwi pai!'' (How beautiful!) <br />
<br />
Evidentials (with causatives)<br />
*''atasi'' hearsay: ''Rotóji tasi fope.'' (I heard from you that he went.)<br />
*''tesei'' visual: ''Rótoutóji tesei nape.'' (I didn't see him go.)<br />
<br />
Irrealis<br />
*''norka'' dubitative (with subjunctive): ''Rorøtóji norka.'' (I doubt he went.)<br />
*''gana'' volitive (with future subjunctive): ''Lalatépar gana.'' (I wish I could dance.)<br />
<br />
Conditional (with subjunctive)<br />
*''ta'' apodosis: ''Arziizeither ta'' (I will raise you...)<br />
*''-ti-'' infixed between reduplicated form for protasis: ''boutiboisen'' (if you fall)<br />
<br />
Hortatives (with soft imperative which itself works as an adhortative or dehortative with negation (unwillingness))<br />
*Cohortative: ''Latéprlast kha!'' (Let's dance now!), ''Rótrlastonget khugu.'' (Let's not go there.)<br />
*''jokæ'' exhortative (inhortative through negation): ''Rótrest jokæ.'' (You really should go.)<br />
<br />
'''Formal''' register differences:<br />
*''aktasosai'' (hears) conjugated for hearsay: ''Røtathi aiaktasosóji.'' (I heard from her that you left.)<br />
*''tesos'' (sees) conjugated for visual evidentiality: ''Rotóji tesosai.'' (I saw her go.)<br />
*''tsmaadhoré'' (doubtfully) used for dubitative<br />
*''tutaadhoré'' (wishfully) used for volitive<br />
*''alké'' permissive with dative: ''Rótest alké foki.'' (You may leave.)<br />
**prohibitive with negated (inability) imperative infinitive: ''Rótrostodi alké foki.'' (You aren't allowed to leave.)<br />
*both conditional particles are used separately and they are prefixed with the subjunctive reduplication: ''Arziizeither zaita bouboisen bouti.'' (I will raise you if you fall.)<br />
<br />
'''In literature''' to express the peaking pitch of ironical statements and lowered pitch of sarcastic expressions:<br />
*''jø'' verbal irony: ''Jótesosoi melurpi, jóbatophoi "Luwidh jø hi loi khu".'' (He saw the rain and said: "''Beautiful'' day out there")<br />
*''gæ'' sarcasm: ''Uu, eiluwikoi gæ pai.'' (Oh, ''how beautiful'' you made it.)<br />
<br />
====Negation====<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Negation affixes<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Manner→<br />
! Inability<br />
!colspan="6"| Unwillingness<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Form→<br />
!2nd apophony +infix<br>(before patient-suffix)<br />
!colspan="3"|Intranslative<br>suffix<br />
!colspan="3"|Translative<br>infix (after agent-prefix)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Person→<br />
!All<br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!SG<br />
|ost<br />
|net<br />
|fep<br />
|set<br />
|no<br />
|fo<br />
|so<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|osht<br />
|nget<br />
|vep<br />
|slet<br />
|ngo<br />
|flo<br />
|slo<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|PST<br />
|out<br />
|colspan="3"|nait<br />
|colspan="3"|me<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|FUT<br />
|oz<br />
|colspan="3"|nort<br />
|colspan="3"|mor<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse'''fo'''lateephar?'' (You don't want to begin dancing with me?)<br />
<br />
'''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.)<br />
<br />
Second apophony of negation affixes with subjunctive mood: ''Rorøthórn'''ø'''rt.'' (He may not be willing to go.)<br />
<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
<br />
=====Gerund=====<br />
*Base nouns or their abstract variants may serve as gerunds, which describe the action of doing, but otherwise they are created with the suffix ''(o)pi'' added to a verb root. The suffic also helps to distinguish the forms.<br />
<br />
=====Infinitives=====<br />
*PRES ''-odi'', PST ''-oudi'', FUT ''ordi''<br />
*used with modal verbs<br />
*subjunctive form created with duplication<br />
<br />
=====Participles=====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian participles work as adjectives. Following table shows which "case" and suffix the verb base (or gerund in formal register) takes.<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Present participle suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!IPFV<br />
!PFV<br />
|-<br />
!Patientive (LAT)<br />
|''p''<br />
|''pi/pot''<br />
|-<br />
!Negative (LAT)<br />
|<br />
|''tip''<br />
|-<br />
!Active (INS)<br />
|rowspan="2"|''on''<br />
|''ompu''<br />
|-<br />
!Agentive (INS)<br />
|''empo''<br />
|}<br />
*Also the "requiring" (FUT) form LOC+''rt'' and "possible" (GNO) POS+''ta'' <br />
*Past forms are created by adding ''i'' to the end: ''kephoni'' (was being washed)<br />
*Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed)<br />
*Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]]<br />
<br />
Relative form with word-order and prefix? + formal register particle<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, auxiliary verbs are conjugated only for subject which may act as the agent of the clause. The verbs can either precede (dynamic, deontic) or come after (epistemic) different verb infinitives. Since regular object-patient conjugation can't be used, objects have to be written (no pro-drop) and they are declined into instrumental-comitative case.<br />
*''tut'' "want" (from ''tuta'' "craving, wish"): ''Tutajin kepoudi his.'' (I wanted to wash it.)<br />
**infinitive in lative case for "want something to be done": ''Tutan kepordiki his.'' (I want it to be washed.)<br />
**"be going to" (FUT): ''Tuutar latepordi.'' (I'm going to dance.)<br />
**"wish" (SBJV) mostly as the subjunctive of the absent ''to be''-verb: ''Tutitan khau fos.'' (I wish you were here) <br />
*''mép'' "can, know how to" (dynamic) (from ''mépi'' "skill"): ''Mépa latepodi'' ("I can dance"; notice gnomic-static mood)<br />
*''kuut'' "can, may" (deontic / epistemic) (from ''kuutó'' "possibility"): ''Kuutest rotordi.'' (You may leave.), ''Fendógópot kuutó pai.'' (He may unexpectedly be dead.)<br />
**particle ''nor'' added after the verb for lower possibility i.e. "could, might": ''Fendógópi kuut nor.'' (It might be dead.)<br />
**particle ''ga'' added for "should, must": ''Fendógópi kuut ga.'' (It should be dead, as we wanted.)<br />
*''khet'' "must" (deontic) (from ''kheti'' "necessity"): ''Khetan rotodi.'' (I must go now), ''Kheetar rotordi.'' (I must go soon)<br />
*''khurd'' "dare" (from ''khurdi'' "daring"): ''¿Khurde glerkékodi nas?'' (Do you dare hit me with a mace?)<br />
<br />
Mixing tenses: <br />
*''Tutitai latepordi.'' SBJV.want-PST.PFV.1SG dance-INF.FUT "I would've wanted to dance"<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian distinguishes between two voices, active and antipassive. Passive is very similar to active since Sceptrian is absolutive-ergative, and thus isn't considered a true change in voice. Antipassive is used to reduce the valency of the verbs by removing the object of a transitive clause.<br />
<br />
Active construction: verb-agent-object and verb-object-agent are used so that a comment (rheme) precedes the topic (theme). [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|Emphasizing clitics]] are used to mark the topic. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Ónzaiton dothee pof.<br />
|IPA = /ɔ̃zaɪ̯tə̃ dəθe: pəf/<br />
| morphemes = ón-zait-on doth-ee pof-Ø<br />
| gloss = 3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV man-ERG feather-ABS<br />
| translation = A man is lifting a feather.<br />
}} <br />
<br />
Passive construction: To demote the agent (ERG), it's either removed or inflected into causal ablative (ABL). Verb is only conjugated for the object.<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Zaiton pof (dothpo).<br />
|IPA = /zaɪ̯tə̃ pəf (dəθpə)/<br />
| morphemes = zait-on pof-Ø (doth-po)<br />
| gloss = lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV feather-ABS (man-ABL)<br />
| translation = A feather is being lifted (by a man).<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Antipassive''' construction: Agent (ERG) transforms into subject (ABS) and object (ABS) takes the instrumental-comitative (INS) case. Word order becomes SV(O), and the verb is conjugated according to the agent only and the stressed syllable undergoes second [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]]. The verb is also suffixed with the emphasizing clitic ''ma'' in the formal register. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Doth ónzeit(ma) (pofos).<br />
|IPA = /dəθ ɔ̃zei̯t(mä) (pəfəs)/<br />
| morphemes = doth-Ø ón-zeit-Ø(or =ma) (pof-os)<br />
| gloss = man-ABS ANTIP\3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-ANTIP(or =ANTIP.FORM) (feather-INS)<br />
| translation = The man is lifting (a feather). <br />
}}<br />
<br />
Instrument and turning it into an agent:<br />
* ''Ónzaiton dothee pof vakuhosozh.'' (...with his own hand...)<br />
**''Ónzaiton pof vakuhp dothir.'' (the feather is raised by the man's hand)<br />
**''Onzaiton pof tuph dothi'''sh''' slokli.'' (The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them.) Inanimate agent conjugation, and dative of possession is inflected to avoid misinterpretation!<br />
* ''Vakuh ónzeit pofos.'' (The hand lifts something, which happens to be a feather)/(someone intentionally lifts a feather with their hand) Notice animate conjugation!<br />
**''Tup onzeit dothpo pofos.'' (The stick, which is being held by a man, lifts something, which happens to be a feather) ABL as causative since inanimate ''tup''.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
Decimal base was adopted due to commerce, but traces of the former octal base remain. <br />
<br />
Numerals are placed before their head. Last part of a cardinal determiner agrees with case through matching declension: ''op'''l''' tupl'' (two sticks)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Numeral system<br />
|-<br />
! Number <br />
! Number !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional !! Multiplicative adverb !! Multiplicative adjective !! Group !! Polygon<br />
|-<br />
!Zero<br />
| ozi || oz || ozhi || - || zeng (never) || - || ze (no) || -<br />
|-<br />
!One<br />
| ipi || ip || iphi || liku (whole) || ohu (once) || ipitse (onefold) || ipisi (singular) || ipirt (dot) <br />
|-<br />
!Two <br />
| opi || op || ophi || lopu (half) || ophu (twice) || opitse (twofold) || opisi (pair) || opart (line)<br />
|-<br />
!Three<br />
| oki || ok || okhi || loku || okhu || okitse || okisi || okart (triangle)<br />
|-<br />
!Four<br />
| óppi || óp || óphi || lóppu || óphu || óphitse || óphisi || ópart <br />
|-<br />
!Five<br />
| ofi || of || offi || lofu || offu || ofitse || ofisi || ofart<br />
|-<br />
!Six<br />
| ókki || ók || ókhi || lókku || ókhu || ókhitse || ókhisi || ókart<br />
|-<br />
!Seven<br />
| omi || om || ongi || lomu || ongu || omitse || omisi || omart<br />
|-<br />
!Eight<br />
| ngovi || ngov || ngovvi || longovu || ngovvu || ngovitse || ngovisi || jart<br />
|-<br />
!Nine<br />
| ngoipi || ngoip || ngoiphi || longoipu || ngoiphu || ngoipitse || ngoipisi || ngoipart<br />
|-<br />
!Ten<br />
| jopi || jop || jophi || lojopu || jophu || jopitse || jopisi || jopart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!Eleven<br />
!Twelve<br />
!Thirteen<br />
!Fourteen<br />
!Fifteen<br />
!Sixteen<br />
!Seventeen<br />
!Eighteen<br />
!Nineteen<br />
!Twenty<br />
|-<br />
| ngoki <br />
| ngópi <br />
| ngofi<br />
| ngóki<br />
| ngomi <br />
| ophungovi <br />
| jopomi<br />
| jopingovi<br />
| jopingoipi<br />
| ophujopi<br />
|-<br />
!Twenty-one<br />
!Thirty<br />
!Fourty<br />
!Fifty<br />
!Sixty<br />
!Sixty-four<br />
!Sixty-five<br />
!Seventy<br />
!Eighty<br />
!Ninety<br />
|-<br />
| ophujopipi <br />
| okhujopi<br />
| offungovi <br />
| offujopi <br />
|ókhujopi<br />
| mouti<br />
| moutipi<br />
|ongujopi<br />
|ngowopi<br />
|ngoiphujopi<br />
|-<br />
!One hundred<br />
!One hundred<br/>and twenty-two<br />
!One hundred<br/>and sixty-six<br />
!Two hundred<br />
!Thousand<br />
!Three thousand<br/>four hundred<br />
!Ten thousand<br />
!Hundred thousand<br />
!Million<br />
!Billion<br />
|-<br />
| toti <br />
|toti(s)<br>ophujopopi<br />
|toti(s)<br>moutókki<br />
|ophutoti<br />
| mopi<br />
|okhumopi(s)<br>óphutoti<br />
|tothutoti<br />
|tothumopi<br />
|hamisi<br />
|mowisi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Multiplicative adverb form is used in front of the powers of ten (tens, hundreds, ...)<br />
*Digits are annexed into the tens by using the cardinal or determiner form depending whether the digit begins with a vowel or not.<br />
*Fractions are constructed by placing the ''l(o)''-prefixed form after the multiplicative number: ''okhu lóppu'' ("thrice one quarter" = three quarters). The noun is in ablative case and only the fraction is inflected: ''lopu'''ji''' tuppo'' (for one half of a stick)<br />
*Large numbers (from hundred) are written separately from smaller, but in formal register ''s''-letter is added between each power of ten.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
*VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive<br />
* possessives follow nouns<br />
* predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns<br />
<br />
===Emphasizing clitics===<br />
<br />
Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton dothee'''noh''' pof.'' (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. ''Ónzaiton dothee pof'''ma'''.'' (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used with verbs in antipassive constructions.<br />
<br />
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) <br />
<br />
The suffixes are also used with alienable possessive forms to separate the possessor from indirect objects. Chosen depending on the ergativity of the possessum: ''Jóvakuhoi suu pof swi'''ma''' swi.'' (He gave her feather to him.)<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
<br />
====Independent====<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Conjunction====<br />
<br />
coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?)<br />
<br />
====Noun clauses====<br />
<br />
WIP ... to be redone<br />
*Infinitive.tense + ... + causatives: ''Tesosan kepó vakuhos supe.'' (I see that he washes his hands) vs. ''Onluvakan kep'''óo''' vakuhos supe.'' (The washing of his hands brings me pleasure.)<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
<br />
Nominalizing relative clauses with participles is common.<br />
<br />
Using [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|an emphasizing clitic]] to mark the antecedent for the class-appropriate proximal demonstrative pronoun (thaka/saitu/ka declined for number) which works as a relative pronoun - case chosen according to the embedded clause: <br />
*''Rotóji dothma saituh latepai.'' (leave-PST.PFV.3SG man.ABS-EMPH.ABS P.PROX.AN-COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The man, with whom I danced, left.") <br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahul dothelenos saitush latepai.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS man-PL.ERG-EMPH.ERG P.PROX.AN-PL.COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The men with whom I danced are starting to drink beer.")<br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahulma dothele ka tutitai vangosordi.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS-EMPH.ABS man-PL.ERG P.PROX.INAN SBJV-want-PST.PFV.1SG drink-INF.FUT "Men are starting to drink the beer which I would've wanted to drink."<br />
<br />
====Adverbial clauses====<br />
<br />
non-finite forms + possessive suffixes to indicate subject<br />
<br />
====Conditional clauses====<br />
<br />
subjunctive as explained in verb particle section<br />
<br />
====Indirect speech====<br />
<br />
==Register==<br />
<br />
Different endings which reflect the conversation situation: speakers, familiarity, formality, location... <br />
<br />
===Intimate===<br />
<br />
Agent prefixes aren't used. No ''t'' in inceptive. Due to apophony, subject suffix can be dropped from FUT/INCEP if 1st or 2nd person distinction is clear.<br />
<br />
===Casual===<br />
<br />
In casual register, verb forms are chosen differently when the subject is agent-like (he dances) or patient-like (he fell): ''latepóji'' (he danced AN) vs. ''bousoi'' (he fell INAN)<br />
<br />
===Formal===<br />
<br />
Mandatory use of pronouns and agent prefixes.<br />
<br />
One may use inanimate verb forms as anti-honorific? ''Ondakon næ ka Nithki.'' (I humbly offer this to You)<br />
<br />
Apophony of basic prepositions with root ''oi'': ''Oisti Hala, óosti vakuhanga, ousti qorel'' (under the Sun, under my hand, under the earth)<br />
<br />
In formal register, it is preferred to use only animate nouns as agents while abstract and inanimate are as antipassive subjects: ''luwi... nas'' ("beauty-of.yours it-un-eye-ful-makes me-with", your beauty makes me blind) vs. ''en fø na'' (you are making me blind)<br />
<br />
Distinction between abstract and animate in some categories, such as verb conjugation (''wa'')<br />
<br />
Can people with higher status be abstract or do they occupy a special animate category? (æ inside?)<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
See the [[Sceptrian/Dictionary|dictionary page]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian&diff=35651Sceptrian2015-07-07T21:54:36Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Adverbs */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Construction}}<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Sceptrian<br />
|nativename = [[File:Lusha_name.png|300px]]<br>''Batop Lushan''<br />
|pronunciation = [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ]<br />
|region = Western Central World<br />
|states = Sceptre<br />
|speakers = 29,200,000 <br />
|date = 7th 641<br />
|familycolor = #d3ffce<br />
|fam1 = West-Herookuan<br />
|fam2 = Lutian<br />
|fam3 = Sceptrian branch<br />
|creator=Ahuelni<br />
|setting=Akekata<br />
|dialects = Yerzonian, Mulish, Fanish <br />
|script = Toneka alphabet<br />
|nation = Empire of Sceptre<br />
|minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia<br />
|agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language)<br />
|map = Lusha_regions.jpg<br />
|mapsize = 300<br />
|mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects<br />
}}<br />
{{ClassMeter<br />
|Name = Sceptrian<br />
|NativeName = Batop Lushan<br />
|Type = Fusional<br />
|Alignment = Absolutive-ergative<br />
<br />
|adjective = final<br />
|adposition = mixed<br />
|adverb= final<br />
|article= mixed<br />
|relativeclause = final<br />
|nounclause = final<br />
|order = VSO<br />
<br />
|Tonal = no<br />
|Genders = 3<br />
|Declined = yes<br />
|Conjugated = yes<br />
|Case = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Definiteness = no<br />
|Gender = yes<br />
|Voice = yes<br />
|Mood = yes<br />
|Person = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Tense = yes<br />
|Aspect = yes<br />
|Phonology = 100<br />
|NounCases = 100<br />
|NounDef = 100<br />
|NounNumbers = 100<br />
|NounGender = 100<br />
|VerbPerson = 100<br />
|VerbNumber = 100<br />
|VerbAspect = 90<br />
|VerbTense = 100<br />
|VerbMood = 90<br />
|VerbVoice = 80<br />
|AdjCase = 100<br />
|AdjNumber = 100<br />
|AdjDef = 100<br />
|AdjGen = 100<br />
|AdjComparative = 100<br />
|AdjSuperlative = 100<br />
|Supine = 90<br />
|Gerund = 90<br />
|Participle = 90<br />
|Infinitive = 90<br />
|Modality = 90<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ] or simply ''lusha'') is an ''a priori'' [[w:Artistic_language|artistic language]] created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 29 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking [[Khattish]] and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian and its dialects feature 51 phonetic consonants, some of them with interesting lateral features. The language also has 25 phonetic vowels: twelve short, nine long and four diphthongs. Nasalization, rhotacization and breathy voice are used phonemically. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
If the romanization symbol is the same as in IPA, it is not duplicated. Not bolded romanization indicates that the sound appears as a vernacular or dialectal version.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 830px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px" colspan="2"|<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Uvular<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| [ɱ]<br />
| <br />
| '''n (ń)''' [n]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''t'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''k'''<br />
| '''q'''<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''b'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''d'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''g'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Breathy<br />
| '''ph bh'''<br>[pʰ] [bʱ]<br />
|<br />
|'''th dh'''<br>[tʰ] [dʱ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''kh gh'''<br>[kʰ] [gʱ]<br />
|'''qh'''<br>[qʰ]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| '''pl bl'''<br />[pˡ] [bˡ]<br />
| <br />
| '''tl dl'''<br />[tˡ] [dˡ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''kl gl'''<br/>[kˡ] [gˡ]<br />
| '''ql'''<br/>[qˡ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| ph [ɸ]<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| '''th''' [θ]<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''sh''' [ʃ]<br />
| '''h''' [ç]<br />
| '''kh h''' [x]<br />
| '''qh''' [χ]<br />
| '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''w''' bh [β]<br />
| '''v'''<br />
| '''dh''' [ð]<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| '''zh''' [ʒ]<br />
| <br />
| gh [ɣ]<br />
| <br />
| h [ɦ]<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''sl''' [ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Affricate<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ts''' [t͡s] <br />
| '''tsh''' [t͡ʃ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''tsl''' [t͡ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Approximant<br />
!Non-lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''j'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''l''' [l] [l̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| pr [ʙ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''r (ŕ)''' [r] [r̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The liquids ''r'' and ''l'' can appear as '''syllabic consonants''': ''tlsl'' /tˡl̩ɬ/ (shallow), ''prk'' /pr̩k/ (wagon) and ''trs'' /tr̩s/ (smith)<br />
*Vernacularly, both syllabic and obstruent-following alveolar trill ''r'' and lateral approximant ''l'' are pronounced as voiceless [r̩̊], [r̥], [l̩̊] and [l̥] when in contact with only voiceless consonants: ''trs'' [tr̩̊s] (smith) contrasting with ''trls'' [tr̩s] (while standard /trəls/) (smiths); ''gatl'' [gɑtl̥] (houses) whose pronunciation approaches [gɑtɬ]. <br />
**'''Meslatu Hirke''' made his disputed suggestion in 7:693 that a similar process had led to the birth of ''sl'' as plural indicator, when original plural ''l'' turned first into voiceless and then into ''sl'' after a word-final glottal stop, which has disappeared entirely. <br />
*In eastern dialects, ''pr'' is realized as [ʙ] and ''tr'', ''tsr'' and ''trs'' often as [r̝]. In the dialects, aspirated plosives have been fully spirantized into their fricative counterparts, e.g. [tʰ]>[θ].<br />
*Fricatives show properties of syllabic consonants word-initially and word-finally.<br />
<br />
Nasal [ɱ] only appears as an allophone of nasals with labio-dental sounds /f/ and /v/. Before velar sounds (e.g. /k/) nasals turn similarly into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
Letter ''h'' has four allophones: initial is always [h] despite frontness, [ç] appears elsewhere with front vowels, [x] appears word-finally and [h~ɦ] word-medially with back vowels ''tihtóhnah'' [tiçˈtɔɦ.näx] (assassinator). It's also used after consonants to indicate breathy voice.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 390px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| <br />
| '''u'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-mid<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| o<br/>[ɘ]<br />
| o<br/>[ɤ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
|<br />
| '''o'''<br/>[ə]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''é ø'''<br />[ɛ] [œ]<br />
|<br />
| '''ó'''<br />[ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
|'''æ'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
|'''a'''<br />[ä]<br />
|a<br />[ɑ]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
All the nine main vowel sounds (bolded) have '''long''' versions as separate phonemes.<br />
<br />
Schwa '''''o''''' is used as an epenthetic vowel (anaptyxis). When it is used to break consonant clusters (not indicated in native script) it is the simple schwa /ə/: *dŧ → ''doth'' /dəθ/ (man). When stressed, it is vernacularly realized as [ɘ], and in western dialects more clearly as [ɤ]: *dŧs → ''dothos'' [dəˈθɘˑs]<br />
<br />
Vowel ''a'' is [ɑ] after voiced consonants. Vowel ''æ'' is often more open [a], though, in Western dialects, it has merged with ''é''. <br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, there are only closing diphthongs which go up in the vowel chart:<br />
*Back: ou /ɔʊ̯/<br />
*Front: ai /äɪ̯/, ei /ei̯/, oi /œi̯/<br />
<br />
If the syllable border (glottal stop) is between vowels and they don't form a diphthong, apostrophe is used: ''tai'' (for long) vs. ''ta'i'' (past)<br />
*In native [[Sceptrian#Script|script]], separate graphemes for diphthongs exist and glottal stop is not marked.<br />
<br />
If diphthongs are followed by vowels, they are separated by a glottal stop in formal register. <br />
*In casual speech, ''ouV'' becomes ''owV'' and ''ViV'' ''VjV'': ''oua→ówa'' and ''aia→aja''. If the following vowel is the same, a glottal stop breaks the former diphthong and the ending vowel is lengthened: ''ai'i→a'ii''<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
<br />
===Onset===<br />
<br />
Basic [[w:Syllable#Structure|syllabic structure]] is CV, where the onset (beginning) consonant can be of any type. <br />
*It is possible to use liquids and approximants as '''glides''' (CLV) between the onset and the rime (ending). <br />
*Up to two consonants with same voicing may appear in the onset (CCV), especially fricative-plosive combinations, but never two plosives: ''stak'' (fence), ''fkot'' (nest), ''ksaru'' (guard). Affricate ''ts'' takes may be accompanied only by ''w'', ''j'', ''n'' or ''m'': ''tsma'' (doubt). Combination /sl/ has turned into /ɬ/.<br />
*Lateralization and aspiration may never appear together, and nasalized rhoticization is only found in Fanish dialect.<br />
<br />
===Nucleus=== <br />
<br />
The nucleus can be either a vowel or a liquid, thus CVC and CLC are also possible syllables. <br />
*Vowels (diphthongs included) may exist as a stand-alone nucleic syllable (V), mostly in the beginning or at the end of a word. <br />
*If nucleus is a liquid, plosives appear in codas only word-finally: ''dldlp'' /dˡl̩ˈdˡl̩p/ (bubble)<br />
<br />
===Coda=== <br />
<br />
The coda (final) may consist of up to three consonants with possible structures: N, P, F, L; NP, FP, LP; NF, PF, LF; NPF, FPF, LFP, LPF (Nasal, Plosive, Fricative, Liquid). <br />
*Final liquids appear as syllabic consonants<br />
*Approximants ''j'', ''w'' and plain voiced plosives never appear as coda (final) even though they may be written that way (no written schwa): ''nad'' /nä.də/ (stainy). Voiced fricatives may appear as coda. <br />
*In coda, plosives with lateral release, however, will reflect the voicing of the onset: ''gatl'' [gädˡl̩] (houses) vs. ''katl'' [kätˡl̩] (knobs). Vernacularly, the lateral approximant weakens into a voiceless variant [l̥] when in contact with voiceless consonants: ''gatl'' [gätl̥].<br />
<br />
Closed syllables, i.e. those ending in coda, are not as common word-medially as open syllables (ending in nucleus) are. When words are inflected, parts of codas tend to become onsets of the following syllable, if possible. Especially three-consonant clusters are rare word-medially and receive a schwa after a non-lateral stop: ''kamps'' /kämps/ (marsh) → ''kampsku'' → ''kamposku'' /ˈkäm.pəs.ku/ (at marsh)<br />
*Voicing status must be the same for consonants touching at syllable boundaries and the voiced one reduces into voiceless: ''*katbas''→''katpas'' /kätˈpäs/ (fern) vs. ''oist baku'' /œi̯st<sup>(h)</sup> bä.ku/ (under a table)<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
Primary '''stress''' in a word is most often on the second syllable, and when there are four or five syllables, secondary stress is placed onto the final syllable. When there are more syllables, minor stress is placed on even-numbered syllables. <br />
*If the to-be-stressed syllable contains the schwa ''o'' /ə/ or a syllabic consonant, the preceding syllable is stressed in two-syllable words and the following in words with more than three syllables.<br />
**In uninflected words, syllable with nuclear ''o'' is only stressed when it comes second and the preceding syllable has also ''o'' as nucleus. Then the stressed nucleus appears as [ɘ]. Contrast between stressed and non-stressed syllabic consonants may occur as voicing and devoicing respectively. <br />
*A non-final syllable with a long vowel or a diphthong is always stressed and steals the stress from its neighboring syllable. This also moves the secondary stress from final to penultimate syllable, if primary stress falls on first syllable.<br />
<br />
Inflected and affixed word forms have almost always the same stress as the base word (even monosyllabic with schwa): ''doth'' (man) → ''dothku'' [ˈdɘθ.ku] (near the man). <br />
*Vocative and ergative cases as well as inflections with long vowels make an exception: ''dothee'' /dəˈθe:/ (by the man), ''dothé'' /dəˈθɛ/ (O man), ''gatóo'' /gɑˈtɔ:/ (to the house)<br />
<br />
Interrogatives are formed by changing the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. This is indicated with ¿: ''¿Eikepoi?'' [ˈei̯˧˦ˈke˩.pœi̯˨˦] (Did you wash it?)<br />
<br />
==Morphophonology==<br />
<br />
===Vowel form===<br />
<br />
There are five ways of sound altering which may be used for grammatical purposes (mainly number, genitive case and imperfective aspect). In the native script the following are marked on the vowel.<br />
*Lengthening: ''paata'' /pä:tä/ (separation), ''ée'' [ɛ:]~[ɛe̯], ''óo'' /ɔ:/<br />
*Lateral (release): ''pló'' /pˡɔ/ (opposite to), ''tlaf'' /tˡäf/ (sprig) <br />
**Western dialects keep the tongue on the alveolar ridge during vowel pronunciation so that the vowels have a distinct l-sound. Historically, this may have lead to the syllabic l.<br />
*Aspiration/breathy voice: ''phó'' [pʰɔ]~[ɸɔ] (along), ''kébhar'' [kɛˈbʱɑ˞]~[kɛˈβɑ˞] (I will wash), ''tha'' [tʰä]~[θä] (abstract "it"), ''dhaka'' [dʱɑkä]~[ðɑkä] (abstract "that"). <br />
**Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head)<br />
*Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]]<br />
**Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as a short syllabic nasal consonant of the same place as the directly preceding or following consonant<br />
**Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!).<br />
*Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) <br />
**Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞:] (soup)<br />
<br />
===Consonant form===<br />
<br />
Combining sounds<br />
*Lateralization<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sl'' and ''zh'' respectively<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' → ''fl'' & ''w''<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' are geminated<br />
**''m'' & ''n'' → ''ng'' and ''ng'' → ''ńg''<br />
* Aspiration<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sh'' and ''zh''<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' are geminated<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' → ''lh'' and ''rh''<br />
* Voicing and aspiration<br />
**''r'' → ''qh'', ''l'' → ''ldh'', ''v'' → ''w''<br />
<br />
===Apophony===<br />
<br />
Apophony in the '''stressed syllable''' is used for example to express adjective gender and to create different verb forms.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Apophony<br />
|-<br />
!Root<br />
!1st<br />
!2nd<br />
|-<br />
|e<br />
|ee<br />
|é<br />
|-<br />
|o<br />
|ó<br />
|ø<br />
|-<br />
|a<br />
|aa<br />
|æ<br />
|-<br />
|u<br />
|uu<br />
|i<br />
|-<br />
|ai<br />
|ii<br />
|ei<br />
|-<br />
|ou<br />
|óo<br />
|oi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*When the stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting)<br />
*With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of ''é''.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Script=== <br />
[[File:Sceptrian.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Toneka script from the early sixth era. Notice that the vowel form info-box romanization should have "o" instead of "a".]]<br />
[[File:SceptrianTsrnet.JPG|500px|thumb|right|Tsrnet cursive script used for handwriting in modern Sceptre.]]<br />
The Sceptrian alphabet script was derived from the ancient temple marks as were the Aoman and Northern (Latin) scripts. The modern alphabet is called ''Tsoklóp Lushan''.<br />
<br />
Diacritics on vowels mark different [[Sceptrian#Vowel_form|sounds]]. The diacritics may be used with consonants as well, especially in the plural forms of consonant-ending nouns: ''gat̆'' (''gatl'' "houses"), ''doŧ̆'' (''dolth'' "men"). With the diacritics, letter ''ts'' can be lateralized into ''tsl'' or aspirated into ''tsh''.<br />
<br />
The native Sceptrian script has a long history of being unicameral, not distinguishing between the upper and lower case. Only during the sixth era under the Tyranny of West, the flow of refugees from the Coast of Temples encouraged the introduction of case separation. In the developed fonts, capital letters were derived from the traditional Toneka and small letters from the cursive Tsrnet.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Short and long letter names with explanations<br />
|-<br />
|aa<br>aat || ee<br>eet || ée<br>eet maatikipi<br>(opened e) || ii<br>iit || oo<br>oot || óo<br>oot guzbikipi<br>(deepened o) || uu<br>uut <br />
|-<br />
|ææ<br>aat evadh<br>(bright a) || øø<br>oot gudh<br>(dark o) || ai<br>aat zaithon<br>(rising a) || ei<br>eet zaithon<br>(rising e) || oi<br>oot zaithon<br>(rising o) || ou<br>óot bousoson<br>(falling o) ||<br />
|-<br />
| po<br>poot || bo<br>bóot || mo<br>mool || wo<br>wool || to<br>toot || do<br>dóot || <br />
|-<br />
| tho<br>toot hifdo<br>(windy t) || dho<br>dóot hifdo<br>(windy d) || no<br>nool || so<br>siit || sho<br>siit hifdo<br>(windy s) || zo<br>ziit || zho<br>ziit gudh<br>(dark z) <br />
|-<br />
| ngo<br>góot slenguhpi<br>(g using nose) || tso<br>tsiit || lo<br>lool || slo<br>lool hifdo<br>(windy l) || fo<br>fiit || vo<br>fiit gudh<br>(dark f) || jo<br>jool <br />
|-<br />
| ko<br>koot || go<br>góot || ho<br>hiit || qho<br>hiit surmudh<br>(strong h) || qo<br>koot venongp<br>(k being<br> swallowed) || ro<br>rool || <br />
|-<br />
|plo<br>looh tisk<br>(with l<br> mark) || pon<br>slenguhpi tisk<br>(using nose<br> mark) || por<br>tisk prung<br>(mark of<br> trill) || pho<br>tisk hifn<br>(mark of<br> wind) || poo<br>tisk spiing<br>(mark of<br> length) || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Romanization===<br />
<br />
====Modern====<br />
Consonant variation:<br />
*Letter ''r'' is used with consonants for /r̩/ and between vowels for /r/, but after vowels in the end of syllables for rhoticization ''or'' /ɚ/. Letter ''ŕ'' is used to emphasize the use of /r/ after vowels ''oŕ'' /ər/.<br />
*Similarly letter ''n'' can appear syllable-finally with nasalization but ''ń'' always as /n/: ''an'' /ã/ vs. ''ań'' /an/. <br />
*With ''ng'' /ŋ/, the accent signals lengthening ''nańgo'' /näŋ:ə/ or ''naŋŋo'' (sweaty).<br />
*Labialization of plosives is indicated by PuV (V is any vowel except ''u'') or with ''w''.<br />
*Breathry voice is indicated with an ''h'' straight after a plosive. The ''h'' is also used for corresponding fricatives which occur word-finally. This risk of confuse is one of the downsides of the simplified modern system: ''nath'' /näθ/ "a beggar" or /nätʰ/ "with stains".<br />
<br />
====Old====<br />
<br />
The old romanization system (or part of it) was used until western regions of Eastern Sceptre were joined with the Western Sceptre empire in 7th era 161, during the war against Empress Renula of Golden Islet. A revision was needed when both Sceptrian and Aoma were used in the same printing press and texts had to be distributed to westlang-using communities. Peter Martyea suggested in 7:189 that the payment according to number of pages may have favoured quick adaptation as the non-diacritic system induced much longer texts (see the comparison example).<br />
<br />
Consonants:<br />
*Nasal: '''ŋ''' ''ng'' /ŋ/<br />
**Texts from the first century of the seventh era use ''ǥ'' for word-initial /ŋ/.<br />
*Fricative: '''ŧ''' ''th'' /θ/, '''đ''' ''dh'' /ð/, '''ś''' ''sh'' /ʃ/, '''ź''' ''zh'' /ʒ/, '''ħ''' ''qh'' /χ/<br />
*Affricate: '''c''' ''ts'' /t͡s/, '''č''' ''tsh'' /t͡ʃ/<br />
*Lateral: '''š''' ''sl'' /ɬ/, '''ǩ''' ''kl'' /kˡ/, '''ǧ''' ''gl'' /gˡ/<br />
<br />
Compact equivalents of sound altering:<br />
*Lengthening with a bar: ''ṓ'' /ɔ:/ and ''ō'' /ə:/<br />
*Lateral release with a breve diacritic: ''tŏ'' /tˡə/<br />
*Nasalization with a tilde: ''õ'' /ə̃/, ''on'' /ən/<br />
*Rhotacization with a diaeresis: ''ö'' /ɚ/, ''or'' /ər/<br />
*Aspiration with a grave accent: ''pò'' /pʰə/, ''pô'' /pʰɔ/<br />
<br />
Comparison between the systems:<br />
*Old: Ǧëǩ śošēŧã <br />
*Modern: Glerkl shosleethan (maces of a knight)<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
The most complete study of the structure of pre-modern Sceptrian words was done by Porutingatu of Jerzónó in year 362 of the seventh era. She collected, grouped and analyzed the fusional morphemes and listed the new rules to replace the outdated writings from the sixth era. By 370, her work had led to a new interest in linguistics and ultimately to the founding of ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan'' (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) which has been unifying and regulating the language along with its orthography since then.<br />
<br />
Sceptrian utilizes [[w:Fusional_language|fusional]] [[w:Inflection|inflections]] and has an [[w:Ergative–absolutive_language|absolutive-ergative]] [[w:Morphosyntactic_alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]. The language is rather [[w:Head-directionality_parameter|head-initial]] and its primary [[w:Word_order|word order]] is verb-agent-object.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns are used to refer to e.g. people or things in sentences instead of using the original nouns. In Sceptrian, they exist in two numbers and are inflected according to six [[Sceptrian#Cases|'''cases''']]. <br />
<br />
====Personal====<br />
Second person includes polite versions as well which were adapted by Aoma-sperkers. Third person singular makes distinction between abstract (Ab), animate (An) and inanimate (In) pronouns while plural only between Ab-An and In. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Personal pronoun inflection'''<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! 1SG !! 1PL !! 2SG !! 2PL !! 2SG.POL !! 2PL.POL !! 3SG.Ab !! 3SG.An !! 3PL.A !! 3SG.In !! 3PL.In<br />
|-<br />
!ABS <br />
| na || mo || fo || po || Nith || With || tha || su || slo || hi || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
| næ || moslo || fø || poslo || Nithe || Widhes || thaa || suu || sloslo || hii || kloslo<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
| nai || mokli || foki || pokli || Nithki || Withkli || thai || swi || slokli || hiki|| klokli<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
| nar || moŕ || for || poŕ || Nithor || Withoŕ || thar || sur || sloŕ || hir || kloŕ<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
| nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh || thas || sus || slosh || his || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
| nape || moplo || fope || poplo || Nitti || Witti || thape || supe || sloplo || hipi || kloplo<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''Comitative''' case is used to indicate company: ''Mo slosh arakha.'' (We were with them yesterday.)<br />
*'''Causal''' describes the cause of an action or origin of something: ''Aitesosai næ su fope'' (I saw him because of (/thanks to) you), ''Hi supe foki.'' (It (is) from him to you.)<br />
<br />
3rd person abstract pronoun is used in the formal register when introducing or referring to a person of higher status.<br />
<br />
====Reflexive====<br />
Self-pronoun ''ru'' for '''reflexive''' and '''reciprocal''': ''tesosón ru'' (they are watching themself), ''ónlatepón ru'' (he is dancing by himself, alone) vs. ''ónlatepón su'' (he is dancing with him); ''sónkephón ru'' (they are washing each other) vs. ''sónkephón sloslo slo/soutu'' (they are washing them)<br />
*reflexive is easier with others: ''anlatepan'' (I'm dancing by myself); ''ankepan'' (I'm washing myself) vs. ''ankep'' ("I'm washing it"), ''kepan'' (I'm being washed)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
<br />
Simple words for "this/these" and "that/those". When demonstratives are used with [[Sceptrian#Nouns|nouns]], they behave similarly to [[Sceptrian#Adjectives|adjectives]]. In the following examples, note that Sceptrian lacks the [[Sceptrian#Verbs|verb "to be"]]: <br />
*As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.)<br />
*For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) <br />
*The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the "head" can rather be considered an attribute of the pronoun: ''Bouson ko qot.'' (That's falling, the rock, I mean.) <br />
<br />
See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]].<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Demonstrative pronoun inflection<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Case <br />
!colspan="2"| Proximal <br />
!colspan="2"| Distal <br />
|-<br />
!SG !! PL !! SG !! PL<br />
|-<br />
!ABS<br />
|ka || kla || ko || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
|kaa || klaa || kó || kló<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
|kai ||klai || koi || kloi<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
|kan ||klang || kon || klong<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
|kas || klash || kos || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
|kap || klapa || kop ||klopo<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Table of correlatives===<br />
<br />
Determiners follow their heads and agree in number and with the cases mentioned above in [[Sceptrian#Demonstrative|the table]], where DAT & LAT, COM & LOC, CAU & ABL and ABS & VOC are corresponding. Words follow the declension shown above or paradigms similar to [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun cases]]. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!rowspan="2"|Interrogative<br />
!colspan="2"|Demonstrative<br />
!colspan="5"|Quantifier<br />
|-<br />
!Proximal !! Distal !! Existential !! Elective !! Universal !! Negatory !! Alternative<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Determiner<br />
| sho || ka (SG)<br/>kla (PL) || ko<br />klo || jofa (some) || ota (any) || orka (every, all) || ze (no) || so (another)<br/>solo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="5"| Pronoun<br />
!Abstract<br />
| ashu || thaka || dhaka || jaafa || thata || thorka || theso || thaso<br />
|-<br />
!Animate<br />
| ¿soutu || saitu || soutu || jonfu || onta || ongka || souso || jonso<br />
|-<br />
!Inanimate <br />
| ¿ko || ka || ko || jofo || oto || orko || ze || so<br />
|-<br />
!Out of two<br />
| ¿tso || tsaka || tsoko || zho || tsoto || tsorko || tseso || tso<br />
|-<br />
!Out of many<br />
| ¿tsolo || tsalka || tsolko || zolo || tsolto || tsongko || tsleso || tsolo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="6"|Pro-adverb<br />
!Locative<br />
| sku || khau || khu || jofku || otku || orkhu || zengu || sokhu<br />
|-<br />
!Temporal<br />
| sko || kha || kho || jofko || otko || orkho || zeng || sokho<br />
|-<br />
!Comitative<br />
| shos || kas || kos || jofos || otos || orkos || zeos || sos<br />
|-<br />
!Causal<br />
| spe || kap || kop || jov || otop || orkop || zenep || sonop<br />
|-<br />
!Manner<br />
| shi || khai || khoi || jofai || otai || orkai || zei || soi<br />
|-<br />
!What kind of<br />
| shodh || kadh || kodh || jodhi || othi || ordhi || zodhi || sothi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Negative determiner ''ze'' has no plural form. Neither have pronouns "Out of two".<br />
*Demonstratives are used when referring to listed items of equal animacy: proximal with the former and distal with the latter: ''Aitesoshóji math kuthos. Óomidh soutu.'' (I saw a cat and a dog. The latter was large.)<br />
*Locative pro-adverb can be conjugated with lative, locative and ablative.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Nouns in Sceptrian form the basis of derivational morphology and even the cases are utilized when forming new words. They are declined according to two numbers and nine cases, and the seven declensions are grouped in three genders which affect the verb conjugation and adjective agreement.<br />
<br />
====Gender====<br />
<br />
There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes.<br />
*Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in vowels ''a, æ, o, ó, ø'' and ''i''. <br />
*Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h'', same voiced and affricates), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings.<br />
*Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group.<br />
In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull). Some archaic words remain in dialects and in poetic use.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
<br />
There are two numbers, singular and plural, but abstract ''i''-nouns and inanimate ''l''-nouns are always singular. The declension according to number is complicated and fused with the class/case system explained and tabulated below.<br />
<br />
====Cases====<br />
<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Unmarked base form for subjects of intransitive and objects of transitive verbs <br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agents of transitive verbs<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect object; alienable possession ''gat dothi'' (a house of (lit. "for") the man); comparison (with ADJ comparative)<br />
*Possessive (POS): Inalienable possession ''dhoku dothor'' (the man's head)<br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS): Using something; "with someone", replaces "and" as Latin [[wikt:-que|-que]]; in antipassive constructions<br />
*Lative (LAT): Movement to; with adpositions<br />
*Locative-temporal (LOC-TEMP): Place; time; with adpositions<br />
*Ablative (ABL): Movement from (+delative); causal<br />
*Vocative (VOC): addressing (people, gods); interjections ''Alæ!'' (Hello! lit. "Day!")<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Genders and desinences'''<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" style="width: 100px"| <br />
!colspan="3"| Abstract <br />
!colspan="6"| Animate <br />
!colspan="3"| Inanimate<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''A'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''i'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''F'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''N'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''u'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"|''P'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''l''<br />
|-<br />
|<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>|| ||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 100px"| Absolutive<br />
| A || Asl || i || F || (o)lF || N || Ning || u || ush || P || Pl || l<br />
|- <br />
! style=""| Ergative <br />
| AA || AslA || ii || Fee || Fele || Nee || Neng || uu || uushu || Pee || Ple || le<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Dative <br />
| Ak || Akl || ik || Fi || Fil || Ni || Nil || (u)ji || (u)wi || Pei || Plei || lei<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Possessive <br />
| An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Instrumental-comitative <br />
| Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Lative <br />
| AgA || AglA || iki || Fko || Fklo || Nong || Nongo || ugu || uglu || Póo || Plóo || lo <br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Locative-temporal <br />
| AkhA || AlkhA || ikhi || Fku || Fklu || Nung || Nungu || ukhu || ulkhu || Pu || Plu || lu<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Ablative <br />
| ApA || AplA || ipi || Fp(o) || Fpl(o) || Nop || Nopl || upu || uplu || PPo || PPol || lp<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Vocative <br />
| Ae || Asl || ii || Fé || lFé || Né || Nin || -wé || -wésh || Pé || Plé || lé<br />
|}<br />
*''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø''<br />
**Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø<br />
*''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts, tsl'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. <br />
*''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng''<br />
*''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q''<br />
**POS ''q''→''ng''<br />
**INS ending Ph marks breathy voice and may turn the plosive into corresponding fricative /ɸ, θ, x, χ/ if followed by a plosive.<br />
*- indicates that the original ending is replaced with the following: ''tup → tu'''m''''' (stick → stick's)<br />
<br />
====Possessive==== <br />
<br />
Different possessive forms and interpretations: <br />
*''Dativus possessivus'' (alienable): ''gat doth'''i''''' "the house which the man has temporarily settled in, i.e. rented"<br />
*Comitative case with alienable possessive suffix: ''doth gat''h'''''os''''' "man with his house which he has purchased"<br />
**Inalienable possessive suffix alters the meaning: ''doth gat''h'''''ozh''''' "man and his birthplace"<br />
*Possessive case (almost inalienable): ''gat doth'''or''''' "the house which was inherited and is now owned by the man". <br />
<br />
The noun in possessive case is not inflected further. With dative case, inflection may be utilized in order to distinguish the ''dativus possessivus'' from the indirect object or benefactive: ''Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli.'' "The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them." (Related to the feather ceremony when welcoming upper class members to a household.)<br />
<br />
'''Possessive affixes''', as shown in examples above, draw a distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: ''Óntesoson dothee gat'''s'''/vakuh'''oz'''.'' (A man is watching his house/ his own hand.) With the basic suffixes, the root is inflected first and then suffixed.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ Possessional suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!Person<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! ALIEN !! INAL !! ALIEN !! INAL <br />
|-<br />
!1st <br />
| (a)ń || (a)nga || (ó)m || (ó)ngó <br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
| (o)f || (ø)fo || (e)v || (ø)vø<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
| (o)s || (o)zh || (o)sl || (o)zhol<br />
|}<br />
*Irregular: Only VOC+possessive with 1SG: ''Pos'''n'''é!'' (My servant!), ''Polsmé!'' (Our servants!)<br />
<br />
'''2nd person polite suffixes''' are added to absolutive base and the endings are then declined according to abstract gender: <br />
*Singular: (a)tha, (a)tazha <br />
*Plural: (a)dhó, (a)dózhó <br />
*Example: ''gat'''atha'''pa'' (from Your house)<br />
<br />
See [[Sceptrian#Adverbial_clauses|adverbial clauses]] which utilize some possessive suffixes with [[Sceptrian#Non-finite_forms|non-finite verb forms]].<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
<br />
Adpositions are used with inflected nouns to add information about its location or relation to other nouns. Some Sceptrian adpositions can be used as stand-alone adverbs which may be conjugated according to noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====Prepositions====<br />
<br />
Prepositions are used with lative (to, towards), locative (at, near) and ablative (from) cases to alter the meaning.<br />
*''voi'' (in) forms illative, inessive, elative <br />
*''loi'' (out) for "out of", "outside" and "from outside"<br />
*''soi'' (on) to emphasize the surface aspect <br />
*''oist(i)'' (under) for movement under something<br />
*''roi'' (above) similarly to ''oist''<br />
*''boi'' (down) for "down (a surface / to)", "down in (somewhere)" and "from down"; as an adverb as well <br />
*''zoi'' (up) used like ''boi''<br />
*''moi'' (touching, around) with lative for terminative, locative for pertingent and ablative for initiative<br />
*''oil(i)'' (as) forms translative, essive, exessive<br />
*''koi'' (per) distribution: "for each", "every" (temporal), "from each"<br />
*''jon'' (... between) <br />
*''poi'' (... the middle of, among)<br />
*''tsoi'' (... front of; preceding) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = before<br />
*''hoi'' (... behind; following) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = after<br />
*''mots(i)'' (... on side)<br />
**combined with postpositional ''dei'' (right) or ''lai'' (left)<br />
**with time nouns in locative = ago<br />
<br />
====Postpositions====<br />
<br />
Postpositions appear with various cases and often come in groups.<br />
*''pón'' (through) with lative<br />
*''phó'' (along) with lative<br />
*''pló'' (opposite to, across) with locative<br />
*''sós'' (with) with comitative to express a greater degree of endowment (ornative); with ablative to indicate "without"; with lative for "in addition to"<br />
*''óp'' (about, concerning) with genitive; with ablative for "according to"<br />
*''ól'' (like) with genitive; as an adverb "similarly"<br />
*''jak'' (away, despite) with ablative; as an adverb as well<br />
*''mai'' (excluding) with ablative<br />
*''mak'' (except) with ablative<br />
*''mats'' (instead of) with ablative<br />
*''sai'' (including) with comitative<br />
*''sak'' (concerning, regarding) with comitative; with ablative to emphasize the causal aspect (due to, because of, thanks to)<br />
*''phe'' (for the sake of) with lative<br />
<br />
====Pronominal====<br />
<br />
When used with pronouns, separate adpositions only come with dative forms to indicate lative. Otherwise adpositions take possessive suffixes, inalienable for locative and alienable for ablative: ''voi nai'' (into me), ''voinga'' (inside me), ''voiń'' (from inside me)<br />
<br />
Of the polite possessive suffixes, alienable is added onto the adposition and then the entire compound is conjugated for lative, locative or ablative: ''voitha'' (in You; attributive), ''voithaga'' (into You), ''voithakha'' (inside You; predicative), ''voithapa'' (from inside You)<br />
<br />
===Derivational Morphology===<br />
<br />
Verbs and adjectives are derived from nouns by adding suffixes and in some cases prefixes as well.<br />
<br />
====Noun====<br />
<br />
Many nouns share same origins and these endings are the most common forms of derivation:<br />
*Suffixing verbs with once established ending vowels or consonant appropriate for the noun class. <br />
*place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix<br />
*collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish)<br />
**Archaic forms also add the prefix ''kl'' <br />
*being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy")<br />
**doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer)<br />
**experiencer, patient: ABS with ''(k)ois'' or ''(k)oit'' depending on animacy: ''kepois'' (person being washed)<br />
**origin: ABL with ''(o)su'': ''ukopposu'' (person from north)<br />
**characteristic (from abstract quality): INS with final duplicated vowel and ''tu'': ''luwishitu'' (beauty)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)n'' (AN) or ''(o)l'' (INAN): ''koson'' (wood), ''qotol'' (stone)<br />
*diminutive: reduplication of final sound with ''t'' between vowels and ''i'' between consonants: ''kosis'' (small tree)<br />
*augmentative: reduplication of final sound with ''g'' between vowels and ''a'' between consonants: ''kosas'' (great tree)<br />
**apotheosis: augmentative with ''a''-ending: ''kosonana'' (godwood)<br />
*abstract quality, feature: ABS suffixed with ''(k)oti'': ''dothoti'' (manliness)<br />
*'''gerund''' (act of doing): via derivated [[Sceptrian#Verb|verb]] suffixed with ''(o)pi'': ''glerkurpi'' (mace-battering)<br />
<br />
====Adjective====<br />
<br />
Different cases and affixes are used for the derivation:<br />
*similarity, having something: ''dh'' suffix to abstract gender and animate ''u''-ending; voicing of fricatives (''h→qh'', no change with affricates); nasals [[Sceptrian#Consonant_form|"lateralized"]] + ''o''; voicing of plosives + ''o'' (''q→g''); l-declension as in INS-COM: ''evadh'' (bright), ''dodh'' (masculine)<br />
**full of, having something: previous suffixed with ''ol'': ''mel muvol'' (waters full of fish)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)p'': ''kosonop'' (wooden)<br />
*origin, relation: ABL form with a final ''ó'' added or replacing the original ending vowel: ''kusupó'' (friendly)<br />
*absence, without: ''ti'' suffixed to VOC form: ''evæti'' (lightless=dark)<br />
*doing: ''on'' added after INS case: ''kephon'' (washing)<br />
*who did: INS with ''ompu'': ''kephompu'' (who washed = ''pessyt'' in Finnish)<br />
*done by: INS with ''empo'' and possibly inalienable possessive suffix: ''kephemponga'' (washed by me)<br />
*not done: LAT suffixed with ''tip'': ''kepóotip'' (unwashed)<br />
*experiencing: LAT suffixed with ''p'': kepóop (being washed)<br />
*result (wanted): LAT suffixed with ''pi'': ''kepóopi'' (washed=clean)<br />
**if unwanted: LAT suffixed with ''pot'': ''vangostóopot'' (drunk)<br />
*possible: POS with ''ta'': ''kenta'' (washable)<br />
*requiring: LOC with ''rt'': ''kepurt'' (needs to be washed)<br />
*opposite, negation: VOC with ''tot''<br />
<br />
Notice that plural forms of adjectives may be derived from plural nouns: ''dolth kep'''s'''on'' (men who are washing)<br />
<br />
====Verb====<br />
<br />
A declined core noun receives an ending which describes how the verb reflects the noun:<br />
*In some cases, the vowel ending of nouns may simply be removed or the absolutive of a consonant-ending noun may also serve as a verb.<br />
*ABS = "happens, is": ''kep'' (is washed)<br />
*COM = "using": ''tuph'' (is poked with a stick), ''glerkh'' (is hit with a mace)<br />
*POS + ''k'' = "similarity": ''melonk'' (is wet)<br />
*DAT + ''k'' = "making/becoming" (no ''k'' with Abstract): ''zurmu'' → ''zurmjik'' (strong person → is strengthened), ''zurp'' → ''zurpeik'' (strong, durable object → hardens) & ''zurma'' → ''zurmak'' (strength → intensifies)<br />
*LAT + ''t'' = "movement, quasi-inceptive": ''glerkóot'' (swings a mace, INTR), ''melot'' (flows), ''latepóot'' (is persuaded to dance, INTR; begins a dance with, TR), ''lehkot'' (runs) <br />
*LOC + ''r'' = "frequentative": ''glerkur'' (is battered with a mace), ''melur'' (rains; drips)<br />
*VOC + ''k'' = "momentane": ''glerkék'' (is hit once with a mace), ''melék'' (splashes once)<br />
*POS + ''(o)v'' = "consider, feel": ''vongv'' (is considered strange = ''oudoksutaan'' in Finnish)<br />
* Several endings can be stacked on verbs without turning it into a noun in between: ''melurék'' (shower of rain falls), ''tup(o)hkur'' (is often poked with a stick). When deriving, the ''r''-ending are declined according to the ''l''-paradigm.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Sceptrian agree with the gender, number and cases of their head. When an adjective is used as a predicative, it comes before its head, but when as an attributive, it comes after. Adjective declension follows approximately the same rules as [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun declension]]. In the common ''dh''-ending F-declension, ''o'' is added between ''dh'' and case-endings with consonants. Changes in both casual and poetic speech include mirroring onset into coda: ''dothklu jadaadh'''ulk''''' (near nice men)<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+DH-declension<br />
! !! ABS !! ERG !! DAT !! POS !! INS !! LAT !! LOC !! ABL !! VOC<br />
|-<br />
!SG<br />
|dh || dhee || dhi || dhor || dhos || dh'''ok''' || dh'''uk''' || dh'''op''' || dhé<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
| ldh(o) || dhele || dhil || dhoŕ || dhosh || dh'''olk''' || dh'''ulk''' || dh'''olp''' || ldhé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Sceptrian#Apophony|Apophony]] in the stressed syllable is used to indicate the gender: base for inanimate, first apophony with animate and second with abstract gender: ''eja jadædh, doth jadaadh, latep jadadh'' <br />
<br />
Polite adjectives are formed from the abstract form with predicative prefix ''nga'' and attributive suffix ''æ'': ''ngaluwidh Nith'' (You are beautiful), ''shosleetha luwidhæ'' (a beautiful knight)<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
<br />
'''Positive''' of an adjective is the base form.<br />
*When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.)<br />
*Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle.<br />
*When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii faaldh dolth lutush.'' (As many men as women.) <br />
<br />
'''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). <br />
*Manner quatifiers ''orkai, jofai'' and ''zei'' can be used to indicate the degree: ''luwidhé orkai'' (much more beautiful), ''luwidhé jofai'' (slightly more beautiful), ''luwidhé zei'' (not more beautiful)<br />
*When comparing two nouns adjective comes first (predicative comparative), the standard acquires the dative case, and comparative forms agree with their head in gender and number: ''luwildhé po swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*Pronoun comparison is also possible to construct with alienable possessional suffixes: ''luwildhév swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*When adjective comparative is not included, postpositional ''fadhé'' (more) or ''føødhi'' (less) can be used with noun plurals: ''dolth faldhé lutwi'' (more men than women)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative''' is similar to noun apotheosis: the ending is reduplicated with ''é'' between consonants and ''j'' between vowels, and an ''a'' added to the end: ''luwidhédha'' (most beautiful). Similarly to comparative, ''ti'' gives the meaning of "least": ''luwidhédhati'' (least beautiful).<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly)<br />
<br />
Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh óomidhé'' (very beautiful < "largely")<br />
<br />
'''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative adverb''' is similar to adjective superlative in its reduplication but with an ''æ''-ending: ''zaivie jadædhédhæ'' (you sing most pleasantly)<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Missing verbs: <br />
*"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man)<br />
**Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith)<br />
**Showing tense:<br />
***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past)<br />
***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective<br />
***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense<br />
***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" <br />
* "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man")<br />
<br />
====Conjugation====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, primary conjugation of verbs indicates person, number and tense-aspect, and it includes affixation and apophony. Conjugation for different [[Sceptrian#Mood|moods]] is slightly more complex.<br />
<br />
=====Root=====<br />
<br />
Verbs are given in their 3SG.INAN GNO form which is used to form all of the third person forms. With first and second person subjects, the first apophony is used in indicative inceptive and future. Polite second person forms use the second apophony<br />
<br />
=====Affixes=====<br />
<br />
Fusional conjugation affixes convey the person, number, tense and aspect (and honorific). Subject and object suffixes are almost always used with verbs, the antipassive being the only exception. Agent prefixes aren't often used in the casual register, mostly to form the [[Sceptrian#Reflexive|reflexive]], but they have to be used in the formal register. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense <br />
!Aspect<br />
!1SG<br />
!1PL<br />
!2SG<br />
!2PL<br />
!2SG.POL<br />
!2PL.POL<br />
!3SG.A<br />
!3PL.A<br />
!3SG.INAN<br />
!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a<br />
| ha<br />
| e<br />
| he<br />
| ahi<br />
| aqhi<br />
| ó<br />
| hó<br />
| (o)<br />
| l<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an<br />
| han<br />
| en<br />
| hen<br />
| ang<br />
| aing<br />
| ón<br />
| hón<br />
| on <br />
| lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| ast<br />
| last<br />
| est<br />
| lest<br />
| æst<br />
| hæst<br />
| ós<br />
| lós<br />
| os<br />
| osl<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| ajin<br />
| hajin<br />
| ejin<br />
| hejin<br />
| azing<br />
| izing<br />
| ójin<br />
| hójin<br />
| oin<br />
| loin<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai<br />
| hai<br />
| ei<br />
| hei<br />
| athi<br />
| idhi<br />
| óji<br />
| hóji<br />
| oi<br />
| loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| har<br />
| +har<br />
| her<br />
| +her<br />
| athar<br />
| idhar<br />
| hór<br />
| +hór<br />
| ho<br />
| +ho<br />
|}<br />
* initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive<br />
* initial ''h'' is for aspiration of the final plosive or simply ''h'' after a vowel<br />
**if the final plosive is already breathy, ''o'' is added after it<br />
*+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration<br />
**simple ''h'' becomes ''qh''<br />
*Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense <br />
!Aspect<br />
!1SG<br />
!1PL<br />
!2SG<br />
!2PL<br />
!2SG.POL<br />
!2PL.POL<br />
!3SG.A<br />
!3PL.A<br />
!3SG.INAN<br />
!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a<br />
| sa<br />
| e<br />
| se<br />
| æ<br />
| hæ<br />
| ó<br />
| só<br />
| o<br />
| lo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an<br />
| san<br />
| en<br />
| sen<br />
| nga<br />
| ngai<br />
| ón<br />
| són<br />
| on <br />
| lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| tsa<br />
| tsla<br />
| tse<br />
| tsle<br />
| tsæ<br />
| tshæ<br />
| tsó<br />
| tsló<br />
| so<br />
| slo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| jan<br />
| zhan<br />
| jen<br />
| zhen<br />
| izæ<br />
| izhæ<br />
| jón<br />
| zhón<br />
| i<br />
| li<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai<br />
| sai<br />
| ei<br />
| sei<br />
| thæ<br />
| dhæ<br />
| jó<br />
| zhó<br />
| oi<br />
| loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| ar<br />
| sar<br />
| er<br />
| ser<br />
| thar<br />
| dhar<br />
| ór<br />
| sór<br />
| or<br />
| lor<br />
|}<br />
*Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.)<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ónbouson dothee pof.'' (A man (ERG) is lifting a feather (ABS).), ''Bousón doth.'' (The man falls.) ''Bouson pof.'' (The feather (ABS) falls.).<br />
<br />
====Tense====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, verbs are conjugated for three tenses: past, present and future. These tenses describe when an action took place relative to current moment as their names indicate. <br />
<br />
====Aspect====<br />
<br />
Gnomic-static aspect is used to indicate general truths ''Zaitó Hala.'' (sun rises) and static situations ''Mépa lusha.'' (I can speak Sceptrian). It can be used with expressions of time to specify when something was static ''Petsipha kas arakha.'' (dress-STAT.1SG this.COM yesterday.TEMP "I was dressed in these clothes yesterday (as well).")<br />
<br />
Present progressive describes dynamic actions ''Anbaplóph lusha kha.'' (I'm reading Sceptrian at the moment). Present inceptive is used when an action is about to begin or someone is starting to do something.<br />
*Inceptive is only used once: Subject inceptive with intransitive and mostly agent inceptive with translative verbs. Object ending is either PRES.PROG, when something was begun only a moment ago, or FUT, when something is about to begin.<br />
**Translative object inceptive if the object caused the initialization: ''Órlateepast.'' (He is about to take me to dancing through my initiative.)<br />
<br />
Past imperfective is used with continuous activities which were happening before the present. The contrasting perfective aspect describes the event as a whole and having an endpoint in the past.<br />
<br />
In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used.<br />
<br />
Endings with different tenses may be mixed:<br />
*PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) <br />
*PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while))<br />
<br />
====Mood====<br />
<br />
Moods express speaker's attitude towards the subject or their knowledge of it. They are divided into realis and irrealis moods: the former expresses factual statements while the latter indicates that an event hasn't taken place or the speaker is uncertain of a situation.<br />
<br />
=====Realis=====<br />
<br />
'''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well)<br />
<br />
'''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.)<br />
<br />
=====Irrealis=====<br />
<br />
'''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?)<br />
<br />
'''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) <br />
*The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!)<br />
<br />
'''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original second syllable: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: '''''la'''latép'' (may dance), '''''ak'''aktæsos'' (may hear), ''rorøt'' (may go)<br />
*The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject.<br />
*The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished<br />
<br />
=====Particles=====<br />
<br />
Particles are placed after a verb to alter or to specify its meaning.<br />
<br />
Realis<br />
*''pai'' mirative (with soft imperative in present): ''Rótóji pai!'' (He went!?)<br />
**with adjectives or as an adverb: ''Luwi pai!'' (How beautiful!) <br />
<br />
Evidentials (with causatives)<br />
*''atasi'' hearsay: ''Rotóji tasi fope.'' (I heard from you that he went.)<br />
*''tesei'' visual: ''Rótoutóji tesei nape.'' (I didn't see him go.)<br />
<br />
Irrealis<br />
*''norka'' dubitative (with subjunctive): ''Rorøtóji norka.'' (I doubt he went.)<br />
*''gana'' volitive (with future subjunctive): ''Lalatépar gana.'' (I wish I could dance.)<br />
<br />
Conditional (with subjunctive)<br />
*''ta'' apodosis: ''Arziizeither ta'' (I will raise you...)<br />
*''-ti-'' infixed between reduplicated form for protasis: ''boutiboisen'' (if you fall)<br />
<br />
Hortatives (with soft imperative which itself works as an adhortative or dehortative with negation (unwillingness))<br />
*Cohortative: ''Latéprlast kha!'' (Let's dance now!), ''Rótrlastonget khugu.'' (Let's not go there.)<br />
*''jokæ'' exhortative (inhortative through negation): ''Rótrest jokæ.'' (You really should go.)<br />
<br />
'''Formal''' register differences:<br />
*''aktasosai'' (hears) conjugated for hearsay: ''Røtathi aiaktasosóji.'' (I heard from her that you left.)<br />
*''tesos'' (sees) conjugated for visual evidentiality: ''Rotóji tesosai.'' (I saw her go.)<br />
*''tsmaadhoré'' (doubtfully) used for dubitative<br />
*''tutaadhoré'' (wishfully) used for volitive<br />
*''alké'' permissive with dative: ''Rótest alké foki.'' (You may leave.)<br />
**prohibitive with negated (inability) imperative infinitive: ''Rótrostodi alké foki.'' (You aren't allowed to leave.)<br />
*both conditional particles are used separately and they are prefixed with the subjunctive reduplication: ''Arziizeither zaita bouboisen bouti.'' (I will raise you if you fall.)<br />
<br />
'''In literature''' to express the peaking pitch of ironical statements and lowered pitch of sarcastic expressions:<br />
*''jø'' verbal irony: ''Jótesosoi melurpi, jóbatophoi "Luwidh jø hi loi khu".'' (He saw the rain and said: "''Beautiful'' day out there")<br />
*''gæ'' sarcasm: ''Uu, eiluwikoi gæ pai.'' (Oh, ''how beautiful'' you made it.)<br />
<br />
====Negation====<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Negation affixes<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Manner→<br />
! Inability<br />
!colspan="6"| Unwillingness<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Form→<br />
!2nd apophony +infix<br>(before patient-suffix)<br />
!colspan="3"|Intranslative<br>suffix<br />
!colspan="3"|Translative<br>infix (after agent-prefix)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Person→<br />
!All<br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!SG<br />
|ost<br />
|net<br />
|fep<br />
|set<br />
|no<br />
|fo<br />
|so<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|osht<br />
|nget<br />
|vep<br />
|slet<br />
|ngo<br />
|flo<br />
|slo<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|PST<br />
|out<br />
|colspan="3"|nait<br />
|colspan="3"|me<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|FUT<br />
|oz<br />
|colspan="3"|nort<br />
|colspan="3"|mor<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse'''fó'''lateephar?'' (You don't want to begin dancing with me?)<br />
<br />
'''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.)<br />
<br />
Second apophony of negation affixes with subjunctive mood: ''Rorøthórn'''ø'''rt.'' (He may not be willing to go.)<br />
<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
<br />
=====Gerund=====<br />
*Base nouns or their abstract variants may serve as gerunds, which describe the action of doing, but otherwise they are created with the suffix ''(o)pi'' added to a verb root. The suffic also helps to distinguish the forms.<br />
<br />
=====Infinitives=====<br />
*PRES ''-odi'', PST ''-oudi'', FUT ''ordi''<br />
*used with modal verbs<br />
*subjunctive form created with duplication<br />
<br />
=====Participles=====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian participles work as adjectives. Following table shows which "case" and suffix the verb base (or gerund in formal register) takes.<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Present participle suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!IPFV<br />
!PFV<br />
|-<br />
!Patientive (LAT)<br />
|''p''<br />
|''pi/pot''<br />
|-<br />
!Negative (LAT)<br />
|<br />
|''tip''<br />
|-<br />
!Active (INS)<br />
|rowspan="2"|''on''<br />
|''ompu''<br />
|-<br />
!Agentive (INS)<br />
|''empo''<br />
|}<br />
*Also the "requiring" (FUT) form LOC+''rt'' and "possible" (GNO) POS+''ta'' <br />
*Past forms are created by adding ''i'' to the end: ''kephoni'' (was being washed)<br />
*Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed)<br />
*Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]]<br />
<br />
Relative form with word-order and prefix? + formal register particle<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, auxiliary verbs are conjugated only for subject which may act as the agent of the clause. The verbs can either precede (dynamic, deontic) or come after (epistemic) different verb infinitives. Since regular object-patient conjugation can't be used, objects have to be written (no pro-drop) and they are declined into instrumental-comitative case.<br />
*''tut'' "want" (from ''tuta'' "craving, wish"): ''Tutajin kepoudi his.'' (I wanted to wash it.)<br />
**infinitive in lative case for "want something to be done": ''Tutan kepordiki his.'' (I want it to be washed.)<br />
**"be going to" (FUT): ''Tuutar latepordi.'' (I'm going to dance.)<br />
**"wish" (SBJV) mostly as the subjunctive of the absent ''to be''-verb: ''Tutitan khau fos.'' (I wish you were here) <br />
*''mép'' "can, know how to" (dynamic) (from ''mépi'' "skill"): ''Mépa latepodi'' ("I can dance"; notice gnomic-static mood)<br />
*''kuut'' "can, may" (deontic / epistemic) (from ''kuutó'' "possibility"): ''Kuutest rotordi.'' (You may leave.), ''Fendógópot kuutó pai.'' (He may unexpectedly be dead.)<br />
**particle ''nor'' added after the verb for lower possibility i.e. "could, might": ''Fendógópi kuut nor.'' (It might be dead.)<br />
**particle ''ga'' added for "should, must": ''Fendógópi kuut ga.'' (It should be dead, as we wanted.)<br />
*''khet'' "must" (deontic) (from ''kheti'' "necessity"): ''Khetan rotodi.'' (I must go now), ''Kheetar rotordi.'' (I must go soon)<br />
*''khurd'' "dare" (from ''khurdi'' "daring"): ''¿Khurde glerkékodi nas?'' (Do you dare hit me with a mace?)<br />
<br />
Mixing tenses: <br />
*''Tutitai latepordi.'' SBJV.want-PST.PFV.1SG dance-INF.FUT "I would've wanted to dance"<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian distinguishes between two voices, active and antipassive. Passive is very similar to active since Sceptrian is absolutive-ergative, and thus isn't considered a true change in voice. Antipassive is used to reduce the valency of the verbs by removing the object of a transitive clause.<br />
<br />
Active construction: verb-agent-object and verb-object-agent are used so that a comment (rheme) precedes the topic (theme). [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|Emphasizing clitics]] are used to mark the topic. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Ónzaiton dothee pof.<br />
|IPA = /ɔ̃zaɪ̯tə̃ dəθe: pəf/<br />
| morphemes = ón-zait-on doth-ee pof-Ø<br />
| gloss = 3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV man-ERG feather-ABS<br />
| translation = A man is lifting a feather.<br />
}} <br />
<br />
Passive construction: To demote the agent (ERG), it's either removed or inflected into causal ablative (ABL). Verb is only conjugated for the object.<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Zaiton pof (dothpo).<br />
|IPA = /zaɪ̯tə̃ pəf (dəθpə)/<br />
| morphemes = zait-on pof-Ø (doth-po)<br />
| gloss = lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV feather-ABS (man-ABL)<br />
| translation = A feather is being lifted (by a man).<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Antipassive''' construction: Agent (ERG) transforms into subject (ABS) and object (ABS) takes the instrumental-comitative (INS) case. Word order becomes SV(O), and the verb is conjugated according to the agent only and the stressed syllable undergoes second [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]]. The verb is also suffixed with the emphasizing clitic ''ma'' in the formal register. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Doth ónzeit(ma) (pofos).<br />
|IPA = /dəθ ɔ̃zei̯t(mä) (pəfəs)/<br />
| morphemes = doth-Ø ón-zeit-Ø(or =ma) (pof-os)<br />
| gloss = man-ABS ANTIP\3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-ANTIP(or =ANTIP.FORM) (feather-INS)<br />
| translation = The man is lifting (a feather). <br />
}}<br />
<br />
Instrument and turning it into an agent:<br />
* ''Ónzaiton dothee pof vakuhosozh.'' (...with his own hand...)<br />
**''Ónzaiton pof vakuhp dothir.'' (the feather is raised by the man's hand)<br />
**''Onzaiton pof tuph dothi'''sh''' slokli.'' (The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them.) Inanimate agent conjugation, and dative of possession is inflected to avoid misinterpretation!<br />
* ''Vakuh ónzeit pofos.'' (The hand lifts something, which happens to be a feather)/(someone intentionally lifts a feather with their hand) Notice animate conjugation!<br />
**''Tup onzeit dothpo pofos.'' (The stick, which is being held by a man, lifts something, which happens to be a feather) ABL as causative since inanimate ''tup''.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
Decimal base was adopted due to commerce, but traces of the former octal base remain. <br />
<br />
Numerals are placed before their head. Last part of a cardinal determiner agrees with case through matching declension: ''op'''l''' tupl'' (two sticks)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Numeral system<br />
|-<br />
! Number <br />
! Number !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional !! Multiplicative adverb !! Multiplicative adjective !! Group !! Polygon<br />
|-<br />
!Zero<br />
| ozi || oz || ozhi || - || zeng (never) || - || ze (no) || -<br />
|-<br />
!One<br />
| ipi || ip || iphi || liku (whole) || ohu (once) || ipitse (onefold) || ipisi (singular) || ipirt (dot) <br />
|-<br />
!Two <br />
| opi || op || ophi || lopu (half) || ophu (twice) || opitse (twofold) || opisi (pair) || opart (line)<br />
|-<br />
!Three<br />
| oki || ok || okhi || loku || okhu || okitse || okisi || okart (triangle)<br />
|-<br />
!Four<br />
| óppi || óp || óphi || lóppu || óphu || óphitse || óphisi || ópart <br />
|-<br />
!Five<br />
| ofi || of || offi || lofu || offu || ofitse || ofisi || ofart<br />
|-<br />
!Six<br />
| ókki || ók || ókhi || lókku || ókhu || ókhitse || ókhisi || ókart<br />
|-<br />
!Seven<br />
| omi || om || ongi || lomu || ongu || omitse || omisi || omart<br />
|-<br />
!Eight<br />
| ngovi || ngov || ngovvi || longovu || ngovvu || ngovitse || ngovisi || jart<br />
|-<br />
!Nine<br />
| ngoipi || ngoip || ngoiphi || longoipu || ngoiphu || ngoipitse || ngoipisi || ngoipart<br />
|-<br />
!Ten<br />
| jopi || jop || jophi || lojopu || jophu || jopitse || jopisi || jopart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!Eleven<br />
!Twelve<br />
!Thirteen<br />
!Fourteen<br />
!Fifteen<br />
!Sixteen<br />
!Seventeen<br />
!Eighteen<br />
!Nineteen<br />
!Twenty<br />
|-<br />
| ngoki <br />
| ngópi <br />
| ngofi<br />
| ngóki<br />
| ngomi <br />
| ophungovi <br />
| jopomi<br />
| jopingovi<br />
| jopingoipi<br />
| ophujopi<br />
|-<br />
!Twenty-one<br />
!Thirty<br />
!Fourty<br />
!Fifty<br />
!Sixty<br />
!Sixty-four<br />
!Sixty-five<br />
!Seventy<br />
!Eighty<br />
!Ninety<br />
|-<br />
| ophujopipi <br />
| okhujopi<br />
| offungovi <br />
| offujopi <br />
|ókhujopi<br />
| mouti<br />
| moutipi<br />
|ongujopi<br />
|ngowopi<br />
|ngoiphujopi<br />
|-<br />
!One hundred<br />
!One hundred<br/>and twenty-two<br />
!One hundred<br/>and sixty-six<br />
!Two hundred<br />
!Thousand<br />
!Three thousand<br/>four hundred<br />
!Ten thousand<br />
!Hundred thousand<br />
!Million<br />
!Billion<br />
|-<br />
| toti <br />
|toti(s)<br>ophujopopi<br />
|toti(s)<br>moutókki<br />
|ophutoti<br />
| mopi<br />
|okhumopi(s)<br>óphutoti<br />
|tothutoti<br />
|tothumopi<br />
|hamisi<br />
|mowisi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Multiplicative adverb form is used in front of the powers of ten (tens, hundreds, ...)<br />
*Digits are annexed into the tens by using the cardinal or determiner form depending whether the digit begins with a vowel or not.<br />
*Fractions are constructed by placing the ''l(o)''-prefixed form after the multiplicative number: ''okhu lóppu'' ("thrice one quarter" = three quarters). The noun is in ablative case and only the fraction is inflected: ''lopu'''ji''' tuppo'' (for one half of a stick)<br />
*Large numbers (from hundred) are written separately from smaller, but in formal register ''s''-letter is added between each power of ten.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
*VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive<br />
* possessives follow nouns<br />
* predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns<br />
<br />
===Emphasizing clitics===<br />
<br />
Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton dothee'''noh''' pof.'' (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. ''Ónzaiton dothee pof'''ma'''.'' (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used with verbs in antipassive constructions.<br />
<br />
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) <br />
<br />
The suffixes are also used with alienable possessive forms to separate the possessor from indirect objects. Chosen depending on the ergativity of the possessum: ''Jóvakuhoi suu pof swi'''ma''' swi.'' (He gave her feather to him.)<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
<br />
====Independent====<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Conjunction====<br />
<br />
coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?)<br />
<br />
====Noun clauses====<br />
<br />
WIP ... to be redone<br />
*Infinitive.tense + ... + causatives: ''Tesosan kepó vakuhos supe.'' (I see that he washes his hands) vs. ''Onluvakan kep'''óo''' vakuhos supe.'' (The washing of his hands brings me pleasure.)<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
<br />
Nominalizing relative clauses with participles is common.<br />
<br />
Using [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|an emphasizing clitic]] to mark the antecedent for the class-appropriate proximal demonstrative pronoun (thaka/saitu/ka declined for number) which works as a relative pronoun - case chosen according to the embedded clause: <br />
*''Rotóji dothma saituh latepai.'' (leave-PST.PFV.3SG man.ABS-EMPH.ABS P.PROX.AN-COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The man, with whom I danced, left.") <br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahul dothelenos saitush latepai.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS man-PL.ERG-EMPH.ERG P.PROX.AN-PL.COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The men with whom I danced are starting to drink beer.")<br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahulma dothele ka tutitai vangosordi.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS-EMPH.ABS man-PL.ERG P.PROX.INAN SBJV-want-PST.PFV.1SG drink-INF.FUT "Men are starting to drink the beer which I would've wanted to drink."<br />
<br />
====Adverbial clauses====<br />
<br />
non-finite forms + possessive suffixes to indicate subject<br />
<br />
====Conditional clauses====<br />
<br />
subjunctive as explained in verb particle section<br />
<br />
====Indirect speech====<br />
<br />
==Register==<br />
<br />
Different endings which reflect the conversation situation: speakers, familiarity, formality, location... <br />
<br />
===Intimate===<br />
<br />
Agent prefixes aren't used. No ''t'' in inceptive. Due to apophony, subject suffix can be dropped from FUT/INCEP if 1st or 2nd person distinction is clear.<br />
<br />
===Casual===<br />
<br />
In casual register, verb forms are chosen differently when the subject is agent-like (he dances) or patient-like (he fell): ''latepóji'' (he danced AN) vs. ''bousoi'' (he fell INAN)<br />
<br />
===Formal===<br />
<br />
Mandatory use of pronouns and agent prefixes.<br />
<br />
One may use inanimate verb forms as anti-honorific? ''Ondakon næ ka Nithki.'' (I humbly offer this to You)<br />
<br />
Apophony of basic prepositions with root ''oi'': ''Oisti Hala, óosti vakuhanga, ousti qorel'' (under the Sun, under my hand, under the earth)<br />
<br />
In formal register, it is preferred to use only animate nouns as agents while abstract and inanimate are as antipassive subjects: ''luwi... nas'' ("beauty-of.yours it-un-eye-ful-makes me-with", your beauty makes me blind) vs. ''en fø na'' (you are making me blind)<br />
<br />
Distinction between abstract and animate in some categories, such as verb conjugation (''wa'')<br />
<br />
Can people with higher status be abstract or do they occupy a special animate category? (æ inside?)<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
See the [[Sceptrian/Dictionary|dictionary page]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian&diff=35650Sceptrian2015-07-07T21:52:35Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Comparison */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Construction}}<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Sceptrian<br />
|nativename = [[File:Lusha_name.png|300px]]<br>''Batop Lushan''<br />
|pronunciation = [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ]<br />
|region = Western Central World<br />
|states = Sceptre<br />
|speakers = 29,200,000 <br />
|date = 7th 641<br />
|familycolor = #d3ffce<br />
|fam1 = West-Herookuan<br />
|fam2 = Lutian<br />
|fam3 = Sceptrian branch<br />
|creator=Ahuelni<br />
|setting=Akekata<br />
|dialects = Yerzonian, Mulish, Fanish <br />
|script = Toneka alphabet<br />
|nation = Empire of Sceptre<br />
|minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia<br />
|agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language)<br />
|map = Lusha_regions.jpg<br />
|mapsize = 300<br />
|mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects<br />
}}<br />
{{ClassMeter<br />
|Name = Sceptrian<br />
|NativeName = Batop Lushan<br />
|Type = Fusional<br />
|Alignment = Absolutive-ergative<br />
<br />
|adjective = final<br />
|adposition = mixed<br />
|adverb= final<br />
|article= mixed<br />
|relativeclause = final<br />
|nounclause = final<br />
|order = VSO<br />
<br />
|Tonal = no<br />
|Genders = 3<br />
|Declined = yes<br />
|Conjugated = yes<br />
|Case = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Definiteness = no<br />
|Gender = yes<br />
|Voice = yes<br />
|Mood = yes<br />
|Person = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Tense = yes<br />
|Aspect = yes<br />
|Phonology = 100<br />
|NounCases = 100<br />
|NounDef = 100<br />
|NounNumbers = 100<br />
|NounGender = 100<br />
|VerbPerson = 100<br />
|VerbNumber = 100<br />
|VerbAspect = 90<br />
|VerbTense = 100<br />
|VerbMood = 90<br />
|VerbVoice = 80<br />
|AdjCase = 100<br />
|AdjNumber = 100<br />
|AdjDef = 100<br />
|AdjGen = 100<br />
|AdjComparative = 100<br />
|AdjSuperlative = 100<br />
|Supine = 90<br />
|Gerund = 90<br />
|Participle = 90<br />
|Infinitive = 90<br />
|Modality = 90<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ] or simply ''lusha'') is an ''a priori'' [[w:Artistic_language|artistic language]] created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 29 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking [[Khattish]] and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian and its dialects feature 51 phonetic consonants, some of them with interesting lateral features. The language also has 25 phonetic vowels: twelve short, nine long and four diphthongs. Nasalization, rhotacization and breathy voice are used phonemically. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
If the romanization symbol is the same as in IPA, it is not duplicated. Not bolded romanization indicates that the sound appears as a vernacular or dialectal version.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 830px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px" colspan="2"|<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Uvular<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| [ɱ]<br />
| <br />
| '''n (ń)''' [n]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''t'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''k'''<br />
| '''q'''<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''b'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''d'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''g'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Breathy<br />
| '''ph bh'''<br>[pʰ] [bʱ]<br />
|<br />
|'''th dh'''<br>[tʰ] [dʱ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''kh gh'''<br>[kʰ] [gʱ]<br />
|'''qh'''<br>[qʰ]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| '''pl bl'''<br />[pˡ] [bˡ]<br />
| <br />
| '''tl dl'''<br />[tˡ] [dˡ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''kl gl'''<br/>[kˡ] [gˡ]<br />
| '''ql'''<br/>[qˡ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| ph [ɸ]<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| '''th''' [θ]<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''sh''' [ʃ]<br />
| '''h''' [ç]<br />
| '''kh h''' [x]<br />
| '''qh''' [χ]<br />
| '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''w''' bh [β]<br />
| '''v'''<br />
| '''dh''' [ð]<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| '''zh''' [ʒ]<br />
| <br />
| gh [ɣ]<br />
| <br />
| h [ɦ]<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''sl''' [ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Affricate<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ts''' [t͡s] <br />
| '''tsh''' [t͡ʃ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''tsl''' [t͡ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Approximant<br />
!Non-lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''j'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''l''' [l] [l̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| pr [ʙ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''r (ŕ)''' [r] [r̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The liquids ''r'' and ''l'' can appear as '''syllabic consonants''': ''tlsl'' /tˡl̩ɬ/ (shallow), ''prk'' /pr̩k/ (wagon) and ''trs'' /tr̩s/ (smith)<br />
*Vernacularly, both syllabic and obstruent-following alveolar trill ''r'' and lateral approximant ''l'' are pronounced as voiceless [r̩̊], [r̥], [l̩̊] and [l̥] when in contact with only voiceless consonants: ''trs'' [tr̩̊s] (smith) contrasting with ''trls'' [tr̩s] (while standard /trəls/) (smiths); ''gatl'' [gɑtl̥] (houses) whose pronunciation approaches [gɑtɬ]. <br />
**'''Meslatu Hirke''' made his disputed suggestion in 7:693 that a similar process had led to the birth of ''sl'' as plural indicator, when original plural ''l'' turned first into voiceless and then into ''sl'' after a word-final glottal stop, which has disappeared entirely. <br />
*In eastern dialects, ''pr'' is realized as [ʙ] and ''tr'', ''tsr'' and ''trs'' often as [r̝]. In the dialects, aspirated plosives have been fully spirantized into their fricative counterparts, e.g. [tʰ]>[θ].<br />
*Fricatives show properties of syllabic consonants word-initially and word-finally.<br />
<br />
Nasal [ɱ] only appears as an allophone of nasals with labio-dental sounds /f/ and /v/. Before velar sounds (e.g. /k/) nasals turn similarly into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
Letter ''h'' has four allophones: initial is always [h] despite frontness, [ç] appears elsewhere with front vowels, [x] appears word-finally and [h~ɦ] word-medially with back vowels ''tihtóhnah'' [tiçˈtɔɦ.näx] (assassinator). It's also used after consonants to indicate breathy voice.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 390px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| <br />
| '''u'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-mid<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| o<br/>[ɘ]<br />
| o<br/>[ɤ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
|<br />
| '''o'''<br/>[ə]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''é ø'''<br />[ɛ] [œ]<br />
|<br />
| '''ó'''<br />[ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
|'''æ'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
|'''a'''<br />[ä]<br />
|a<br />[ɑ]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
All the nine main vowel sounds (bolded) have '''long''' versions as separate phonemes.<br />
<br />
Schwa '''''o''''' is used as an epenthetic vowel (anaptyxis). When it is used to break consonant clusters (not indicated in native script) it is the simple schwa /ə/: *dŧ → ''doth'' /dəθ/ (man). When stressed, it is vernacularly realized as [ɘ], and in western dialects more clearly as [ɤ]: *dŧs → ''dothos'' [dəˈθɘˑs]<br />
<br />
Vowel ''a'' is [ɑ] after voiced consonants. Vowel ''æ'' is often more open [a], though, in Western dialects, it has merged with ''é''. <br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, there are only closing diphthongs which go up in the vowel chart:<br />
*Back: ou /ɔʊ̯/<br />
*Front: ai /äɪ̯/, ei /ei̯/, oi /œi̯/<br />
<br />
If the syllable border (glottal stop) is between vowels and they don't form a diphthong, apostrophe is used: ''tai'' (for long) vs. ''ta'i'' (past)<br />
*In native [[Sceptrian#Script|script]], separate graphemes for diphthongs exist and glottal stop is not marked.<br />
<br />
If diphthongs are followed by vowels, they are separated by a glottal stop in formal register. <br />
*In casual speech, ''ouV'' becomes ''owV'' and ''ViV'' ''VjV'': ''oua→ówa'' and ''aia→aja''. If the following vowel is the same, a glottal stop breaks the former diphthong and the ending vowel is lengthened: ''ai'i→a'ii''<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
<br />
===Onset===<br />
<br />
Basic [[w:Syllable#Structure|syllabic structure]] is CV, where the onset (beginning) consonant can be of any type. <br />
*It is possible to use liquids and approximants as '''glides''' (CLV) between the onset and the rime (ending). <br />
*Up to two consonants with same voicing may appear in the onset (CCV), especially fricative-plosive combinations, but never two plosives: ''stak'' (fence), ''fkot'' (nest), ''ksaru'' (guard). Affricate ''ts'' takes may be accompanied only by ''w'', ''j'', ''n'' or ''m'': ''tsma'' (doubt). Combination /sl/ has turned into /ɬ/.<br />
*Lateralization and aspiration may never appear together, and nasalized rhoticization is only found in Fanish dialect.<br />
<br />
===Nucleus=== <br />
<br />
The nucleus can be either a vowel or a liquid, thus CVC and CLC are also possible syllables. <br />
*Vowels (diphthongs included) may exist as a stand-alone nucleic syllable (V), mostly in the beginning or at the end of a word. <br />
*If nucleus is a liquid, plosives appear in codas only word-finally: ''dldlp'' /dˡl̩ˈdˡl̩p/ (bubble)<br />
<br />
===Coda=== <br />
<br />
The coda (final) may consist of up to three consonants with possible structures: N, P, F, L; NP, FP, LP; NF, PF, LF; NPF, FPF, LFP, LPF (Nasal, Plosive, Fricative, Liquid). <br />
*Final liquids appear as syllabic consonants<br />
*Approximants ''j'', ''w'' and plain voiced plosives never appear as coda (final) even though they may be written that way (no written schwa): ''nad'' /nä.də/ (stainy). Voiced fricatives may appear as coda. <br />
*In coda, plosives with lateral release, however, will reflect the voicing of the onset: ''gatl'' [gädˡl̩] (houses) vs. ''katl'' [kätˡl̩] (knobs). Vernacularly, the lateral approximant weakens into a voiceless variant [l̥] when in contact with voiceless consonants: ''gatl'' [gätl̥].<br />
<br />
Closed syllables, i.e. those ending in coda, are not as common word-medially as open syllables (ending in nucleus) are. When words are inflected, parts of codas tend to become onsets of the following syllable, if possible. Especially three-consonant clusters are rare word-medially and receive a schwa after a non-lateral stop: ''kamps'' /kämps/ (marsh) → ''kampsku'' → ''kamposku'' /ˈkäm.pəs.ku/ (at marsh)<br />
*Voicing status must be the same for consonants touching at syllable boundaries and the voiced one reduces into voiceless: ''*katbas''→''katpas'' /kätˈpäs/ (fern) vs. ''oist baku'' /œi̯st<sup>(h)</sup> bä.ku/ (under a table)<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
Primary '''stress''' in a word is most often on the second syllable, and when there are four or five syllables, secondary stress is placed onto the final syllable. When there are more syllables, minor stress is placed on even-numbered syllables. <br />
*If the to-be-stressed syllable contains the schwa ''o'' /ə/ or a syllabic consonant, the preceding syllable is stressed in two-syllable words and the following in words with more than three syllables.<br />
**In uninflected words, syllable with nuclear ''o'' is only stressed when it comes second and the preceding syllable has also ''o'' as nucleus. Then the stressed nucleus appears as [ɘ]. Contrast between stressed and non-stressed syllabic consonants may occur as voicing and devoicing respectively. <br />
*A non-final syllable with a long vowel or a diphthong is always stressed and steals the stress from its neighboring syllable. This also moves the secondary stress from final to penultimate syllable, if primary stress falls on first syllable.<br />
<br />
Inflected and affixed word forms have almost always the same stress as the base word (even monosyllabic with schwa): ''doth'' (man) → ''dothku'' [ˈdɘθ.ku] (near the man). <br />
*Vocative and ergative cases as well as inflections with long vowels make an exception: ''dothee'' /dəˈθe:/ (by the man), ''dothé'' /dəˈθɛ/ (O man), ''gatóo'' /gɑˈtɔ:/ (to the house)<br />
<br />
Interrogatives are formed by changing the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. This is indicated with ¿: ''¿Eikepoi?'' [ˈei̯˧˦ˈke˩.pœi̯˨˦] (Did you wash it?)<br />
<br />
==Morphophonology==<br />
<br />
===Vowel form===<br />
<br />
There are five ways of sound altering which may be used for grammatical purposes (mainly number, genitive case and imperfective aspect). In the native script the following are marked on the vowel.<br />
*Lengthening: ''paata'' /pä:tä/ (separation), ''ée'' [ɛ:]~[ɛe̯], ''óo'' /ɔ:/<br />
*Lateral (release): ''pló'' /pˡɔ/ (opposite to), ''tlaf'' /tˡäf/ (sprig) <br />
**Western dialects keep the tongue on the alveolar ridge during vowel pronunciation so that the vowels have a distinct l-sound. Historically, this may have lead to the syllabic l.<br />
*Aspiration/breathy voice: ''phó'' [pʰɔ]~[ɸɔ] (along), ''kébhar'' [kɛˈbʱɑ˞]~[kɛˈβɑ˞] (I will wash), ''tha'' [tʰä]~[θä] (abstract "it"), ''dhaka'' [dʱɑkä]~[ðɑkä] (abstract "that"). <br />
**Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head)<br />
*Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]]<br />
**Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as a short syllabic nasal consonant of the same place as the directly preceding or following consonant<br />
**Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!).<br />
*Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) <br />
**Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞:] (soup)<br />
<br />
===Consonant form===<br />
<br />
Combining sounds<br />
*Lateralization<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sl'' and ''zh'' respectively<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' → ''fl'' & ''w''<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' are geminated<br />
**''m'' & ''n'' → ''ng'' and ''ng'' → ''ńg''<br />
* Aspiration<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sh'' and ''zh''<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' are geminated<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' → ''lh'' and ''rh''<br />
* Voicing and aspiration<br />
**''r'' → ''qh'', ''l'' → ''ldh'', ''v'' → ''w''<br />
<br />
===Apophony===<br />
<br />
Apophony in the '''stressed syllable''' is used for example to express adjective gender and to create different verb forms.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Apophony<br />
|-<br />
!Root<br />
!1st<br />
!2nd<br />
|-<br />
|e<br />
|ee<br />
|é<br />
|-<br />
|o<br />
|ó<br />
|ø<br />
|-<br />
|a<br />
|aa<br />
|æ<br />
|-<br />
|u<br />
|uu<br />
|i<br />
|-<br />
|ai<br />
|ii<br />
|ei<br />
|-<br />
|ou<br />
|óo<br />
|oi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*When the stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting)<br />
*With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of ''é''.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Script=== <br />
[[File:Sceptrian.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Toneka script from the early sixth era. Notice that the vowel form info-box romanization should have "o" instead of "a".]]<br />
[[File:SceptrianTsrnet.JPG|500px|thumb|right|Tsrnet cursive script used for handwriting in modern Sceptre.]]<br />
The Sceptrian alphabet script was derived from the ancient temple marks as were the Aoman and Northern (Latin) scripts. The modern alphabet is called ''Tsoklóp Lushan''.<br />
<br />
Diacritics on vowels mark different [[Sceptrian#Vowel_form|sounds]]. The diacritics may be used with consonants as well, especially in the plural forms of consonant-ending nouns: ''gat̆'' (''gatl'' "houses"), ''doŧ̆'' (''dolth'' "men"). With the diacritics, letter ''ts'' can be lateralized into ''tsl'' or aspirated into ''tsh''.<br />
<br />
The native Sceptrian script has a long history of being unicameral, not distinguishing between the upper and lower case. Only during the sixth era under the Tyranny of West, the flow of refugees from the Coast of Temples encouraged the introduction of case separation. In the developed fonts, capital letters were derived from the traditional Toneka and small letters from the cursive Tsrnet.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Short and long letter names with explanations<br />
|-<br />
|aa<br>aat || ee<br>eet || ée<br>eet maatikipi<br>(opened e) || ii<br>iit || oo<br>oot || óo<br>oot guzbikipi<br>(deepened o) || uu<br>uut <br />
|-<br />
|ææ<br>aat evadh<br>(bright a) || øø<br>oot gudh<br>(dark o) || ai<br>aat zaithon<br>(rising a) || ei<br>eet zaithon<br>(rising e) || oi<br>oot zaithon<br>(rising o) || ou<br>óot bousoson<br>(falling o) ||<br />
|-<br />
| po<br>poot || bo<br>bóot || mo<br>mool || wo<br>wool || to<br>toot || do<br>dóot || <br />
|-<br />
| tho<br>toot hifdo<br>(windy t) || dho<br>dóot hifdo<br>(windy d) || no<br>nool || so<br>siit || sho<br>siit hifdo<br>(windy s) || zo<br>ziit || zho<br>ziit gudh<br>(dark z) <br />
|-<br />
| ngo<br>góot slenguhpi<br>(g using nose) || tso<br>tsiit || lo<br>lool || slo<br>lool hifdo<br>(windy l) || fo<br>fiit || vo<br>fiit gudh<br>(dark f) || jo<br>jool <br />
|-<br />
| ko<br>koot || go<br>góot || ho<br>hiit || qho<br>hiit surmudh<br>(strong h) || qo<br>koot venongp<br>(k being<br> swallowed) || ro<br>rool || <br />
|-<br />
|plo<br>looh tisk<br>(with l<br> mark) || pon<br>slenguhpi tisk<br>(using nose<br> mark) || por<br>tisk prung<br>(mark of<br> trill) || pho<br>tisk hifn<br>(mark of<br> wind) || poo<br>tisk spiing<br>(mark of<br> length) || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Romanization===<br />
<br />
====Modern====<br />
Consonant variation:<br />
*Letter ''r'' is used with consonants for /r̩/ and between vowels for /r/, but after vowels in the end of syllables for rhoticization ''or'' /ɚ/. Letter ''ŕ'' is used to emphasize the use of /r/ after vowels ''oŕ'' /ər/.<br />
*Similarly letter ''n'' can appear syllable-finally with nasalization but ''ń'' always as /n/: ''an'' /ã/ vs. ''ań'' /an/. <br />
*With ''ng'' /ŋ/, the accent signals lengthening ''nańgo'' /näŋ:ə/ or ''naŋŋo'' (sweaty).<br />
*Labialization of plosives is indicated by PuV (V is any vowel except ''u'') or with ''w''.<br />
*Breathry voice is indicated with an ''h'' straight after a plosive. The ''h'' is also used for corresponding fricatives which occur word-finally. This risk of confuse is one of the downsides of the simplified modern system: ''nath'' /näθ/ "a beggar" or /nätʰ/ "with stains".<br />
<br />
====Old====<br />
<br />
The old romanization system (or part of it) was used until western regions of Eastern Sceptre were joined with the Western Sceptre empire in 7th era 161, during the war against Empress Renula of Golden Islet. A revision was needed when both Sceptrian and Aoma were used in the same printing press and texts had to be distributed to westlang-using communities. Peter Martyea suggested in 7:189 that the payment according to number of pages may have favoured quick adaptation as the non-diacritic system induced much longer texts (see the comparison example).<br />
<br />
Consonants:<br />
*Nasal: '''ŋ''' ''ng'' /ŋ/<br />
**Texts from the first century of the seventh era use ''ǥ'' for word-initial /ŋ/.<br />
*Fricative: '''ŧ''' ''th'' /θ/, '''đ''' ''dh'' /ð/, '''ś''' ''sh'' /ʃ/, '''ź''' ''zh'' /ʒ/, '''ħ''' ''qh'' /χ/<br />
*Affricate: '''c''' ''ts'' /t͡s/, '''č''' ''tsh'' /t͡ʃ/<br />
*Lateral: '''š''' ''sl'' /ɬ/, '''ǩ''' ''kl'' /kˡ/, '''ǧ''' ''gl'' /gˡ/<br />
<br />
Compact equivalents of sound altering:<br />
*Lengthening with a bar: ''ṓ'' /ɔ:/ and ''ō'' /ə:/<br />
*Lateral release with a breve diacritic: ''tŏ'' /tˡə/<br />
*Nasalization with a tilde: ''õ'' /ə̃/, ''on'' /ən/<br />
*Rhotacization with a diaeresis: ''ö'' /ɚ/, ''or'' /ər/<br />
*Aspiration with a grave accent: ''pò'' /pʰə/, ''pô'' /pʰɔ/<br />
<br />
Comparison between the systems:<br />
*Old: Ǧëǩ śošēŧã <br />
*Modern: Glerkl shosleethan (maces of a knight)<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
The most complete study of the structure of pre-modern Sceptrian words was done by Porutingatu of Jerzónó in year 362 of the seventh era. She collected, grouped and analyzed the fusional morphemes and listed the new rules to replace the outdated writings from the sixth era. By 370, her work had led to a new interest in linguistics and ultimately to the founding of ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan'' (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) which has been unifying and regulating the language along with its orthography since then.<br />
<br />
Sceptrian utilizes [[w:Fusional_language|fusional]] [[w:Inflection|inflections]] and has an [[w:Ergative–absolutive_language|absolutive-ergative]] [[w:Morphosyntactic_alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]. The language is rather [[w:Head-directionality_parameter|head-initial]] and its primary [[w:Word_order|word order]] is verb-agent-object.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns are used to refer to e.g. people or things in sentences instead of using the original nouns. In Sceptrian, they exist in two numbers and are inflected according to six [[Sceptrian#Cases|'''cases''']]. <br />
<br />
====Personal====<br />
Second person includes polite versions as well which were adapted by Aoma-sperkers. Third person singular makes distinction between abstract (Ab), animate (An) and inanimate (In) pronouns while plural only between Ab-An and In. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Personal pronoun inflection'''<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! 1SG !! 1PL !! 2SG !! 2PL !! 2SG.POL !! 2PL.POL !! 3SG.Ab !! 3SG.An !! 3PL.A !! 3SG.In !! 3PL.In<br />
|-<br />
!ABS <br />
| na || mo || fo || po || Nith || With || tha || su || slo || hi || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
| næ || moslo || fø || poslo || Nithe || Widhes || thaa || suu || sloslo || hii || kloslo<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
| nai || mokli || foki || pokli || Nithki || Withkli || thai || swi || slokli || hiki|| klokli<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
| nar || moŕ || for || poŕ || Nithor || Withoŕ || thar || sur || sloŕ || hir || kloŕ<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
| nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh || thas || sus || slosh || his || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
| nape || moplo || fope || poplo || Nitti || Witti || thape || supe || sloplo || hipi || kloplo<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''Comitative''' case is used to indicate company: ''Mo slosh arakha.'' (We were with them yesterday.)<br />
*'''Causal''' describes the cause of an action or origin of something: ''Aitesosai næ su fope'' (I saw him because of (/thanks to) you), ''Hi supe foki.'' (It (is) from him to you.)<br />
<br />
3rd person abstract pronoun is used in the formal register when introducing or referring to a person of higher status.<br />
<br />
====Reflexive====<br />
Self-pronoun ''ru'' for '''reflexive''' and '''reciprocal''': ''tesosón ru'' (they are watching themself), ''ónlatepón ru'' (he is dancing by himself, alone) vs. ''ónlatepón su'' (he is dancing with him); ''sónkephón ru'' (they are washing each other) vs. ''sónkephón sloslo slo/soutu'' (they are washing them)<br />
*reflexive is easier with others: ''anlatepan'' (I'm dancing by myself); ''ankepan'' (I'm washing myself) vs. ''ankep'' ("I'm washing it"), ''kepan'' (I'm being washed)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
<br />
Simple words for "this/these" and "that/those". When demonstratives are used with [[Sceptrian#Nouns|nouns]], they behave similarly to [[Sceptrian#Adjectives|adjectives]]. In the following examples, note that Sceptrian lacks the [[Sceptrian#Verbs|verb "to be"]]: <br />
*As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.)<br />
*For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) <br />
*The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the "head" can rather be considered an attribute of the pronoun: ''Bouson ko qot.'' (That's falling, the rock, I mean.) <br />
<br />
See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]].<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Demonstrative pronoun inflection<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Case <br />
!colspan="2"| Proximal <br />
!colspan="2"| Distal <br />
|-<br />
!SG !! PL !! SG !! PL<br />
|-<br />
!ABS<br />
|ka || kla || ko || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
|kaa || klaa || kó || kló<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
|kai ||klai || koi || kloi<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
|kan ||klang || kon || klong<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
|kas || klash || kos || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
|kap || klapa || kop ||klopo<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Table of correlatives===<br />
<br />
Determiners follow their heads and agree in number and with the cases mentioned above in [[Sceptrian#Demonstrative|the table]], where DAT & LAT, COM & LOC, CAU & ABL and ABS & VOC are corresponding. Words follow the declension shown above or paradigms similar to [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun cases]]. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!rowspan="2"|Interrogative<br />
!colspan="2"|Demonstrative<br />
!colspan="5"|Quantifier<br />
|-<br />
!Proximal !! Distal !! Existential !! Elective !! Universal !! Negatory !! Alternative<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Determiner<br />
| sho || ka (SG)<br/>kla (PL) || ko<br />klo || jofa (some) || ota (any) || orka (every, all) || ze (no) || so (another)<br/>solo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="5"| Pronoun<br />
!Abstract<br />
| ashu || thaka || dhaka || jaafa || thata || thorka || theso || thaso<br />
|-<br />
!Animate<br />
| ¿soutu || saitu || soutu || jonfu || onta || ongka || souso || jonso<br />
|-<br />
!Inanimate <br />
| ¿ko || ka || ko || jofo || oto || orko || ze || so<br />
|-<br />
!Out of two<br />
| ¿tso || tsaka || tsoko || zho || tsoto || tsorko || tseso || tso<br />
|-<br />
!Out of many<br />
| ¿tsolo || tsalka || tsolko || zolo || tsolto || tsongko || tsleso || tsolo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="6"|Pro-adverb<br />
!Locative<br />
| sku || khau || khu || jofku || otku || orkhu || zengu || sokhu<br />
|-<br />
!Temporal<br />
| sko || kha || kho || jofko || otko || orkho || zeng || sokho<br />
|-<br />
!Comitative<br />
| shos || kas || kos || jofos || otos || orkos || zeos || sos<br />
|-<br />
!Causal<br />
| spe || kap || kop || jov || otop || orkop || zenep || sonop<br />
|-<br />
!Manner<br />
| shi || khai || khoi || jofai || otai || orkai || zei || soi<br />
|-<br />
!What kind of<br />
| shodh || kadh || kodh || jodhi || othi || ordhi || zodhi || sothi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Negative determiner ''ze'' has no plural form. Neither have pronouns "Out of two".<br />
*Demonstratives are used when referring to listed items of equal animacy: proximal with the former and distal with the latter: ''Aitesoshóji math kuthos. Óomidh soutu.'' (I saw a cat and a dog. The latter was large.)<br />
*Locative pro-adverb can be conjugated with lative, locative and ablative.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Nouns in Sceptrian form the basis of derivational morphology and even the cases are utilized when forming new words. They are declined according to two numbers and nine cases, and the seven declensions are grouped in three genders which affect the verb conjugation and adjective agreement.<br />
<br />
====Gender====<br />
<br />
There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes.<br />
*Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in vowels ''a, æ, o, ó, ø'' and ''i''. <br />
*Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h'', same voiced and affricates), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings.<br />
*Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group.<br />
In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull). Some archaic words remain in dialects and in poetic use.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
<br />
There are two numbers, singular and plural, but abstract ''i''-nouns and inanimate ''l''-nouns are always singular. The declension according to number is complicated and fused with the class/case system explained and tabulated below.<br />
<br />
====Cases====<br />
<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Unmarked base form for subjects of intransitive and objects of transitive verbs <br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agents of transitive verbs<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect object; alienable possession ''gat dothi'' (a house of (lit. "for") the man); comparison (with ADJ comparative)<br />
*Possessive (POS): Inalienable possession ''dhoku dothor'' (the man's head)<br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS): Using something; "with someone", replaces "and" as Latin [[wikt:-que|-que]]; in antipassive constructions<br />
*Lative (LAT): Movement to; with adpositions<br />
*Locative-temporal (LOC-TEMP): Place; time; with adpositions<br />
*Ablative (ABL): Movement from (+delative); causal<br />
*Vocative (VOC): addressing (people, gods); interjections ''Alæ!'' (Hello! lit. "Day!")<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Genders and desinences'''<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" style="width: 100px"| <br />
!colspan="3"| Abstract <br />
!colspan="6"| Animate <br />
!colspan="3"| Inanimate<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''A'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''i'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''F'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''N'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''u'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"|''P'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''l''<br />
|-<br />
|<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>|| ||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 100px"| Absolutive<br />
| A || Asl || i || F || (o)lF || N || Ning || u || ush || P || Pl || l<br />
|- <br />
! style=""| Ergative <br />
| AA || AslA || ii || Fee || Fele || Nee || Neng || uu || uushu || Pee || Ple || le<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Dative <br />
| Ak || Akl || ik || Fi || Fil || Ni || Nil || (u)ji || (u)wi || Pei || Plei || lei<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Possessive <br />
| An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Instrumental-comitative <br />
| Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Lative <br />
| AgA || AglA || iki || Fko || Fklo || Nong || Nongo || ugu || uglu || Póo || Plóo || lo <br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Locative-temporal <br />
| AkhA || AlkhA || ikhi || Fku || Fklu || Nung || Nungu || ukhu || ulkhu || Pu || Plu || lu<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Ablative <br />
| ApA || AplA || ipi || Fp(o) || Fpl(o) || Nop || Nopl || upu || uplu || PPo || PPol || lp<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Vocative <br />
| Ae || Asl || ii || Fé || lFé || Né || Nin || -wé || -wésh || Pé || Plé || lé<br />
|}<br />
*''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø''<br />
**Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø<br />
*''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts, tsl'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. <br />
*''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng''<br />
*''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q''<br />
**POS ''q''→''ng''<br />
**INS ending Ph marks breathy voice and may turn the plosive into corresponding fricative /ɸ, θ, x, χ/ if followed by a plosive.<br />
*- indicates that the original ending is replaced with the following: ''tup → tu'''m''''' (stick → stick's)<br />
<br />
====Possessive==== <br />
<br />
Different possessive forms and interpretations: <br />
*''Dativus possessivus'' (alienable): ''gat doth'''i''''' "the house which the man has temporarily settled in, i.e. rented"<br />
*Comitative case with alienable possessive suffix: ''doth gat''h'''''os''''' "man with his house which he has purchased"<br />
**Inalienable possessive suffix alters the meaning: ''doth gat''h'''''ozh''''' "man and his birthplace"<br />
*Possessive case (almost inalienable): ''gat doth'''or''''' "the house which was inherited and is now owned by the man". <br />
<br />
The noun in possessive case is not inflected further. With dative case, inflection may be utilized in order to distinguish the ''dativus possessivus'' from the indirect object or benefactive: ''Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli.'' "The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them." (Related to the feather ceremony when welcoming upper class members to a household.)<br />
<br />
'''Possessive affixes''', as shown in examples above, draw a distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: ''Óntesoson dothee gat'''s'''/vakuh'''oz'''.'' (A man is watching his house/ his own hand.) With the basic suffixes, the root is inflected first and then suffixed.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ Possessional suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!Person<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! ALIEN !! INAL !! ALIEN !! INAL <br />
|-<br />
!1st <br />
| (a)ń || (a)nga || (ó)m || (ó)ngó <br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
| (o)f || (ø)fo || (e)v || (ø)vø<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
| (o)s || (o)zh || (o)sl || (o)zhol<br />
|}<br />
*Irregular: Only VOC+possessive with 1SG: ''Pos'''n'''é!'' (My servant!), ''Polsmé!'' (Our servants!)<br />
<br />
'''2nd person polite suffixes''' are added to absolutive base and the endings are then declined according to abstract gender: <br />
*Singular: (a)tha, (a)tazha <br />
*Plural: (a)dhó, (a)dózhó <br />
*Example: ''gat'''atha'''pa'' (from Your house)<br />
<br />
See [[Sceptrian#Adverbial_clauses|adverbial clauses]] which utilize some possessive suffixes with [[Sceptrian#Non-finite_forms|non-finite verb forms]].<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
<br />
Adpositions are used with inflected nouns to add information about its location or relation to other nouns. Some Sceptrian adpositions can be used as stand-alone adverbs which may be conjugated according to noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====Prepositions====<br />
<br />
Prepositions are used with lative (to, towards), locative (at, near) and ablative (from) cases to alter the meaning.<br />
*''voi'' (in) forms illative, inessive, elative <br />
*''loi'' (out) for "out of", "outside" and "from outside"<br />
*''soi'' (on) to emphasize the surface aspect <br />
*''oist(i)'' (under) for movement under something<br />
*''roi'' (above) similarly to ''oist''<br />
*''boi'' (down) for "down (a surface / to)", "down in (somewhere)" and "from down"; as an adverb as well <br />
*''zoi'' (up) used like ''boi''<br />
*''moi'' (touching, around) with lative for terminative, locative for pertingent and ablative for initiative<br />
*''oil(i)'' (as) forms translative, essive, exessive<br />
*''koi'' (per) distribution: "for each", "every" (temporal), "from each"<br />
*''jon'' (... between) <br />
*''poi'' (... the middle of, among)<br />
*''tsoi'' (... front of; preceding) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = before<br />
*''hoi'' (... behind; following) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = after<br />
*''mots(i)'' (... on side)<br />
**combined with postpositional ''dei'' (right) or ''lai'' (left)<br />
**with time nouns in locative = ago<br />
<br />
====Postpositions====<br />
<br />
Postpositions appear with various cases and often come in groups.<br />
*''pón'' (through) with lative<br />
*''phó'' (along) with lative<br />
*''pló'' (opposite to, across) with locative<br />
*''sós'' (with) with comitative to express a greater degree of endowment (ornative); with ablative to indicate "without"; with lative for "in addition to"<br />
*''óp'' (about, concerning) with genitive; with ablative for "according to"<br />
*''ól'' (like) with genitive; as an adverb "similarly"<br />
*''jak'' (away, despite) with ablative; as an adverb as well<br />
*''mai'' (excluding) with ablative<br />
*''mak'' (except) with ablative<br />
*''mats'' (instead of) with ablative<br />
*''sai'' (including) with comitative<br />
*''sak'' (concerning, regarding) with comitative; with ablative to emphasize the causal aspect (due to, because of, thanks to)<br />
*''phe'' (for the sake of) with lative<br />
<br />
====Pronominal====<br />
<br />
When used with pronouns, separate adpositions only come with dative forms to indicate lative. Otherwise adpositions take possessive suffixes, inalienable for locative and alienable for ablative: ''voi nai'' (into me), ''voinga'' (inside me), ''voiń'' (from inside me)<br />
<br />
Of the polite possessive suffixes, alienable is added onto the adposition and then the entire compound is conjugated for lative, locative or ablative: ''voitha'' (in You; attributive), ''voithaga'' (into You), ''voithakha'' (inside You; predicative), ''voithapa'' (from inside You)<br />
<br />
===Derivational Morphology===<br />
<br />
Verbs and adjectives are derived from nouns by adding suffixes and in some cases prefixes as well.<br />
<br />
====Noun====<br />
<br />
Many nouns share same origins and these endings are the most common forms of derivation:<br />
*Suffixing verbs with once established ending vowels or consonant appropriate for the noun class. <br />
*place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix<br />
*collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish)<br />
**Archaic forms also add the prefix ''kl'' <br />
*being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy")<br />
**doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer)<br />
**experiencer, patient: ABS with ''(k)ois'' or ''(k)oit'' depending on animacy: ''kepois'' (person being washed)<br />
**origin: ABL with ''(o)su'': ''ukopposu'' (person from north)<br />
**characteristic (from abstract quality): INS with final duplicated vowel and ''tu'': ''luwishitu'' (beauty)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)n'' (AN) or ''(o)l'' (INAN): ''koson'' (wood), ''qotol'' (stone)<br />
*diminutive: reduplication of final sound with ''t'' between vowels and ''i'' between consonants: ''kosis'' (small tree)<br />
*augmentative: reduplication of final sound with ''g'' between vowels and ''a'' between consonants: ''kosas'' (great tree)<br />
**apotheosis: augmentative with ''a''-ending: ''kosonana'' (godwood)<br />
*abstract quality, feature: ABS suffixed with ''(k)oti'': ''dothoti'' (manliness)<br />
*'''gerund''' (act of doing): via derivated [[Sceptrian#Verb|verb]] suffixed with ''(o)pi'': ''glerkurpi'' (mace-battering)<br />
<br />
====Adjective====<br />
<br />
Different cases and affixes are used for the derivation:<br />
*similarity, having something: ''dh'' suffix to abstract gender and animate ''u''-ending; voicing of fricatives (''h→qh'', no change with affricates); nasals [[Sceptrian#Consonant_form|"lateralized"]] + ''o''; voicing of plosives + ''o'' (''q→g''); l-declension as in INS-COM: ''evadh'' (bright), ''dodh'' (masculine)<br />
**full of, having something: previous suffixed with ''ol'': ''mel muvol'' (waters full of fish)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)p'': ''kosonop'' (wooden)<br />
*origin, relation: ABL form with a final ''ó'' added or replacing the original ending vowel: ''kusupó'' (friendly)<br />
*absence, without: ''ti'' suffixed to VOC form: ''evæti'' (lightless=dark)<br />
*doing: ''on'' added after INS case: ''kephon'' (washing)<br />
*who did: INS with ''ompu'': ''kephompu'' (who washed = ''pessyt'' in Finnish)<br />
*done by: INS with ''empo'' and possibly inalienable possessive suffix: ''kephemponga'' (washed by me)<br />
*not done: LAT suffixed with ''tip'': ''kepóotip'' (unwashed)<br />
*experiencing: LAT suffixed with ''p'': kepóop (being washed)<br />
*result (wanted): LAT suffixed with ''pi'': ''kepóopi'' (washed=clean)<br />
**if unwanted: LAT suffixed with ''pot'': ''vangostóopot'' (drunk)<br />
*possible: POS with ''ta'': ''kenta'' (washable)<br />
*requiring: LOC with ''rt'': ''kepurt'' (needs to be washed)<br />
*opposite, negation: VOC with ''tot''<br />
<br />
Notice that plural forms of adjectives may be derived from plural nouns: ''dolth kep'''s'''on'' (men who are washing)<br />
<br />
====Verb====<br />
<br />
A declined core noun receives an ending which describes how the verb reflects the noun:<br />
*In some cases, the vowel ending of nouns may simply be removed or the absolutive of a consonant-ending noun may also serve as a verb.<br />
*ABS = "happens, is": ''kep'' (is washed)<br />
*COM = "using": ''tuph'' (is poked with a stick), ''glerkh'' (is hit with a mace)<br />
*POS + ''k'' = "similarity": ''melonk'' (is wet)<br />
*DAT + ''k'' = "making/becoming" (no ''k'' with Abstract): ''zurmu'' → ''zurmjik'' (strong person → is strengthened), ''zurp'' → ''zurpeik'' (strong, durable object → hardens) & ''zurma'' → ''zurmak'' (strength → intensifies)<br />
*LAT + ''t'' = "movement, quasi-inceptive": ''glerkóot'' (swings a mace, INTR), ''melot'' (flows), ''latepóot'' (is persuaded to dance, INTR; begins a dance with, TR), ''lehkot'' (runs) <br />
*LOC + ''r'' = "frequentative": ''glerkur'' (is battered with a mace), ''melur'' (rains; drips)<br />
*VOC + ''k'' = "momentane": ''glerkék'' (is hit once with a mace), ''melék'' (splashes once)<br />
*POS + ''(o)v'' = "consider, feel": ''vongv'' (is considered strange = ''oudoksutaan'' in Finnish)<br />
* Several endings can be stacked on verbs without turning it into a noun in between: ''melurék'' (shower of rain falls), ''tup(o)hkur'' (is often poked with a stick). When deriving, the ''r''-ending are declined according to the ''l''-paradigm.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Sceptrian agree with the gender, number and cases of their head. When an adjective is used as a predicative, it comes before its head, but when as an attributive, it comes after. Adjective declension follows approximately the same rules as [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun declension]]. In the common ''dh''-ending F-declension, ''o'' is added between ''dh'' and case-endings with consonants. Changes in both casual and poetic speech include mirroring onset into coda: ''dothklu jadaadh'''ulk''''' (near nice men)<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+DH-declension<br />
! !! ABS !! ERG !! DAT !! POS !! INS !! LAT !! LOC !! ABL !! VOC<br />
|-<br />
!SG<br />
|dh || dhee || dhi || dhor || dhos || dh'''ok''' || dh'''uk''' || dh'''op''' || dhé<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
| ldh(o) || dhele || dhil || dhoŕ || dhosh || dh'''olk''' || dh'''ulk''' || dh'''olp''' || ldhé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Sceptrian#Apophony|Apophony]] in the stressed syllable is used to indicate the gender: base for inanimate, first apophony with animate and second with abstract gender: ''eja jadædh, doth jadaadh, latep jadadh'' <br />
<br />
Polite adjectives are formed from the abstract form with predicative prefix ''nga'' and attributive suffix ''æ'': ''ngaluwidh Nith'' (You are beautiful), ''shosleetha luwidhæ'' (a beautiful knight)<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
<br />
'''Positive''' of an adjective is the base form.<br />
*When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.)<br />
*Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle.<br />
*When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii faaldh dolth lutush.'' (As many men as women.) <br />
<br />
'''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). <br />
*Manner quatifiers ''orkai, jofai'' and ''zei'' can be used to indicate the degree: ''luwidhé orkai'' (much more beautiful), ''luwidhé jofai'' (slightly more beautiful), ''luwidhé zei'' (not more beautiful)<br />
*When comparing two nouns adjective comes first (predicative comparative), the standard acquires the dative case, and comparative forms agree with their head in gender and number: ''luwildhé po swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*Pronoun comparison is also possible to construct with alienable possessional suffixes: ''luwildhév swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*When adjective comparative is not included, postpositional ''fadhé'' (more) or ''føødhi'' (less) can be used with noun plurals: ''dolth faldhé lutwi'' (more men than women)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative''' is similar to noun apotheosis: the ending is reduplicated with ''é'' between consonants and ''j'' between vowels, and an ''a'' added to the end: ''luwidhédha'' (most beautiful). Similarly to comparative, ''ti'' gives the meaning of "least": ''luwidhédhati'' (least beautiful).<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly)<br />
<br />
Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh òomidhé'' (very beautiful < "largely")<br />
<br />
'''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative adverb''' is similar to adjective superlative in its reduplication but with an ''æ''-ending: ''zaivie jadædhédhæ'' (you sing most pleasantly)<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Missing verbs: <br />
*"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man)<br />
**Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith)<br />
**Showing tense:<br />
***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past)<br />
***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective<br />
***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense<br />
***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" <br />
* "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man")<br />
<br />
====Conjugation====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, primary conjugation of verbs indicates person, number and tense-aspect, and it includes affixation and apophony. Conjugation for different [[Sceptrian#Mood|moods]] is slightly more complex.<br />
<br />
=====Root=====<br />
<br />
Verbs are given in their 3SG.INAN GNO form which is used to form all of the third person forms. With first and second person subjects, the first apophony is used in indicative inceptive and future. Polite second person forms use the second apophony<br />
<br />
=====Affixes=====<br />
<br />
Fusional conjugation affixes convey the person, number, tense and aspect (and honorific). Subject and object suffixes are almost always used with verbs, the antipassive being the only exception. Agent prefixes aren't often used in the casual register, mostly to form the [[Sceptrian#Reflexive|reflexive]], but they have to be used in the formal register. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense <br />
!Aspect<br />
!1SG<br />
!1PL<br />
!2SG<br />
!2PL<br />
!2SG.POL<br />
!2PL.POL<br />
!3SG.A<br />
!3PL.A<br />
!3SG.INAN<br />
!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a<br />
| ha<br />
| e<br />
| he<br />
| ahi<br />
| aqhi<br />
| ó<br />
| hó<br />
| (o)<br />
| l<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an<br />
| han<br />
| en<br />
| hen<br />
| ang<br />
| aing<br />
| ón<br />
| hón<br />
| on <br />
| lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| ast<br />
| last<br />
| est<br />
| lest<br />
| æst<br />
| hæst<br />
| ós<br />
| lós<br />
| os<br />
| osl<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| ajin<br />
| hajin<br />
| ejin<br />
| hejin<br />
| azing<br />
| izing<br />
| ójin<br />
| hójin<br />
| oin<br />
| loin<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai<br />
| hai<br />
| ei<br />
| hei<br />
| athi<br />
| idhi<br />
| óji<br />
| hóji<br />
| oi<br />
| loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| har<br />
| +har<br />
| her<br />
| +her<br />
| athar<br />
| idhar<br />
| hór<br />
| +hór<br />
| ho<br />
| +ho<br />
|}<br />
* initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive<br />
* initial ''h'' is for aspiration of the final plosive or simply ''h'' after a vowel<br />
**if the final plosive is already breathy, ''o'' is added after it<br />
*+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration<br />
**simple ''h'' becomes ''qh''<br />
*Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense <br />
!Aspect<br />
!1SG<br />
!1PL<br />
!2SG<br />
!2PL<br />
!2SG.POL<br />
!2PL.POL<br />
!3SG.A<br />
!3PL.A<br />
!3SG.INAN<br />
!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a<br />
| sa<br />
| e<br />
| se<br />
| æ<br />
| hæ<br />
| ó<br />
| só<br />
| o<br />
| lo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an<br />
| san<br />
| en<br />
| sen<br />
| nga<br />
| ngai<br />
| ón<br />
| són<br />
| on <br />
| lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| tsa<br />
| tsla<br />
| tse<br />
| tsle<br />
| tsæ<br />
| tshæ<br />
| tsó<br />
| tsló<br />
| so<br />
| slo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| jan<br />
| zhan<br />
| jen<br />
| zhen<br />
| izæ<br />
| izhæ<br />
| jón<br />
| zhón<br />
| i<br />
| li<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai<br />
| sai<br />
| ei<br />
| sei<br />
| thæ<br />
| dhæ<br />
| jó<br />
| zhó<br />
| oi<br />
| loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| ar<br />
| sar<br />
| er<br />
| ser<br />
| thar<br />
| dhar<br />
| ór<br />
| sór<br />
| or<br />
| lor<br />
|}<br />
*Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.)<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ónbouson dothee pof.'' (A man (ERG) is lifting a feather (ABS).), ''Bousón doth.'' (The man falls.) ''Bouson pof.'' (The feather (ABS) falls.).<br />
<br />
====Tense====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, verbs are conjugated for three tenses: past, present and future. These tenses describe when an action took place relative to current moment as their names indicate. <br />
<br />
====Aspect====<br />
<br />
Gnomic-static aspect is used to indicate general truths ''Zaitó Hala.'' (sun rises) and static situations ''Mépa lusha.'' (I can speak Sceptrian). It can be used with expressions of time to specify when something was static ''Petsipha kas arakha.'' (dress-STAT.1SG this.COM yesterday.TEMP "I was dressed in these clothes yesterday (as well).")<br />
<br />
Present progressive describes dynamic actions ''Anbaplóph lusha kha.'' (I'm reading Sceptrian at the moment). Present inceptive is used when an action is about to begin or someone is starting to do something.<br />
*Inceptive is only used once: Subject inceptive with intransitive and mostly agent inceptive with translative verbs. Object ending is either PRES.PROG, when something was begun only a moment ago, or FUT, when something is about to begin.<br />
**Translative object inceptive if the object caused the initialization: ''Órlateepast.'' (He is about to take me to dancing through my initiative.)<br />
<br />
Past imperfective is used with continuous activities which were happening before the present. The contrasting perfective aspect describes the event as a whole and having an endpoint in the past.<br />
<br />
In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used.<br />
<br />
Endings with different tenses may be mixed:<br />
*PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) <br />
*PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while))<br />
<br />
====Mood====<br />
<br />
Moods express speaker's attitude towards the subject or their knowledge of it. They are divided into realis and irrealis moods: the former expresses factual statements while the latter indicates that an event hasn't taken place or the speaker is uncertain of a situation.<br />
<br />
=====Realis=====<br />
<br />
'''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well)<br />
<br />
'''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.)<br />
<br />
=====Irrealis=====<br />
<br />
'''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?)<br />
<br />
'''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) <br />
*The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!)<br />
<br />
'''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original second syllable: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: '''''la'''latép'' (may dance), '''''ak'''aktæsos'' (may hear), ''rorøt'' (may go)<br />
*The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject.<br />
*The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished<br />
<br />
=====Particles=====<br />
<br />
Particles are placed after a verb to alter or to specify its meaning.<br />
<br />
Realis<br />
*''pai'' mirative (with soft imperative in present): ''Rótóji pai!'' (He went!?)<br />
**with adjectives or as an adverb: ''Luwi pai!'' (How beautiful!) <br />
<br />
Evidentials (with causatives)<br />
*''atasi'' hearsay: ''Rotóji tasi fope.'' (I heard from you that he went.)<br />
*''tesei'' visual: ''Rótoutóji tesei nape.'' (I didn't see him go.)<br />
<br />
Irrealis<br />
*''norka'' dubitative (with subjunctive): ''Rorøtóji norka.'' (I doubt he went.)<br />
*''gana'' volitive (with future subjunctive): ''Lalatépar gana.'' (I wish I could dance.)<br />
<br />
Conditional (with subjunctive)<br />
*''ta'' apodosis: ''Arziizeither ta'' (I will raise you...)<br />
*''-ti-'' infixed between reduplicated form for protasis: ''boutiboisen'' (if you fall)<br />
<br />
Hortatives (with soft imperative which itself works as an adhortative or dehortative with negation (unwillingness))<br />
*Cohortative: ''Latéprlast kha!'' (Let's dance now!), ''Rótrlastonget khugu.'' (Let's not go there.)<br />
*''jokæ'' exhortative (inhortative through negation): ''Rótrest jokæ.'' (You really should go.)<br />
<br />
'''Formal''' register differences:<br />
*''aktasosai'' (hears) conjugated for hearsay: ''Røtathi aiaktasosóji.'' (I heard from her that you left.)<br />
*''tesos'' (sees) conjugated for visual evidentiality: ''Rotóji tesosai.'' (I saw her go.)<br />
*''tsmaadhoré'' (doubtfully) used for dubitative<br />
*''tutaadhoré'' (wishfully) used for volitive<br />
*''alké'' permissive with dative: ''Rótest alké foki.'' (You may leave.)<br />
**prohibitive with negated (inability) imperative infinitive: ''Rótrostodi alké foki.'' (You aren't allowed to leave.)<br />
*both conditional particles are used separately and they are prefixed with the subjunctive reduplication: ''Arziizeither zaita bouboisen bouti.'' (I will raise you if you fall.)<br />
<br />
'''In literature''' to express the peaking pitch of ironical statements and lowered pitch of sarcastic expressions:<br />
*''jø'' verbal irony: ''Jótesosoi melurpi, jóbatophoi "Luwidh jø hi loi khu".'' (He saw the rain and said: "''Beautiful'' day out there")<br />
*''gæ'' sarcasm: ''Uu, eiluwikoi gæ pai.'' (Oh, ''how beautiful'' you made it.)<br />
<br />
====Negation====<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Negation affixes<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Manner→<br />
! Inability<br />
!colspan="6"| Unwillingness<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Form→<br />
!2nd apophony +infix<br>(before patient-suffix)<br />
!colspan="3"|Intranslative<br>suffix<br />
!colspan="3"|Translative<br>infix (after agent-prefix)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Person→<br />
!All<br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!SG<br />
|ost<br />
|net<br />
|fep<br />
|set<br />
|no<br />
|fo<br />
|so<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|osht<br />
|nget<br />
|vep<br />
|slet<br />
|ngo<br />
|flo<br />
|slo<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|PST<br />
|out<br />
|colspan="3"|nait<br />
|colspan="3"|me<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|FUT<br />
|oz<br />
|colspan="3"|nort<br />
|colspan="3"|mor<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse'''fó'''lateephar?'' (You don't want to begin dancing with me?)<br />
<br />
'''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.)<br />
<br />
Second apophony of negation affixes with subjunctive mood: ''Rorøthórn'''ø'''rt.'' (He may not be willing to go.)<br />
<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
<br />
=====Gerund=====<br />
*Base nouns or their abstract variants may serve as gerunds, which describe the action of doing, but otherwise they are created with the suffix ''(o)pi'' added to a verb root. The suffic also helps to distinguish the forms.<br />
<br />
=====Infinitives=====<br />
*PRES ''-odi'', PST ''-oudi'', FUT ''ordi''<br />
*used with modal verbs<br />
*subjunctive form created with duplication<br />
<br />
=====Participles=====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian participles work as adjectives. Following table shows which "case" and suffix the verb base (or gerund in formal register) takes.<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Present participle suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!IPFV<br />
!PFV<br />
|-<br />
!Patientive (LAT)<br />
|''p''<br />
|''pi/pot''<br />
|-<br />
!Negative (LAT)<br />
|<br />
|''tip''<br />
|-<br />
!Active (INS)<br />
|rowspan="2"|''on''<br />
|''ompu''<br />
|-<br />
!Agentive (INS)<br />
|''empo''<br />
|}<br />
*Also the "requiring" (FUT) form LOC+''rt'' and "possible" (GNO) POS+''ta'' <br />
*Past forms are created by adding ''i'' to the end: ''kephoni'' (was being washed)<br />
*Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed)<br />
*Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]]<br />
<br />
Relative form with word-order and prefix? + formal register particle<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, auxiliary verbs are conjugated only for subject which may act as the agent of the clause. The verbs can either precede (dynamic, deontic) or come after (epistemic) different verb infinitives. Since regular object-patient conjugation can't be used, objects have to be written (no pro-drop) and they are declined into instrumental-comitative case.<br />
*''tut'' "want" (from ''tuta'' "craving, wish"): ''Tutajin kepoudi his.'' (I wanted to wash it.)<br />
**infinitive in lative case for "want something to be done": ''Tutan kepordiki his.'' (I want it to be washed.)<br />
**"be going to" (FUT): ''Tuutar latepordi.'' (I'm going to dance.)<br />
**"wish" (SBJV) mostly as the subjunctive of the absent ''to be''-verb: ''Tutitan khau fos.'' (I wish you were here) <br />
*''mép'' "can, know how to" (dynamic) (from ''mépi'' "skill"): ''Mépa latepodi'' ("I can dance"; notice gnomic-static mood)<br />
*''kuut'' "can, may" (deontic / epistemic) (from ''kuutó'' "possibility"): ''Kuutest rotordi.'' (You may leave.), ''Fendógópot kuutó pai.'' (He may unexpectedly be dead.)<br />
**particle ''nor'' added after the verb for lower possibility i.e. "could, might": ''Fendógópi kuut nor.'' (It might be dead.)<br />
**particle ''ga'' added for "should, must": ''Fendógópi kuut ga.'' (It should be dead, as we wanted.)<br />
*''khet'' "must" (deontic) (from ''kheti'' "necessity"): ''Khetan rotodi.'' (I must go now), ''Kheetar rotordi.'' (I must go soon)<br />
*''khurd'' "dare" (from ''khurdi'' "daring"): ''¿Khurde glerkékodi nas?'' (Do you dare hit me with a mace?)<br />
<br />
Mixing tenses: <br />
*''Tutitai latepordi.'' SBJV.want-PST.PFV.1SG dance-INF.FUT "I would've wanted to dance"<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian distinguishes between two voices, active and antipassive. Passive is very similar to active since Sceptrian is absolutive-ergative, and thus isn't considered a true change in voice. Antipassive is used to reduce the valency of the verbs by removing the object of a transitive clause.<br />
<br />
Active construction: verb-agent-object and verb-object-agent are used so that a comment (rheme) precedes the topic (theme). [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|Emphasizing clitics]] are used to mark the topic. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Ónzaiton dothee pof.<br />
|IPA = /ɔ̃zaɪ̯tə̃ dəθe: pəf/<br />
| morphemes = ón-zait-on doth-ee pof-Ø<br />
| gloss = 3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV man-ERG feather-ABS<br />
| translation = A man is lifting a feather.<br />
}} <br />
<br />
Passive construction: To demote the agent (ERG), it's either removed or inflected into causal ablative (ABL). Verb is only conjugated for the object.<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Zaiton pof (dothpo).<br />
|IPA = /zaɪ̯tə̃ pəf (dəθpə)/<br />
| morphemes = zait-on pof-Ø (doth-po)<br />
| gloss = lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV feather-ABS (man-ABL)<br />
| translation = A feather is being lifted (by a man).<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Antipassive''' construction: Agent (ERG) transforms into subject (ABS) and object (ABS) takes the instrumental-comitative (INS) case. Word order becomes SV(O), and the verb is conjugated according to the agent only and the stressed syllable undergoes second [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]]. The verb is also suffixed with the emphasizing clitic ''ma'' in the formal register. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Doth ónzeit(ma) (pofos).<br />
|IPA = /dəθ ɔ̃zei̯t(mä) (pəfəs)/<br />
| morphemes = doth-Ø ón-zeit-Ø(or =ma) (pof-os)<br />
| gloss = man-ABS ANTIP\3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-ANTIP(or =ANTIP.FORM) (feather-INS)<br />
| translation = The man is lifting (a feather). <br />
}}<br />
<br />
Instrument and turning it into an agent:<br />
* ''Ónzaiton dothee pof vakuhosozh.'' (...with his own hand...)<br />
**''Ónzaiton pof vakuhp dothir.'' (the feather is raised by the man's hand)<br />
**''Onzaiton pof tuph dothi'''sh''' slokli.'' (The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them.) Inanimate agent conjugation, and dative of possession is inflected to avoid misinterpretation!<br />
* ''Vakuh ónzeit pofos.'' (The hand lifts something, which happens to be a feather)/(someone intentionally lifts a feather with their hand) Notice animate conjugation!<br />
**''Tup onzeit dothpo pofos.'' (The stick, which is being held by a man, lifts something, which happens to be a feather) ABL as causative since inanimate ''tup''.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
Decimal base was adopted due to commerce, but traces of the former octal base remain. <br />
<br />
Numerals are placed before their head. Last part of a cardinal determiner agrees with case through matching declension: ''op'''l''' tupl'' (two sticks)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Numeral system<br />
|-<br />
! Number <br />
! Number !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional !! Multiplicative adverb !! Multiplicative adjective !! Group !! Polygon<br />
|-<br />
!Zero<br />
| ozi || oz || ozhi || - || zeng (never) || - || ze (no) || -<br />
|-<br />
!One<br />
| ipi || ip || iphi || liku (whole) || ohu (once) || ipitse (onefold) || ipisi (singular) || ipirt (dot) <br />
|-<br />
!Two <br />
| opi || op || ophi || lopu (half) || ophu (twice) || opitse (twofold) || opisi (pair) || opart (line)<br />
|-<br />
!Three<br />
| oki || ok || okhi || loku || okhu || okitse || okisi || okart (triangle)<br />
|-<br />
!Four<br />
| óppi || óp || óphi || lóppu || óphu || óphitse || óphisi || ópart <br />
|-<br />
!Five<br />
| ofi || of || offi || lofu || offu || ofitse || ofisi || ofart<br />
|-<br />
!Six<br />
| ókki || ók || ókhi || lókku || ókhu || ókhitse || ókhisi || ókart<br />
|-<br />
!Seven<br />
| omi || om || ongi || lomu || ongu || omitse || omisi || omart<br />
|-<br />
!Eight<br />
| ngovi || ngov || ngovvi || longovu || ngovvu || ngovitse || ngovisi || jart<br />
|-<br />
!Nine<br />
| ngoipi || ngoip || ngoiphi || longoipu || ngoiphu || ngoipitse || ngoipisi || ngoipart<br />
|-<br />
!Ten<br />
| jopi || jop || jophi || lojopu || jophu || jopitse || jopisi || jopart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!Eleven<br />
!Twelve<br />
!Thirteen<br />
!Fourteen<br />
!Fifteen<br />
!Sixteen<br />
!Seventeen<br />
!Eighteen<br />
!Nineteen<br />
!Twenty<br />
|-<br />
| ngoki <br />
| ngópi <br />
| ngofi<br />
| ngóki<br />
| ngomi <br />
| ophungovi <br />
| jopomi<br />
| jopingovi<br />
| jopingoipi<br />
| ophujopi<br />
|-<br />
!Twenty-one<br />
!Thirty<br />
!Fourty<br />
!Fifty<br />
!Sixty<br />
!Sixty-four<br />
!Sixty-five<br />
!Seventy<br />
!Eighty<br />
!Ninety<br />
|-<br />
| ophujopipi <br />
| okhujopi<br />
| offungovi <br />
| offujopi <br />
|ókhujopi<br />
| mouti<br />
| moutipi<br />
|ongujopi<br />
|ngowopi<br />
|ngoiphujopi<br />
|-<br />
!One hundred<br />
!One hundred<br/>and twenty-two<br />
!One hundred<br/>and sixty-six<br />
!Two hundred<br />
!Thousand<br />
!Three thousand<br/>four hundred<br />
!Ten thousand<br />
!Hundred thousand<br />
!Million<br />
!Billion<br />
|-<br />
| toti <br />
|toti(s)<br>ophujopopi<br />
|toti(s)<br>moutókki<br />
|ophutoti<br />
| mopi<br />
|okhumopi(s)<br>óphutoti<br />
|tothutoti<br />
|tothumopi<br />
|hamisi<br />
|mowisi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Multiplicative adverb form is used in front of the powers of ten (tens, hundreds, ...)<br />
*Digits are annexed into the tens by using the cardinal or determiner form depending whether the digit begins with a vowel or not.<br />
*Fractions are constructed by placing the ''l(o)''-prefixed form after the multiplicative number: ''okhu lóppu'' ("thrice one quarter" = three quarters). The noun is in ablative case and only the fraction is inflected: ''lopu'''ji''' tuppo'' (for one half of a stick)<br />
*Large numbers (from hundred) are written separately from smaller, but in formal register ''s''-letter is added between each power of ten.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
*VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive<br />
* possessives follow nouns<br />
* predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns<br />
<br />
===Emphasizing clitics===<br />
<br />
Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton dothee'''noh''' pof.'' (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. ''Ónzaiton dothee pof'''ma'''.'' (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used with verbs in antipassive constructions.<br />
<br />
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) <br />
<br />
The suffixes are also used with alienable possessive forms to separate the possessor from indirect objects. Chosen depending on the ergativity of the possessum: ''Jóvakuhoi suu pof swi'''ma''' swi.'' (He gave her feather to him.)<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
<br />
====Independent====<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Conjunction====<br />
<br />
coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?)<br />
<br />
====Noun clauses====<br />
<br />
WIP ... to be redone<br />
*Infinitive.tense + ... + causatives: ''Tesosan kepó vakuhos supe.'' (I see that he washes his hands) vs. ''Onluvakan kep'''óo''' vakuhos supe.'' (The washing of his hands brings me pleasure.)<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
<br />
Nominalizing relative clauses with participles is common.<br />
<br />
Using [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|an emphasizing clitic]] to mark the antecedent for the class-appropriate proximal demonstrative pronoun (thaka/saitu/ka declined for number) which works as a relative pronoun - case chosen according to the embedded clause: <br />
*''Rotóji dothma saituh latepai.'' (leave-PST.PFV.3SG man.ABS-EMPH.ABS P.PROX.AN-COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The man, with whom I danced, left.") <br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahul dothelenos saitush latepai.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS man-PL.ERG-EMPH.ERG P.PROX.AN-PL.COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The men with whom I danced are starting to drink beer.")<br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahulma dothele ka tutitai vangosordi.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS-EMPH.ABS man-PL.ERG P.PROX.INAN SBJV-want-PST.PFV.1SG drink-INF.FUT "Men are starting to drink the beer which I would've wanted to drink."<br />
<br />
====Adverbial clauses====<br />
<br />
non-finite forms + possessive suffixes to indicate subject<br />
<br />
====Conditional clauses====<br />
<br />
subjunctive as explained in verb particle section<br />
<br />
====Indirect speech====<br />
<br />
==Register==<br />
<br />
Different endings which reflect the conversation situation: speakers, familiarity, formality, location... <br />
<br />
===Intimate===<br />
<br />
Agent prefixes aren't used. No ''t'' in inceptive. Due to apophony, subject suffix can be dropped from FUT/INCEP if 1st or 2nd person distinction is clear.<br />
<br />
===Casual===<br />
<br />
In casual register, verb forms are chosen differently when the subject is agent-like (he dances) or patient-like (he fell): ''latepóji'' (he danced AN) vs. ''bousoi'' (he fell INAN)<br />
<br />
===Formal===<br />
<br />
Mandatory use of pronouns and agent prefixes.<br />
<br />
One may use inanimate verb forms as anti-honorific? ''Ondakon næ ka Nithki.'' (I humbly offer this to You)<br />
<br />
Apophony of basic prepositions with root ''oi'': ''Oisti Hala, óosti vakuhanga, ousti qorel'' (under the Sun, under my hand, under the earth)<br />
<br />
In formal register, it is preferred to use only animate nouns as agents while abstract and inanimate are as antipassive subjects: ''luwi... nas'' ("beauty-of.yours it-un-eye-ful-makes me-with", your beauty makes me blind) vs. ''en fø na'' (you are making me blind)<br />
<br />
Distinction between abstract and animate in some categories, such as verb conjugation (''wa'')<br />
<br />
Can people with higher status be abstract or do they occupy a special animate category? (æ inside?)<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
See the [[Sceptrian/Dictionary|dictionary page]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian&diff=35649Sceptrian2015-07-07T21:38:08Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Noun */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Construction}}<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Sceptrian<br />
|nativename = [[File:Lusha_name.png|300px]]<br>''Batop Lushan''<br />
|pronunciation = [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ]<br />
|region = Western Central World<br />
|states = Sceptre<br />
|speakers = 29,200,000 <br />
|date = 7th 641<br />
|familycolor = #d3ffce<br />
|fam1 = West-Herookuan<br />
|fam2 = Lutian<br />
|fam3 = Sceptrian branch<br />
|creator=Ahuelni<br />
|setting=Akekata<br />
|dialects = Yerzonian, Mulish, Fanish <br />
|script = Toneka alphabet<br />
|nation = Empire of Sceptre<br />
|minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia<br />
|agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language)<br />
|map = Lusha_regions.jpg<br />
|mapsize = 300<br />
|mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects<br />
}}<br />
{{ClassMeter<br />
|Name = Sceptrian<br />
|NativeName = Batop Lushan<br />
|Type = Fusional<br />
|Alignment = Absolutive-ergative<br />
<br />
|adjective = final<br />
|adposition = mixed<br />
|adverb= final<br />
|article= mixed<br />
|relativeclause = final<br />
|nounclause = final<br />
|order = VSO<br />
<br />
|Tonal = no<br />
|Genders = 3<br />
|Declined = yes<br />
|Conjugated = yes<br />
|Case = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Definiteness = no<br />
|Gender = yes<br />
|Voice = yes<br />
|Mood = yes<br />
|Person = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Tense = yes<br />
|Aspect = yes<br />
|Phonology = 100<br />
|NounCases = 100<br />
|NounDef = 100<br />
|NounNumbers = 100<br />
|NounGender = 100<br />
|VerbPerson = 100<br />
|VerbNumber = 100<br />
|VerbAspect = 90<br />
|VerbTense = 100<br />
|VerbMood = 90<br />
|VerbVoice = 80<br />
|AdjCase = 100<br />
|AdjNumber = 100<br />
|AdjDef = 100<br />
|AdjGen = 100<br />
|AdjComparative = 100<br />
|AdjSuperlative = 100<br />
|Supine = 90<br />
|Gerund = 90<br />
|Participle = 90<br />
|Infinitive = 90<br />
|Modality = 90<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ] or simply ''lusha'') is an ''a priori'' [[w:Artistic_language|artistic language]] created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 29 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking [[Khattish]] and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian and its dialects feature 51 phonetic consonants, some of them with interesting lateral features. The language also has 25 phonetic vowels: twelve short, nine long and four diphthongs. Nasalization, rhotacization and breathy voice are used phonemically. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
If the romanization symbol is the same as in IPA, it is not duplicated. Not bolded romanization indicates that the sound appears as a vernacular or dialectal version.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 830px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px" colspan="2"|<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Uvular<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| [ɱ]<br />
| <br />
| '''n (ń)''' [n]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''t'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''k'''<br />
| '''q'''<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''b'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''d'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''g'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Breathy<br />
| '''ph bh'''<br>[pʰ] [bʱ]<br />
|<br />
|'''th dh'''<br>[tʰ] [dʱ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''kh gh'''<br>[kʰ] [gʱ]<br />
|'''qh'''<br>[qʰ]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| '''pl bl'''<br />[pˡ] [bˡ]<br />
| <br />
| '''tl dl'''<br />[tˡ] [dˡ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''kl gl'''<br/>[kˡ] [gˡ]<br />
| '''ql'''<br/>[qˡ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| ph [ɸ]<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| '''th''' [θ]<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''sh''' [ʃ]<br />
| '''h''' [ç]<br />
| '''kh h''' [x]<br />
| '''qh''' [χ]<br />
| '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''w''' bh [β]<br />
| '''v'''<br />
| '''dh''' [ð]<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| '''zh''' [ʒ]<br />
| <br />
| gh [ɣ]<br />
| <br />
| h [ɦ]<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''sl''' [ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Affricate<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ts''' [t͡s] <br />
| '''tsh''' [t͡ʃ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''tsl''' [t͡ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Approximant<br />
!Non-lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''j'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''l''' [l] [l̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| pr [ʙ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''r (ŕ)''' [r] [r̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The liquids ''r'' and ''l'' can appear as '''syllabic consonants''': ''tlsl'' /tˡl̩ɬ/ (shallow), ''prk'' /pr̩k/ (wagon) and ''trs'' /tr̩s/ (smith)<br />
*Vernacularly, both syllabic and obstruent-following alveolar trill ''r'' and lateral approximant ''l'' are pronounced as voiceless [r̩̊], [r̥], [l̩̊] and [l̥] when in contact with only voiceless consonants: ''trs'' [tr̩̊s] (smith) contrasting with ''trls'' [tr̩s] (while standard /trəls/) (smiths); ''gatl'' [gɑtl̥] (houses) whose pronunciation approaches [gɑtɬ]. <br />
**'''Meslatu Hirke''' made his disputed suggestion in 7:693 that a similar process had led to the birth of ''sl'' as plural indicator, when original plural ''l'' turned first into voiceless and then into ''sl'' after a word-final glottal stop, which has disappeared entirely. <br />
*In eastern dialects, ''pr'' is realized as [ʙ] and ''tr'', ''tsr'' and ''trs'' often as [r̝]. In the dialects, aspirated plosives have been fully spirantized into their fricative counterparts, e.g. [tʰ]>[θ].<br />
*Fricatives show properties of syllabic consonants word-initially and word-finally.<br />
<br />
Nasal [ɱ] only appears as an allophone of nasals with labio-dental sounds /f/ and /v/. Before velar sounds (e.g. /k/) nasals turn similarly into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
Letter ''h'' has four allophones: initial is always [h] despite frontness, [ç] appears elsewhere with front vowels, [x] appears word-finally and [h~ɦ] word-medially with back vowels ''tihtóhnah'' [tiçˈtɔɦ.näx] (assassinator). It's also used after consonants to indicate breathy voice.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 390px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| <br />
| '''u'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-mid<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| o<br/>[ɘ]<br />
| o<br/>[ɤ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
|<br />
| '''o'''<br/>[ə]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''é ø'''<br />[ɛ] [œ]<br />
|<br />
| '''ó'''<br />[ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
|'''æ'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
|'''a'''<br />[ä]<br />
|a<br />[ɑ]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
All the nine main vowel sounds (bolded) have '''long''' versions as separate phonemes.<br />
<br />
Schwa '''''o''''' is used as an epenthetic vowel (anaptyxis). When it is used to break consonant clusters (not indicated in native script) it is the simple schwa /ə/: *dŧ → ''doth'' /dəθ/ (man). When stressed, it is vernacularly realized as [ɘ], and in western dialects more clearly as [ɤ]: *dŧs → ''dothos'' [dəˈθɘˑs]<br />
<br />
Vowel ''a'' is [ɑ] after voiced consonants. Vowel ''æ'' is often more open [a], though, in Western dialects, it has merged with ''é''. <br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, there are only closing diphthongs which go up in the vowel chart:<br />
*Back: ou /ɔʊ̯/<br />
*Front: ai /äɪ̯/, ei /ei̯/, oi /œi̯/<br />
<br />
If the syllable border (glottal stop) is between vowels and they don't form a diphthong, apostrophe is used: ''tai'' (for long) vs. ''ta'i'' (past)<br />
*In native [[Sceptrian#Script|script]], separate graphemes for diphthongs exist and glottal stop is not marked.<br />
<br />
If diphthongs are followed by vowels, they are separated by a glottal stop in formal register. <br />
*In casual speech, ''ouV'' becomes ''owV'' and ''ViV'' ''VjV'': ''oua→ówa'' and ''aia→aja''. If the following vowel is the same, a glottal stop breaks the former diphthong and the ending vowel is lengthened: ''ai'i→a'ii''<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
<br />
===Onset===<br />
<br />
Basic [[w:Syllable#Structure|syllabic structure]] is CV, where the onset (beginning) consonant can be of any type. <br />
*It is possible to use liquids and approximants as '''glides''' (CLV) between the onset and the rime (ending). <br />
*Up to two consonants with same voicing may appear in the onset (CCV), especially fricative-plosive combinations, but never two plosives: ''stak'' (fence), ''fkot'' (nest), ''ksaru'' (guard). Affricate ''ts'' takes may be accompanied only by ''w'', ''j'', ''n'' or ''m'': ''tsma'' (doubt). Combination /sl/ has turned into /ɬ/.<br />
*Lateralization and aspiration may never appear together, and nasalized rhoticization is only found in Fanish dialect.<br />
<br />
===Nucleus=== <br />
<br />
The nucleus can be either a vowel or a liquid, thus CVC and CLC are also possible syllables. <br />
*Vowels (diphthongs included) may exist as a stand-alone nucleic syllable (V), mostly in the beginning or at the end of a word. <br />
*If nucleus is a liquid, plosives appear in codas only word-finally: ''dldlp'' /dˡl̩ˈdˡl̩p/ (bubble)<br />
<br />
===Coda=== <br />
<br />
The coda (final) may consist of up to three consonants with possible structures: N, P, F, L; NP, FP, LP; NF, PF, LF; NPF, FPF, LFP, LPF (Nasal, Plosive, Fricative, Liquid). <br />
*Final liquids appear as syllabic consonants<br />
*Approximants ''j'', ''w'' and plain voiced plosives never appear as coda (final) even though they may be written that way (no written schwa): ''nad'' /nä.də/ (stainy). Voiced fricatives may appear as coda. <br />
*In coda, plosives with lateral release, however, will reflect the voicing of the onset: ''gatl'' [gädˡl̩] (houses) vs. ''katl'' [kätˡl̩] (knobs). Vernacularly, the lateral approximant weakens into a voiceless variant [l̥] when in contact with voiceless consonants: ''gatl'' [gätl̥].<br />
<br />
Closed syllables, i.e. those ending in coda, are not as common word-medially as open syllables (ending in nucleus) are. When words are inflected, parts of codas tend to become onsets of the following syllable, if possible. Especially three-consonant clusters are rare word-medially and receive a schwa after a non-lateral stop: ''kamps'' /kämps/ (marsh) → ''kampsku'' → ''kamposku'' /ˈkäm.pəs.ku/ (at marsh)<br />
*Voicing status must be the same for consonants touching at syllable boundaries and the voiced one reduces into voiceless: ''*katbas''→''katpas'' /kätˈpäs/ (fern) vs. ''oist baku'' /œi̯st<sup>(h)</sup> bä.ku/ (under a table)<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
Primary '''stress''' in a word is most often on the second syllable, and when there are four or five syllables, secondary stress is placed onto the final syllable. When there are more syllables, minor stress is placed on even-numbered syllables. <br />
*If the to-be-stressed syllable contains the schwa ''o'' /ə/ or a syllabic consonant, the preceding syllable is stressed in two-syllable words and the following in words with more than three syllables.<br />
**In uninflected words, syllable with nuclear ''o'' is only stressed when it comes second and the preceding syllable has also ''o'' as nucleus. Then the stressed nucleus appears as [ɘ]. Contrast between stressed and non-stressed syllabic consonants may occur as voicing and devoicing respectively. <br />
*A non-final syllable with a long vowel or a diphthong is always stressed and steals the stress from its neighboring syllable. This also moves the secondary stress from final to penultimate syllable, if primary stress falls on first syllable.<br />
<br />
Inflected and affixed word forms have almost always the same stress as the base word (even monosyllabic with schwa): ''doth'' (man) → ''dothku'' [ˈdɘθ.ku] (near the man). <br />
*Vocative and ergative cases as well as inflections with long vowels make an exception: ''dothee'' /dəˈθe:/ (by the man), ''dothé'' /dəˈθɛ/ (O man), ''gatóo'' /gɑˈtɔ:/ (to the house)<br />
<br />
Interrogatives are formed by changing the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. This is indicated with ¿: ''¿Eikepoi?'' [ˈei̯˧˦ˈke˩.pœi̯˨˦] (Did you wash it?)<br />
<br />
==Morphophonology==<br />
<br />
===Vowel form===<br />
<br />
There are five ways of sound altering which may be used for grammatical purposes (mainly number, genitive case and imperfective aspect). In the native script the following are marked on the vowel.<br />
*Lengthening: ''paata'' /pä:tä/ (separation), ''ée'' [ɛ:]~[ɛe̯], ''óo'' /ɔ:/<br />
*Lateral (release): ''pló'' /pˡɔ/ (opposite to), ''tlaf'' /tˡäf/ (sprig) <br />
**Western dialects keep the tongue on the alveolar ridge during vowel pronunciation so that the vowels have a distinct l-sound. Historically, this may have lead to the syllabic l.<br />
*Aspiration/breathy voice: ''phó'' [pʰɔ]~[ɸɔ] (along), ''kébhar'' [kɛˈbʱɑ˞]~[kɛˈβɑ˞] (I will wash), ''tha'' [tʰä]~[θä] (abstract "it"), ''dhaka'' [dʱɑkä]~[ðɑkä] (abstract "that"). <br />
**Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head)<br />
*Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]]<br />
**Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as a short syllabic nasal consonant of the same place as the directly preceding or following consonant<br />
**Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!).<br />
*Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) <br />
**Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞:] (soup)<br />
<br />
===Consonant form===<br />
<br />
Combining sounds<br />
*Lateralization<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sl'' and ''zh'' respectively<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' → ''fl'' & ''w''<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' are geminated<br />
**''m'' & ''n'' → ''ng'' and ''ng'' → ''ńg''<br />
* Aspiration<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sh'' and ''zh''<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' are geminated<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' → ''lh'' and ''rh''<br />
* Voicing and aspiration<br />
**''r'' → ''qh'', ''l'' → ''ldh'', ''v'' → ''w''<br />
<br />
===Apophony===<br />
<br />
Apophony in the '''stressed syllable''' is used for example to express adjective gender and to create different verb forms.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Apophony<br />
|-<br />
!Root<br />
!1st<br />
!2nd<br />
|-<br />
|e<br />
|ee<br />
|é<br />
|-<br />
|o<br />
|ó<br />
|ø<br />
|-<br />
|a<br />
|aa<br />
|æ<br />
|-<br />
|u<br />
|uu<br />
|i<br />
|-<br />
|ai<br />
|ii<br />
|ei<br />
|-<br />
|ou<br />
|óo<br />
|oi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*When the stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting)<br />
*With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of ''é''.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Script=== <br />
[[File:Sceptrian.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Toneka script from the early sixth era. Notice that the vowel form info-box romanization should have "o" instead of "a".]]<br />
[[File:SceptrianTsrnet.JPG|500px|thumb|right|Tsrnet cursive script used for handwriting in modern Sceptre.]]<br />
The Sceptrian alphabet script was derived from the ancient temple marks as were the Aoman and Northern (Latin) scripts. The modern alphabet is called ''Tsoklóp Lushan''.<br />
<br />
Diacritics on vowels mark different [[Sceptrian#Vowel_form|sounds]]. The diacritics may be used with consonants as well, especially in the plural forms of consonant-ending nouns: ''gat̆'' (''gatl'' "houses"), ''doŧ̆'' (''dolth'' "men"). With the diacritics, letter ''ts'' can be lateralized into ''tsl'' or aspirated into ''tsh''.<br />
<br />
The native Sceptrian script has a long history of being unicameral, not distinguishing between the upper and lower case. Only during the sixth era under the Tyranny of West, the flow of refugees from the Coast of Temples encouraged the introduction of case separation. In the developed fonts, capital letters were derived from the traditional Toneka and small letters from the cursive Tsrnet.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Short and long letter names with explanations<br />
|-<br />
|aa<br>aat || ee<br>eet || ée<br>eet maatikipi<br>(opened e) || ii<br>iit || oo<br>oot || óo<br>oot guzbikipi<br>(deepened o) || uu<br>uut <br />
|-<br />
|ææ<br>aat evadh<br>(bright a) || øø<br>oot gudh<br>(dark o) || ai<br>aat zaithon<br>(rising a) || ei<br>eet zaithon<br>(rising e) || oi<br>oot zaithon<br>(rising o) || ou<br>óot bousoson<br>(falling o) ||<br />
|-<br />
| po<br>poot || bo<br>bóot || mo<br>mool || wo<br>wool || to<br>toot || do<br>dóot || <br />
|-<br />
| tho<br>toot hifdo<br>(windy t) || dho<br>dóot hifdo<br>(windy d) || no<br>nool || so<br>siit || sho<br>siit hifdo<br>(windy s) || zo<br>ziit || zho<br>ziit gudh<br>(dark z) <br />
|-<br />
| ngo<br>góot slenguhpi<br>(g using nose) || tso<br>tsiit || lo<br>lool || slo<br>lool hifdo<br>(windy l) || fo<br>fiit || vo<br>fiit gudh<br>(dark f) || jo<br>jool <br />
|-<br />
| ko<br>koot || go<br>góot || ho<br>hiit || qho<br>hiit surmudh<br>(strong h) || qo<br>koot venongp<br>(k being<br> swallowed) || ro<br>rool || <br />
|-<br />
|plo<br>looh tisk<br>(with l<br> mark) || pon<br>slenguhpi tisk<br>(using nose<br> mark) || por<br>tisk prung<br>(mark of<br> trill) || pho<br>tisk hifn<br>(mark of<br> wind) || poo<br>tisk spiing<br>(mark of<br> length) || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Romanization===<br />
<br />
====Modern====<br />
Consonant variation:<br />
*Letter ''r'' is used with consonants for /r̩/ and between vowels for /r/, but after vowels in the end of syllables for rhoticization ''or'' /ɚ/. Letter ''ŕ'' is used to emphasize the use of /r/ after vowels ''oŕ'' /ər/.<br />
*Similarly letter ''n'' can appear syllable-finally with nasalization but ''ń'' always as /n/: ''an'' /ã/ vs. ''ań'' /an/. <br />
*With ''ng'' /ŋ/, the accent signals lengthening ''nańgo'' /näŋ:ə/ or ''naŋŋo'' (sweaty).<br />
*Labialization of plosives is indicated by PuV (V is any vowel except ''u'') or with ''w''.<br />
*Breathry voice is indicated with an ''h'' straight after a plosive. The ''h'' is also used for corresponding fricatives which occur word-finally. This risk of confuse is one of the downsides of the simplified modern system: ''nath'' /näθ/ "a beggar" or /nätʰ/ "with stains".<br />
<br />
====Old====<br />
<br />
The old romanization system (or part of it) was used until western regions of Eastern Sceptre were joined with the Western Sceptre empire in 7th era 161, during the war against Empress Renula of Golden Islet. A revision was needed when both Sceptrian and Aoma were used in the same printing press and texts had to be distributed to westlang-using communities. Peter Martyea suggested in 7:189 that the payment according to number of pages may have favoured quick adaptation as the non-diacritic system induced much longer texts (see the comparison example).<br />
<br />
Consonants:<br />
*Nasal: '''ŋ''' ''ng'' /ŋ/<br />
**Texts from the first century of the seventh era use ''ǥ'' for word-initial /ŋ/.<br />
*Fricative: '''ŧ''' ''th'' /θ/, '''đ''' ''dh'' /ð/, '''ś''' ''sh'' /ʃ/, '''ź''' ''zh'' /ʒ/, '''ħ''' ''qh'' /χ/<br />
*Affricate: '''c''' ''ts'' /t͡s/, '''č''' ''tsh'' /t͡ʃ/<br />
*Lateral: '''š''' ''sl'' /ɬ/, '''ǩ''' ''kl'' /kˡ/, '''ǧ''' ''gl'' /gˡ/<br />
<br />
Compact equivalents of sound altering:<br />
*Lengthening with a bar: ''ṓ'' /ɔ:/ and ''ō'' /ə:/<br />
*Lateral release with a breve diacritic: ''tŏ'' /tˡə/<br />
*Nasalization with a tilde: ''õ'' /ə̃/, ''on'' /ən/<br />
*Rhotacization with a diaeresis: ''ö'' /ɚ/, ''or'' /ər/<br />
*Aspiration with a grave accent: ''pò'' /pʰə/, ''pô'' /pʰɔ/<br />
<br />
Comparison between the systems:<br />
*Old: Ǧëǩ śošēŧã <br />
*Modern: Glerkl shosleethan (maces of a knight)<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
The most complete study of the structure of pre-modern Sceptrian words was done by Porutingatu of Jerzónó in year 362 of the seventh era. She collected, grouped and analyzed the fusional morphemes and listed the new rules to replace the outdated writings from the sixth era. By 370, her work had led to a new interest in linguistics and ultimately to the founding of ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan'' (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) which has been unifying and regulating the language along with its orthography since then.<br />
<br />
Sceptrian utilizes [[w:Fusional_language|fusional]] [[w:Inflection|inflections]] and has an [[w:Ergative–absolutive_language|absolutive-ergative]] [[w:Morphosyntactic_alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]. The language is rather [[w:Head-directionality_parameter|head-initial]] and its primary [[w:Word_order|word order]] is verb-agent-object.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns are used to refer to e.g. people or things in sentences instead of using the original nouns. In Sceptrian, they exist in two numbers and are inflected according to six [[Sceptrian#Cases|'''cases''']]. <br />
<br />
====Personal====<br />
Second person includes polite versions as well which were adapted by Aoma-sperkers. Third person singular makes distinction between abstract (Ab), animate (An) and inanimate (In) pronouns while plural only between Ab-An and In. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Personal pronoun inflection'''<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! 1SG !! 1PL !! 2SG !! 2PL !! 2SG.POL !! 2PL.POL !! 3SG.Ab !! 3SG.An !! 3PL.A !! 3SG.In !! 3PL.In<br />
|-<br />
!ABS <br />
| na || mo || fo || po || Nith || With || tha || su || slo || hi || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
| næ || moslo || fø || poslo || Nithe || Widhes || thaa || suu || sloslo || hii || kloslo<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
| nai || mokli || foki || pokli || Nithki || Withkli || thai || swi || slokli || hiki|| klokli<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
| nar || moŕ || for || poŕ || Nithor || Withoŕ || thar || sur || sloŕ || hir || kloŕ<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
| nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh || thas || sus || slosh || his || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
| nape || moplo || fope || poplo || Nitti || Witti || thape || supe || sloplo || hipi || kloplo<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''Comitative''' case is used to indicate company: ''Mo slosh arakha.'' (We were with them yesterday.)<br />
*'''Causal''' describes the cause of an action or origin of something: ''Aitesosai næ su fope'' (I saw him because of (/thanks to) you), ''Hi supe foki.'' (It (is) from him to you.)<br />
<br />
3rd person abstract pronoun is used in the formal register when introducing or referring to a person of higher status.<br />
<br />
====Reflexive====<br />
Self-pronoun ''ru'' for '''reflexive''' and '''reciprocal''': ''tesosón ru'' (they are watching themself), ''ónlatepón ru'' (he is dancing by himself, alone) vs. ''ónlatepón su'' (he is dancing with him); ''sónkephón ru'' (they are washing each other) vs. ''sónkephón sloslo slo/soutu'' (they are washing them)<br />
*reflexive is easier with others: ''anlatepan'' (I'm dancing by myself); ''ankepan'' (I'm washing myself) vs. ''ankep'' ("I'm washing it"), ''kepan'' (I'm being washed)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
<br />
Simple words for "this/these" and "that/those". When demonstratives are used with [[Sceptrian#Nouns|nouns]], they behave similarly to [[Sceptrian#Adjectives|adjectives]]. In the following examples, note that Sceptrian lacks the [[Sceptrian#Verbs|verb "to be"]]: <br />
*As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.)<br />
*For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) <br />
*The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the "head" can rather be considered an attribute of the pronoun: ''Bouson ko qot.'' (That's falling, the rock, I mean.) <br />
<br />
See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]].<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Demonstrative pronoun inflection<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Case <br />
!colspan="2"| Proximal <br />
!colspan="2"| Distal <br />
|-<br />
!SG !! PL !! SG !! PL<br />
|-<br />
!ABS<br />
|ka || kla || ko || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
|kaa || klaa || kó || kló<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
|kai ||klai || koi || kloi<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
|kan ||klang || kon || klong<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
|kas || klash || kos || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
|kap || klapa || kop ||klopo<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Table of correlatives===<br />
<br />
Determiners follow their heads and agree in number and with the cases mentioned above in [[Sceptrian#Demonstrative|the table]], where DAT & LAT, COM & LOC, CAU & ABL and ABS & VOC are corresponding. Words follow the declension shown above or paradigms similar to [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun cases]]. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!rowspan="2"|Interrogative<br />
!colspan="2"|Demonstrative<br />
!colspan="5"|Quantifier<br />
|-<br />
!Proximal !! Distal !! Existential !! Elective !! Universal !! Negatory !! Alternative<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Determiner<br />
| sho || ka (SG)<br/>kla (PL) || ko<br />klo || jofa (some) || ota (any) || orka (every, all) || ze (no) || so (another)<br/>solo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="5"| Pronoun<br />
!Abstract<br />
| ashu || thaka || dhaka || jaafa || thata || thorka || theso || thaso<br />
|-<br />
!Animate<br />
| ¿soutu || saitu || soutu || jonfu || onta || ongka || souso || jonso<br />
|-<br />
!Inanimate <br />
| ¿ko || ka || ko || jofo || oto || orko || ze || so<br />
|-<br />
!Out of two<br />
| ¿tso || tsaka || tsoko || zho || tsoto || tsorko || tseso || tso<br />
|-<br />
!Out of many<br />
| ¿tsolo || tsalka || tsolko || zolo || tsolto || tsongko || tsleso || tsolo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="6"|Pro-adverb<br />
!Locative<br />
| sku || khau || khu || jofku || otku || orkhu || zengu || sokhu<br />
|-<br />
!Temporal<br />
| sko || kha || kho || jofko || otko || orkho || zeng || sokho<br />
|-<br />
!Comitative<br />
| shos || kas || kos || jofos || otos || orkos || zeos || sos<br />
|-<br />
!Causal<br />
| spe || kap || kop || jov || otop || orkop || zenep || sonop<br />
|-<br />
!Manner<br />
| shi || khai || khoi || jofai || otai || orkai || zei || soi<br />
|-<br />
!What kind of<br />
| shodh || kadh || kodh || jodhi || othi || ordhi || zodhi || sothi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Negative determiner ''ze'' has no plural form. Neither have pronouns "Out of two".<br />
*Demonstratives are used when referring to listed items of equal animacy: proximal with the former and distal with the latter: ''Aitesoshóji math kuthos. Óomidh soutu.'' (I saw a cat and a dog. The latter was large.)<br />
*Locative pro-adverb can be conjugated with lative, locative and ablative.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Nouns in Sceptrian form the basis of derivational morphology and even the cases are utilized when forming new words. They are declined according to two numbers and nine cases, and the seven declensions are grouped in three genders which affect the verb conjugation and adjective agreement.<br />
<br />
====Gender====<br />
<br />
There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes.<br />
*Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in vowels ''a, æ, o, ó, ø'' and ''i''. <br />
*Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h'', same voiced and affricates), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings.<br />
*Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group.<br />
In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull). Some archaic words remain in dialects and in poetic use.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
<br />
There are two numbers, singular and plural, but abstract ''i''-nouns and inanimate ''l''-nouns are always singular. The declension according to number is complicated and fused with the class/case system explained and tabulated below.<br />
<br />
====Cases====<br />
<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Unmarked base form for subjects of intransitive and objects of transitive verbs <br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agents of transitive verbs<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect object; alienable possession ''gat dothi'' (a house of (lit. "for") the man); comparison (with ADJ comparative)<br />
*Possessive (POS): Inalienable possession ''dhoku dothor'' (the man's head)<br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS): Using something; "with someone", replaces "and" as Latin [[wikt:-que|-que]]; in antipassive constructions<br />
*Lative (LAT): Movement to; with adpositions<br />
*Locative-temporal (LOC-TEMP): Place; time; with adpositions<br />
*Ablative (ABL): Movement from (+delative); causal<br />
*Vocative (VOC): addressing (people, gods); interjections ''Alæ!'' (Hello! lit. "Day!")<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Genders and desinences'''<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" style="width: 100px"| <br />
!colspan="3"| Abstract <br />
!colspan="6"| Animate <br />
!colspan="3"| Inanimate<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''A'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''i'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''F'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''N'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''u'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"|''P'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''l''<br />
|-<br />
|<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>|| ||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 100px"| Absolutive<br />
| A || Asl || i || F || (o)lF || N || Ning || u || ush || P || Pl || l<br />
|- <br />
! style=""| Ergative <br />
| AA || AslA || ii || Fee || Fele || Nee || Neng || uu || uushu || Pee || Ple || le<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Dative <br />
| Ak || Akl || ik || Fi || Fil || Ni || Nil || (u)ji || (u)wi || Pei || Plei || lei<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Possessive <br />
| An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Instrumental-comitative <br />
| Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Lative <br />
| AgA || AglA || iki || Fko || Fklo || Nong || Nongo || ugu || uglu || Póo || Plóo || lo <br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Locative-temporal <br />
| AkhA || AlkhA || ikhi || Fku || Fklu || Nung || Nungu || ukhu || ulkhu || Pu || Plu || lu<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Ablative <br />
| ApA || AplA || ipi || Fp(o) || Fpl(o) || Nop || Nopl || upu || uplu || PPo || PPol || lp<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Vocative <br />
| Ae || Asl || ii || Fé || lFé || Né || Nin || -wé || -wésh || Pé || Plé || lé<br />
|}<br />
*''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø''<br />
**Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø<br />
*''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts, tsl'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. <br />
*''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng''<br />
*''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q''<br />
**POS ''q''→''ng''<br />
**INS ending Ph marks breathy voice and may turn the plosive into corresponding fricative /ɸ, θ, x, χ/ if followed by a plosive.<br />
*- indicates that the original ending is replaced with the following: ''tup → tu'''m''''' (stick → stick's)<br />
<br />
====Possessive==== <br />
<br />
Different possessive forms and interpretations: <br />
*''Dativus possessivus'' (alienable): ''gat doth'''i''''' "the house which the man has temporarily settled in, i.e. rented"<br />
*Comitative case with alienable possessive suffix: ''doth gat''h'''''os''''' "man with his house which he has purchased"<br />
**Inalienable possessive suffix alters the meaning: ''doth gat''h'''''ozh''''' "man and his birthplace"<br />
*Possessive case (almost inalienable): ''gat doth'''or''''' "the house which was inherited and is now owned by the man". <br />
<br />
The noun in possessive case is not inflected further. With dative case, inflection may be utilized in order to distinguish the ''dativus possessivus'' from the indirect object or benefactive: ''Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli.'' "The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them." (Related to the feather ceremony when welcoming upper class members to a household.)<br />
<br />
'''Possessive affixes''', as shown in examples above, draw a distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: ''Óntesoson dothee gat'''s'''/vakuh'''oz'''.'' (A man is watching his house/ his own hand.) With the basic suffixes, the root is inflected first and then suffixed.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ Possessional suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!Person<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! ALIEN !! INAL !! ALIEN !! INAL <br />
|-<br />
!1st <br />
| (a)ń || (a)nga || (ó)m || (ó)ngó <br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
| (o)f || (ø)fo || (e)v || (ø)vø<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
| (o)s || (o)zh || (o)sl || (o)zhol<br />
|}<br />
*Irregular: Only VOC+possessive with 1SG: ''Pos'''n'''é!'' (My servant!), ''Polsmé!'' (Our servants!)<br />
<br />
'''2nd person polite suffixes''' are added to absolutive base and the endings are then declined according to abstract gender: <br />
*Singular: (a)tha, (a)tazha <br />
*Plural: (a)dhó, (a)dózhó <br />
*Example: ''gat'''atha'''pa'' (from Your house)<br />
<br />
See [[Sceptrian#Adverbial_clauses|adverbial clauses]] which utilize some possessive suffixes with [[Sceptrian#Non-finite_forms|non-finite verb forms]].<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
<br />
Adpositions are used with inflected nouns to add information about its location or relation to other nouns. Some Sceptrian adpositions can be used as stand-alone adverbs which may be conjugated according to noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====Prepositions====<br />
<br />
Prepositions are used with lative (to, towards), locative (at, near) and ablative (from) cases to alter the meaning.<br />
*''voi'' (in) forms illative, inessive, elative <br />
*''loi'' (out) for "out of", "outside" and "from outside"<br />
*''soi'' (on) to emphasize the surface aspect <br />
*''oist(i)'' (under) for movement under something<br />
*''roi'' (above) similarly to ''oist''<br />
*''boi'' (down) for "down (a surface / to)", "down in (somewhere)" and "from down"; as an adverb as well <br />
*''zoi'' (up) used like ''boi''<br />
*''moi'' (touching, around) with lative for terminative, locative for pertingent and ablative for initiative<br />
*''oil(i)'' (as) forms translative, essive, exessive<br />
*''koi'' (per) distribution: "for each", "every" (temporal), "from each"<br />
*''jon'' (... between) <br />
*''poi'' (... the middle of, among)<br />
*''tsoi'' (... front of; preceding) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = before<br />
*''hoi'' (... behind; following) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = after<br />
*''mots(i)'' (... on side)<br />
**combined with postpositional ''dei'' (right) or ''lai'' (left)<br />
**with time nouns in locative = ago<br />
<br />
====Postpositions====<br />
<br />
Postpositions appear with various cases and often come in groups.<br />
*''pón'' (through) with lative<br />
*''phó'' (along) with lative<br />
*''pló'' (opposite to, across) with locative<br />
*''sós'' (with) with comitative to express a greater degree of endowment (ornative); with ablative to indicate "without"; with lative for "in addition to"<br />
*''óp'' (about, concerning) with genitive; with ablative for "according to"<br />
*''ól'' (like) with genitive; as an adverb "similarly"<br />
*''jak'' (away, despite) with ablative; as an adverb as well<br />
*''mai'' (excluding) with ablative<br />
*''mak'' (except) with ablative<br />
*''mats'' (instead of) with ablative<br />
*''sai'' (including) with comitative<br />
*''sak'' (concerning, regarding) with comitative; with ablative to emphasize the causal aspect (due to, because of, thanks to)<br />
*''phe'' (for the sake of) with lative<br />
<br />
====Pronominal====<br />
<br />
When used with pronouns, separate adpositions only come with dative forms to indicate lative. Otherwise adpositions take possessive suffixes, inalienable for locative and alienable for ablative: ''voi nai'' (into me), ''voinga'' (inside me), ''voiń'' (from inside me)<br />
<br />
Of the polite possessive suffixes, alienable is added onto the adposition and then the entire compound is conjugated for lative, locative or ablative: ''voitha'' (in You; attributive), ''voithaga'' (into You), ''voithakha'' (inside You; predicative), ''voithapa'' (from inside You)<br />
<br />
===Derivational Morphology===<br />
<br />
Verbs and adjectives are derived from nouns by adding suffixes and in some cases prefixes as well.<br />
<br />
====Noun====<br />
<br />
Many nouns share same origins and these endings are the most common forms of derivation:<br />
*Suffixing verbs with once established ending vowels or consonant appropriate for the noun class. <br />
*place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix<br />
*collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish)<br />
**Archaic forms also add the prefix ''kl'' <br />
*being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy")<br />
**doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer)<br />
**experiencer, patient: ABS with ''(k)ois'' or ''(k)oit'' depending on animacy: ''kepois'' (person being washed)<br />
**origin: ABL with ''(o)su'': ''ukopposu'' (person from north)<br />
**characteristic (from abstract quality): INS with final duplicated vowel and ''tu'': ''luwishitu'' (beauty)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)n'' (AN) or ''(o)l'' (INAN): ''koson'' (wood), ''qotol'' (stone)<br />
*diminutive: reduplication of final sound with ''t'' between vowels and ''i'' between consonants: ''kosis'' (small tree)<br />
*augmentative: reduplication of final sound with ''g'' between vowels and ''a'' between consonants: ''kosas'' (great tree)<br />
**apotheosis: augmentative with ''a''-ending: ''kosonana'' (godwood)<br />
*abstract quality, feature: ABS suffixed with ''(k)oti'': ''dothoti'' (manliness)<br />
*'''gerund''' (act of doing): via derivated [[Sceptrian#Verb|verb]] suffixed with ''(o)pi'': ''glerkurpi'' (mace-battering)<br />
<br />
====Adjective====<br />
<br />
Different cases and affixes are used for the derivation:<br />
*similarity, having something: ''dh'' suffix to abstract gender and animate ''u''-ending; voicing of fricatives (''h→qh'', no change with affricates); nasals [[Sceptrian#Consonant_form|"lateralized"]] + ''o''; voicing of plosives + ''o'' (''q→g''); l-declension as in INS-COM: ''evadh'' (bright), ''dodh'' (masculine)<br />
**full of, having something: previous suffixed with ''ol'': ''mel muvol'' (waters full of fish)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)p'': ''kosonop'' (wooden)<br />
*origin, relation: ABL form with a final ''ó'' added or replacing the original ending vowel: ''kusupó'' (friendly)<br />
*absence, without: ''ti'' suffixed to VOC form: ''evæti'' (lightless=dark)<br />
*doing: ''on'' added after INS case: ''kephon'' (washing)<br />
*who did: INS with ''ompu'': ''kephompu'' (who washed = ''pessyt'' in Finnish)<br />
*done by: INS with ''empo'' and possibly inalienable possessive suffix: ''kephemponga'' (washed by me)<br />
*not done: LAT suffixed with ''tip'': ''kepóotip'' (unwashed)<br />
*experiencing: LAT suffixed with ''p'': kepóop (being washed)<br />
*result (wanted): LAT suffixed with ''pi'': ''kepóopi'' (washed=clean)<br />
**if unwanted: LAT suffixed with ''pot'': ''vangostóopot'' (drunk)<br />
*possible: POS with ''ta'': ''kenta'' (washable)<br />
*requiring: LOC with ''rt'': ''kepurt'' (needs to be washed)<br />
*opposite, negation: VOC with ''tot''<br />
<br />
Notice that plural forms of adjectives may be derived from plural nouns: ''dolth kep'''s'''on'' (men who are washing)<br />
<br />
====Verb====<br />
<br />
A declined core noun receives an ending which describes how the verb reflects the noun:<br />
*In some cases, the vowel ending of nouns may simply be removed or the absolutive of a consonant-ending noun may also serve as a verb.<br />
*ABS = "happens, is": ''kep'' (is washed)<br />
*COM = "using": ''tuph'' (is poked with a stick), ''glerkh'' (is hit with a mace)<br />
*POS + ''k'' = "similarity": ''melonk'' (is wet)<br />
*DAT + ''k'' = "making/becoming" (no ''k'' with Abstract): ''zurmu'' → ''zurmjik'' (strong person → is strengthened), ''zurp'' → ''zurpeik'' (strong, durable object → hardens) & ''zurma'' → ''zurmak'' (strength → intensifies)<br />
*LAT + ''t'' = "movement, quasi-inceptive": ''glerkóot'' (swings a mace, INTR), ''melot'' (flows), ''latepóot'' (is persuaded to dance, INTR; begins a dance with, TR), ''lehkot'' (runs) <br />
*LOC + ''r'' = "frequentative": ''glerkur'' (is battered with a mace), ''melur'' (rains; drips)<br />
*VOC + ''k'' = "momentane": ''glerkék'' (is hit once with a mace), ''melék'' (splashes once)<br />
*POS + ''(o)v'' = "consider, feel": ''vongv'' (is considered strange = ''oudoksutaan'' in Finnish)<br />
* Several endings can be stacked on verbs without turning it into a noun in between: ''melurék'' (shower of rain falls), ''tup(o)hkur'' (is often poked with a stick). When deriving, the ''r''-ending are declined according to the ''l''-paradigm.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Sceptrian agree with the gender, number and cases of their head. When an adjective is used as a predicative, it comes before its head, but when as an attributive, it comes after. Adjective declension follows approximately the same rules as [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun declension]]. In the common ''dh''-ending F-declension, ''o'' is added between ''dh'' and case-endings with consonants. Changes in both casual and poetic speech include mirroring onset into coda: ''dothklu jadaadh'''ulk''''' (near nice men)<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+DH-declension<br />
! !! ABS !! ERG !! DAT !! POS !! INS !! LAT !! LOC !! ABL !! VOC<br />
|-<br />
!SG<br />
|dh || dhee || dhi || dhor || dhos || dh'''ok''' || dh'''uk''' || dh'''op''' || dhé<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
| ldh(o) || dhele || dhil || dhoŕ || dhosh || dh'''olk''' || dh'''ulk''' || dh'''olp''' || ldhé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Sceptrian#Apophony|Apophony]] in the stressed syllable is used to indicate the gender: base for inanimate, first apophony with animate and second with abstract gender: ''eja jadædh, doth jadaadh, latep jadadh'' <br />
<br />
Polite adjectives are formed from the abstract form with predicative prefix ''nga'' and attributive suffix ''æ'': ''ngaluwidh Nith'' (You are beautiful), ''shosleetha luwidhæ'' (a beautiful knight)<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
<br />
'''Positive''' of an adjective is the base form.<br />
*When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.)<br />
*Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle.<br />
*When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii fældh dolth lutush.'' (As many men as women.) <br />
<br />
'''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). <br />
*Manner quatifiers ''orkai, jofai'' and ''zei'' can be used to indicate the degree: ''luwidhé orkai'' (much more beautiful), ''luwidhé jofai'' (slightly more beautiful), ''luwidhé zei'' (not more beautiful)<br />
*When comparing two nouns adjective comes first (predicative comparative), the standard acquires the dative case, and comparative forms agree with their head in gender and number: ''luwildhé po swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*Pronoun comparison is also possible to construct with alienable possessional suffixes: ''luwildhév swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*When adjective comparative is not included, postpositional ''fadhé'' (more) or ''føødhi'' (less) can be used with noun plurals: ''dolth faldhé lutwi'' (more men than women)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative''' is similar to noun apotheosis: the ending is reduplicated with ''é'' between consonants and ''j'' between vowels, and an ''a'' added to the end: ''luwidhédha'' (most beautiful). Similarly to comparative, ''ti'' gives the meaning of "least": ''luwidhédhati'' (least beautiful).<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly)<br />
<br />
Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh òomidhé'' (very beautiful < "largely")<br />
<br />
'''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative adverb''' is similar to adjective superlative in its reduplication but with an ''æ''-ending: ''zaivie jadædhédhæ'' (you sing most pleasantly)<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Missing verbs: <br />
*"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man)<br />
**Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith)<br />
**Showing tense:<br />
***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past)<br />
***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective<br />
***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense<br />
***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" <br />
* "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man")<br />
<br />
====Conjugation====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, primary conjugation of verbs indicates person, number and tense-aspect, and it includes affixation and apophony. Conjugation for different [[Sceptrian#Mood|moods]] is slightly more complex.<br />
<br />
=====Root=====<br />
<br />
Verbs are given in their 3SG.INAN GNO form which is used to form all of the third person forms. With first and second person subjects, the first apophony is used in indicative inceptive and future. Polite second person forms use the second apophony<br />
<br />
=====Affixes=====<br />
<br />
Fusional conjugation affixes convey the person, number, tense and aspect (and honorific). Subject and object suffixes are almost always used with verbs, the antipassive being the only exception. Agent prefixes aren't often used in the casual register, mostly to form the [[Sceptrian#Reflexive|reflexive]], but they have to be used in the formal register. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense <br />
!Aspect<br />
!1SG<br />
!1PL<br />
!2SG<br />
!2PL<br />
!2SG.POL<br />
!2PL.POL<br />
!3SG.A<br />
!3PL.A<br />
!3SG.INAN<br />
!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a<br />
| ha<br />
| e<br />
| he<br />
| ahi<br />
| aqhi<br />
| ó<br />
| hó<br />
| (o)<br />
| l<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an<br />
| han<br />
| en<br />
| hen<br />
| ang<br />
| aing<br />
| ón<br />
| hón<br />
| on <br />
| lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| ast<br />
| last<br />
| est<br />
| lest<br />
| æst<br />
| hæst<br />
| ós<br />
| lós<br />
| os<br />
| osl<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| ajin<br />
| hajin<br />
| ejin<br />
| hejin<br />
| azing<br />
| izing<br />
| ójin<br />
| hójin<br />
| oin<br />
| loin<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai<br />
| hai<br />
| ei<br />
| hei<br />
| athi<br />
| idhi<br />
| óji<br />
| hóji<br />
| oi<br />
| loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| har<br />
| +har<br />
| her<br />
| +her<br />
| athar<br />
| idhar<br />
| hór<br />
| +hór<br />
| ho<br />
| +ho<br />
|}<br />
* initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive<br />
* initial ''h'' is for aspiration of the final plosive or simply ''h'' after a vowel<br />
**if the final plosive is already breathy, ''o'' is added after it<br />
*+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration<br />
**simple ''h'' becomes ''qh''<br />
*Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense <br />
!Aspect<br />
!1SG<br />
!1PL<br />
!2SG<br />
!2PL<br />
!2SG.POL<br />
!2PL.POL<br />
!3SG.A<br />
!3PL.A<br />
!3SG.INAN<br />
!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a<br />
| sa<br />
| e<br />
| se<br />
| æ<br />
| hæ<br />
| ó<br />
| só<br />
| o<br />
| lo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an<br />
| san<br />
| en<br />
| sen<br />
| nga<br />
| ngai<br />
| ón<br />
| són<br />
| on <br />
| lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| tsa<br />
| tsla<br />
| tse<br />
| tsle<br />
| tsæ<br />
| tshæ<br />
| tsó<br />
| tsló<br />
| so<br />
| slo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| jan<br />
| zhan<br />
| jen<br />
| zhen<br />
| izæ<br />
| izhæ<br />
| jón<br />
| zhón<br />
| i<br />
| li<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai<br />
| sai<br />
| ei<br />
| sei<br />
| thæ<br />
| dhæ<br />
| jó<br />
| zhó<br />
| oi<br />
| loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| ar<br />
| sar<br />
| er<br />
| ser<br />
| thar<br />
| dhar<br />
| ór<br />
| sór<br />
| or<br />
| lor<br />
|}<br />
*Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.)<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ónbouson dothee pof.'' (A man (ERG) is lifting a feather (ABS).), ''Bousón doth.'' (The man falls.) ''Bouson pof.'' (The feather (ABS) falls.).<br />
<br />
====Tense====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, verbs are conjugated for three tenses: past, present and future. These tenses describe when an action took place relative to current moment as their names indicate. <br />
<br />
====Aspect====<br />
<br />
Gnomic-static aspect is used to indicate general truths ''Zaitó Hala.'' (sun rises) and static situations ''Mépa lusha.'' (I can speak Sceptrian). It can be used with expressions of time to specify when something was static ''Petsipha kas arakha.'' (dress-STAT.1SG this.COM yesterday.TEMP "I was dressed in these clothes yesterday (as well).")<br />
<br />
Present progressive describes dynamic actions ''Anbaplóph lusha kha.'' (I'm reading Sceptrian at the moment). Present inceptive is used when an action is about to begin or someone is starting to do something.<br />
*Inceptive is only used once: Subject inceptive with intransitive and mostly agent inceptive with translative verbs. Object ending is either PRES.PROG, when something was begun only a moment ago, or FUT, when something is about to begin.<br />
**Translative object inceptive if the object caused the initialization: ''Órlateepast.'' (He is about to take me to dancing through my initiative.)<br />
<br />
Past imperfective is used with continuous activities which were happening before the present. The contrasting perfective aspect describes the event as a whole and having an endpoint in the past.<br />
<br />
In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used.<br />
<br />
Endings with different tenses may be mixed:<br />
*PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) <br />
*PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while))<br />
<br />
====Mood====<br />
<br />
Moods express speaker's attitude towards the subject or their knowledge of it. They are divided into realis and irrealis moods: the former expresses factual statements while the latter indicates that an event hasn't taken place or the speaker is uncertain of a situation.<br />
<br />
=====Realis=====<br />
<br />
'''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well)<br />
<br />
'''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.)<br />
<br />
=====Irrealis=====<br />
<br />
'''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?)<br />
<br />
'''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) <br />
*The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!)<br />
<br />
'''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original second syllable: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: '''''la'''latép'' (may dance), '''''ak'''aktæsos'' (may hear), ''rorøt'' (may go)<br />
*The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject.<br />
*The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished<br />
<br />
=====Particles=====<br />
<br />
Particles are placed after a verb to alter or to specify its meaning.<br />
<br />
Realis<br />
*''pai'' mirative (with soft imperative in present): ''Rótóji pai!'' (He went!?)<br />
**with adjectives or as an adverb: ''Luwi pai!'' (How beautiful!) <br />
<br />
Evidentials (with causatives)<br />
*''atasi'' hearsay: ''Rotóji tasi fope.'' (I heard from you that he went.)<br />
*''tesei'' visual: ''Rótoutóji tesei nape.'' (I didn't see him go.)<br />
<br />
Irrealis<br />
*''norka'' dubitative (with subjunctive): ''Rorøtóji norka.'' (I doubt he went.)<br />
*''gana'' volitive (with future subjunctive): ''Lalatépar gana.'' (I wish I could dance.)<br />
<br />
Conditional (with subjunctive)<br />
*''ta'' apodosis: ''Arziizeither ta'' (I will raise you...)<br />
*''-ti-'' infixed between reduplicated form for protasis: ''boutiboisen'' (if you fall)<br />
<br />
Hortatives (with soft imperative which itself works as an adhortative or dehortative with negation (unwillingness))<br />
*Cohortative: ''Latéprlast kha!'' (Let's dance now!), ''Rótrlastonget khugu.'' (Let's not go there.)<br />
*''jokæ'' exhortative (inhortative through negation): ''Rótrest jokæ.'' (You really should go.)<br />
<br />
'''Formal''' register differences:<br />
*''aktasosai'' (hears) conjugated for hearsay: ''Røtathi aiaktasosóji.'' (I heard from her that you left.)<br />
*''tesos'' (sees) conjugated for visual evidentiality: ''Rotóji tesosai.'' (I saw her go.)<br />
*''tsmaadhoré'' (doubtfully) used for dubitative<br />
*''tutaadhoré'' (wishfully) used for volitive<br />
*''alké'' permissive with dative: ''Rótest alké foki.'' (You may leave.)<br />
**prohibitive with negated (inability) imperative infinitive: ''Rótrostodi alké foki.'' (You aren't allowed to leave.)<br />
*both conditional particles are used separately and they are prefixed with the subjunctive reduplication: ''Arziizeither zaita bouboisen bouti.'' (I will raise you if you fall.)<br />
<br />
'''In literature''' to express the peaking pitch of ironical statements and lowered pitch of sarcastic expressions:<br />
*''jø'' verbal irony: ''Jótesosoi melurpi, jóbatophoi "Luwidh jø hi loi khu".'' (He saw the rain and said: "''Beautiful'' day out there")<br />
*''gæ'' sarcasm: ''Uu, eiluwikoi gæ pai.'' (Oh, ''how beautiful'' you made it.)<br />
<br />
====Negation====<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Negation affixes<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Manner→<br />
! Inability<br />
!colspan="6"| Unwillingness<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Form→<br />
!2nd apophony +infix<br>(before patient-suffix)<br />
!colspan="3"|Intranslative<br>suffix<br />
!colspan="3"|Translative<br>infix (after agent-prefix)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Person→<br />
!All<br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!SG<br />
|ost<br />
|net<br />
|fep<br />
|set<br />
|no<br />
|fo<br />
|so<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|osht<br />
|nget<br />
|vep<br />
|slet<br />
|ngo<br />
|flo<br />
|slo<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|PST<br />
|out<br />
|colspan="3"|nait<br />
|colspan="3"|me<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|FUT<br />
|oz<br />
|colspan="3"|nort<br />
|colspan="3"|mor<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse'''fó'''lateephar?'' (You don't want to begin dancing with me?)<br />
<br />
'''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.)<br />
<br />
Second apophony of negation affixes with subjunctive mood: ''Rorøthórn'''ø'''rt.'' (He may not be willing to go.)<br />
<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
<br />
=====Gerund=====<br />
*Base nouns or their abstract variants may serve as gerunds, which describe the action of doing, but otherwise they are created with the suffix ''(o)pi'' added to a verb root. The suffic also helps to distinguish the forms.<br />
<br />
=====Infinitives=====<br />
*PRES ''-odi'', PST ''-oudi'', FUT ''ordi''<br />
*used with modal verbs<br />
*subjunctive form created with duplication<br />
<br />
=====Participles=====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian participles work as adjectives. Following table shows which "case" and suffix the verb base (or gerund in formal register) takes.<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Present participle suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!IPFV<br />
!PFV<br />
|-<br />
!Patientive (LAT)<br />
|''p''<br />
|''pi/pot''<br />
|-<br />
!Negative (LAT)<br />
|<br />
|''tip''<br />
|-<br />
!Active (INS)<br />
|rowspan="2"|''on''<br />
|''ompu''<br />
|-<br />
!Agentive (INS)<br />
|''empo''<br />
|}<br />
*Also the "requiring" (FUT) form LOC+''rt'' and "possible" (GNO) POS+''ta'' <br />
*Past forms are created by adding ''i'' to the end: ''kephoni'' (was being washed)<br />
*Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed)<br />
*Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]]<br />
<br />
Relative form with word-order and prefix? + formal register particle<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, auxiliary verbs are conjugated only for subject which may act as the agent of the clause. The verbs can either precede (dynamic, deontic) or come after (epistemic) different verb infinitives. Since regular object-patient conjugation can't be used, objects have to be written (no pro-drop) and they are declined into instrumental-comitative case.<br />
*''tut'' "want" (from ''tuta'' "craving, wish"): ''Tutajin kepoudi his.'' (I wanted to wash it.)<br />
**infinitive in lative case for "want something to be done": ''Tutan kepordiki his.'' (I want it to be washed.)<br />
**"be going to" (FUT): ''Tuutar latepordi.'' (I'm going to dance.)<br />
**"wish" (SBJV) mostly as the subjunctive of the absent ''to be''-verb: ''Tutitan khau fos.'' (I wish you were here) <br />
*''mép'' "can, know how to" (dynamic) (from ''mépi'' "skill"): ''Mépa latepodi'' ("I can dance"; notice gnomic-static mood)<br />
*''kuut'' "can, may" (deontic / epistemic) (from ''kuutó'' "possibility"): ''Kuutest rotordi.'' (You may leave.), ''Fendógópot kuutó pai.'' (He may unexpectedly be dead.)<br />
**particle ''nor'' added after the verb for lower possibility i.e. "could, might": ''Fendógópi kuut nor.'' (It might be dead.)<br />
**particle ''ga'' added for "should, must": ''Fendógópi kuut ga.'' (It should be dead, as we wanted.)<br />
*''khet'' "must" (deontic) (from ''kheti'' "necessity"): ''Khetan rotodi.'' (I must go now), ''Kheetar rotordi.'' (I must go soon)<br />
*''khurd'' "dare" (from ''khurdi'' "daring"): ''¿Khurde glerkékodi nas?'' (Do you dare hit me with a mace?)<br />
<br />
Mixing tenses: <br />
*''Tutitai latepordi.'' SBJV.want-PST.PFV.1SG dance-INF.FUT "I would've wanted to dance"<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian distinguishes between two voices, active and antipassive. Passive is very similar to active since Sceptrian is absolutive-ergative, and thus isn't considered a true change in voice. Antipassive is used to reduce the valency of the verbs by removing the object of a transitive clause.<br />
<br />
Active construction: verb-agent-object and verb-object-agent are used so that a comment (rheme) precedes the topic (theme). [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|Emphasizing clitics]] are used to mark the topic. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Ónzaiton dothee pof.<br />
|IPA = /ɔ̃zaɪ̯tə̃ dəθe: pəf/<br />
| morphemes = ón-zait-on doth-ee pof-Ø<br />
| gloss = 3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV man-ERG feather-ABS<br />
| translation = A man is lifting a feather.<br />
}} <br />
<br />
Passive construction: To demote the agent (ERG), it's either removed or inflected into causal ablative (ABL). Verb is only conjugated for the object.<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Zaiton pof (dothpo).<br />
|IPA = /zaɪ̯tə̃ pəf (dəθpə)/<br />
| morphemes = zait-on pof-Ø (doth-po)<br />
| gloss = lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV feather-ABS (man-ABL)<br />
| translation = A feather is being lifted (by a man).<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Antipassive''' construction: Agent (ERG) transforms into subject (ABS) and object (ABS) takes the instrumental-comitative (INS) case. Word order becomes SV(O), and the verb is conjugated according to the agent only and the stressed syllable undergoes second [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]]. The verb is also suffixed with the emphasizing clitic ''ma'' in the formal register. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Doth ónzeit(ma) (pofos).<br />
|IPA = /dəθ ɔ̃zei̯t(mä) (pəfəs)/<br />
| morphemes = doth-Ø ón-zeit-Ø(or =ma) (pof-os)<br />
| gloss = man-ABS ANTIP\3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-ANTIP(or =ANTIP.FORM) (feather-INS)<br />
| translation = The man is lifting (a feather). <br />
}}<br />
<br />
Instrument and turning it into an agent:<br />
* ''Ónzaiton dothee pof vakuhosozh.'' (...with his own hand...)<br />
**''Ónzaiton pof vakuhp dothir.'' (the feather is raised by the man's hand)<br />
**''Onzaiton pof tuph dothi'''sh''' slokli.'' (The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them.) Inanimate agent conjugation, and dative of possession is inflected to avoid misinterpretation!<br />
* ''Vakuh ónzeit pofos.'' (The hand lifts something, which happens to be a feather)/(someone intentionally lifts a feather with their hand) Notice animate conjugation!<br />
**''Tup onzeit dothpo pofos.'' (The stick, which is being held by a man, lifts something, which happens to be a feather) ABL as causative since inanimate ''tup''.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
Decimal base was adopted due to commerce, but traces of the former octal base remain. <br />
<br />
Numerals are placed before their head. Last part of a cardinal determiner agrees with case through matching declension: ''op'''l''' tupl'' (two sticks)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Numeral system<br />
|-<br />
! Number <br />
! Number !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional !! Multiplicative adverb !! Multiplicative adjective !! Group !! Polygon<br />
|-<br />
!Zero<br />
| ozi || oz || ozhi || - || zeng (never) || - || ze (no) || -<br />
|-<br />
!One<br />
| ipi || ip || iphi || liku (whole) || ohu (once) || ipitse (onefold) || ipisi (singular) || ipirt (dot) <br />
|-<br />
!Two <br />
| opi || op || ophi || lopu (half) || ophu (twice) || opitse (twofold) || opisi (pair) || opart (line)<br />
|-<br />
!Three<br />
| oki || ok || okhi || loku || okhu || okitse || okisi || okart (triangle)<br />
|-<br />
!Four<br />
| óppi || óp || óphi || lóppu || óphu || óphitse || óphisi || ópart <br />
|-<br />
!Five<br />
| ofi || of || offi || lofu || offu || ofitse || ofisi || ofart<br />
|-<br />
!Six<br />
| ókki || ók || ókhi || lókku || ókhu || ókhitse || ókhisi || ókart<br />
|-<br />
!Seven<br />
| omi || om || ongi || lomu || ongu || omitse || omisi || omart<br />
|-<br />
!Eight<br />
| ngovi || ngov || ngovvi || longovu || ngovvu || ngovitse || ngovisi || jart<br />
|-<br />
!Nine<br />
| ngoipi || ngoip || ngoiphi || longoipu || ngoiphu || ngoipitse || ngoipisi || ngoipart<br />
|-<br />
!Ten<br />
| jopi || jop || jophi || lojopu || jophu || jopitse || jopisi || jopart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!Eleven<br />
!Twelve<br />
!Thirteen<br />
!Fourteen<br />
!Fifteen<br />
!Sixteen<br />
!Seventeen<br />
!Eighteen<br />
!Nineteen<br />
!Twenty<br />
|-<br />
| ngoki <br />
| ngópi <br />
| ngofi<br />
| ngóki<br />
| ngomi <br />
| ophungovi <br />
| jopomi<br />
| jopingovi<br />
| jopingoipi<br />
| ophujopi<br />
|-<br />
!Twenty-one<br />
!Thirty<br />
!Fourty<br />
!Fifty<br />
!Sixty<br />
!Sixty-four<br />
!Sixty-five<br />
!Seventy<br />
!Eighty<br />
!Ninety<br />
|-<br />
| ophujopipi <br />
| okhujopi<br />
| offungovi <br />
| offujopi <br />
|ókhujopi<br />
| mouti<br />
| moutipi<br />
|ongujopi<br />
|ngowopi<br />
|ngoiphujopi<br />
|-<br />
!One hundred<br />
!One hundred<br/>and twenty-two<br />
!One hundred<br/>and sixty-six<br />
!Two hundred<br />
!Thousand<br />
!Three thousand<br/>four hundred<br />
!Ten thousand<br />
!Hundred thousand<br />
!Million<br />
!Billion<br />
|-<br />
| toti <br />
|toti(s)<br>ophujopopi<br />
|toti(s)<br>moutókki<br />
|ophutoti<br />
| mopi<br />
|okhumopi(s)<br>óphutoti<br />
|tothutoti<br />
|tothumopi<br />
|hamisi<br />
|mowisi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Multiplicative adverb form is used in front of the powers of ten (tens, hundreds, ...)<br />
*Digits are annexed into the tens by using the cardinal or determiner form depending whether the digit begins with a vowel or not.<br />
*Fractions are constructed by placing the ''l(o)''-prefixed form after the multiplicative number: ''okhu lóppu'' ("thrice one quarter" = three quarters). The noun is in ablative case and only the fraction is inflected: ''lopu'''ji''' tuppo'' (for one half of a stick)<br />
*Large numbers (from hundred) are written separately from smaller, but in formal register ''s''-letter is added between each power of ten.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
*VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive<br />
* possessives follow nouns<br />
* predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns<br />
<br />
===Emphasizing clitics===<br />
<br />
Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton dothee'''noh''' pof.'' (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. ''Ónzaiton dothee pof'''ma'''.'' (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used with verbs in antipassive constructions.<br />
<br />
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) <br />
<br />
The suffixes are also used with alienable possessive forms to separate the possessor from indirect objects. Chosen depending on the ergativity of the possessum: ''Jóvakuhoi suu pof swi'''ma''' swi.'' (He gave her feather to him.)<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
<br />
====Independent====<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Conjunction====<br />
<br />
coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?)<br />
<br />
====Noun clauses====<br />
<br />
WIP ... to be redone<br />
*Infinitive.tense + ... + causatives: ''Tesosan kepó vakuhos supe.'' (I see that he washes his hands) vs. ''Onluvakan kep'''óo''' vakuhos supe.'' (The washing of his hands brings me pleasure.)<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
<br />
Nominalizing relative clauses with participles is common.<br />
<br />
Using [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|an emphasizing clitic]] to mark the antecedent for the class-appropriate proximal demonstrative pronoun (thaka/saitu/ka declined for number) which works as a relative pronoun - case chosen according to the embedded clause: <br />
*''Rotóji dothma saituh latepai.'' (leave-PST.PFV.3SG man.ABS-EMPH.ABS P.PROX.AN-COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The man, with whom I danced, left.") <br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahul dothelenos saitush latepai.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS man-PL.ERG-EMPH.ERG P.PROX.AN-PL.COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The men with whom I danced are starting to drink beer.")<br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahulma dothele ka tutitai vangosordi.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS-EMPH.ABS man-PL.ERG P.PROX.INAN SBJV-want-PST.PFV.1SG drink-INF.FUT "Men are starting to drink the beer which I would've wanted to drink."<br />
<br />
====Adverbial clauses====<br />
<br />
non-finite forms + possessive suffixes to indicate subject<br />
<br />
====Conditional clauses====<br />
<br />
subjunctive as explained in verb particle section<br />
<br />
====Indirect speech====<br />
<br />
==Register==<br />
<br />
Different endings which reflect the conversation situation: speakers, familiarity, formality, location... <br />
<br />
===Intimate===<br />
<br />
Agent prefixes aren't used. No ''t'' in inceptive. Due to apophony, subject suffix can be dropped from FUT/INCEP if 1st or 2nd person distinction is clear.<br />
<br />
===Casual===<br />
<br />
In casual register, verb forms are chosen differently when the subject is agent-like (he dances) or patient-like (he fell): ''latepóji'' (he danced AN) vs. ''bousoi'' (he fell INAN)<br />
<br />
===Formal===<br />
<br />
Mandatory use of pronouns and agent prefixes.<br />
<br />
One may use inanimate verb forms as anti-honorific? ''Ondakon næ ka Nithki.'' (I humbly offer this to You)<br />
<br />
Apophony of basic prepositions with root ''oi'': ''Oisti Hala, óosti vakuhanga, ousti qorel'' (under the Sun, under my hand, under the earth)<br />
<br />
In formal register, it is preferred to use only animate nouns as agents while abstract and inanimate are as antipassive subjects: ''luwi... nas'' ("beauty-of.yours it-un-eye-ful-makes me-with", your beauty makes me blind) vs. ''en fø na'' (you are making me blind)<br />
<br />
Distinction between abstract and animate in some categories, such as verb conjugation (''wa'')<br />
<br />
Can people with higher status be abstract or do they occupy a special animate category? (æ inside?)<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
See the [[Sceptrian/Dictionary|dictionary page]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian&diff=35648Sceptrian2015-07-07T21:17:59Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Cases */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Construction}}<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Sceptrian<br />
|nativename = [[File:Lusha_name.png|300px]]<br>''Batop Lushan''<br />
|pronunciation = [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ]<br />
|region = Western Central World<br />
|states = Sceptre<br />
|speakers = 29,200,000 <br />
|date = 7th 641<br />
|familycolor = #d3ffce<br />
|fam1 = West-Herookuan<br />
|fam2 = Lutian<br />
|fam3 = Sceptrian branch<br />
|creator=Ahuelni<br />
|setting=Akekata<br />
|dialects = Yerzonian, Mulish, Fanish <br />
|script = Toneka alphabet<br />
|nation = Empire of Sceptre<br />
|minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia<br />
|agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language)<br />
|map = Lusha_regions.jpg<br />
|mapsize = 300<br />
|mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects<br />
}}<br />
{{ClassMeter<br />
|Name = Sceptrian<br />
|NativeName = Batop Lushan<br />
|Type = Fusional<br />
|Alignment = Absolutive-ergative<br />
<br />
|adjective = final<br />
|adposition = mixed<br />
|adverb= final<br />
|article= mixed<br />
|relativeclause = final<br />
|nounclause = final<br />
|order = VSO<br />
<br />
|Tonal = no<br />
|Genders = 3<br />
|Declined = yes<br />
|Conjugated = yes<br />
|Case = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Definiteness = no<br />
|Gender = yes<br />
|Voice = yes<br />
|Mood = yes<br />
|Person = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Tense = yes<br />
|Aspect = yes<br />
|Phonology = 100<br />
|NounCases = 100<br />
|NounDef = 100<br />
|NounNumbers = 100<br />
|NounGender = 100<br />
|VerbPerson = 100<br />
|VerbNumber = 100<br />
|VerbAspect = 90<br />
|VerbTense = 100<br />
|VerbMood = 90<br />
|VerbVoice = 80<br />
|AdjCase = 100<br />
|AdjNumber = 100<br />
|AdjDef = 100<br />
|AdjGen = 100<br />
|AdjComparative = 100<br />
|AdjSuperlative = 100<br />
|Supine = 90<br />
|Gerund = 90<br />
|Participle = 90<br />
|Infinitive = 90<br />
|Modality = 90<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ] or simply ''lusha'') is an ''a priori'' [[w:Artistic_language|artistic language]] created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 29 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking [[Khattish]] and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian and its dialects feature 51 phonetic consonants, some of them with interesting lateral features. The language also has 25 phonetic vowels: twelve short, nine long and four diphthongs. Nasalization, rhotacization and breathy voice are used phonemically. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
If the romanization symbol is the same as in IPA, it is not duplicated. Not bolded romanization indicates that the sound appears as a vernacular or dialectal version.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 830px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px" colspan="2"|<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Uvular<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| [ɱ]<br />
| <br />
| '''n (ń)''' [n]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''t'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''k'''<br />
| '''q'''<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''b'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''d'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''g'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Breathy<br />
| '''ph bh'''<br>[pʰ] [bʱ]<br />
|<br />
|'''th dh'''<br>[tʰ] [dʱ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''kh gh'''<br>[kʰ] [gʱ]<br />
|'''qh'''<br>[qʰ]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| '''pl bl'''<br />[pˡ] [bˡ]<br />
| <br />
| '''tl dl'''<br />[tˡ] [dˡ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''kl gl'''<br/>[kˡ] [gˡ]<br />
| '''ql'''<br/>[qˡ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| ph [ɸ]<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| '''th''' [θ]<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''sh''' [ʃ]<br />
| '''h''' [ç]<br />
| '''kh h''' [x]<br />
| '''qh''' [χ]<br />
| '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''w''' bh [β]<br />
| '''v'''<br />
| '''dh''' [ð]<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| '''zh''' [ʒ]<br />
| <br />
| gh [ɣ]<br />
| <br />
| h [ɦ]<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''sl''' [ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Affricate<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ts''' [t͡s] <br />
| '''tsh''' [t͡ʃ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''tsl''' [t͡ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Approximant<br />
!Non-lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''j'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''l''' [l] [l̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| pr [ʙ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''r (ŕ)''' [r] [r̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The liquids ''r'' and ''l'' can appear as '''syllabic consonants''': ''tlsl'' /tˡl̩ɬ/ (shallow), ''prk'' /pr̩k/ (wagon) and ''trs'' /tr̩s/ (smith)<br />
*Vernacularly, both syllabic and obstruent-following alveolar trill ''r'' and lateral approximant ''l'' are pronounced as voiceless [r̩̊], [r̥], [l̩̊] and [l̥] when in contact with only voiceless consonants: ''trs'' [tr̩̊s] (smith) contrasting with ''trls'' [tr̩s] (while standard /trəls/) (smiths); ''gatl'' [gɑtl̥] (houses) whose pronunciation approaches [gɑtɬ]. <br />
**'''Meslatu Hirke''' made his disputed suggestion in 7:693 that a similar process had led to the birth of ''sl'' as plural indicator, when original plural ''l'' turned first into voiceless and then into ''sl'' after a word-final glottal stop, which has disappeared entirely. <br />
*In eastern dialects, ''pr'' is realized as [ʙ] and ''tr'', ''tsr'' and ''trs'' often as [r̝]. In the dialects, aspirated plosives have been fully spirantized into their fricative counterparts, e.g. [tʰ]>[θ].<br />
*Fricatives show properties of syllabic consonants word-initially and word-finally.<br />
<br />
Nasal [ɱ] only appears as an allophone of nasals with labio-dental sounds /f/ and /v/. Before velar sounds (e.g. /k/) nasals turn similarly into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
Letter ''h'' has four allophones: initial is always [h] despite frontness, [ç] appears elsewhere with front vowels, [x] appears word-finally and [h~ɦ] word-medially with back vowels ''tihtóhnah'' [tiçˈtɔɦ.näx] (assassinator). It's also used after consonants to indicate breathy voice.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 390px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| <br />
| '''u'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-mid<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| o<br/>[ɘ]<br />
| o<br/>[ɤ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
|<br />
| '''o'''<br/>[ə]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''é ø'''<br />[ɛ] [œ]<br />
|<br />
| '''ó'''<br />[ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
|'''æ'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
|'''a'''<br />[ä]<br />
|a<br />[ɑ]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
All the nine main vowel sounds (bolded) have '''long''' versions as separate phonemes.<br />
<br />
Schwa '''''o''''' is used as an epenthetic vowel (anaptyxis). When it is used to break consonant clusters (not indicated in native script) it is the simple schwa /ə/: *dŧ → ''doth'' /dəθ/ (man). When stressed, it is vernacularly realized as [ɘ], and in western dialects more clearly as [ɤ]: *dŧs → ''dothos'' [dəˈθɘˑs]<br />
<br />
Vowel ''a'' is [ɑ] after voiced consonants. Vowel ''æ'' is often more open [a], though, in Western dialects, it has merged with ''é''. <br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, there are only closing diphthongs which go up in the vowel chart:<br />
*Back: ou /ɔʊ̯/<br />
*Front: ai /äɪ̯/, ei /ei̯/, oi /œi̯/<br />
<br />
If the syllable border (glottal stop) is between vowels and they don't form a diphthong, apostrophe is used: ''tai'' (for long) vs. ''ta'i'' (past)<br />
*In native [[Sceptrian#Script|script]], separate graphemes for diphthongs exist and glottal stop is not marked.<br />
<br />
If diphthongs are followed by vowels, they are separated by a glottal stop in formal register. <br />
*In casual speech, ''ouV'' becomes ''owV'' and ''ViV'' ''VjV'': ''oua→ówa'' and ''aia→aja''. If the following vowel is the same, a glottal stop breaks the former diphthong and the ending vowel is lengthened: ''ai'i→a'ii''<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
<br />
===Onset===<br />
<br />
Basic [[w:Syllable#Structure|syllabic structure]] is CV, where the onset (beginning) consonant can be of any type. <br />
*It is possible to use liquids and approximants as '''glides''' (CLV) between the onset and the rime (ending). <br />
*Up to two consonants with same voicing may appear in the onset (CCV), especially fricative-plosive combinations, but never two plosives: ''stak'' (fence), ''fkot'' (nest), ''ksaru'' (guard). Affricate ''ts'' takes may be accompanied only by ''w'', ''j'', ''n'' or ''m'': ''tsma'' (doubt). Combination /sl/ has turned into /ɬ/.<br />
*Lateralization and aspiration may never appear together, and nasalized rhoticization is only found in Fanish dialect.<br />
<br />
===Nucleus=== <br />
<br />
The nucleus can be either a vowel or a liquid, thus CVC and CLC are also possible syllables. <br />
*Vowels (diphthongs included) may exist as a stand-alone nucleic syllable (V), mostly in the beginning or at the end of a word. <br />
*If nucleus is a liquid, plosives appear in codas only word-finally: ''dldlp'' /dˡl̩ˈdˡl̩p/ (bubble)<br />
<br />
===Coda=== <br />
<br />
The coda (final) may consist of up to three consonants with possible structures: N, P, F, L; NP, FP, LP; NF, PF, LF; NPF, FPF, LFP, LPF (Nasal, Plosive, Fricative, Liquid). <br />
*Final liquids appear as syllabic consonants<br />
*Approximants ''j'', ''w'' and plain voiced plosives never appear as coda (final) even though they may be written that way (no written schwa): ''nad'' /nä.də/ (stainy). Voiced fricatives may appear as coda. <br />
*In coda, plosives with lateral release, however, will reflect the voicing of the onset: ''gatl'' [gädˡl̩] (houses) vs. ''katl'' [kätˡl̩] (knobs). Vernacularly, the lateral approximant weakens into a voiceless variant [l̥] when in contact with voiceless consonants: ''gatl'' [gätl̥].<br />
<br />
Closed syllables, i.e. those ending in coda, are not as common word-medially as open syllables (ending in nucleus) are. When words are inflected, parts of codas tend to become onsets of the following syllable, if possible. Especially three-consonant clusters are rare word-medially and receive a schwa after a non-lateral stop: ''kamps'' /kämps/ (marsh) → ''kampsku'' → ''kamposku'' /ˈkäm.pəs.ku/ (at marsh)<br />
*Voicing status must be the same for consonants touching at syllable boundaries and the voiced one reduces into voiceless: ''*katbas''→''katpas'' /kätˈpäs/ (fern) vs. ''oist baku'' /œi̯st<sup>(h)</sup> bä.ku/ (under a table)<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
Primary '''stress''' in a word is most often on the second syllable, and when there are four or five syllables, secondary stress is placed onto the final syllable. When there are more syllables, minor stress is placed on even-numbered syllables. <br />
*If the to-be-stressed syllable contains the schwa ''o'' /ə/ or a syllabic consonant, the preceding syllable is stressed in two-syllable words and the following in words with more than three syllables.<br />
**In uninflected words, syllable with nuclear ''o'' is only stressed when it comes second and the preceding syllable has also ''o'' as nucleus. Then the stressed nucleus appears as [ɘ]. Contrast between stressed and non-stressed syllabic consonants may occur as voicing and devoicing respectively. <br />
*A non-final syllable with a long vowel or a diphthong is always stressed and steals the stress from its neighboring syllable. This also moves the secondary stress from final to penultimate syllable, if primary stress falls on first syllable.<br />
<br />
Inflected and affixed word forms have almost always the same stress as the base word (even monosyllabic with schwa): ''doth'' (man) → ''dothku'' [ˈdɘθ.ku] (near the man). <br />
*Vocative and ergative cases as well as inflections with long vowels make an exception: ''dothee'' /dəˈθe:/ (by the man), ''dothé'' /dəˈθɛ/ (O man), ''gatóo'' /gɑˈtɔ:/ (to the house)<br />
<br />
Interrogatives are formed by changing the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. This is indicated with ¿: ''¿Eikepoi?'' [ˈei̯˧˦ˈke˩.pœi̯˨˦] (Did you wash it?)<br />
<br />
==Morphophonology==<br />
<br />
===Vowel form===<br />
<br />
There are five ways of sound altering which may be used for grammatical purposes (mainly number, genitive case and imperfective aspect). In the native script the following are marked on the vowel.<br />
*Lengthening: ''paata'' /pä:tä/ (separation), ''ée'' [ɛ:]~[ɛe̯], ''óo'' /ɔ:/<br />
*Lateral (release): ''pló'' /pˡɔ/ (opposite to), ''tlaf'' /tˡäf/ (sprig) <br />
**Western dialects keep the tongue on the alveolar ridge during vowel pronunciation so that the vowels have a distinct l-sound. Historically, this may have lead to the syllabic l.<br />
*Aspiration/breathy voice: ''phó'' [pʰɔ]~[ɸɔ] (along), ''kébhar'' [kɛˈbʱɑ˞]~[kɛˈβɑ˞] (I will wash), ''tha'' [tʰä]~[θä] (abstract "it"), ''dhaka'' [dʱɑkä]~[ðɑkä] (abstract "that"). <br />
**Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head)<br />
*Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]]<br />
**Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as a short syllabic nasal consonant of the same place as the directly preceding or following consonant<br />
**Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!).<br />
*Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) <br />
**Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞:] (soup)<br />
<br />
===Consonant form===<br />
<br />
Combining sounds<br />
*Lateralization<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sl'' and ''zh'' respectively<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' → ''fl'' & ''w''<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' are geminated<br />
**''m'' & ''n'' → ''ng'' and ''ng'' → ''ńg''<br />
* Aspiration<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sh'' and ''zh''<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' are geminated<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' → ''lh'' and ''rh''<br />
* Voicing and aspiration<br />
**''r'' → ''qh'', ''l'' → ''ldh'', ''v'' → ''w''<br />
<br />
===Apophony===<br />
<br />
Apophony in the '''stressed syllable''' is used for example to express adjective gender and to create different verb forms.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Apophony<br />
|-<br />
!Root<br />
!1st<br />
!2nd<br />
|-<br />
|e<br />
|ee<br />
|é<br />
|-<br />
|o<br />
|ó<br />
|ø<br />
|-<br />
|a<br />
|aa<br />
|æ<br />
|-<br />
|u<br />
|uu<br />
|i<br />
|-<br />
|ai<br />
|ii<br />
|ei<br />
|-<br />
|ou<br />
|óo<br />
|oi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*When the stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting)<br />
*With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of ''é''.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Script=== <br />
[[File:Sceptrian.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Toneka script from the early sixth era. Notice that the vowel form info-box romanization should have "o" instead of "a".]]<br />
[[File:SceptrianTsrnet.JPG|500px|thumb|right|Tsrnet cursive script used for handwriting in modern Sceptre.]]<br />
The Sceptrian alphabet script was derived from the ancient temple marks as were the Aoman and Northern (Latin) scripts. The modern alphabet is called ''Tsoklóp Lushan''.<br />
<br />
Diacritics on vowels mark different [[Sceptrian#Vowel_form|sounds]]. The diacritics may be used with consonants as well, especially in the plural forms of consonant-ending nouns: ''gat̆'' (''gatl'' "houses"), ''doŧ̆'' (''dolth'' "men"). With the diacritics, letter ''ts'' can be lateralized into ''tsl'' or aspirated into ''tsh''.<br />
<br />
The native Sceptrian script has a long history of being unicameral, not distinguishing between the upper and lower case. Only during the sixth era under the Tyranny of West, the flow of refugees from the Coast of Temples encouraged the introduction of case separation. In the developed fonts, capital letters were derived from the traditional Toneka and small letters from the cursive Tsrnet.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Short and long letter names with explanations<br />
|-<br />
|aa<br>aat || ee<br>eet || ée<br>eet maatikipi<br>(opened e) || ii<br>iit || oo<br>oot || óo<br>oot guzbikipi<br>(deepened o) || uu<br>uut <br />
|-<br />
|ææ<br>aat evadh<br>(bright a) || øø<br>oot gudh<br>(dark o) || ai<br>aat zaithon<br>(rising a) || ei<br>eet zaithon<br>(rising e) || oi<br>oot zaithon<br>(rising o) || ou<br>óot bousoson<br>(falling o) ||<br />
|-<br />
| po<br>poot || bo<br>bóot || mo<br>mool || wo<br>wool || to<br>toot || do<br>dóot || <br />
|-<br />
| tho<br>toot hifdo<br>(windy t) || dho<br>dóot hifdo<br>(windy d) || no<br>nool || so<br>siit || sho<br>siit hifdo<br>(windy s) || zo<br>ziit || zho<br>ziit gudh<br>(dark z) <br />
|-<br />
| ngo<br>góot slenguhpi<br>(g using nose) || tso<br>tsiit || lo<br>lool || slo<br>lool hifdo<br>(windy l) || fo<br>fiit || vo<br>fiit gudh<br>(dark f) || jo<br>jool <br />
|-<br />
| ko<br>koot || go<br>góot || ho<br>hiit || qho<br>hiit surmudh<br>(strong h) || qo<br>koot venongp<br>(k being<br> swallowed) || ro<br>rool || <br />
|-<br />
|plo<br>looh tisk<br>(with l<br> mark) || pon<br>slenguhpi tisk<br>(using nose<br> mark) || por<br>tisk prung<br>(mark of<br> trill) || pho<br>tisk hifn<br>(mark of<br> wind) || poo<br>tisk spiing<br>(mark of<br> length) || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Romanization===<br />
<br />
====Modern====<br />
Consonant variation:<br />
*Letter ''r'' is used with consonants for /r̩/ and between vowels for /r/, but after vowels in the end of syllables for rhoticization ''or'' /ɚ/. Letter ''ŕ'' is used to emphasize the use of /r/ after vowels ''oŕ'' /ər/.<br />
*Similarly letter ''n'' can appear syllable-finally with nasalization but ''ń'' always as /n/: ''an'' /ã/ vs. ''ań'' /an/. <br />
*With ''ng'' /ŋ/, the accent signals lengthening ''nańgo'' /näŋ:ə/ or ''naŋŋo'' (sweaty).<br />
*Labialization of plosives is indicated by PuV (V is any vowel except ''u'') or with ''w''.<br />
*Breathry voice is indicated with an ''h'' straight after a plosive. The ''h'' is also used for corresponding fricatives which occur word-finally. This risk of confuse is one of the downsides of the simplified modern system: ''nath'' /näθ/ "a beggar" or /nätʰ/ "with stains".<br />
<br />
====Old====<br />
<br />
The old romanization system (or part of it) was used until western regions of Eastern Sceptre were joined with the Western Sceptre empire in 7th era 161, during the war against Empress Renula of Golden Islet. A revision was needed when both Sceptrian and Aoma were used in the same printing press and texts had to be distributed to westlang-using communities. Peter Martyea suggested in 7:189 that the payment according to number of pages may have favoured quick adaptation as the non-diacritic system induced much longer texts (see the comparison example).<br />
<br />
Consonants:<br />
*Nasal: '''ŋ''' ''ng'' /ŋ/<br />
**Texts from the first century of the seventh era use ''ǥ'' for word-initial /ŋ/.<br />
*Fricative: '''ŧ''' ''th'' /θ/, '''đ''' ''dh'' /ð/, '''ś''' ''sh'' /ʃ/, '''ź''' ''zh'' /ʒ/, '''ħ''' ''qh'' /χ/<br />
*Affricate: '''c''' ''ts'' /t͡s/, '''č''' ''tsh'' /t͡ʃ/<br />
*Lateral: '''š''' ''sl'' /ɬ/, '''ǩ''' ''kl'' /kˡ/, '''ǧ''' ''gl'' /gˡ/<br />
<br />
Compact equivalents of sound altering:<br />
*Lengthening with a bar: ''ṓ'' /ɔ:/ and ''ō'' /ə:/<br />
*Lateral release with a breve diacritic: ''tŏ'' /tˡə/<br />
*Nasalization with a tilde: ''õ'' /ə̃/, ''on'' /ən/<br />
*Rhotacization with a diaeresis: ''ö'' /ɚ/, ''or'' /ər/<br />
*Aspiration with a grave accent: ''pò'' /pʰə/, ''pô'' /pʰɔ/<br />
<br />
Comparison between the systems:<br />
*Old: Ǧëǩ śošēŧã <br />
*Modern: Glerkl shosleethan (maces of a knight)<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
The most complete study of the structure of pre-modern Sceptrian words was done by Porutingatu of Jerzónó in year 362 of the seventh era. She collected, grouped and analyzed the fusional morphemes and listed the new rules to replace the outdated writings from the sixth era. By 370, her work had led to a new interest in linguistics and ultimately to the founding of ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan'' (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) which has been unifying and regulating the language along with its orthography since then.<br />
<br />
Sceptrian utilizes [[w:Fusional_language|fusional]] [[w:Inflection|inflections]] and has an [[w:Ergative–absolutive_language|absolutive-ergative]] [[w:Morphosyntactic_alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]. The language is rather [[w:Head-directionality_parameter|head-initial]] and its primary [[w:Word_order|word order]] is verb-agent-object.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns are used to refer to e.g. people or things in sentences instead of using the original nouns. In Sceptrian, they exist in two numbers and are inflected according to six [[Sceptrian#Cases|'''cases''']]. <br />
<br />
====Personal====<br />
Second person includes polite versions as well which were adapted by Aoma-sperkers. Third person singular makes distinction between abstract (Ab), animate (An) and inanimate (In) pronouns while plural only between Ab-An and In. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Personal pronoun inflection'''<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! 1SG !! 1PL !! 2SG !! 2PL !! 2SG.POL !! 2PL.POL !! 3SG.Ab !! 3SG.An !! 3PL.A !! 3SG.In !! 3PL.In<br />
|-<br />
!ABS <br />
| na || mo || fo || po || Nith || With || tha || su || slo || hi || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
| næ || moslo || fø || poslo || Nithe || Widhes || thaa || suu || sloslo || hii || kloslo<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
| nai || mokli || foki || pokli || Nithki || Withkli || thai || swi || slokli || hiki|| klokli<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
| nar || moŕ || for || poŕ || Nithor || Withoŕ || thar || sur || sloŕ || hir || kloŕ<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
| nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh || thas || sus || slosh || his || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
| nape || moplo || fope || poplo || Nitti || Witti || thape || supe || sloplo || hipi || kloplo<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''Comitative''' case is used to indicate company: ''Mo slosh arakha.'' (We were with them yesterday.)<br />
*'''Causal''' describes the cause of an action or origin of something: ''Aitesosai næ su fope'' (I saw him because of (/thanks to) you), ''Hi supe foki.'' (It (is) from him to you.)<br />
<br />
3rd person abstract pronoun is used in the formal register when introducing or referring to a person of higher status.<br />
<br />
====Reflexive====<br />
Self-pronoun ''ru'' for '''reflexive''' and '''reciprocal''': ''tesosón ru'' (they are watching themself), ''ónlatepón ru'' (he is dancing by himself, alone) vs. ''ónlatepón su'' (he is dancing with him); ''sónkephón ru'' (they are washing each other) vs. ''sónkephón sloslo slo/soutu'' (they are washing them)<br />
*reflexive is easier with others: ''anlatepan'' (I'm dancing by myself); ''ankepan'' (I'm washing myself) vs. ''ankep'' ("I'm washing it"), ''kepan'' (I'm being washed)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
<br />
Simple words for "this/these" and "that/those". When demonstratives are used with [[Sceptrian#Nouns|nouns]], they behave similarly to [[Sceptrian#Adjectives|adjectives]]. In the following examples, note that Sceptrian lacks the [[Sceptrian#Verbs|verb "to be"]]: <br />
*As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.)<br />
*For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) <br />
*The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the "head" can rather be considered an attribute of the pronoun: ''Bouson ko qot.'' (That's falling, the rock, I mean.) <br />
<br />
See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]].<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Demonstrative pronoun inflection<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Case <br />
!colspan="2"| Proximal <br />
!colspan="2"| Distal <br />
|-<br />
!SG !! PL !! SG !! PL<br />
|-<br />
!ABS<br />
|ka || kla || ko || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
|kaa || klaa || kó || kló<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
|kai ||klai || koi || kloi<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
|kan ||klang || kon || klong<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
|kas || klash || kos || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
|kap || klapa || kop ||klopo<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Table of correlatives===<br />
<br />
Determiners follow their heads and agree in number and with the cases mentioned above in [[Sceptrian#Demonstrative|the table]], where DAT & LAT, COM & LOC, CAU & ABL and ABS & VOC are corresponding. Words follow the declension shown above or paradigms similar to [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun cases]]. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!rowspan="2"|Interrogative<br />
!colspan="2"|Demonstrative<br />
!colspan="5"|Quantifier<br />
|-<br />
!Proximal !! Distal !! Existential !! Elective !! Universal !! Negatory !! Alternative<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Determiner<br />
| sho || ka (SG)<br/>kla (PL) || ko<br />klo || jofa (some) || ota (any) || orka (every, all) || ze (no) || so (another)<br/>solo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="5"| Pronoun<br />
!Abstract<br />
| ashu || thaka || dhaka || jaafa || thata || thorka || theso || thaso<br />
|-<br />
!Animate<br />
| ¿soutu || saitu || soutu || jonfu || onta || ongka || souso || jonso<br />
|-<br />
!Inanimate <br />
| ¿ko || ka || ko || jofo || oto || orko || ze || so<br />
|-<br />
!Out of two<br />
| ¿tso || tsaka || tsoko || zho || tsoto || tsorko || tseso || tso<br />
|-<br />
!Out of many<br />
| ¿tsolo || tsalka || tsolko || zolo || tsolto || tsongko || tsleso || tsolo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="6"|Pro-adverb<br />
!Locative<br />
| sku || khau || khu || jofku || otku || orkhu || zengu || sokhu<br />
|-<br />
!Temporal<br />
| sko || kha || kho || jofko || otko || orkho || zeng || sokho<br />
|-<br />
!Comitative<br />
| shos || kas || kos || jofos || otos || orkos || zeos || sos<br />
|-<br />
!Causal<br />
| spe || kap || kop || jov || otop || orkop || zenep || sonop<br />
|-<br />
!Manner<br />
| shi || khai || khoi || jofai || otai || orkai || zei || soi<br />
|-<br />
!What kind of<br />
| shodh || kadh || kodh || jodhi || othi || ordhi || zodhi || sothi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Negative determiner ''ze'' has no plural form. Neither have pronouns "Out of two".<br />
*Demonstratives are used when referring to listed items of equal animacy: proximal with the former and distal with the latter: ''Aitesoshóji math kuthos. Óomidh soutu.'' (I saw a cat and a dog. The latter was large.)<br />
*Locative pro-adverb can be conjugated with lative, locative and ablative.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Nouns in Sceptrian form the basis of derivational morphology and even the cases are utilized when forming new words. They are declined according to two numbers and nine cases, and the seven declensions are grouped in three genders which affect the verb conjugation and adjective agreement.<br />
<br />
====Gender====<br />
<br />
There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes.<br />
*Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in vowels ''a, æ, o, ó, ø'' and ''i''. <br />
*Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h'', same voiced and affricates), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings.<br />
*Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group.<br />
In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull). Some archaic words remain in dialects and in poetic use.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
<br />
There are two numbers, singular and plural, but abstract ''i''-nouns and inanimate ''l''-nouns are always singular. The declension according to number is complicated and fused with the class/case system explained and tabulated below.<br />
<br />
====Cases====<br />
<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Unmarked base form for subjects of intransitive and objects of transitive verbs <br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agents of transitive verbs<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect object; alienable possession ''gat dothi'' (a house of (lit. "for") the man); comparison (with ADJ comparative)<br />
*Possessive (POS): Inalienable possession ''dhoku dothor'' (the man's head)<br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS): Using something; "with someone", replaces "and" as Latin [[wikt:-que|-que]]; in antipassive constructions<br />
*Lative (LAT): Movement to; with adpositions<br />
*Locative-temporal (LOC-TEMP): Place; time; with adpositions<br />
*Ablative (ABL): Movement from (+delative); causal<br />
*Vocative (VOC): addressing (people, gods); interjections ''Alæ!'' (Hello! lit. "Day!")<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Genders and desinences'''<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" style="width: 100px"| <br />
!colspan="3"| Abstract <br />
!colspan="6"| Animate <br />
!colspan="3"| Inanimate<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''A'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''i'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''F'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''N'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''u'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"|''P'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''l''<br />
|-<br />
|<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>|| ||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 100px"| Absolutive<br />
| A || Asl || i || F || (o)lF || N || Ning || u || ush || P || Pl || l<br />
|- <br />
! style=""| Ergative <br />
| AA || AslA || ii || Fee || Fele || Nee || Neng || uu || uushu || Pee || Ple || le<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Dative <br />
| Ak || Akl || ik || Fi || Fil || Ni || Nil || (u)ji || (u)wi || Pei || Plei || lei<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Possessive <br />
| An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Instrumental-comitative <br />
| Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Lative <br />
| AgA || AglA || iki || Fko || Fklo || Nong || Nongo || ugu || uglu || Póo || Plóo || lo <br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Locative-temporal <br />
| AkhA || AlkhA || ikhi || Fku || Fklu || Nung || Nungu || ukhu || ulkhu || Pu || Plu || lu<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Ablative <br />
| ApA || AplA || ipi || Fp(o) || Fpl(o) || Nop || Nopl || upu || uplu || PPo || PPol || lp<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Vocative <br />
| Ae || Asl || ii || Fé || lFé || Né || Nin || -wé || -wésh || Pé || Plé || lé<br />
|}<br />
*''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø''<br />
**Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø<br />
*''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts, tsl'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. <br />
*''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng''<br />
*''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q''<br />
**POS ''q''→''ng''<br />
**INS ending Ph marks breathy voice and may turn the plosive into corresponding fricative /ɸ, θ, x, χ/ if followed by a plosive.<br />
*- indicates that the original ending is replaced with the following: ''tup → tu'''m''''' (stick → stick's)<br />
<br />
====Possessive==== <br />
<br />
Different possessive forms and interpretations: <br />
*''Dativus possessivus'' (alienable): ''gat doth'''i''''' "the house which the man has temporarily settled in, i.e. rented"<br />
*Comitative case with alienable possessive suffix: ''doth gat''h'''''os''''' "man with his house which he has purchased"<br />
**Inalienable possessive suffix alters the meaning: ''doth gat''h'''''ozh''''' "man and his birthplace"<br />
*Possessive case (almost inalienable): ''gat doth'''or''''' "the house which was inherited and is now owned by the man". <br />
<br />
The noun in possessive case is not inflected further. With dative case, inflection may be utilized in order to distinguish the ''dativus possessivus'' from the indirect object or benefactive: ''Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli.'' "The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them." (Related to the feather ceremony when welcoming upper class members to a household.)<br />
<br />
'''Possessive affixes''', as shown in examples above, draw a distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: ''Óntesoson dothee gat'''s'''/vakuh'''oz'''.'' (A man is watching his house/ his own hand.) With the basic suffixes, the root is inflected first and then suffixed.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ Possessional suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!Person<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! ALIEN !! INAL !! ALIEN !! INAL <br />
|-<br />
!1st <br />
| (a)ń || (a)nga || (ó)m || (ó)ngó <br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
| (o)f || (ø)fo || (e)v || (ø)vø<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
| (o)s || (o)zh || (o)sl || (o)zhol<br />
|}<br />
*Irregular: Only VOC+possessive with 1SG: ''Pos'''n'''é!'' (My servant!), ''Polsmé!'' (Our servants!)<br />
<br />
'''2nd person polite suffixes''' are added to absolutive base and the endings are then declined according to abstract gender: <br />
*Singular: (a)tha, (a)tazha <br />
*Plural: (a)dhó, (a)dózhó <br />
*Example: ''gat'''atha'''pa'' (from Your house)<br />
<br />
See [[Sceptrian#Adverbial_clauses|adverbial clauses]] which utilize some possessive suffixes with [[Sceptrian#Non-finite_forms|non-finite verb forms]].<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
<br />
Adpositions are used with inflected nouns to add information about its location or relation to other nouns. Some Sceptrian adpositions can be used as stand-alone adverbs which may be conjugated according to noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====Prepositions====<br />
<br />
Prepositions are used with lative (to, towards), locative (at, near) and ablative (from) cases to alter the meaning.<br />
*''voi'' (in) forms illative, inessive, elative <br />
*''loi'' (out) for "out of", "outside" and "from outside"<br />
*''soi'' (on) to emphasize the surface aspect <br />
*''oist(i)'' (under) for movement under something<br />
*''roi'' (above) similarly to ''oist''<br />
*''boi'' (down) for "down (a surface / to)", "down in (somewhere)" and "from down"; as an adverb as well <br />
*''zoi'' (up) used like ''boi''<br />
*''moi'' (touching, around) with lative for terminative, locative for pertingent and ablative for initiative<br />
*''oil(i)'' (as) forms translative, essive, exessive<br />
*''koi'' (per) distribution: "for each", "every" (temporal), "from each"<br />
*''jon'' (... between) <br />
*''poi'' (... the middle of, among)<br />
*''tsoi'' (... front of; preceding) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = before<br />
*''hoi'' (... behind; following) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = after<br />
*''mots(i)'' (... on side)<br />
**combined with postpositional ''dei'' (right) or ''lai'' (left)<br />
**with time nouns in locative = ago<br />
<br />
====Postpositions====<br />
<br />
Postpositions appear with various cases and often come in groups.<br />
*''pón'' (through) with lative<br />
*''phó'' (along) with lative<br />
*''pló'' (opposite to, across) with locative<br />
*''sós'' (with) with comitative to express a greater degree of endowment (ornative); with ablative to indicate "without"; with lative for "in addition to"<br />
*''óp'' (about, concerning) with genitive; with ablative for "according to"<br />
*''ól'' (like) with genitive; as an adverb "similarly"<br />
*''jak'' (away, despite) with ablative; as an adverb as well<br />
*''mai'' (excluding) with ablative<br />
*''mak'' (except) with ablative<br />
*''mats'' (instead of) with ablative<br />
*''sai'' (including) with comitative<br />
*''sak'' (concerning, regarding) with comitative; with ablative to emphasize the causal aspect (due to, because of, thanks to)<br />
*''phe'' (for the sake of) with lative<br />
<br />
====Pronominal====<br />
<br />
When used with pronouns, separate adpositions only come with dative forms to indicate lative. Otherwise adpositions take possessive suffixes, inalienable for locative and alienable for ablative: ''voi nai'' (into me), ''voinga'' (inside me), ''voiń'' (from inside me)<br />
<br />
Of the polite possessive suffixes, alienable is added onto the adposition and then the entire compound is conjugated for lative, locative or ablative: ''voitha'' (in You; attributive), ''voithaga'' (into You), ''voithakha'' (inside You; predicative), ''voithapa'' (from inside You)<br />
<br />
===Derivational Morphology===<br />
<br />
Verbs and adjectives are derived from nouns by adding suffixes and in some cases prefixes as well.<br />
<br />
====Noun====<br />
<br />
Many nouns share same origins and these endings are the most common forms of derivation:<br />
*Suffixing verbs with once established ending vowels or consonant appropriate for the noun class. <br />
*place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix<br />
*collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish)<br />
*being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy")<br />
**doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer)<br />
**experiencer, patient: ABS with ''(k)ois'' or ''(k)oit'' depending on animacy: ''kepois'' (person being washed)<br />
**origin: ABL with ''(o)su'': ''ukopposu'' (person from north)<br />
**characteristic (from abstract quality): INS with final duplicated vowel and ''tu'': ''luwishitu'' (beauty)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)n'' (AN) or ''(o)l'' (INAN): ''koson'' (wood), ''qotol'' (stone)<br />
*diminutive: reduplication of final sound with ''t'' between vowels and ''i'' between consonants: ''kosis'' (small tree)<br />
*augmentative: reduplication of final sound with ''g'' between vowels and ''a'' between consonants: ''kosas'' (great tree)<br />
**apotheosis: augmentative with ''a''-ending: ''kosonana'' (godwood)<br />
*abstract quality, feature: ABS suffixed with ''(k)oti'': ''dothoti'' (manliness)<br />
*'''gerund''' (act of doing): via derivated [[Sceptrian#Verb|verb]] suffixed with ''(o)pi'': ''glerkurpi'' (mace-battering)<br />
<br />
====Adjective====<br />
<br />
Different cases and affixes are used for the derivation:<br />
*similarity, having something: ''dh'' suffix to abstract gender and animate ''u''-ending; voicing of fricatives (''h→qh'', no change with affricates); nasals [[Sceptrian#Consonant_form|"lateralized"]] + ''o''; voicing of plosives + ''o'' (''q→g''); l-declension as in INS-COM: ''evadh'' (bright), ''dodh'' (masculine)<br />
**full of, having something: previous suffixed with ''ol'': ''mel muvol'' (waters full of fish)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)p'': ''kosonop'' (wooden)<br />
*origin, relation: ABL form with a final ''ó'' added or replacing the original ending vowel: ''kusupó'' (friendly)<br />
*absence, without: ''ti'' suffixed to VOC form: ''evæti'' (lightless=dark)<br />
*doing: ''on'' added after INS case: ''kephon'' (washing)<br />
*who did: INS with ''ompu'': ''kephompu'' (who washed = ''pessyt'' in Finnish)<br />
*done by: INS with ''empo'' and possibly inalienable possessive suffix: ''kephemponga'' (washed by me)<br />
*not done: LAT suffixed with ''tip'': ''kepóotip'' (unwashed)<br />
*experiencing: LAT suffixed with ''p'': kepóop (being washed)<br />
*result (wanted): LAT suffixed with ''pi'': ''kepóopi'' (washed=clean)<br />
**if unwanted: LAT suffixed with ''pot'': ''vangostóopot'' (drunk)<br />
*possible: POS with ''ta'': ''kenta'' (washable)<br />
*requiring: LOC with ''rt'': ''kepurt'' (needs to be washed)<br />
*opposite, negation: VOC with ''tot''<br />
<br />
Notice that plural forms of adjectives may be derived from plural nouns: ''dolth kep'''s'''on'' (men who are washing)<br />
<br />
====Verb====<br />
<br />
A declined core noun receives an ending which describes how the verb reflects the noun:<br />
*In some cases, the vowel ending of nouns may simply be removed or the absolutive of a consonant-ending noun may also serve as a verb.<br />
*ABS = "happens, is": ''kep'' (is washed)<br />
*COM = "using": ''tuph'' (is poked with a stick), ''glerkh'' (is hit with a mace)<br />
*POS + ''k'' = "similarity": ''melonk'' (is wet)<br />
*DAT + ''k'' = "making/becoming" (no ''k'' with Abstract): ''zurmu'' → ''zurmjik'' (strong person → is strengthened), ''zurp'' → ''zurpeik'' (strong, durable object → hardens) & ''zurma'' → ''zurmak'' (strength → intensifies)<br />
*LAT + ''t'' = "movement, quasi-inceptive": ''glerkóot'' (swings a mace, INTR), ''melot'' (flows), ''latepóot'' (is persuaded to dance, INTR; begins a dance with, TR), ''lehkot'' (runs) <br />
*LOC + ''r'' = "frequentative": ''glerkur'' (is battered with a mace), ''melur'' (rains; drips)<br />
*VOC + ''k'' = "momentane": ''glerkék'' (is hit once with a mace), ''melék'' (splashes once)<br />
*POS + ''(o)v'' = "consider, feel": ''vongv'' (is considered strange = ''oudoksutaan'' in Finnish)<br />
* Several endings can be stacked on verbs without turning it into a noun in between: ''melurék'' (shower of rain falls), ''tup(o)hkur'' (is often poked with a stick). When deriving, the ''r''-ending are declined according to the ''l''-paradigm.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Sceptrian agree with the gender, number and cases of their head. When an adjective is used as a predicative, it comes before its head, but when as an attributive, it comes after. Adjective declension follows approximately the same rules as [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun declension]]. In the common ''dh''-ending F-declension, ''o'' is added between ''dh'' and case-endings with consonants. Changes in both casual and poetic speech include mirroring onset into coda: ''dothklu jadaadh'''ulk''''' (near nice men)<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+DH-declension<br />
! !! ABS !! ERG !! DAT !! POS !! INS !! LAT !! LOC !! ABL !! VOC<br />
|-<br />
!SG<br />
|dh || dhee || dhi || dhor || dhos || dh'''ok''' || dh'''uk''' || dh'''op''' || dhé<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
| ldh(o) || dhele || dhil || dhoŕ || dhosh || dh'''olk''' || dh'''ulk''' || dh'''olp''' || ldhé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Sceptrian#Apophony|Apophony]] in the stressed syllable is used to indicate the gender: base for inanimate, first apophony with animate and second with abstract gender: ''eja jadædh, doth jadaadh, latep jadadh'' <br />
<br />
Polite adjectives are formed from the abstract form with predicative prefix ''nga'' and attributive suffix ''æ'': ''ngaluwidh Nith'' (You are beautiful), ''shosleetha luwidhæ'' (a beautiful knight)<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
<br />
'''Positive''' of an adjective is the base form.<br />
*When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.)<br />
*Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle.<br />
*When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii fældh dolth lutush.'' (As many men as women.) <br />
<br />
'''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). <br />
*Manner quatifiers ''orkai, jofai'' and ''zei'' can be used to indicate the degree: ''luwidhé orkai'' (much more beautiful), ''luwidhé jofai'' (slightly more beautiful), ''luwidhé zei'' (not more beautiful)<br />
*When comparing two nouns adjective comes first (predicative comparative), the standard acquires the dative case, and comparative forms agree with their head in gender and number: ''luwildhé po swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*Pronoun comparison is also possible to construct with alienable possessional suffixes: ''luwildhév swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*When adjective comparative is not included, postpositional ''fadhé'' (more) or ''føødhi'' (less) can be used with noun plurals: ''dolth faldhé lutwi'' (more men than women)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative''' is similar to noun apotheosis: the ending is reduplicated with ''é'' between consonants and ''j'' between vowels, and an ''a'' added to the end: ''luwidhédha'' (most beautiful). Similarly to comparative, ''ti'' gives the meaning of "least": ''luwidhédhati'' (least beautiful).<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly)<br />
<br />
Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh òomidhé'' (very beautiful < "largely")<br />
<br />
'''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative adverb''' is similar to adjective superlative in its reduplication but with an ''æ''-ending: ''zaivie jadædhédhæ'' (you sing most pleasantly)<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Missing verbs: <br />
*"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man)<br />
**Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith)<br />
**Showing tense:<br />
***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past)<br />
***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective<br />
***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense<br />
***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" <br />
* "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man")<br />
<br />
====Conjugation====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, primary conjugation of verbs indicates person, number and tense-aspect, and it includes affixation and apophony. Conjugation for different [[Sceptrian#Mood|moods]] is slightly more complex.<br />
<br />
=====Root=====<br />
<br />
Verbs are given in their 3SG.INAN GNO form which is used to form all of the third person forms. With first and second person subjects, the first apophony is used in indicative inceptive and future. Polite second person forms use the second apophony<br />
<br />
=====Affixes=====<br />
<br />
Fusional conjugation affixes convey the person, number, tense and aspect (and honorific). Subject and object suffixes are almost always used with verbs, the antipassive being the only exception. Agent prefixes aren't often used in the casual register, mostly to form the [[Sceptrian#Reflexive|reflexive]], but they have to be used in the formal register. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense <br />
!Aspect<br />
!1SG<br />
!1PL<br />
!2SG<br />
!2PL<br />
!2SG.POL<br />
!2PL.POL<br />
!3SG.A<br />
!3PL.A<br />
!3SG.INAN<br />
!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a<br />
| ha<br />
| e<br />
| he<br />
| ahi<br />
| aqhi<br />
| ó<br />
| hó<br />
| (o)<br />
| l<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an<br />
| han<br />
| en<br />
| hen<br />
| ang<br />
| aing<br />
| ón<br />
| hón<br />
| on <br />
| lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| ast<br />
| last<br />
| est<br />
| lest<br />
| æst<br />
| hæst<br />
| ós<br />
| lós<br />
| os<br />
| osl<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| ajin<br />
| hajin<br />
| ejin<br />
| hejin<br />
| azing<br />
| izing<br />
| ójin<br />
| hójin<br />
| oin<br />
| loin<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai<br />
| hai<br />
| ei<br />
| hei<br />
| athi<br />
| idhi<br />
| óji<br />
| hóji<br />
| oi<br />
| loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| har<br />
| +har<br />
| her<br />
| +her<br />
| athar<br />
| idhar<br />
| hór<br />
| +hór<br />
| ho<br />
| +ho<br />
|}<br />
* initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive<br />
* initial ''h'' is for aspiration of the final plosive or simply ''h'' after a vowel<br />
**if the final plosive is already breathy, ''o'' is added after it<br />
*+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration<br />
**simple ''h'' becomes ''qh''<br />
*Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense <br />
!Aspect<br />
!1SG<br />
!1PL<br />
!2SG<br />
!2PL<br />
!2SG.POL<br />
!2PL.POL<br />
!3SG.A<br />
!3PL.A<br />
!3SG.INAN<br />
!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a<br />
| sa<br />
| e<br />
| se<br />
| æ<br />
| hæ<br />
| ó<br />
| só<br />
| o<br />
| lo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an<br />
| san<br />
| en<br />
| sen<br />
| nga<br />
| ngai<br />
| ón<br />
| són<br />
| on <br />
| lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| tsa<br />
| tsla<br />
| tse<br />
| tsle<br />
| tsæ<br />
| tshæ<br />
| tsó<br />
| tsló<br />
| so<br />
| slo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| jan<br />
| zhan<br />
| jen<br />
| zhen<br />
| izæ<br />
| izhæ<br />
| jón<br />
| zhón<br />
| i<br />
| li<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai<br />
| sai<br />
| ei<br />
| sei<br />
| thæ<br />
| dhæ<br />
| jó<br />
| zhó<br />
| oi<br />
| loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| ar<br />
| sar<br />
| er<br />
| ser<br />
| thar<br />
| dhar<br />
| ór<br />
| sór<br />
| or<br />
| lor<br />
|}<br />
*Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.)<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ónbouson dothee pof.'' (A man (ERG) is lifting a feather (ABS).), ''Bousón doth.'' (The man falls.) ''Bouson pof.'' (The feather (ABS) falls.).<br />
<br />
====Tense====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, verbs are conjugated for three tenses: past, present and future. These tenses describe when an action took place relative to current moment as their names indicate. <br />
<br />
====Aspect====<br />
<br />
Gnomic-static aspect is used to indicate general truths ''Zaitó Hala.'' (sun rises) and static situations ''Mépa lusha.'' (I can speak Sceptrian). It can be used with expressions of time to specify when something was static ''Petsipha kas arakha.'' (dress-STAT.1SG this.COM yesterday.TEMP "I was dressed in these clothes yesterday (as well).")<br />
<br />
Present progressive describes dynamic actions ''Anbaplóph lusha kha.'' (I'm reading Sceptrian at the moment). Present inceptive is used when an action is about to begin or someone is starting to do something.<br />
*Inceptive is only used once: Subject inceptive with intransitive and mostly agent inceptive with translative verbs. Object ending is either PRES.PROG, when something was begun only a moment ago, or FUT, when something is about to begin.<br />
**Translative object inceptive if the object caused the initialization: ''Órlateepast.'' (He is about to take me to dancing through my initiative.)<br />
<br />
Past imperfective is used with continuous activities which were happening before the present. The contrasting perfective aspect describes the event as a whole and having an endpoint in the past.<br />
<br />
In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used.<br />
<br />
Endings with different tenses may be mixed:<br />
*PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) <br />
*PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while))<br />
<br />
====Mood====<br />
<br />
Moods express speaker's attitude towards the subject or their knowledge of it. They are divided into realis and irrealis moods: the former expresses factual statements while the latter indicates that an event hasn't taken place or the speaker is uncertain of a situation.<br />
<br />
=====Realis=====<br />
<br />
'''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well)<br />
<br />
'''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.)<br />
<br />
=====Irrealis=====<br />
<br />
'''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?)<br />
<br />
'''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) <br />
*The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!)<br />
<br />
'''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original second syllable: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: '''''la'''latép'' (may dance), '''''ak'''aktæsos'' (may hear), ''rorøt'' (may go)<br />
*The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject.<br />
*The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished<br />
<br />
=====Particles=====<br />
<br />
Particles are placed after a verb to alter or to specify its meaning.<br />
<br />
Realis<br />
*''pai'' mirative (with soft imperative in present): ''Rótóji pai!'' (He went!?)<br />
**with adjectives or as an adverb: ''Luwi pai!'' (How beautiful!) <br />
<br />
Evidentials (with causatives)<br />
*''atasi'' hearsay: ''Rotóji tasi fope.'' (I heard from you that he went.)<br />
*''tesei'' visual: ''Rótoutóji tesei nape.'' (I didn't see him go.)<br />
<br />
Irrealis<br />
*''norka'' dubitative (with subjunctive): ''Rorøtóji norka.'' (I doubt he went.)<br />
*''gana'' volitive (with future subjunctive): ''Lalatépar gana.'' (I wish I could dance.)<br />
<br />
Conditional (with subjunctive)<br />
*''ta'' apodosis: ''Arziizeither ta'' (I will raise you...)<br />
*''-ti-'' infixed between reduplicated form for protasis: ''boutiboisen'' (if you fall)<br />
<br />
Hortatives (with soft imperative which itself works as an adhortative or dehortative with negation (unwillingness))<br />
*Cohortative: ''Latéprlast kha!'' (Let's dance now!), ''Rótrlastonget khugu.'' (Let's not go there.)<br />
*''jokæ'' exhortative (inhortative through negation): ''Rótrest jokæ.'' (You really should go.)<br />
<br />
'''Formal''' register differences:<br />
*''aktasosai'' (hears) conjugated for hearsay: ''Røtathi aiaktasosóji.'' (I heard from her that you left.)<br />
*''tesos'' (sees) conjugated for visual evidentiality: ''Rotóji tesosai.'' (I saw her go.)<br />
*''tsmaadhoré'' (doubtfully) used for dubitative<br />
*''tutaadhoré'' (wishfully) used for volitive<br />
*''alké'' permissive with dative: ''Rótest alké foki.'' (You may leave.)<br />
**prohibitive with negated (inability) imperative infinitive: ''Rótrostodi alké foki.'' (You aren't allowed to leave.)<br />
*both conditional particles are used separately and they are prefixed with the subjunctive reduplication: ''Arziizeither zaita bouboisen bouti.'' (I will raise you if you fall.)<br />
<br />
'''In literature''' to express the peaking pitch of ironical statements and lowered pitch of sarcastic expressions:<br />
*''jø'' verbal irony: ''Jótesosoi melurpi, jóbatophoi "Luwidh jø hi loi khu".'' (He saw the rain and said: "''Beautiful'' day out there")<br />
*''gæ'' sarcasm: ''Uu, eiluwikoi gæ pai.'' (Oh, ''how beautiful'' you made it.)<br />
<br />
====Negation====<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Negation affixes<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Manner→<br />
! Inability<br />
!colspan="6"| Unwillingness<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Form→<br />
!2nd apophony +infix<br>(before patient-suffix)<br />
!colspan="3"|Intranslative<br>suffix<br />
!colspan="3"|Translative<br>infix (after agent-prefix)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Person→<br />
!All<br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!SG<br />
|ost<br />
|net<br />
|fep<br />
|set<br />
|no<br />
|fo<br />
|so<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|osht<br />
|nget<br />
|vep<br />
|slet<br />
|ngo<br />
|flo<br />
|slo<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|PST<br />
|out<br />
|colspan="3"|nait<br />
|colspan="3"|me<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|FUT<br />
|oz<br />
|colspan="3"|nort<br />
|colspan="3"|mor<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse'''fó'''lateephar?'' (You don't want to begin dancing with me?)<br />
<br />
'''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.)<br />
<br />
Second apophony of negation affixes with subjunctive mood: ''Rorøthórn'''ø'''rt.'' (He may not be willing to go.)<br />
<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
<br />
=====Gerund=====<br />
*Base nouns or their abstract variants may serve as gerunds, which describe the action of doing, but otherwise they are created with the suffix ''(o)pi'' added to a verb root. The suffic also helps to distinguish the forms.<br />
<br />
=====Infinitives=====<br />
*PRES ''-odi'', PST ''-oudi'', FUT ''ordi''<br />
*used with modal verbs<br />
*subjunctive form created with duplication<br />
<br />
=====Participles=====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian participles work as adjectives. Following table shows which "case" and suffix the verb base (or gerund in formal register) takes.<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Present participle suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!IPFV<br />
!PFV<br />
|-<br />
!Patientive (LAT)<br />
|''p''<br />
|''pi/pot''<br />
|-<br />
!Negative (LAT)<br />
|<br />
|''tip''<br />
|-<br />
!Active (INS)<br />
|rowspan="2"|''on''<br />
|''ompu''<br />
|-<br />
!Agentive (INS)<br />
|''empo''<br />
|}<br />
*Also the "requiring" (FUT) form LOC+''rt'' and "possible" (GNO) POS+''ta'' <br />
*Past forms are created by adding ''i'' to the end: ''kephoni'' (was being washed)<br />
*Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed)<br />
*Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]]<br />
<br />
Relative form with word-order and prefix? + formal register particle<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, auxiliary verbs are conjugated only for subject which may act as the agent of the clause. The verbs can either precede (dynamic, deontic) or come after (epistemic) different verb infinitives. Since regular object-patient conjugation can't be used, objects have to be written (no pro-drop) and they are declined into instrumental-comitative case.<br />
*''tut'' "want" (from ''tuta'' "craving, wish"): ''Tutajin kepoudi his.'' (I wanted to wash it.)<br />
**infinitive in lative case for "want something to be done": ''Tutan kepordiki his.'' (I want it to be washed.)<br />
**"be going to" (FUT): ''Tuutar latepordi.'' (I'm going to dance.)<br />
**"wish" (SBJV) mostly as the subjunctive of the absent ''to be''-verb: ''Tutitan khau fos.'' (I wish you were here) <br />
*''mép'' "can, know how to" (dynamic) (from ''mépi'' "skill"): ''Mépa latepodi'' ("I can dance"; notice gnomic-static mood)<br />
*''kuut'' "can, may" (deontic / epistemic) (from ''kuutó'' "possibility"): ''Kuutest rotordi.'' (You may leave.), ''Fendógópot kuutó pai.'' (He may unexpectedly be dead.)<br />
**particle ''nor'' added after the verb for lower possibility i.e. "could, might": ''Fendógópi kuut nor.'' (It might be dead.)<br />
**particle ''ga'' added for "should, must": ''Fendógópi kuut ga.'' (It should be dead, as we wanted.)<br />
*''khet'' "must" (deontic) (from ''kheti'' "necessity"): ''Khetan rotodi.'' (I must go now), ''Kheetar rotordi.'' (I must go soon)<br />
*''khurd'' "dare" (from ''khurdi'' "daring"): ''¿Khurde glerkékodi nas?'' (Do you dare hit me with a mace?)<br />
<br />
Mixing tenses: <br />
*''Tutitai latepordi.'' SBJV.want-PST.PFV.1SG dance-INF.FUT "I would've wanted to dance"<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian distinguishes between two voices, active and antipassive. Passive is very similar to active since Sceptrian is absolutive-ergative, and thus isn't considered a true change in voice. Antipassive is used to reduce the valency of the verbs by removing the object of a transitive clause.<br />
<br />
Active construction: verb-agent-object and verb-object-agent are used so that a comment (rheme) precedes the topic (theme). [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|Emphasizing clitics]] are used to mark the topic. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Ónzaiton dothee pof.<br />
|IPA = /ɔ̃zaɪ̯tə̃ dəθe: pəf/<br />
| morphemes = ón-zait-on doth-ee pof-Ø<br />
| gloss = 3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV man-ERG feather-ABS<br />
| translation = A man is lifting a feather.<br />
}} <br />
<br />
Passive construction: To demote the agent (ERG), it's either removed or inflected into causal ablative (ABL). Verb is only conjugated for the object.<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Zaiton pof (dothpo).<br />
|IPA = /zaɪ̯tə̃ pəf (dəθpə)/<br />
| morphemes = zait-on pof-Ø (doth-po)<br />
| gloss = lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV feather-ABS (man-ABL)<br />
| translation = A feather is being lifted (by a man).<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Antipassive''' construction: Agent (ERG) transforms into subject (ABS) and object (ABS) takes the instrumental-comitative (INS) case. Word order becomes SV(O), and the verb is conjugated according to the agent only and the stressed syllable undergoes second [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]]. The verb is also suffixed with the emphasizing clitic ''ma'' in the formal register. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Doth ónzeit(ma) (pofos).<br />
|IPA = /dəθ ɔ̃zei̯t(mä) (pəfəs)/<br />
| morphemes = doth-Ø ón-zeit-Ø(or =ma) (pof-os)<br />
| gloss = man-ABS ANTIP\3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-ANTIP(or =ANTIP.FORM) (feather-INS)<br />
| translation = The man is lifting (a feather). <br />
}}<br />
<br />
Instrument and turning it into an agent:<br />
* ''Ónzaiton dothee pof vakuhosozh.'' (...with his own hand...)<br />
**''Ónzaiton pof vakuhp dothir.'' (the feather is raised by the man's hand)<br />
**''Onzaiton pof tuph dothi'''sh''' slokli.'' (The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them.) Inanimate agent conjugation, and dative of possession is inflected to avoid misinterpretation!<br />
* ''Vakuh ónzeit pofos.'' (The hand lifts something, which happens to be a feather)/(someone intentionally lifts a feather with their hand) Notice animate conjugation!<br />
**''Tup onzeit dothpo pofos.'' (The stick, which is being held by a man, lifts something, which happens to be a feather) ABL as causative since inanimate ''tup''.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
Decimal base was adopted due to commerce, but traces of the former octal base remain. <br />
<br />
Numerals are placed before their head. Last part of a cardinal determiner agrees with case through matching declension: ''op'''l''' tupl'' (two sticks)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Numeral system<br />
|-<br />
! Number <br />
! Number !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional !! Multiplicative adverb !! Multiplicative adjective !! Group !! Polygon<br />
|-<br />
!Zero<br />
| ozi || oz || ozhi || - || zeng (never) || - || ze (no) || -<br />
|-<br />
!One<br />
| ipi || ip || iphi || liku (whole) || ohu (once) || ipitse (onefold) || ipisi (singular) || ipirt (dot) <br />
|-<br />
!Two <br />
| opi || op || ophi || lopu (half) || ophu (twice) || opitse (twofold) || opisi (pair) || opart (line)<br />
|-<br />
!Three<br />
| oki || ok || okhi || loku || okhu || okitse || okisi || okart (triangle)<br />
|-<br />
!Four<br />
| óppi || óp || óphi || lóppu || óphu || óphitse || óphisi || ópart <br />
|-<br />
!Five<br />
| ofi || of || offi || lofu || offu || ofitse || ofisi || ofart<br />
|-<br />
!Six<br />
| ókki || ók || ókhi || lókku || ókhu || ókhitse || ókhisi || ókart<br />
|-<br />
!Seven<br />
| omi || om || ongi || lomu || ongu || omitse || omisi || omart<br />
|-<br />
!Eight<br />
| ngovi || ngov || ngovvi || longovu || ngovvu || ngovitse || ngovisi || jart<br />
|-<br />
!Nine<br />
| ngoipi || ngoip || ngoiphi || longoipu || ngoiphu || ngoipitse || ngoipisi || ngoipart<br />
|-<br />
!Ten<br />
| jopi || jop || jophi || lojopu || jophu || jopitse || jopisi || jopart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!Eleven<br />
!Twelve<br />
!Thirteen<br />
!Fourteen<br />
!Fifteen<br />
!Sixteen<br />
!Seventeen<br />
!Eighteen<br />
!Nineteen<br />
!Twenty<br />
|-<br />
| ngoki <br />
| ngópi <br />
| ngofi<br />
| ngóki<br />
| ngomi <br />
| ophungovi <br />
| jopomi<br />
| jopingovi<br />
| jopingoipi<br />
| ophujopi<br />
|-<br />
!Twenty-one<br />
!Thirty<br />
!Fourty<br />
!Fifty<br />
!Sixty<br />
!Sixty-four<br />
!Sixty-five<br />
!Seventy<br />
!Eighty<br />
!Ninety<br />
|-<br />
| ophujopipi <br />
| okhujopi<br />
| offungovi <br />
| offujopi <br />
|ókhujopi<br />
| mouti<br />
| moutipi<br />
|ongujopi<br />
|ngowopi<br />
|ngoiphujopi<br />
|-<br />
!One hundred<br />
!One hundred<br/>and twenty-two<br />
!One hundred<br/>and sixty-six<br />
!Two hundred<br />
!Thousand<br />
!Three thousand<br/>four hundred<br />
!Ten thousand<br />
!Hundred thousand<br />
!Million<br />
!Billion<br />
|-<br />
| toti <br />
|toti(s)<br>ophujopopi<br />
|toti(s)<br>moutókki<br />
|ophutoti<br />
| mopi<br />
|okhumopi(s)<br>óphutoti<br />
|tothutoti<br />
|tothumopi<br />
|hamisi<br />
|mowisi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Multiplicative adverb form is used in front of the powers of ten (tens, hundreds, ...)<br />
*Digits are annexed into the tens by using the cardinal or determiner form depending whether the digit begins with a vowel or not.<br />
*Fractions are constructed by placing the ''l(o)''-prefixed form after the multiplicative number: ''okhu lóppu'' ("thrice one quarter" = three quarters). The noun is in ablative case and only the fraction is inflected: ''lopu'''ji''' tuppo'' (for one half of a stick)<br />
*Large numbers (from hundred) are written separately from smaller, but in formal register ''s''-letter is added between each power of ten.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
*VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive<br />
* possessives follow nouns<br />
* predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns<br />
<br />
===Emphasizing clitics===<br />
<br />
Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton dothee'''noh''' pof.'' (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. ''Ónzaiton dothee pof'''ma'''.'' (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used with verbs in antipassive constructions.<br />
<br />
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) <br />
<br />
The suffixes are also used with alienable possessive forms to separate the possessor from indirect objects. Chosen depending on the ergativity of the possessum: ''Jóvakuhoi suu pof swi'''ma''' swi.'' (He gave her feather to him.)<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
<br />
====Independent====<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Conjunction====<br />
<br />
coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?)<br />
<br />
====Noun clauses====<br />
<br />
WIP ... to be redone<br />
*Infinitive.tense + ... + causatives: ''Tesosan kepó vakuhos supe.'' (I see that he washes his hands) vs. ''Onluvakan kep'''óo''' vakuhos supe.'' (The washing of his hands brings me pleasure.)<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
<br />
Nominalizing relative clauses with participles is common.<br />
<br />
Using [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|an emphasizing clitic]] to mark the antecedent for the class-appropriate proximal demonstrative pronoun (thaka/saitu/ka declined for number) which works as a relative pronoun - case chosen according to the embedded clause: <br />
*''Rotóji dothma saituh latepai.'' (leave-PST.PFV.3SG man.ABS-EMPH.ABS P.PROX.AN-COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The man, with whom I danced, left.") <br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahul dothelenos saitush latepai.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS man-PL.ERG-EMPH.ERG P.PROX.AN-PL.COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The men with whom I danced are starting to drink beer.")<br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahulma dothele ka tutitai vangosordi.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS-EMPH.ABS man-PL.ERG P.PROX.INAN SBJV-want-PST.PFV.1SG drink-INF.FUT "Men are starting to drink the beer which I would've wanted to drink."<br />
<br />
====Adverbial clauses====<br />
<br />
non-finite forms + possessive suffixes to indicate subject<br />
<br />
====Conditional clauses====<br />
<br />
subjunctive as explained in verb particle section<br />
<br />
====Indirect speech====<br />
<br />
==Register==<br />
<br />
Different endings which reflect the conversation situation: speakers, familiarity, formality, location... <br />
<br />
===Intimate===<br />
<br />
Agent prefixes aren't used. No ''t'' in inceptive. Due to apophony, subject suffix can be dropped from FUT/INCEP if 1st or 2nd person distinction is clear.<br />
<br />
===Casual===<br />
<br />
In casual register, verb forms are chosen differently when the subject is agent-like (he dances) or patient-like (he fell): ''latepóji'' (he danced AN) vs. ''bousoi'' (he fell INAN)<br />
<br />
===Formal===<br />
<br />
Mandatory use of pronouns and agent prefixes.<br />
<br />
One may use inanimate verb forms as anti-honorific? ''Ondakon næ ka Nithki.'' (I humbly offer this to You)<br />
<br />
Apophony of basic prepositions with root ''oi'': ''Oisti Hala, óosti vakuhanga, ousti qorel'' (under the Sun, under my hand, under the earth)<br />
<br />
In formal register, it is preferred to use only animate nouns as agents while abstract and inanimate are as antipassive subjects: ''luwi... nas'' ("beauty-of.yours it-un-eye-ful-makes me-with", your beauty makes me blind) vs. ''en fø na'' (you are making me blind)<br />
<br />
Distinction between abstract and animate in some categories, such as verb conjugation (''wa'')<br />
<br />
Can people with higher status be abstract or do they occupy a special animate category? (æ inside?)<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
See the [[Sceptrian/Dictionary|dictionary page]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian&diff=35647Sceptrian2015-07-07T21:15:57Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Gender */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Construction}}<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Sceptrian<br />
|nativename = [[File:Lusha_name.png|300px]]<br>''Batop Lushan''<br />
|pronunciation = [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ]<br />
|region = Western Central World<br />
|states = Sceptre<br />
|speakers = 29,200,000 <br />
|date = 7th 641<br />
|familycolor = #d3ffce<br />
|fam1 = West-Herookuan<br />
|fam2 = Lutian<br />
|fam3 = Sceptrian branch<br />
|creator=Ahuelni<br />
|setting=Akekata<br />
|dialects = Yerzonian, Mulish, Fanish <br />
|script = Toneka alphabet<br />
|nation = Empire of Sceptre<br />
|minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia<br />
|agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language)<br />
|map = Lusha_regions.jpg<br />
|mapsize = 300<br />
|mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects<br />
}}<br />
{{ClassMeter<br />
|Name = Sceptrian<br />
|NativeName = Batop Lushan<br />
|Type = Fusional<br />
|Alignment = Absolutive-ergative<br />
<br />
|adjective = final<br />
|adposition = mixed<br />
|adverb= final<br />
|article= mixed<br />
|relativeclause = final<br />
|nounclause = final<br />
|order = VSO<br />
<br />
|Tonal = no<br />
|Genders = 3<br />
|Declined = yes<br />
|Conjugated = yes<br />
|Case = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Definiteness = no<br />
|Gender = yes<br />
|Voice = yes<br />
|Mood = yes<br />
|Person = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Tense = yes<br />
|Aspect = yes<br />
|Phonology = 100<br />
|NounCases = 100<br />
|NounDef = 100<br />
|NounNumbers = 100<br />
|NounGender = 100<br />
|VerbPerson = 100<br />
|VerbNumber = 100<br />
|VerbAspect = 90<br />
|VerbTense = 100<br />
|VerbMood = 90<br />
|VerbVoice = 80<br />
|AdjCase = 100<br />
|AdjNumber = 100<br />
|AdjDef = 100<br />
|AdjGen = 100<br />
|AdjComparative = 100<br />
|AdjSuperlative = 100<br />
|Supine = 90<br />
|Gerund = 90<br />
|Participle = 90<br />
|Infinitive = 90<br />
|Modality = 90<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ] or simply ''lusha'') is an ''a priori'' [[w:Artistic_language|artistic language]] created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 29 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking [[Khattish]] and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian and its dialects feature 51 phonetic consonants, some of them with interesting lateral features. The language also has 25 phonetic vowels: twelve short, nine long and four diphthongs. Nasalization, rhotacization and breathy voice are used phonemically. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
If the romanization symbol is the same as in IPA, it is not duplicated. Not bolded romanization indicates that the sound appears as a vernacular or dialectal version.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 830px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px" colspan="2"|<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Uvular<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| [ɱ]<br />
| <br />
| '''n (ń)''' [n]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''t'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''k'''<br />
| '''q'''<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''b'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''d'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''g'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Breathy<br />
| '''ph bh'''<br>[pʰ] [bʱ]<br />
|<br />
|'''th dh'''<br>[tʰ] [dʱ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''kh gh'''<br>[kʰ] [gʱ]<br />
|'''qh'''<br>[qʰ]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| '''pl bl'''<br />[pˡ] [bˡ]<br />
| <br />
| '''tl dl'''<br />[tˡ] [dˡ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''kl gl'''<br/>[kˡ] [gˡ]<br />
| '''ql'''<br/>[qˡ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| ph [ɸ]<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| '''th''' [θ]<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''sh''' [ʃ]<br />
| '''h''' [ç]<br />
| '''kh h''' [x]<br />
| '''qh''' [χ]<br />
| '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''w''' bh [β]<br />
| '''v'''<br />
| '''dh''' [ð]<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| '''zh''' [ʒ]<br />
| <br />
| gh [ɣ]<br />
| <br />
| h [ɦ]<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''sl''' [ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Affricate<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ts''' [t͡s] <br />
| '''tsh''' [t͡ʃ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''tsl''' [t͡ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Approximant<br />
!Non-lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''j'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''l''' [l] [l̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| pr [ʙ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''r (ŕ)''' [r] [r̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The liquids ''r'' and ''l'' can appear as '''syllabic consonants''': ''tlsl'' /tˡl̩ɬ/ (shallow), ''prk'' /pr̩k/ (wagon) and ''trs'' /tr̩s/ (smith)<br />
*Vernacularly, both syllabic and obstruent-following alveolar trill ''r'' and lateral approximant ''l'' are pronounced as voiceless [r̩̊], [r̥], [l̩̊] and [l̥] when in contact with only voiceless consonants: ''trs'' [tr̩̊s] (smith) contrasting with ''trls'' [tr̩s] (while standard /trəls/) (smiths); ''gatl'' [gɑtl̥] (houses) whose pronunciation approaches [gɑtɬ]. <br />
**'''Meslatu Hirke''' made his disputed suggestion in 7:693 that a similar process had led to the birth of ''sl'' as plural indicator, when original plural ''l'' turned first into voiceless and then into ''sl'' after a word-final glottal stop, which has disappeared entirely. <br />
*In eastern dialects, ''pr'' is realized as [ʙ] and ''tr'', ''tsr'' and ''trs'' often as [r̝]. In the dialects, aspirated plosives have been fully spirantized into their fricative counterparts, e.g. [tʰ]>[θ].<br />
*Fricatives show properties of syllabic consonants word-initially and word-finally.<br />
<br />
Nasal [ɱ] only appears as an allophone of nasals with labio-dental sounds /f/ and /v/. Before velar sounds (e.g. /k/) nasals turn similarly into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
Letter ''h'' has four allophones: initial is always [h] despite frontness, [ç] appears elsewhere with front vowels, [x] appears word-finally and [h~ɦ] word-medially with back vowels ''tihtóhnah'' [tiçˈtɔɦ.näx] (assassinator). It's also used after consonants to indicate breathy voice.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 390px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| <br />
| '''u'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-mid<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| o<br/>[ɘ]<br />
| o<br/>[ɤ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
|<br />
| '''o'''<br/>[ə]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''é ø'''<br />[ɛ] [œ]<br />
|<br />
| '''ó'''<br />[ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
|'''æ'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
|'''a'''<br />[ä]<br />
|a<br />[ɑ]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
All the nine main vowel sounds (bolded) have '''long''' versions as separate phonemes.<br />
<br />
Schwa '''''o''''' is used as an epenthetic vowel (anaptyxis). When it is used to break consonant clusters (not indicated in native script) it is the simple schwa /ə/: *dŧ → ''doth'' /dəθ/ (man). When stressed, it is vernacularly realized as [ɘ], and in western dialects more clearly as [ɤ]: *dŧs → ''dothos'' [dəˈθɘˑs]<br />
<br />
Vowel ''a'' is [ɑ] after voiced consonants. Vowel ''æ'' is often more open [a], though, in Western dialects, it has merged with ''é''. <br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, there are only closing diphthongs which go up in the vowel chart:<br />
*Back: ou /ɔʊ̯/<br />
*Front: ai /äɪ̯/, ei /ei̯/, oi /œi̯/<br />
<br />
If the syllable border (glottal stop) is between vowels and they don't form a diphthong, apostrophe is used: ''tai'' (for long) vs. ''ta'i'' (past)<br />
*In native [[Sceptrian#Script|script]], separate graphemes for diphthongs exist and glottal stop is not marked.<br />
<br />
If diphthongs are followed by vowels, they are separated by a glottal stop in formal register. <br />
*In casual speech, ''ouV'' becomes ''owV'' and ''ViV'' ''VjV'': ''oua→ówa'' and ''aia→aja''. If the following vowel is the same, a glottal stop breaks the former diphthong and the ending vowel is lengthened: ''ai'i→a'ii''<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
<br />
===Onset===<br />
<br />
Basic [[w:Syllable#Structure|syllabic structure]] is CV, where the onset (beginning) consonant can be of any type. <br />
*It is possible to use liquids and approximants as '''glides''' (CLV) between the onset and the rime (ending). <br />
*Up to two consonants with same voicing may appear in the onset (CCV), especially fricative-plosive combinations, but never two plosives: ''stak'' (fence), ''fkot'' (nest), ''ksaru'' (guard). Affricate ''ts'' takes may be accompanied only by ''w'', ''j'', ''n'' or ''m'': ''tsma'' (doubt). Combination /sl/ has turned into /ɬ/.<br />
*Lateralization and aspiration may never appear together, and nasalized rhoticization is only found in Fanish dialect.<br />
<br />
===Nucleus=== <br />
<br />
The nucleus can be either a vowel or a liquid, thus CVC and CLC are also possible syllables. <br />
*Vowels (diphthongs included) may exist as a stand-alone nucleic syllable (V), mostly in the beginning or at the end of a word. <br />
*If nucleus is a liquid, plosives appear in codas only word-finally: ''dldlp'' /dˡl̩ˈdˡl̩p/ (bubble)<br />
<br />
===Coda=== <br />
<br />
The coda (final) may consist of up to three consonants with possible structures: N, P, F, L; NP, FP, LP; NF, PF, LF; NPF, FPF, LFP, LPF (Nasal, Plosive, Fricative, Liquid). <br />
*Final liquids appear as syllabic consonants<br />
*Approximants ''j'', ''w'' and plain voiced plosives never appear as coda (final) even though they may be written that way (no written schwa): ''nad'' /nä.də/ (stainy). Voiced fricatives may appear as coda. <br />
*In coda, plosives with lateral release, however, will reflect the voicing of the onset: ''gatl'' [gädˡl̩] (houses) vs. ''katl'' [kätˡl̩] (knobs). Vernacularly, the lateral approximant weakens into a voiceless variant [l̥] when in contact with voiceless consonants: ''gatl'' [gätl̥].<br />
<br />
Closed syllables, i.e. those ending in coda, are not as common word-medially as open syllables (ending in nucleus) are. When words are inflected, parts of codas tend to become onsets of the following syllable, if possible. Especially three-consonant clusters are rare word-medially and receive a schwa after a non-lateral stop: ''kamps'' /kämps/ (marsh) → ''kampsku'' → ''kamposku'' /ˈkäm.pəs.ku/ (at marsh)<br />
*Voicing status must be the same for consonants touching at syllable boundaries and the voiced one reduces into voiceless: ''*katbas''→''katpas'' /kätˈpäs/ (fern) vs. ''oist baku'' /œi̯st<sup>(h)</sup> bä.ku/ (under a table)<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
Primary '''stress''' in a word is most often on the second syllable, and when there are four or five syllables, secondary stress is placed onto the final syllable. When there are more syllables, minor stress is placed on even-numbered syllables. <br />
*If the to-be-stressed syllable contains the schwa ''o'' /ə/ or a syllabic consonant, the preceding syllable is stressed in two-syllable words and the following in words with more than three syllables.<br />
**In uninflected words, syllable with nuclear ''o'' is only stressed when it comes second and the preceding syllable has also ''o'' as nucleus. Then the stressed nucleus appears as [ɘ]. Contrast between stressed and non-stressed syllabic consonants may occur as voicing and devoicing respectively. <br />
*A non-final syllable with a long vowel or a diphthong is always stressed and steals the stress from its neighboring syllable. This also moves the secondary stress from final to penultimate syllable, if primary stress falls on first syllable.<br />
<br />
Inflected and affixed word forms have almost always the same stress as the base word (even monosyllabic with schwa): ''doth'' (man) → ''dothku'' [ˈdɘθ.ku] (near the man). <br />
*Vocative and ergative cases as well as inflections with long vowels make an exception: ''dothee'' /dəˈθe:/ (by the man), ''dothé'' /dəˈθɛ/ (O man), ''gatóo'' /gɑˈtɔ:/ (to the house)<br />
<br />
Interrogatives are formed by changing the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. This is indicated with ¿: ''¿Eikepoi?'' [ˈei̯˧˦ˈke˩.pœi̯˨˦] (Did you wash it?)<br />
<br />
==Morphophonology==<br />
<br />
===Vowel form===<br />
<br />
There are five ways of sound altering which may be used for grammatical purposes (mainly number, genitive case and imperfective aspect). In the native script the following are marked on the vowel.<br />
*Lengthening: ''paata'' /pä:tä/ (separation), ''ée'' [ɛ:]~[ɛe̯], ''óo'' /ɔ:/<br />
*Lateral (release): ''pló'' /pˡɔ/ (opposite to), ''tlaf'' /tˡäf/ (sprig) <br />
**Western dialects keep the tongue on the alveolar ridge during vowel pronunciation so that the vowels have a distinct l-sound. Historically, this may have lead to the syllabic l.<br />
*Aspiration/breathy voice: ''phó'' [pʰɔ]~[ɸɔ] (along), ''kébhar'' [kɛˈbʱɑ˞]~[kɛˈβɑ˞] (I will wash), ''tha'' [tʰä]~[θä] (abstract "it"), ''dhaka'' [dʱɑkä]~[ðɑkä] (abstract "that"). <br />
**Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head)<br />
*Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]]<br />
**Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as a short syllabic nasal consonant of the same place as the directly preceding or following consonant<br />
**Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!).<br />
*Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) <br />
**Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞:] (soup)<br />
<br />
===Consonant form===<br />
<br />
Combining sounds<br />
*Lateralization<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sl'' and ''zh'' respectively<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' → ''fl'' & ''w''<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' are geminated<br />
**''m'' & ''n'' → ''ng'' and ''ng'' → ''ńg''<br />
* Aspiration<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sh'' and ''zh''<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' are geminated<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' → ''lh'' and ''rh''<br />
* Voicing and aspiration<br />
**''r'' → ''qh'', ''l'' → ''ldh'', ''v'' → ''w''<br />
<br />
===Apophony===<br />
<br />
Apophony in the '''stressed syllable''' is used for example to express adjective gender and to create different verb forms.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Apophony<br />
|-<br />
!Root<br />
!1st<br />
!2nd<br />
|-<br />
|e<br />
|ee<br />
|é<br />
|-<br />
|o<br />
|ó<br />
|ø<br />
|-<br />
|a<br />
|aa<br />
|æ<br />
|-<br />
|u<br />
|uu<br />
|i<br />
|-<br />
|ai<br />
|ii<br />
|ei<br />
|-<br />
|ou<br />
|óo<br />
|oi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*When the stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting)<br />
*With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of ''é''.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Script=== <br />
[[File:Sceptrian.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Toneka script from the early sixth era. Notice that the vowel form info-box romanization should have "o" instead of "a".]]<br />
[[File:SceptrianTsrnet.JPG|500px|thumb|right|Tsrnet cursive script used for handwriting in modern Sceptre.]]<br />
The Sceptrian alphabet script was derived from the ancient temple marks as were the Aoman and Northern (Latin) scripts. The modern alphabet is called ''Tsoklóp Lushan''.<br />
<br />
Diacritics on vowels mark different [[Sceptrian#Vowel_form|sounds]]. The diacritics may be used with consonants as well, especially in the plural forms of consonant-ending nouns: ''gat̆'' (''gatl'' "houses"), ''doŧ̆'' (''dolth'' "men"). With the diacritics, letter ''ts'' can be lateralized into ''tsl'' or aspirated into ''tsh''.<br />
<br />
The native Sceptrian script has a long history of being unicameral, not distinguishing between the upper and lower case. Only during the sixth era under the Tyranny of West, the flow of refugees from the Coast of Temples encouraged the introduction of case separation. In the developed fonts, capital letters were derived from the traditional Toneka and small letters from the cursive Tsrnet.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Short and long letter names with explanations<br />
|-<br />
|aa<br>aat || ee<br>eet || ée<br>eet maatikipi<br>(opened e) || ii<br>iit || oo<br>oot || óo<br>oot guzbikipi<br>(deepened o) || uu<br>uut <br />
|-<br />
|ææ<br>aat evadh<br>(bright a) || øø<br>oot gudh<br>(dark o) || ai<br>aat zaithon<br>(rising a) || ei<br>eet zaithon<br>(rising e) || oi<br>oot zaithon<br>(rising o) || ou<br>óot bousoson<br>(falling o) ||<br />
|-<br />
| po<br>poot || bo<br>bóot || mo<br>mool || wo<br>wool || to<br>toot || do<br>dóot || <br />
|-<br />
| tho<br>toot hifdo<br>(windy t) || dho<br>dóot hifdo<br>(windy d) || no<br>nool || so<br>siit || sho<br>siit hifdo<br>(windy s) || zo<br>ziit || zho<br>ziit gudh<br>(dark z) <br />
|-<br />
| ngo<br>góot slenguhpi<br>(g using nose) || tso<br>tsiit || lo<br>lool || slo<br>lool hifdo<br>(windy l) || fo<br>fiit || vo<br>fiit gudh<br>(dark f) || jo<br>jool <br />
|-<br />
| ko<br>koot || go<br>góot || ho<br>hiit || qho<br>hiit surmudh<br>(strong h) || qo<br>koot venongp<br>(k being<br> swallowed) || ro<br>rool || <br />
|-<br />
|plo<br>looh tisk<br>(with l<br> mark) || pon<br>slenguhpi tisk<br>(using nose<br> mark) || por<br>tisk prung<br>(mark of<br> trill) || pho<br>tisk hifn<br>(mark of<br> wind) || poo<br>tisk spiing<br>(mark of<br> length) || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Romanization===<br />
<br />
====Modern====<br />
Consonant variation:<br />
*Letter ''r'' is used with consonants for /r̩/ and between vowels for /r/, but after vowels in the end of syllables for rhoticization ''or'' /ɚ/. Letter ''ŕ'' is used to emphasize the use of /r/ after vowels ''oŕ'' /ər/.<br />
*Similarly letter ''n'' can appear syllable-finally with nasalization but ''ń'' always as /n/: ''an'' /ã/ vs. ''ań'' /an/. <br />
*With ''ng'' /ŋ/, the accent signals lengthening ''nańgo'' /näŋ:ə/ or ''naŋŋo'' (sweaty).<br />
*Labialization of plosives is indicated by PuV (V is any vowel except ''u'') or with ''w''.<br />
*Breathry voice is indicated with an ''h'' straight after a plosive. The ''h'' is also used for corresponding fricatives which occur word-finally. This risk of confuse is one of the downsides of the simplified modern system: ''nath'' /näθ/ "a beggar" or /nätʰ/ "with stains".<br />
<br />
====Old====<br />
<br />
The old romanization system (or part of it) was used until western regions of Eastern Sceptre were joined with the Western Sceptre empire in 7th era 161, during the war against Empress Renula of Golden Islet. A revision was needed when both Sceptrian and Aoma were used in the same printing press and texts had to be distributed to westlang-using communities. Peter Martyea suggested in 7:189 that the payment according to number of pages may have favoured quick adaptation as the non-diacritic system induced much longer texts (see the comparison example).<br />
<br />
Consonants:<br />
*Nasal: '''ŋ''' ''ng'' /ŋ/<br />
**Texts from the first century of the seventh era use ''ǥ'' for word-initial /ŋ/.<br />
*Fricative: '''ŧ''' ''th'' /θ/, '''đ''' ''dh'' /ð/, '''ś''' ''sh'' /ʃ/, '''ź''' ''zh'' /ʒ/, '''ħ''' ''qh'' /χ/<br />
*Affricate: '''c''' ''ts'' /t͡s/, '''č''' ''tsh'' /t͡ʃ/<br />
*Lateral: '''š''' ''sl'' /ɬ/, '''ǩ''' ''kl'' /kˡ/, '''ǧ''' ''gl'' /gˡ/<br />
<br />
Compact equivalents of sound altering:<br />
*Lengthening with a bar: ''ṓ'' /ɔ:/ and ''ō'' /ə:/<br />
*Lateral release with a breve diacritic: ''tŏ'' /tˡə/<br />
*Nasalization with a tilde: ''õ'' /ə̃/, ''on'' /ən/<br />
*Rhotacization with a diaeresis: ''ö'' /ɚ/, ''or'' /ər/<br />
*Aspiration with a grave accent: ''pò'' /pʰə/, ''pô'' /pʰɔ/<br />
<br />
Comparison between the systems:<br />
*Old: Ǧëǩ śošēŧã <br />
*Modern: Glerkl shosleethan (maces of a knight)<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
The most complete study of the structure of pre-modern Sceptrian words was done by Porutingatu of Jerzónó in year 362 of the seventh era. She collected, grouped and analyzed the fusional morphemes and listed the new rules to replace the outdated writings from the sixth era. By 370, her work had led to a new interest in linguistics and ultimately to the founding of ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan'' (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) which has been unifying and regulating the language along with its orthography since then.<br />
<br />
Sceptrian utilizes [[w:Fusional_language|fusional]] [[w:Inflection|inflections]] and has an [[w:Ergative–absolutive_language|absolutive-ergative]] [[w:Morphosyntactic_alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]. The language is rather [[w:Head-directionality_parameter|head-initial]] and its primary [[w:Word_order|word order]] is verb-agent-object.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns are used to refer to e.g. people or things in sentences instead of using the original nouns. In Sceptrian, they exist in two numbers and are inflected according to six [[Sceptrian#Cases|'''cases''']]. <br />
<br />
====Personal====<br />
Second person includes polite versions as well which were adapted by Aoma-sperkers. Third person singular makes distinction between abstract (Ab), animate (An) and inanimate (In) pronouns while plural only between Ab-An and In. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Personal pronoun inflection'''<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! 1SG !! 1PL !! 2SG !! 2PL !! 2SG.POL !! 2PL.POL !! 3SG.Ab !! 3SG.An !! 3PL.A !! 3SG.In !! 3PL.In<br />
|-<br />
!ABS <br />
| na || mo || fo || po || Nith || With || tha || su || slo || hi || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
| næ || moslo || fø || poslo || Nithe || Widhes || thaa || suu || sloslo || hii || kloslo<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
| nai || mokli || foki || pokli || Nithki || Withkli || thai || swi || slokli || hiki|| klokli<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
| nar || moŕ || for || poŕ || Nithor || Withoŕ || thar || sur || sloŕ || hir || kloŕ<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
| nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh || thas || sus || slosh || his || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
| nape || moplo || fope || poplo || Nitti || Witti || thape || supe || sloplo || hipi || kloplo<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''Comitative''' case is used to indicate company: ''Mo slosh arakha.'' (We were with them yesterday.)<br />
*'''Causal''' describes the cause of an action or origin of something: ''Aitesosai næ su fope'' (I saw him because of (/thanks to) you), ''Hi supe foki.'' (It (is) from him to you.)<br />
<br />
3rd person abstract pronoun is used in the formal register when introducing or referring to a person of higher status.<br />
<br />
====Reflexive====<br />
Self-pronoun ''ru'' for '''reflexive''' and '''reciprocal''': ''tesosón ru'' (they are watching themself), ''ónlatepón ru'' (he is dancing by himself, alone) vs. ''ónlatepón su'' (he is dancing with him); ''sónkephón ru'' (they are washing each other) vs. ''sónkephón sloslo slo/soutu'' (they are washing them)<br />
*reflexive is easier with others: ''anlatepan'' (I'm dancing by myself); ''ankepan'' (I'm washing myself) vs. ''ankep'' ("I'm washing it"), ''kepan'' (I'm being washed)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
<br />
Simple words for "this/these" and "that/those". When demonstratives are used with [[Sceptrian#Nouns|nouns]], they behave similarly to [[Sceptrian#Adjectives|adjectives]]. In the following examples, note that Sceptrian lacks the [[Sceptrian#Verbs|verb "to be"]]: <br />
*As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.)<br />
*For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) <br />
*The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the "head" can rather be considered an attribute of the pronoun: ''Bouson ko qot.'' (That's falling, the rock, I mean.) <br />
<br />
See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]].<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Demonstrative pronoun inflection<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Case <br />
!colspan="2"| Proximal <br />
!colspan="2"| Distal <br />
|-<br />
!SG !! PL !! SG !! PL<br />
|-<br />
!ABS<br />
|ka || kla || ko || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
|kaa || klaa || kó || kló<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
|kai ||klai || koi || kloi<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
|kan ||klang || kon || klong<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
|kas || klash || kos || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
|kap || klapa || kop ||klopo<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Table of correlatives===<br />
<br />
Determiners follow their heads and agree in number and with the cases mentioned above in [[Sceptrian#Demonstrative|the table]], where DAT & LAT, COM & LOC, CAU & ABL and ABS & VOC are corresponding. Words follow the declension shown above or paradigms similar to [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun cases]]. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!rowspan="2"|Interrogative<br />
!colspan="2"|Demonstrative<br />
!colspan="5"|Quantifier<br />
|-<br />
!Proximal !! Distal !! Existential !! Elective !! Universal !! Negatory !! Alternative<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Determiner<br />
| sho || ka (SG)<br/>kla (PL) || ko<br />klo || jofa (some) || ota (any) || orka (every, all) || ze (no) || so (another)<br/>solo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="5"| Pronoun<br />
!Abstract<br />
| ashu || thaka || dhaka || jaafa || thata || thorka || theso || thaso<br />
|-<br />
!Animate<br />
| ¿soutu || saitu || soutu || jonfu || onta || ongka || souso || jonso<br />
|-<br />
!Inanimate <br />
| ¿ko || ka || ko || jofo || oto || orko || ze || so<br />
|-<br />
!Out of two<br />
| ¿tso || tsaka || tsoko || zho || tsoto || tsorko || tseso || tso<br />
|-<br />
!Out of many<br />
| ¿tsolo || tsalka || tsolko || zolo || tsolto || tsongko || tsleso || tsolo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="6"|Pro-adverb<br />
!Locative<br />
| sku || khau || khu || jofku || otku || orkhu || zengu || sokhu<br />
|-<br />
!Temporal<br />
| sko || kha || kho || jofko || otko || orkho || zeng || sokho<br />
|-<br />
!Comitative<br />
| shos || kas || kos || jofos || otos || orkos || zeos || sos<br />
|-<br />
!Causal<br />
| spe || kap || kop || jov || otop || orkop || zenep || sonop<br />
|-<br />
!Manner<br />
| shi || khai || khoi || jofai || otai || orkai || zei || soi<br />
|-<br />
!What kind of<br />
| shodh || kadh || kodh || jodhi || othi || ordhi || zodhi || sothi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Negative determiner ''ze'' has no plural form. Neither have pronouns "Out of two".<br />
*Demonstratives are used when referring to listed items of equal animacy: proximal with the former and distal with the latter: ''Aitesoshóji math kuthos. Óomidh soutu.'' (I saw a cat and a dog. The latter was large.)<br />
*Locative pro-adverb can be conjugated with lative, locative and ablative.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Nouns in Sceptrian form the basis of derivational morphology and even the cases are utilized when forming new words. They are declined according to two numbers and nine cases, and the seven declensions are grouped in three genders which affect the verb conjugation and adjective agreement.<br />
<br />
====Gender====<br />
<br />
There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes.<br />
*Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in vowels ''a, æ, o, ó, ø'' and ''i''. <br />
*Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h'', same voiced and affricates), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings.<br />
*Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group.<br />
In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull). Some archaic words remain in dialects and in poetic use.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
<br />
There are two numbers, singular and plural, but abstract ''i''-nouns and inanimate ''l''-nouns are always singular. The declension according to number is complicated and fused with the class/case system explained and tabulated below.<br />
<br />
====Cases====<br />
<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Unmarked base form for subjects of intransitive and objects of transitive verbs <br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agents of transitive verbs<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect object; alienable possession ''gat dothi'' (a house of (lit. "for") the man); comparison (with ADJ comparative)<br />
*Possessive (POS): Inalienable possession ''dhoku dothor'' (the man's head)<br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS): Using something; "with someone", replaces "and" as Latin [[wikt:-que|-que]]; in antipassive constructions<br />
*Lative (LAT): Movement to; with adpositions<br />
*Locative-temporal (LOC-TEMP): Place; time; with adpositions<br />
*Ablative (ABL): Movement from (+delative); causal<br />
*Vocative (VOC): addressing (people, gods); interjections ''Alæ!'' (Hello! lit. "Day!")<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Genders and desinences'''<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" style="width: 100px"| <br />
!colspan="3"| Abstract <br />
!colspan="6"| Animate <br />
!colspan="3"| Inanimate<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''A'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''i'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''F'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''N'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''u'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"|''P'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''l''<br />
|-<br />
|<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>|| ||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 100px"| Absolutive<br />
| A || Asl || i || F || (o)lF || N || Ning || u || ush || P || Pl || l<br />
|- <br />
! style=""| Ergative <br />
| AA || AslA || ii || Fee || Fele || Nee || Neng || uu || uushu || Pee || Ple || le<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Dative <br />
| Ak || Akl || ik || Fi || Fil || Ni || Nil || (u)ji || (u)wi || Pei || Plei || lei<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Possessive <br />
| An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Instrumental-comitative <br />
| Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Lative <br />
| AgA || AglA || iki || Fko || Fklo || Nong || Nongo || ugu || uglu || Póo || Plóo || lo <br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Locative-temporal <br />
| AkhA || AlkhA || ikhi || Fku || Fklu || Nung || Nungu || ukhu || ulkhu || Pu || Plu || lu<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Ablative <br />
| ApA || AplA || ipi || Fp(o) || Fpl(o) || Nop || Nopl || upu || uplu || PPo || PPol || lp<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Vocative <br />
| Ae || Asl || ii || Fé || lFé || Né || Nin || -wé || -wésh || Pé || Plé || lé<br />
|}<br />
*''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø''<br />
**Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø<br />
*''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. <br />
*''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng''<br />
*''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q''<br />
**POS ''q''→''ng''<br />
**INS ending Ph marks breathy voice and may turn the plosive into corresponding fricative /ɸ, θ, x, χ/ if followed by a plosive.<br />
*- indicates that the original ending is replaced with the following: ''tup → tu'''m''''' (stick → stick's)<br />
<br />
====Possessive==== <br />
<br />
Different possessive forms and interpretations: <br />
*''Dativus possessivus'' (alienable): ''gat doth'''i''''' "the house which the man has temporarily settled in, i.e. rented"<br />
*Comitative case with alienable possessive suffix: ''doth gat''h'''''os''''' "man with his house which he has purchased"<br />
**Inalienable possessive suffix alters the meaning: ''doth gat''h'''''ozh''''' "man and his birthplace"<br />
*Possessive case (almost inalienable): ''gat doth'''or''''' "the house which was inherited and is now owned by the man". <br />
<br />
The noun in possessive case is not inflected further. With dative case, inflection may be utilized in order to distinguish the ''dativus possessivus'' from the indirect object or benefactive: ''Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli.'' "The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them." (Related to the feather ceremony when welcoming upper class members to a household.)<br />
<br />
'''Possessive affixes''', as shown in examples above, draw a distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: ''Óntesoson dothee gat'''s'''/vakuh'''oz'''.'' (A man is watching his house/ his own hand.) With the basic suffixes, the root is inflected first and then suffixed.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ Possessional suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!Person<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! ALIEN !! INAL !! ALIEN !! INAL <br />
|-<br />
!1st <br />
| (a)ń || (a)nga || (ó)m || (ó)ngó <br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
| (o)f || (ø)fo || (e)v || (ø)vø<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
| (o)s || (o)zh || (o)sl || (o)zhol<br />
|}<br />
*Irregular: Only VOC+possessive with 1SG: ''Pos'''n'''é!'' (My servant!), ''Polsmé!'' (Our servants!)<br />
<br />
'''2nd person polite suffixes''' are added to absolutive base and the endings are then declined according to abstract gender: <br />
*Singular: (a)tha, (a)tazha <br />
*Plural: (a)dhó, (a)dózhó <br />
*Example: ''gat'''atha'''pa'' (from Your house)<br />
<br />
See [[Sceptrian#Adverbial_clauses|adverbial clauses]] which utilize some possessive suffixes with [[Sceptrian#Non-finite_forms|non-finite verb forms]].<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
<br />
Adpositions are used with inflected nouns to add information about its location or relation to other nouns. Some Sceptrian adpositions can be used as stand-alone adverbs which may be conjugated according to noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====Prepositions====<br />
<br />
Prepositions are used with lative (to, towards), locative (at, near) and ablative (from) cases to alter the meaning.<br />
*''voi'' (in) forms illative, inessive, elative <br />
*''loi'' (out) for "out of", "outside" and "from outside"<br />
*''soi'' (on) to emphasize the surface aspect <br />
*''oist(i)'' (under) for movement under something<br />
*''roi'' (above) similarly to ''oist''<br />
*''boi'' (down) for "down (a surface / to)", "down in (somewhere)" and "from down"; as an adverb as well <br />
*''zoi'' (up) used like ''boi''<br />
*''moi'' (touching, around) with lative for terminative, locative for pertingent and ablative for initiative<br />
*''oil(i)'' (as) forms translative, essive, exessive<br />
*''koi'' (per) distribution: "for each", "every" (temporal), "from each"<br />
*''jon'' (... between) <br />
*''poi'' (... the middle of, among)<br />
*''tsoi'' (... front of; preceding) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = before<br />
*''hoi'' (... behind; following) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = after<br />
*''mots(i)'' (... on side)<br />
**combined with postpositional ''dei'' (right) or ''lai'' (left)<br />
**with time nouns in locative = ago<br />
<br />
====Postpositions====<br />
<br />
Postpositions appear with various cases and often come in groups.<br />
*''pón'' (through) with lative<br />
*''phó'' (along) with lative<br />
*''pló'' (opposite to, across) with locative<br />
*''sós'' (with) with comitative to express a greater degree of endowment (ornative); with ablative to indicate "without"; with lative for "in addition to"<br />
*''óp'' (about, concerning) with genitive; with ablative for "according to"<br />
*''ól'' (like) with genitive; as an adverb "similarly"<br />
*''jak'' (away, despite) with ablative; as an adverb as well<br />
*''mai'' (excluding) with ablative<br />
*''mak'' (except) with ablative<br />
*''mats'' (instead of) with ablative<br />
*''sai'' (including) with comitative<br />
*''sak'' (concerning, regarding) with comitative; with ablative to emphasize the causal aspect (due to, because of, thanks to)<br />
*''phe'' (for the sake of) with lative<br />
<br />
====Pronominal====<br />
<br />
When used with pronouns, separate adpositions only come with dative forms to indicate lative. Otherwise adpositions take possessive suffixes, inalienable for locative and alienable for ablative: ''voi nai'' (into me), ''voinga'' (inside me), ''voiń'' (from inside me)<br />
<br />
Of the polite possessive suffixes, alienable is added onto the adposition and then the entire compound is conjugated for lative, locative or ablative: ''voitha'' (in You; attributive), ''voithaga'' (into You), ''voithakha'' (inside You; predicative), ''voithapa'' (from inside You)<br />
<br />
===Derivational Morphology===<br />
<br />
Verbs and adjectives are derived from nouns by adding suffixes and in some cases prefixes as well.<br />
<br />
====Noun====<br />
<br />
Many nouns share same origins and these endings are the most common forms of derivation:<br />
*Suffixing verbs with once established ending vowels or consonant appropriate for the noun class. <br />
*place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix<br />
*collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish)<br />
*being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy")<br />
**doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer)<br />
**experiencer, patient: ABS with ''(k)ois'' or ''(k)oit'' depending on animacy: ''kepois'' (person being washed)<br />
**origin: ABL with ''(o)su'': ''ukopposu'' (person from north)<br />
**characteristic (from abstract quality): INS with final duplicated vowel and ''tu'': ''luwishitu'' (beauty)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)n'' (AN) or ''(o)l'' (INAN): ''koson'' (wood), ''qotol'' (stone)<br />
*diminutive: reduplication of final sound with ''t'' between vowels and ''i'' between consonants: ''kosis'' (small tree)<br />
*augmentative: reduplication of final sound with ''g'' between vowels and ''a'' between consonants: ''kosas'' (great tree)<br />
**apotheosis: augmentative with ''a''-ending: ''kosonana'' (godwood)<br />
*abstract quality, feature: ABS suffixed with ''(k)oti'': ''dothoti'' (manliness)<br />
*'''gerund''' (act of doing): via derivated [[Sceptrian#Verb|verb]] suffixed with ''(o)pi'': ''glerkurpi'' (mace-battering)<br />
<br />
====Adjective====<br />
<br />
Different cases and affixes are used for the derivation:<br />
*similarity, having something: ''dh'' suffix to abstract gender and animate ''u''-ending; voicing of fricatives (''h→qh'', no change with affricates); nasals [[Sceptrian#Consonant_form|"lateralized"]] + ''o''; voicing of plosives + ''o'' (''q→g''); l-declension as in INS-COM: ''evadh'' (bright), ''dodh'' (masculine)<br />
**full of, having something: previous suffixed with ''ol'': ''mel muvol'' (waters full of fish)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)p'': ''kosonop'' (wooden)<br />
*origin, relation: ABL form with a final ''ó'' added or replacing the original ending vowel: ''kusupó'' (friendly)<br />
*absence, without: ''ti'' suffixed to VOC form: ''evæti'' (lightless=dark)<br />
*doing: ''on'' added after INS case: ''kephon'' (washing)<br />
*who did: INS with ''ompu'': ''kephompu'' (who washed = ''pessyt'' in Finnish)<br />
*done by: INS with ''empo'' and possibly inalienable possessive suffix: ''kephemponga'' (washed by me)<br />
*not done: LAT suffixed with ''tip'': ''kepóotip'' (unwashed)<br />
*experiencing: LAT suffixed with ''p'': kepóop (being washed)<br />
*result (wanted): LAT suffixed with ''pi'': ''kepóopi'' (washed=clean)<br />
**if unwanted: LAT suffixed with ''pot'': ''vangostóopot'' (drunk)<br />
*possible: POS with ''ta'': ''kenta'' (washable)<br />
*requiring: LOC with ''rt'': ''kepurt'' (needs to be washed)<br />
*opposite, negation: VOC with ''tot''<br />
<br />
Notice that plural forms of adjectives may be derived from plural nouns: ''dolth kep'''s'''on'' (men who are washing)<br />
<br />
====Verb====<br />
<br />
A declined core noun receives an ending which describes how the verb reflects the noun:<br />
*In some cases, the vowel ending of nouns may simply be removed or the absolutive of a consonant-ending noun may also serve as a verb.<br />
*ABS = "happens, is": ''kep'' (is washed)<br />
*COM = "using": ''tuph'' (is poked with a stick), ''glerkh'' (is hit with a mace)<br />
*POS + ''k'' = "similarity": ''melonk'' (is wet)<br />
*DAT + ''k'' = "making/becoming" (no ''k'' with Abstract): ''zurmu'' → ''zurmjik'' (strong person → is strengthened), ''zurp'' → ''zurpeik'' (strong, durable object → hardens) & ''zurma'' → ''zurmak'' (strength → intensifies)<br />
*LAT + ''t'' = "movement, quasi-inceptive": ''glerkóot'' (swings a mace, INTR), ''melot'' (flows), ''latepóot'' (is persuaded to dance, INTR; begins a dance with, TR), ''lehkot'' (runs) <br />
*LOC + ''r'' = "frequentative": ''glerkur'' (is battered with a mace), ''melur'' (rains; drips)<br />
*VOC + ''k'' = "momentane": ''glerkék'' (is hit once with a mace), ''melék'' (splashes once)<br />
*POS + ''(o)v'' = "consider, feel": ''vongv'' (is considered strange = ''oudoksutaan'' in Finnish)<br />
* Several endings can be stacked on verbs without turning it into a noun in between: ''melurék'' (shower of rain falls), ''tup(o)hkur'' (is often poked with a stick). When deriving, the ''r''-ending are declined according to the ''l''-paradigm.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Sceptrian agree with the gender, number and cases of their head. When an adjective is used as a predicative, it comes before its head, but when as an attributive, it comes after. Adjective declension follows approximately the same rules as [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun declension]]. In the common ''dh''-ending F-declension, ''o'' is added between ''dh'' and case-endings with consonants. Changes in both casual and poetic speech include mirroring onset into coda: ''dothklu jadaadh'''ulk''''' (near nice men)<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+DH-declension<br />
! !! ABS !! ERG !! DAT !! POS !! INS !! LAT !! LOC !! ABL !! VOC<br />
|-<br />
!SG<br />
|dh || dhee || dhi || dhor || dhos || dh'''ok''' || dh'''uk''' || dh'''op''' || dhé<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
| ldh(o) || dhele || dhil || dhoŕ || dhosh || dh'''olk''' || dh'''ulk''' || dh'''olp''' || ldhé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Sceptrian#Apophony|Apophony]] in the stressed syllable is used to indicate the gender: base for inanimate, first apophony with animate and second with abstract gender: ''eja jadædh, doth jadaadh, latep jadadh'' <br />
<br />
Polite adjectives are formed from the abstract form with predicative prefix ''nga'' and attributive suffix ''æ'': ''ngaluwidh Nith'' (You are beautiful), ''shosleetha luwidhæ'' (a beautiful knight)<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
<br />
'''Positive''' of an adjective is the base form.<br />
*When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.)<br />
*Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle.<br />
*When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii fældh dolth lutush.'' (As many men as women.) <br />
<br />
'''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). <br />
*Manner quatifiers ''orkai, jofai'' and ''zei'' can be used to indicate the degree: ''luwidhé orkai'' (much more beautiful), ''luwidhé jofai'' (slightly more beautiful), ''luwidhé zei'' (not more beautiful)<br />
*When comparing two nouns adjective comes first (predicative comparative), the standard acquires the dative case, and comparative forms agree with their head in gender and number: ''luwildhé po swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*Pronoun comparison is also possible to construct with alienable possessional suffixes: ''luwildhév swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*When adjective comparative is not included, postpositional ''fadhé'' (more) or ''føødhi'' (less) can be used with noun plurals: ''dolth faldhé lutwi'' (more men than women)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative''' is similar to noun apotheosis: the ending is reduplicated with ''é'' between consonants and ''j'' between vowels, and an ''a'' added to the end: ''luwidhédha'' (most beautiful). Similarly to comparative, ''ti'' gives the meaning of "least": ''luwidhédhati'' (least beautiful).<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly)<br />
<br />
Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh òomidhé'' (very beautiful < "largely")<br />
<br />
'''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative adverb''' is similar to adjective superlative in its reduplication but with an ''æ''-ending: ''zaivie jadædhédhæ'' (you sing most pleasantly)<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Missing verbs: <br />
*"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man)<br />
**Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith)<br />
**Showing tense:<br />
***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past)<br />
***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective<br />
***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense<br />
***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" <br />
* "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man")<br />
<br />
====Conjugation====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, primary conjugation of verbs indicates person, number and tense-aspect, and it includes affixation and apophony. Conjugation for different [[Sceptrian#Mood|moods]] is slightly more complex.<br />
<br />
=====Root=====<br />
<br />
Verbs are given in their 3SG.INAN GNO form which is used to form all of the third person forms. With first and second person subjects, the first apophony is used in indicative inceptive and future. Polite second person forms use the second apophony<br />
<br />
=====Affixes=====<br />
<br />
Fusional conjugation affixes convey the person, number, tense and aspect (and honorific). Subject and object suffixes are almost always used with verbs, the antipassive being the only exception. Agent prefixes aren't often used in the casual register, mostly to form the [[Sceptrian#Reflexive|reflexive]], but they have to be used in the formal register. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense <br />
!Aspect<br />
!1SG<br />
!1PL<br />
!2SG<br />
!2PL<br />
!2SG.POL<br />
!2PL.POL<br />
!3SG.A<br />
!3PL.A<br />
!3SG.INAN<br />
!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a<br />
| ha<br />
| e<br />
| he<br />
| ahi<br />
| aqhi<br />
| ó<br />
| hó<br />
| (o)<br />
| l<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an<br />
| han<br />
| en<br />
| hen<br />
| ang<br />
| aing<br />
| ón<br />
| hón<br />
| on <br />
| lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| ast<br />
| last<br />
| est<br />
| lest<br />
| æst<br />
| hæst<br />
| ós<br />
| lós<br />
| os<br />
| osl<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| ajin<br />
| hajin<br />
| ejin<br />
| hejin<br />
| azing<br />
| izing<br />
| ójin<br />
| hójin<br />
| oin<br />
| loin<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai<br />
| hai<br />
| ei<br />
| hei<br />
| athi<br />
| idhi<br />
| óji<br />
| hóji<br />
| oi<br />
| loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| har<br />
| +har<br />
| her<br />
| +her<br />
| athar<br />
| idhar<br />
| hór<br />
| +hór<br />
| ho<br />
| +ho<br />
|}<br />
* initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive<br />
* initial ''h'' is for aspiration of the final plosive or simply ''h'' after a vowel<br />
**if the final plosive is already breathy, ''o'' is added after it<br />
*+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration<br />
**simple ''h'' becomes ''qh''<br />
*Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense <br />
!Aspect<br />
!1SG<br />
!1PL<br />
!2SG<br />
!2PL<br />
!2SG.POL<br />
!2PL.POL<br />
!3SG.A<br />
!3PL.A<br />
!3SG.INAN<br />
!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a<br />
| sa<br />
| e<br />
| se<br />
| æ<br />
| hæ<br />
| ó<br />
| só<br />
| o<br />
| lo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an<br />
| san<br />
| en<br />
| sen<br />
| nga<br />
| ngai<br />
| ón<br />
| són<br />
| on <br />
| lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| tsa<br />
| tsla<br />
| tse<br />
| tsle<br />
| tsæ<br />
| tshæ<br />
| tsó<br />
| tsló<br />
| so<br />
| slo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| jan<br />
| zhan<br />
| jen<br />
| zhen<br />
| izæ<br />
| izhæ<br />
| jón<br />
| zhón<br />
| i<br />
| li<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai<br />
| sai<br />
| ei<br />
| sei<br />
| thæ<br />
| dhæ<br />
| jó<br />
| zhó<br />
| oi<br />
| loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| ar<br />
| sar<br />
| er<br />
| ser<br />
| thar<br />
| dhar<br />
| ór<br />
| sór<br />
| or<br />
| lor<br />
|}<br />
*Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.)<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ónbouson dothee pof.'' (A man (ERG) is lifting a feather (ABS).), ''Bousón doth.'' (The man falls.) ''Bouson pof.'' (The feather (ABS) falls.).<br />
<br />
====Tense====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, verbs are conjugated for three tenses: past, present and future. These tenses describe when an action took place relative to current moment as their names indicate. <br />
<br />
====Aspect====<br />
<br />
Gnomic-static aspect is used to indicate general truths ''Zaitó Hala.'' (sun rises) and static situations ''Mépa lusha.'' (I can speak Sceptrian). It can be used with expressions of time to specify when something was static ''Petsipha kas arakha.'' (dress-STAT.1SG this.COM yesterday.TEMP "I was dressed in these clothes yesterday (as well).")<br />
<br />
Present progressive describes dynamic actions ''Anbaplóph lusha kha.'' (I'm reading Sceptrian at the moment). Present inceptive is used when an action is about to begin or someone is starting to do something.<br />
*Inceptive is only used once: Subject inceptive with intransitive and mostly agent inceptive with translative verbs. Object ending is either PRES.PROG, when something was begun only a moment ago, or FUT, when something is about to begin.<br />
**Translative object inceptive if the object caused the initialization: ''Órlateepast.'' (He is about to take me to dancing through my initiative.)<br />
<br />
Past imperfective is used with continuous activities which were happening before the present. The contrasting perfective aspect describes the event as a whole and having an endpoint in the past.<br />
<br />
In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used.<br />
<br />
Endings with different tenses may be mixed:<br />
*PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) <br />
*PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while))<br />
<br />
====Mood====<br />
<br />
Moods express speaker's attitude towards the subject or their knowledge of it. They are divided into realis and irrealis moods: the former expresses factual statements while the latter indicates that an event hasn't taken place or the speaker is uncertain of a situation.<br />
<br />
=====Realis=====<br />
<br />
'''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well)<br />
<br />
'''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.)<br />
<br />
=====Irrealis=====<br />
<br />
'''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?)<br />
<br />
'''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) <br />
*The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!)<br />
<br />
'''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original second syllable: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: '''''la'''latép'' (may dance), '''''ak'''aktæsos'' (may hear), ''rorøt'' (may go)<br />
*The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject.<br />
*The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished<br />
<br />
=====Particles=====<br />
<br />
Particles are placed after a verb to alter or to specify its meaning.<br />
<br />
Realis<br />
*''pai'' mirative (with soft imperative in present): ''Rótóji pai!'' (He went!?)<br />
**with adjectives or as an adverb: ''Luwi pai!'' (How beautiful!) <br />
<br />
Evidentials (with causatives)<br />
*''atasi'' hearsay: ''Rotóji tasi fope.'' (I heard from you that he went.)<br />
*''tesei'' visual: ''Rótoutóji tesei nape.'' (I didn't see him go.)<br />
<br />
Irrealis<br />
*''norka'' dubitative (with subjunctive): ''Rorøtóji norka.'' (I doubt he went.)<br />
*''gana'' volitive (with future subjunctive): ''Lalatépar gana.'' (I wish I could dance.)<br />
<br />
Conditional (with subjunctive)<br />
*''ta'' apodosis: ''Arziizeither ta'' (I will raise you...)<br />
*''-ti-'' infixed between reduplicated form for protasis: ''boutiboisen'' (if you fall)<br />
<br />
Hortatives (with soft imperative which itself works as an adhortative or dehortative with negation (unwillingness))<br />
*Cohortative: ''Latéprlast kha!'' (Let's dance now!), ''Rótrlastonget khugu.'' (Let's not go there.)<br />
*''jokæ'' exhortative (inhortative through negation): ''Rótrest jokæ.'' (You really should go.)<br />
<br />
'''Formal''' register differences:<br />
*''aktasosai'' (hears) conjugated for hearsay: ''Røtathi aiaktasosóji.'' (I heard from her that you left.)<br />
*''tesos'' (sees) conjugated for visual evidentiality: ''Rotóji tesosai.'' (I saw her go.)<br />
*''tsmaadhoré'' (doubtfully) used for dubitative<br />
*''tutaadhoré'' (wishfully) used for volitive<br />
*''alké'' permissive with dative: ''Rótest alké foki.'' (You may leave.)<br />
**prohibitive with negated (inability) imperative infinitive: ''Rótrostodi alké foki.'' (You aren't allowed to leave.)<br />
*both conditional particles are used separately and they are prefixed with the subjunctive reduplication: ''Arziizeither zaita bouboisen bouti.'' (I will raise you if you fall.)<br />
<br />
'''In literature''' to express the peaking pitch of ironical statements and lowered pitch of sarcastic expressions:<br />
*''jø'' verbal irony: ''Jótesosoi melurpi, jóbatophoi "Luwidh jø hi loi khu".'' (He saw the rain and said: "''Beautiful'' day out there")<br />
*''gæ'' sarcasm: ''Uu, eiluwikoi gæ pai.'' (Oh, ''how beautiful'' you made it.)<br />
<br />
====Negation====<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Negation affixes<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Manner→<br />
! Inability<br />
!colspan="6"| Unwillingness<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Form→<br />
!2nd apophony +infix<br>(before patient-suffix)<br />
!colspan="3"|Intranslative<br>suffix<br />
!colspan="3"|Translative<br>infix (after agent-prefix)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Person→<br />
!All<br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!SG<br />
|ost<br />
|net<br />
|fep<br />
|set<br />
|no<br />
|fo<br />
|so<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|osht<br />
|nget<br />
|vep<br />
|slet<br />
|ngo<br />
|flo<br />
|slo<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|PST<br />
|out<br />
|colspan="3"|nait<br />
|colspan="3"|me<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|FUT<br />
|oz<br />
|colspan="3"|nort<br />
|colspan="3"|mor<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse'''fó'''lateephar?'' (You don't want to begin dancing with me?)<br />
<br />
'''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.)<br />
<br />
Second apophony of negation affixes with subjunctive mood: ''Rorøthórn'''ø'''rt.'' (He may not be willing to go.)<br />
<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
<br />
=====Gerund=====<br />
*Base nouns or their abstract variants may serve as gerunds, which describe the action of doing, but otherwise they are created with the suffix ''(o)pi'' added to a verb root. The suffic also helps to distinguish the forms.<br />
<br />
=====Infinitives=====<br />
*PRES ''-odi'', PST ''-oudi'', FUT ''ordi''<br />
*used with modal verbs<br />
*subjunctive form created with duplication<br />
<br />
=====Participles=====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian participles work as adjectives. Following table shows which "case" and suffix the verb base (or gerund in formal register) takes.<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Present participle suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!IPFV<br />
!PFV<br />
|-<br />
!Patientive (LAT)<br />
|''p''<br />
|''pi/pot''<br />
|-<br />
!Negative (LAT)<br />
|<br />
|''tip''<br />
|-<br />
!Active (INS)<br />
|rowspan="2"|''on''<br />
|''ompu''<br />
|-<br />
!Agentive (INS)<br />
|''empo''<br />
|}<br />
*Also the "requiring" (FUT) form LOC+''rt'' and "possible" (GNO) POS+''ta'' <br />
*Past forms are created by adding ''i'' to the end: ''kephoni'' (was being washed)<br />
*Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed)<br />
*Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]]<br />
<br />
Relative form with word-order and prefix? + formal register particle<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, auxiliary verbs are conjugated only for subject which may act as the agent of the clause. The verbs can either precede (dynamic, deontic) or come after (epistemic) different verb infinitives. Since regular object-patient conjugation can't be used, objects have to be written (no pro-drop) and they are declined into instrumental-comitative case.<br />
*''tut'' "want" (from ''tuta'' "craving, wish"): ''Tutajin kepoudi his.'' (I wanted to wash it.)<br />
**infinitive in lative case for "want something to be done": ''Tutan kepordiki his.'' (I want it to be washed.)<br />
**"be going to" (FUT): ''Tuutar latepordi.'' (I'm going to dance.)<br />
**"wish" (SBJV) mostly as the subjunctive of the absent ''to be''-verb: ''Tutitan khau fos.'' (I wish you were here) <br />
*''mép'' "can, know how to" (dynamic) (from ''mépi'' "skill"): ''Mépa latepodi'' ("I can dance"; notice gnomic-static mood)<br />
*''kuut'' "can, may" (deontic / epistemic) (from ''kuutó'' "possibility"): ''Kuutest rotordi.'' (You may leave.), ''Fendógópot kuutó pai.'' (He may unexpectedly be dead.)<br />
**particle ''nor'' added after the verb for lower possibility i.e. "could, might": ''Fendógópi kuut nor.'' (It might be dead.)<br />
**particle ''ga'' added for "should, must": ''Fendógópi kuut ga.'' (It should be dead, as we wanted.)<br />
*''khet'' "must" (deontic) (from ''kheti'' "necessity"): ''Khetan rotodi.'' (I must go now), ''Kheetar rotordi.'' (I must go soon)<br />
*''khurd'' "dare" (from ''khurdi'' "daring"): ''¿Khurde glerkékodi nas?'' (Do you dare hit me with a mace?)<br />
<br />
Mixing tenses: <br />
*''Tutitai latepordi.'' SBJV.want-PST.PFV.1SG dance-INF.FUT "I would've wanted to dance"<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian distinguishes between two voices, active and antipassive. Passive is very similar to active since Sceptrian is absolutive-ergative, and thus isn't considered a true change in voice. Antipassive is used to reduce the valency of the verbs by removing the object of a transitive clause.<br />
<br />
Active construction: verb-agent-object and verb-object-agent are used so that a comment (rheme) precedes the topic (theme). [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|Emphasizing clitics]] are used to mark the topic. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Ónzaiton dothee pof.<br />
|IPA = /ɔ̃zaɪ̯tə̃ dəθe: pəf/<br />
| morphemes = ón-zait-on doth-ee pof-Ø<br />
| gloss = 3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV man-ERG feather-ABS<br />
| translation = A man is lifting a feather.<br />
}} <br />
<br />
Passive construction: To demote the agent (ERG), it's either removed or inflected into causal ablative (ABL). Verb is only conjugated for the object.<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Zaiton pof (dothpo).<br />
|IPA = /zaɪ̯tə̃ pəf (dəθpə)/<br />
| morphemes = zait-on pof-Ø (doth-po)<br />
| gloss = lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV feather-ABS (man-ABL)<br />
| translation = A feather is being lifted (by a man).<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Antipassive''' construction: Agent (ERG) transforms into subject (ABS) and object (ABS) takes the instrumental-comitative (INS) case. Word order becomes SV(O), and the verb is conjugated according to the agent only and the stressed syllable undergoes second [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]]. The verb is also suffixed with the emphasizing clitic ''ma'' in the formal register. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Doth ónzeit(ma) (pofos).<br />
|IPA = /dəθ ɔ̃zei̯t(mä) (pəfəs)/<br />
| morphemes = doth-Ø ón-zeit-Ø(or =ma) (pof-os)<br />
| gloss = man-ABS ANTIP\3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-ANTIP(or =ANTIP.FORM) (feather-INS)<br />
| translation = The man is lifting (a feather). <br />
}}<br />
<br />
Instrument and turning it into an agent:<br />
* ''Ónzaiton dothee pof vakuhosozh.'' (...with his own hand...)<br />
**''Ónzaiton pof vakuhp dothir.'' (the feather is raised by the man's hand)<br />
**''Onzaiton pof tuph dothi'''sh''' slokli.'' (The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them.) Inanimate agent conjugation, and dative of possession is inflected to avoid misinterpretation!<br />
* ''Vakuh ónzeit pofos.'' (The hand lifts something, which happens to be a feather)/(someone intentionally lifts a feather with their hand) Notice animate conjugation!<br />
**''Tup onzeit dothpo pofos.'' (The stick, which is being held by a man, lifts something, which happens to be a feather) ABL as causative since inanimate ''tup''.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
Decimal base was adopted due to commerce, but traces of the former octal base remain. <br />
<br />
Numerals are placed before their head. Last part of a cardinal determiner agrees with case through matching declension: ''op'''l''' tupl'' (two sticks)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Numeral system<br />
|-<br />
! Number <br />
! Number !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional !! Multiplicative adverb !! Multiplicative adjective !! Group !! Polygon<br />
|-<br />
!Zero<br />
| ozi || oz || ozhi || - || zeng (never) || - || ze (no) || -<br />
|-<br />
!One<br />
| ipi || ip || iphi || liku (whole) || ohu (once) || ipitse (onefold) || ipisi (singular) || ipirt (dot) <br />
|-<br />
!Two <br />
| opi || op || ophi || lopu (half) || ophu (twice) || opitse (twofold) || opisi (pair) || opart (line)<br />
|-<br />
!Three<br />
| oki || ok || okhi || loku || okhu || okitse || okisi || okart (triangle)<br />
|-<br />
!Four<br />
| óppi || óp || óphi || lóppu || óphu || óphitse || óphisi || ópart <br />
|-<br />
!Five<br />
| ofi || of || offi || lofu || offu || ofitse || ofisi || ofart<br />
|-<br />
!Six<br />
| ókki || ók || ókhi || lókku || ókhu || ókhitse || ókhisi || ókart<br />
|-<br />
!Seven<br />
| omi || om || ongi || lomu || ongu || omitse || omisi || omart<br />
|-<br />
!Eight<br />
| ngovi || ngov || ngovvi || longovu || ngovvu || ngovitse || ngovisi || jart<br />
|-<br />
!Nine<br />
| ngoipi || ngoip || ngoiphi || longoipu || ngoiphu || ngoipitse || ngoipisi || ngoipart<br />
|-<br />
!Ten<br />
| jopi || jop || jophi || lojopu || jophu || jopitse || jopisi || jopart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!Eleven<br />
!Twelve<br />
!Thirteen<br />
!Fourteen<br />
!Fifteen<br />
!Sixteen<br />
!Seventeen<br />
!Eighteen<br />
!Nineteen<br />
!Twenty<br />
|-<br />
| ngoki <br />
| ngópi <br />
| ngofi<br />
| ngóki<br />
| ngomi <br />
| ophungovi <br />
| jopomi<br />
| jopingovi<br />
| jopingoipi<br />
| ophujopi<br />
|-<br />
!Twenty-one<br />
!Thirty<br />
!Fourty<br />
!Fifty<br />
!Sixty<br />
!Sixty-four<br />
!Sixty-five<br />
!Seventy<br />
!Eighty<br />
!Ninety<br />
|-<br />
| ophujopipi <br />
| okhujopi<br />
| offungovi <br />
| offujopi <br />
|ókhujopi<br />
| mouti<br />
| moutipi<br />
|ongujopi<br />
|ngowopi<br />
|ngoiphujopi<br />
|-<br />
!One hundred<br />
!One hundred<br/>and twenty-two<br />
!One hundred<br/>and sixty-six<br />
!Two hundred<br />
!Thousand<br />
!Three thousand<br/>four hundred<br />
!Ten thousand<br />
!Hundred thousand<br />
!Million<br />
!Billion<br />
|-<br />
| toti <br />
|toti(s)<br>ophujopopi<br />
|toti(s)<br>moutókki<br />
|ophutoti<br />
| mopi<br />
|okhumopi(s)<br>óphutoti<br />
|tothutoti<br />
|tothumopi<br />
|hamisi<br />
|mowisi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Multiplicative adverb form is used in front of the powers of ten (tens, hundreds, ...)<br />
*Digits are annexed into the tens by using the cardinal or determiner form depending whether the digit begins with a vowel or not.<br />
*Fractions are constructed by placing the ''l(o)''-prefixed form after the multiplicative number: ''okhu lóppu'' ("thrice one quarter" = three quarters). The noun is in ablative case and only the fraction is inflected: ''lopu'''ji''' tuppo'' (for one half of a stick)<br />
*Large numbers (from hundred) are written separately from smaller, but in formal register ''s''-letter is added between each power of ten.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
*VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive<br />
* possessives follow nouns<br />
* predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns<br />
<br />
===Emphasizing clitics===<br />
<br />
Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton dothee'''noh''' pof.'' (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. ''Ónzaiton dothee pof'''ma'''.'' (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used with verbs in antipassive constructions.<br />
<br />
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) <br />
<br />
The suffixes are also used with alienable possessive forms to separate the possessor from indirect objects. Chosen depending on the ergativity of the possessum: ''Jóvakuhoi suu pof swi'''ma''' swi.'' (He gave her feather to him.)<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
<br />
====Independent====<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Conjunction====<br />
<br />
coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?)<br />
<br />
====Noun clauses====<br />
<br />
WIP ... to be redone<br />
*Infinitive.tense + ... + causatives: ''Tesosan kepó vakuhos supe.'' (I see that he washes his hands) vs. ''Onluvakan kep'''óo''' vakuhos supe.'' (The washing of his hands brings me pleasure.)<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
<br />
Nominalizing relative clauses with participles is common.<br />
<br />
Using [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|an emphasizing clitic]] to mark the antecedent for the class-appropriate proximal demonstrative pronoun (thaka/saitu/ka declined for number) which works as a relative pronoun - case chosen according to the embedded clause: <br />
*''Rotóji dothma saituh latepai.'' (leave-PST.PFV.3SG man.ABS-EMPH.ABS P.PROX.AN-COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The man, with whom I danced, left.") <br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahul dothelenos saitush latepai.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS man-PL.ERG-EMPH.ERG P.PROX.AN-PL.COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The men with whom I danced are starting to drink beer.")<br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahulma dothele ka tutitai vangosordi.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS-EMPH.ABS man-PL.ERG P.PROX.INAN SBJV-want-PST.PFV.1SG drink-INF.FUT "Men are starting to drink the beer which I would've wanted to drink."<br />
<br />
====Adverbial clauses====<br />
<br />
non-finite forms + possessive suffixes to indicate subject<br />
<br />
====Conditional clauses====<br />
<br />
subjunctive as explained in verb particle section<br />
<br />
====Indirect speech====<br />
<br />
==Register==<br />
<br />
Different endings which reflect the conversation situation: speakers, familiarity, formality, location... <br />
<br />
===Intimate===<br />
<br />
Agent prefixes aren't used. No ''t'' in inceptive. Due to apophony, subject suffix can be dropped from FUT/INCEP if 1st or 2nd person distinction is clear.<br />
<br />
===Casual===<br />
<br />
In casual register, verb forms are chosen differently when the subject is agent-like (he dances) or patient-like (he fell): ''latepóji'' (he danced AN) vs. ''bousoi'' (he fell INAN)<br />
<br />
===Formal===<br />
<br />
Mandatory use of pronouns and agent prefixes.<br />
<br />
One may use inanimate verb forms as anti-honorific? ''Ondakon næ ka Nithki.'' (I humbly offer this to You)<br />
<br />
Apophony of basic prepositions with root ''oi'': ''Oisti Hala, óosti vakuhanga, ousti qorel'' (under the Sun, under my hand, under the earth)<br />
<br />
In formal register, it is preferred to use only animate nouns as agents while abstract and inanimate are as antipassive subjects: ''luwi... nas'' ("beauty-of.yours it-un-eye-ful-makes me-with", your beauty makes me blind) vs. ''en fø na'' (you are making me blind)<br />
<br />
Distinction between abstract and animate in some categories, such as verb conjugation (''wa'')<br />
<br />
Can people with higher status be abstract or do they occupy a special animate category? (æ inside?)<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
See the [[Sceptrian/Dictionary|dictionary page]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian&diff=35646Sceptrian2015-07-07T21:13:03Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Gender */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Construction}}<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Sceptrian<br />
|nativename = [[File:Lusha_name.png|300px]]<br>''Batop Lushan''<br />
|pronunciation = [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ]<br />
|region = Western Central World<br />
|states = Sceptre<br />
|speakers = 29,200,000 <br />
|date = 7th 641<br />
|familycolor = #d3ffce<br />
|fam1 = West-Herookuan<br />
|fam2 = Lutian<br />
|fam3 = Sceptrian branch<br />
|creator=Ahuelni<br />
|setting=Akekata<br />
|dialects = Yerzonian, Mulish, Fanish <br />
|script = Toneka alphabet<br />
|nation = Empire of Sceptre<br />
|minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia<br />
|agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language)<br />
|map = Lusha_regions.jpg<br />
|mapsize = 300<br />
|mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects<br />
}}<br />
{{ClassMeter<br />
|Name = Sceptrian<br />
|NativeName = Batop Lushan<br />
|Type = Fusional<br />
|Alignment = Absolutive-ergative<br />
<br />
|adjective = final<br />
|adposition = mixed<br />
|adverb= final<br />
|article= mixed<br />
|relativeclause = final<br />
|nounclause = final<br />
|order = VSO<br />
<br />
|Tonal = no<br />
|Genders = 3<br />
|Declined = yes<br />
|Conjugated = yes<br />
|Case = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Definiteness = no<br />
|Gender = yes<br />
|Voice = yes<br />
|Mood = yes<br />
|Person = yes<br />
|Number = yes<br />
|Tense = yes<br />
|Aspect = yes<br />
|Phonology = 100<br />
|NounCases = 100<br />
|NounDef = 100<br />
|NounNumbers = 100<br />
|NounGender = 100<br />
|VerbPerson = 100<br />
|VerbNumber = 100<br />
|VerbAspect = 90<br />
|VerbTense = 100<br />
|VerbMood = 90<br />
|VerbVoice = 80<br />
|AdjCase = 100<br />
|AdjNumber = 100<br />
|AdjDef = 100<br />
|AdjGen = 100<br />
|AdjComparative = 100<br />
|AdjSuperlative = 100<br />
|Supine = 90<br />
|Gerund = 90<br />
|Participle = 90<br />
|Infinitive = 90<br />
|Modality = 90<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ] or simply ''lusha'') is an ''a priori'' [[w:Artistic_language|artistic language]] created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 29 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking [[Khattish]] and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian and its dialects feature 51 phonetic consonants, some of them with interesting lateral features. The language also has 25 phonetic vowels: twelve short, nine long and four diphthongs. Nasalization, rhotacization and breathy voice are used phonemically. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
If the romanization symbol is the same as in IPA, it is not duplicated. Not bolded romanization indicates that the sound appears as a vernacular or dialectal version.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 830px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px" colspan="2"|<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Uvular<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| [ɱ]<br />
| <br />
| '''n (ń)''' [n]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''t'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''k'''<br />
| '''q'''<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''b'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''d'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''g'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Breathy<br />
| '''ph bh'''<br>[pʰ] [bʱ]<br />
|<br />
|'''th dh'''<br>[tʰ] [dʱ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''kh gh'''<br>[kʰ] [gʱ]<br />
|'''qh'''<br>[qʰ]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| '''pl bl'''<br />[pˡ] [bˡ]<br />
| <br />
| '''tl dl'''<br />[tˡ] [dˡ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''kl gl'''<br/>[kˡ] [gˡ]<br />
| '''ql'''<br/>[qˡ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| ph [ɸ]<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| '''th''' [θ]<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''sh''' [ʃ]<br />
| '''h''' [ç]<br />
| '''kh h''' [x]<br />
| '''qh''' [χ]<br />
| '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''w''' bh [β]<br />
| '''v'''<br />
| '''dh''' [ð]<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| '''zh''' [ʒ]<br />
| <br />
| gh [ɣ]<br />
| <br />
| h [ɦ]<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''sl''' [ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Affricate<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ts''' [t͡s] <br />
| '''tsh''' [t͡ʃ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''tsl''' [t͡ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Approximant<br />
!Non-lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''j'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''l''' [l] [l̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| pr [ʙ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''r (ŕ)''' [r] [r̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The liquids ''r'' and ''l'' can appear as '''syllabic consonants''': ''tlsl'' /tˡl̩ɬ/ (shallow), ''prk'' /pr̩k/ (wagon) and ''trs'' /tr̩s/ (smith)<br />
*Vernacularly, both syllabic and obstruent-following alveolar trill ''r'' and lateral approximant ''l'' are pronounced as voiceless [r̩̊], [r̥], [l̩̊] and [l̥] when in contact with only voiceless consonants: ''trs'' [tr̩̊s] (smith) contrasting with ''trls'' [tr̩s] (while standard /trəls/) (smiths); ''gatl'' [gɑtl̥] (houses) whose pronunciation approaches [gɑtɬ]. <br />
**'''Meslatu Hirke''' made his disputed suggestion in 7:693 that a similar process had led to the birth of ''sl'' as plural indicator, when original plural ''l'' turned first into voiceless and then into ''sl'' after a word-final glottal stop, which has disappeared entirely. <br />
*In eastern dialects, ''pr'' is realized as [ʙ] and ''tr'', ''tsr'' and ''trs'' often as [r̝]. In the dialects, aspirated plosives have been fully spirantized into their fricative counterparts, e.g. [tʰ]>[θ].<br />
*Fricatives show properties of syllabic consonants word-initially and word-finally.<br />
<br />
Nasal [ɱ] only appears as an allophone of nasals with labio-dental sounds /f/ and /v/. Before velar sounds (e.g. /k/) nasals turn similarly into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
Letter ''h'' has four allophones: initial is always [h] despite frontness, [ç] appears elsewhere with front vowels, [x] appears word-finally and [h~ɦ] word-medially with back vowels ''tihtóhnah'' [tiçˈtɔɦ.näx] (assassinator). It's also used after consonants to indicate breathy voice.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 390px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| <br />
| '''u'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-mid<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| o<br/>[ɘ]<br />
| o<br/>[ɤ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
|<br />
| '''o'''<br/>[ə]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''é ø'''<br />[ɛ] [œ]<br />
|<br />
| '''ó'''<br />[ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
|'''æ'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
|'''a'''<br />[ä]<br />
|a<br />[ɑ]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
All the nine main vowel sounds (bolded) have '''long''' versions as separate phonemes.<br />
<br />
Schwa '''''o''''' is used as an epenthetic vowel (anaptyxis). When it is used to break consonant clusters (not indicated in native script) it is the simple schwa /ə/: *dŧ → ''doth'' /dəθ/ (man). When stressed, it is vernacularly realized as [ɘ], and in western dialects more clearly as [ɤ]: *dŧs → ''dothos'' [dəˈθɘˑs]<br />
<br />
Vowel ''a'' is [ɑ] after voiced consonants. Vowel ''æ'' is often more open [a], though, in Western dialects, it has merged with ''é''. <br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, there are only closing diphthongs which go up in the vowel chart:<br />
*Back: ou /ɔʊ̯/<br />
*Front: ai /äɪ̯/, ei /ei̯/, oi /œi̯/<br />
<br />
If the syllable border (glottal stop) is between vowels and they don't form a diphthong, apostrophe is used: ''tai'' (for long) vs. ''ta'i'' (past)<br />
*In native [[Sceptrian#Script|script]], separate graphemes for diphthongs exist and glottal stop is not marked.<br />
<br />
If diphthongs are followed by vowels, they are separated by a glottal stop in formal register. <br />
*In casual speech, ''ouV'' becomes ''owV'' and ''ViV'' ''VjV'': ''oua→ówa'' and ''aia→aja''. If the following vowel is the same, a glottal stop breaks the former diphthong and the ending vowel is lengthened: ''ai'i→a'ii''<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
<br />
===Onset===<br />
<br />
Basic [[w:Syllable#Structure|syllabic structure]] is CV, where the onset (beginning) consonant can be of any type. <br />
*It is possible to use liquids and approximants as '''glides''' (CLV) between the onset and the rime (ending). <br />
*Up to two consonants with same voicing may appear in the onset (CCV), especially fricative-plosive combinations, but never two plosives: ''stak'' (fence), ''fkot'' (nest), ''ksaru'' (guard). Affricate ''ts'' takes may be accompanied only by ''w'', ''j'', ''n'' or ''m'': ''tsma'' (doubt). Combination /sl/ has turned into /ɬ/.<br />
*Lateralization and aspiration may never appear together, and nasalized rhoticization is only found in Fanish dialect.<br />
<br />
===Nucleus=== <br />
<br />
The nucleus can be either a vowel or a liquid, thus CVC and CLC are also possible syllables. <br />
*Vowels (diphthongs included) may exist as a stand-alone nucleic syllable (V), mostly in the beginning or at the end of a word. <br />
*If nucleus is a liquid, plosives appear in codas only word-finally: ''dldlp'' /dˡl̩ˈdˡl̩p/ (bubble)<br />
<br />
===Coda=== <br />
<br />
The coda (final) may consist of up to three consonants with possible structures: N, P, F, L; NP, FP, LP; NF, PF, LF; NPF, FPF, LFP, LPF (Nasal, Plosive, Fricative, Liquid). <br />
*Final liquids appear as syllabic consonants<br />
*Approximants ''j'', ''w'' and plain voiced plosives never appear as coda (final) even though they may be written that way (no written schwa): ''nad'' /nä.də/ (stainy). Voiced fricatives may appear as coda. <br />
*In coda, plosives with lateral release, however, will reflect the voicing of the onset: ''gatl'' [gädˡl̩] (houses) vs. ''katl'' [kätˡl̩] (knobs). Vernacularly, the lateral approximant weakens into a voiceless variant [l̥] when in contact with voiceless consonants: ''gatl'' [gätl̥].<br />
<br />
Closed syllables, i.e. those ending in coda, are not as common word-medially as open syllables (ending in nucleus) are. When words are inflected, parts of codas tend to become onsets of the following syllable, if possible. Especially three-consonant clusters are rare word-medially and receive a schwa after a non-lateral stop: ''kamps'' /kämps/ (marsh) → ''kampsku'' → ''kamposku'' /ˈkäm.pəs.ku/ (at marsh)<br />
*Voicing status must be the same for consonants touching at syllable boundaries and the voiced one reduces into voiceless: ''*katbas''→''katpas'' /kätˈpäs/ (fern) vs. ''oist baku'' /œi̯st<sup>(h)</sup> bä.ku/ (under a table)<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
Primary '''stress''' in a word is most often on the second syllable, and when there are four or five syllables, secondary stress is placed onto the final syllable. When there are more syllables, minor stress is placed on even-numbered syllables. <br />
*If the to-be-stressed syllable contains the schwa ''o'' /ə/ or a syllabic consonant, the preceding syllable is stressed in two-syllable words and the following in words with more than three syllables.<br />
**In uninflected words, syllable with nuclear ''o'' is only stressed when it comes second and the preceding syllable has also ''o'' as nucleus. Then the stressed nucleus appears as [ɘ]. Contrast between stressed and non-stressed syllabic consonants may occur as voicing and devoicing respectively. <br />
*A non-final syllable with a long vowel or a diphthong is always stressed and steals the stress from its neighboring syllable. This also moves the secondary stress from final to penultimate syllable, if primary stress falls on first syllable.<br />
<br />
Inflected and affixed word forms have almost always the same stress as the base word (even monosyllabic with schwa): ''doth'' (man) → ''dothku'' [ˈdɘθ.ku] (near the man). <br />
*Vocative and ergative cases as well as inflections with long vowels make an exception: ''dothee'' /dəˈθe:/ (by the man), ''dothé'' /dəˈθɛ/ (O man), ''gatóo'' /gɑˈtɔ:/ (to the house)<br />
<br />
Interrogatives are formed by changing the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. This is indicated with ¿: ''¿Eikepoi?'' [ˈei̯˧˦ˈke˩.pœi̯˨˦] (Did you wash it?)<br />
<br />
==Morphophonology==<br />
<br />
===Vowel form===<br />
<br />
There are five ways of sound altering which may be used for grammatical purposes (mainly number, genitive case and imperfective aspect). In the native script the following are marked on the vowel.<br />
*Lengthening: ''paata'' /pä:tä/ (separation), ''ée'' [ɛ:]~[ɛe̯], ''óo'' /ɔ:/<br />
*Lateral (release): ''pló'' /pˡɔ/ (opposite to), ''tlaf'' /tˡäf/ (sprig) <br />
**Western dialects keep the tongue on the alveolar ridge during vowel pronunciation so that the vowels have a distinct l-sound. Historically, this may have lead to the syllabic l.<br />
*Aspiration/breathy voice: ''phó'' [pʰɔ]~[ɸɔ] (along), ''kébhar'' [kɛˈbʱɑ˞]~[kɛˈβɑ˞] (I will wash), ''tha'' [tʰä]~[θä] (abstract "it"), ''dhaka'' [dʱɑkä]~[ðɑkä] (abstract "that"). <br />
**Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head)<br />
*Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]]<br />
**Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as a short syllabic nasal consonant of the same place as the directly preceding or following consonant<br />
**Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!).<br />
*Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) <br />
**Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞:] (soup)<br />
<br />
===Consonant form===<br />
<br />
Combining sounds<br />
*Lateralization<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sl'' and ''zh'' respectively<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' → ''fl'' & ''w''<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' are geminated<br />
**''m'' & ''n'' → ''ng'' and ''ng'' → ''ńg''<br />
* Aspiration<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sh'' and ''zh''<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' are geminated<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' → ''lh'' and ''rh''<br />
* Voicing and aspiration<br />
**''r'' → ''qh'', ''l'' → ''ldh'', ''v'' → ''w''<br />
<br />
===Apophony===<br />
<br />
Apophony in the '''stressed syllable''' is used for example to express adjective gender and to create different verb forms.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Apophony<br />
|-<br />
!Root<br />
!1st<br />
!2nd<br />
|-<br />
|e<br />
|ee<br />
|é<br />
|-<br />
|o<br />
|ó<br />
|ø<br />
|-<br />
|a<br />
|aa<br />
|æ<br />
|-<br />
|u<br />
|uu<br />
|i<br />
|-<br />
|ai<br />
|ii<br />
|ei<br />
|-<br />
|ou<br />
|óo<br />
|oi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*When the stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting)<br />
*With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of ''é''.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Script=== <br />
[[File:Sceptrian.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Toneka script from the early sixth era. Notice that the vowel form info-box romanization should have "o" instead of "a".]]<br />
[[File:SceptrianTsrnet.JPG|500px|thumb|right|Tsrnet cursive script used for handwriting in modern Sceptre.]]<br />
The Sceptrian alphabet script was derived from the ancient temple marks as were the Aoman and Northern (Latin) scripts. The modern alphabet is called ''Tsoklóp Lushan''.<br />
<br />
Diacritics on vowels mark different [[Sceptrian#Vowel_form|sounds]]. The diacritics may be used with consonants as well, especially in the plural forms of consonant-ending nouns: ''gat̆'' (''gatl'' "houses"), ''doŧ̆'' (''dolth'' "men"). With the diacritics, letter ''ts'' can be lateralized into ''tsl'' or aspirated into ''tsh''.<br />
<br />
The native Sceptrian script has a long history of being unicameral, not distinguishing between the upper and lower case. Only during the sixth era under the Tyranny of West, the flow of refugees from the Coast of Temples encouraged the introduction of case separation. In the developed fonts, capital letters were derived from the traditional Toneka and small letters from the cursive Tsrnet.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Short and long letter names with explanations<br />
|-<br />
|aa<br>aat || ee<br>eet || ée<br>eet maatikipi<br>(opened e) || ii<br>iit || oo<br>oot || óo<br>oot guzbikipi<br>(deepened o) || uu<br>uut <br />
|-<br />
|ææ<br>aat evadh<br>(bright a) || øø<br>oot gudh<br>(dark o) || ai<br>aat zaithon<br>(rising a) || ei<br>eet zaithon<br>(rising e) || oi<br>oot zaithon<br>(rising o) || ou<br>óot bousoson<br>(falling o) ||<br />
|-<br />
| po<br>poot || bo<br>bóot || mo<br>mool || wo<br>wool || to<br>toot || do<br>dóot || <br />
|-<br />
| tho<br>toot hifdo<br>(windy t) || dho<br>dóot hifdo<br>(windy d) || no<br>nool || so<br>siit || sho<br>siit hifdo<br>(windy s) || zo<br>ziit || zho<br>ziit gudh<br>(dark z) <br />
|-<br />
| ngo<br>góot slenguhpi<br>(g using nose) || tso<br>tsiit || lo<br>lool || slo<br>lool hifdo<br>(windy l) || fo<br>fiit || vo<br>fiit gudh<br>(dark f) || jo<br>jool <br />
|-<br />
| ko<br>koot || go<br>góot || ho<br>hiit || qho<br>hiit surmudh<br>(strong h) || qo<br>koot venongp<br>(k being<br> swallowed) || ro<br>rool || <br />
|-<br />
|plo<br>looh tisk<br>(with l<br> mark) || pon<br>slenguhpi tisk<br>(using nose<br> mark) || por<br>tisk prung<br>(mark of<br> trill) || pho<br>tisk hifn<br>(mark of<br> wind) || poo<br>tisk spiing<br>(mark of<br> length) || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Romanization===<br />
<br />
====Modern====<br />
Consonant variation:<br />
*Letter ''r'' is used with consonants for /r̩/ and between vowels for /r/, but after vowels in the end of syllables for rhoticization ''or'' /ɚ/. Letter ''ŕ'' is used to emphasize the use of /r/ after vowels ''oŕ'' /ər/.<br />
*Similarly letter ''n'' can appear syllable-finally with nasalization but ''ń'' always as /n/: ''an'' /ã/ vs. ''ań'' /an/. <br />
*With ''ng'' /ŋ/, the accent signals lengthening ''nańgo'' /näŋ:ə/ or ''naŋŋo'' (sweaty).<br />
*Labialization of plosives is indicated by PuV (V is any vowel except ''u'') or with ''w''.<br />
*Breathry voice is indicated with an ''h'' straight after a plosive. The ''h'' is also used for corresponding fricatives which occur word-finally. This risk of confuse is one of the downsides of the simplified modern system: ''nath'' /näθ/ "a beggar" or /nätʰ/ "with stains".<br />
<br />
====Old====<br />
<br />
The old romanization system (or part of it) was used until western regions of Eastern Sceptre were joined with the Western Sceptre empire in 7th era 161, during the war against Empress Renula of Golden Islet. A revision was needed when both Sceptrian and Aoma were used in the same printing press and texts had to be distributed to westlang-using communities. Peter Martyea suggested in 7:189 that the payment according to number of pages may have favoured quick adaptation as the non-diacritic system induced much longer texts (see the comparison example).<br />
<br />
Consonants:<br />
*Nasal: '''ŋ''' ''ng'' /ŋ/<br />
**Texts from the first century of the seventh era use ''ǥ'' for word-initial /ŋ/.<br />
*Fricative: '''ŧ''' ''th'' /θ/, '''đ''' ''dh'' /ð/, '''ś''' ''sh'' /ʃ/, '''ź''' ''zh'' /ʒ/, '''ħ''' ''qh'' /χ/<br />
*Affricate: '''c''' ''ts'' /t͡s/, '''č''' ''tsh'' /t͡ʃ/<br />
*Lateral: '''š''' ''sl'' /ɬ/, '''ǩ''' ''kl'' /kˡ/, '''ǧ''' ''gl'' /gˡ/<br />
<br />
Compact equivalents of sound altering:<br />
*Lengthening with a bar: ''ṓ'' /ɔ:/ and ''ō'' /ə:/<br />
*Lateral release with a breve diacritic: ''tŏ'' /tˡə/<br />
*Nasalization with a tilde: ''õ'' /ə̃/, ''on'' /ən/<br />
*Rhotacization with a diaeresis: ''ö'' /ɚ/, ''or'' /ər/<br />
*Aspiration with a grave accent: ''pò'' /pʰə/, ''pô'' /pʰɔ/<br />
<br />
Comparison between the systems:<br />
*Old: Ǧëǩ śošēŧã <br />
*Modern: Glerkl shosleethan (maces of a knight)<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
The most complete study of the structure of pre-modern Sceptrian words was done by Porutingatu of Jerzónó in year 362 of the seventh era. She collected, grouped and analyzed the fusional morphemes and listed the new rules to replace the outdated writings from the sixth era. By 370, her work had led to a new interest in linguistics and ultimately to the founding of ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan'' (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) which has been unifying and regulating the language along with its orthography since then.<br />
<br />
Sceptrian utilizes [[w:Fusional_language|fusional]] [[w:Inflection|inflections]] and has an [[w:Ergative–absolutive_language|absolutive-ergative]] [[w:Morphosyntactic_alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]. The language is rather [[w:Head-directionality_parameter|head-initial]] and its primary [[w:Word_order|word order]] is verb-agent-object.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns are used to refer to e.g. people or things in sentences instead of using the original nouns. In Sceptrian, they exist in two numbers and are inflected according to six [[Sceptrian#Cases|'''cases''']]. <br />
<br />
====Personal====<br />
Second person includes polite versions as well which were adapted by Aoma-sperkers. Third person singular makes distinction between abstract (Ab), animate (An) and inanimate (In) pronouns while plural only between Ab-An and In. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Personal pronoun inflection'''<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! 1SG !! 1PL !! 2SG !! 2PL !! 2SG.POL !! 2PL.POL !! 3SG.Ab !! 3SG.An !! 3PL.A !! 3SG.In !! 3PL.In<br />
|-<br />
!ABS <br />
| na || mo || fo || po || Nith || With || tha || su || slo || hi || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
| næ || moslo || fø || poslo || Nithe || Widhes || thaa || suu || sloslo || hii || kloslo<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
| nai || mokli || foki || pokli || Nithki || Withkli || thai || swi || slokli || hiki|| klokli<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
| nar || moŕ || for || poŕ || Nithor || Withoŕ || thar || sur || sloŕ || hir || kloŕ<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
| nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh || thas || sus || slosh || his || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
| nape || moplo || fope || poplo || Nitti || Witti || thape || supe || sloplo || hipi || kloplo<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''Comitative''' case is used to indicate company: ''Mo slosh arakha.'' (We were with them yesterday.)<br />
*'''Causal''' describes the cause of an action or origin of something: ''Aitesosai næ su fope'' (I saw him because of (/thanks to) you), ''Hi supe foki.'' (It (is) from him to you.)<br />
<br />
3rd person abstract pronoun is used in the formal register when introducing or referring to a person of higher status.<br />
<br />
====Reflexive====<br />
Self-pronoun ''ru'' for '''reflexive''' and '''reciprocal''': ''tesosón ru'' (they are watching themself), ''ónlatepón ru'' (he is dancing by himself, alone) vs. ''ónlatepón su'' (he is dancing with him); ''sónkephón ru'' (they are washing each other) vs. ''sónkephón sloslo slo/soutu'' (they are washing them)<br />
*reflexive is easier with others: ''anlatepan'' (I'm dancing by myself); ''ankepan'' (I'm washing myself) vs. ''ankep'' ("I'm washing it"), ''kepan'' (I'm being washed)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
<br />
Simple words for "this/these" and "that/those". When demonstratives are used with [[Sceptrian#Nouns|nouns]], they behave similarly to [[Sceptrian#Adjectives|adjectives]]. In the following examples, note that Sceptrian lacks the [[Sceptrian#Verbs|verb "to be"]]: <br />
*As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.)<br />
*For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) <br />
*The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the "head" can rather be considered an attribute of the pronoun: ''Bouson ko qot.'' (That's falling, the rock, I mean.) <br />
<br />
See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]].<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Demonstrative pronoun inflection<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Case <br />
!colspan="2"| Proximal <br />
!colspan="2"| Distal <br />
|-<br />
!SG !! PL !! SG !! PL<br />
|-<br />
!ABS<br />
|ka || kla || ko || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
|kaa || klaa || kó || kló<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
|kai ||klai || koi || kloi<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
|kan ||klang || kon || klong<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
|kas || klash || kos || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
|kap || klapa || kop ||klopo<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Table of correlatives===<br />
<br />
Determiners follow their heads and agree in number and with the cases mentioned above in [[Sceptrian#Demonstrative|the table]], where DAT & LAT, COM & LOC, CAU & ABL and ABS & VOC are corresponding. Words follow the declension shown above or paradigms similar to [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun cases]]. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!rowspan="2"|Interrogative<br />
!colspan="2"|Demonstrative<br />
!colspan="5"|Quantifier<br />
|-<br />
!Proximal !! Distal !! Existential !! Elective !! Universal !! Negatory !! Alternative<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Determiner<br />
| sho || ka (SG)<br/>kla (PL) || ko<br />klo || jofa (some) || ota (any) || orka (every, all) || ze (no) || so (another)<br/>solo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="5"| Pronoun<br />
!Abstract<br />
| ashu || thaka || dhaka || jaafa || thata || thorka || theso || thaso<br />
|-<br />
!Animate<br />
| ¿soutu || saitu || soutu || jonfu || onta || ongka || souso || jonso<br />
|-<br />
!Inanimate <br />
| ¿ko || ka || ko || jofo || oto || orko || ze || so<br />
|-<br />
!Out of two<br />
| ¿tso || tsaka || tsoko || zho || tsoto || tsorko || tseso || tso<br />
|-<br />
!Out of many<br />
| ¿tsolo || tsalka || tsolko || zolo || tsolto || tsongko || tsleso || tsolo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="6"|Pro-adverb<br />
!Locative<br />
| sku || khau || khu || jofku || otku || orkhu || zengu || sokhu<br />
|-<br />
!Temporal<br />
| sko || kha || kho || jofko || otko || orkho || zeng || sokho<br />
|-<br />
!Comitative<br />
| shos || kas || kos || jofos || otos || orkos || zeos || sos<br />
|-<br />
!Causal<br />
| spe || kap || kop || jov || otop || orkop || zenep || sonop<br />
|-<br />
!Manner<br />
| shi || khai || khoi || jofai || otai || orkai || zei || soi<br />
|-<br />
!What kind of<br />
| shodh || kadh || kodh || jodhi || othi || ordhi || zodhi || sothi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Negative determiner ''ze'' has no plural form. Neither have pronouns "Out of two".<br />
*Demonstratives are used when referring to listed items of equal animacy: proximal with the former and distal with the latter: ''Aitesoshóji math kuthos. Óomidh soutu.'' (I saw a cat and a dog. The latter was large.)<br />
*Locative pro-adverb can be conjugated with lative, locative and ablative.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Nouns in Sceptrian form the basis of derivational morphology and even the cases are utilized when forming new words. They are declined according to two numbers and nine cases, and the seven declensions are grouped in three genders which affect the verb conjugation and adjective agreement.<br />
<br />
====Gender====<br />
<br />
There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes.<br />
*Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in vowels ''a, æ, o, ó, ø'' and ''i''. <br />
*Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h''), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings.<br />
*Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group.<br />
In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull). Some archaic words remain in dialects and in poetic use.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
<br />
There are two numbers, singular and plural, but abstract ''i''-nouns and inanimate ''l''-nouns are always singular. The declension according to number is complicated and fused with the class/case system explained and tabulated below.<br />
<br />
====Cases====<br />
<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Unmarked base form for subjects of intransitive and objects of transitive verbs <br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agents of transitive verbs<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect object; alienable possession ''gat dothi'' (a house of (lit. "for") the man); comparison (with ADJ comparative)<br />
*Possessive (POS): Inalienable possession ''dhoku dothor'' (the man's head)<br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS): Using something; "with someone", replaces "and" as Latin [[wikt:-que|-que]]; in antipassive constructions<br />
*Lative (LAT): Movement to; with adpositions<br />
*Locative-temporal (LOC-TEMP): Place; time; with adpositions<br />
*Ablative (ABL): Movement from (+delative); causal<br />
*Vocative (VOC): addressing (people, gods); interjections ''Alæ!'' (Hello! lit. "Day!")<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Genders and desinences'''<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" style="width: 100px"| <br />
!colspan="3"| Abstract <br />
!colspan="6"| Animate <br />
!colspan="3"| Inanimate<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''A'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''i'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''F'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''N'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''u'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"|''P'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''l''<br />
|-<br />
|<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>|| ||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 100px"| Absolutive<br />
| A || Asl || i || F || (o)lF || N || Ning || u || ush || P || Pl || l<br />
|- <br />
! style=""| Ergative <br />
| AA || AslA || ii || Fee || Fele || Nee || Neng || uu || uushu || Pee || Ple || le<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Dative <br />
| Ak || Akl || ik || Fi || Fil || Ni || Nil || (u)ji || (u)wi || Pei || Plei || lei<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Possessive <br />
| An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Instrumental-comitative <br />
| Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Lative <br />
| AgA || AglA || iki || Fko || Fklo || Nong || Nongo || ugu || uglu || Póo || Plóo || lo <br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Locative-temporal <br />
| AkhA || AlkhA || ikhi || Fku || Fklu || Nung || Nungu || ukhu || ulkhu || Pu || Plu || lu<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Ablative <br />
| ApA || AplA || ipi || Fp(o) || Fpl(o) || Nop || Nopl || upu || uplu || PPo || PPol || lp<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Vocative <br />
| Ae || Asl || ii || Fé || lFé || Né || Nin || -wé || -wésh || Pé || Plé || lé<br />
|}<br />
*''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø''<br />
**Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø<br />
*''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. <br />
*''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng''<br />
*''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q''<br />
**POS ''q''→''ng''<br />
**INS ending Ph marks breathy voice and may turn the plosive into corresponding fricative /ɸ, θ, x, χ/ if followed by a plosive.<br />
*- indicates that the original ending is replaced with the following: ''tup → tu'''m''''' (stick → stick's)<br />
<br />
====Possessive==== <br />
<br />
Different possessive forms and interpretations: <br />
*''Dativus possessivus'' (alienable): ''gat doth'''i''''' "the house which the man has temporarily settled in, i.e. rented"<br />
*Comitative case with alienable possessive suffix: ''doth gat''h'''''os''''' "man with his house which he has purchased"<br />
**Inalienable possessive suffix alters the meaning: ''doth gat''h'''''ozh''''' "man and his birthplace"<br />
*Possessive case (almost inalienable): ''gat doth'''or''''' "the house which was inherited and is now owned by the man". <br />
<br />
The noun in possessive case is not inflected further. With dative case, inflection may be utilized in order to distinguish the ''dativus possessivus'' from the indirect object or benefactive: ''Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli.'' "The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them." (Related to the feather ceremony when welcoming upper class members to a household.)<br />
<br />
'''Possessive affixes''', as shown in examples above, draw a distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: ''Óntesoson dothee gat'''s'''/vakuh'''oz'''.'' (A man is watching his house/ his own hand.) With the basic suffixes, the root is inflected first and then suffixed.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ Possessional suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!Person<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! ALIEN !! INAL !! ALIEN !! INAL <br />
|-<br />
!1st <br />
| (a)ń || (a)nga || (ó)m || (ó)ngó <br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
| (o)f || (ø)fo || (e)v || (ø)vø<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
| (o)s || (o)zh || (o)sl || (o)zhol<br />
|}<br />
*Irregular: Only VOC+possessive with 1SG: ''Pos'''n'''é!'' (My servant!), ''Polsmé!'' (Our servants!)<br />
<br />
'''2nd person polite suffixes''' are added to absolutive base and the endings are then declined according to abstract gender: <br />
*Singular: (a)tha, (a)tazha <br />
*Plural: (a)dhó, (a)dózhó <br />
*Example: ''gat'''atha'''pa'' (from Your house)<br />
<br />
See [[Sceptrian#Adverbial_clauses|adverbial clauses]] which utilize some possessive suffixes with [[Sceptrian#Non-finite_forms|non-finite verb forms]].<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
<br />
Adpositions are used with inflected nouns to add information about its location or relation to other nouns. Some Sceptrian adpositions can be used as stand-alone adverbs which may be conjugated according to noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====Prepositions====<br />
<br />
Prepositions are used with lative (to, towards), locative (at, near) and ablative (from) cases to alter the meaning.<br />
*''voi'' (in) forms illative, inessive, elative <br />
*''loi'' (out) for "out of", "outside" and "from outside"<br />
*''soi'' (on) to emphasize the surface aspect <br />
*''oist(i)'' (under) for movement under something<br />
*''roi'' (above) similarly to ''oist''<br />
*''boi'' (down) for "down (a surface / to)", "down in (somewhere)" and "from down"; as an adverb as well <br />
*''zoi'' (up) used like ''boi''<br />
*''moi'' (touching, around) with lative for terminative, locative for pertingent and ablative for initiative<br />
*''oil(i)'' (as) forms translative, essive, exessive<br />
*''koi'' (per) distribution: "for each", "every" (temporal), "from each"<br />
*''jon'' (... between) <br />
*''poi'' (... the middle of, among)<br />
*''tsoi'' (... front of; preceding) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = before<br />
*''hoi'' (... behind; following) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = after<br />
*''mots(i)'' (... on side)<br />
**combined with postpositional ''dei'' (right) or ''lai'' (left)<br />
**with time nouns in locative = ago<br />
<br />
====Postpositions====<br />
<br />
Postpositions appear with various cases and often come in groups.<br />
*''pón'' (through) with lative<br />
*''phó'' (along) with lative<br />
*''pló'' (opposite to, across) with locative<br />
*''sós'' (with) with comitative to express a greater degree of endowment (ornative); with ablative to indicate "without"; with lative for "in addition to"<br />
*''óp'' (about, concerning) with genitive; with ablative for "according to"<br />
*''ól'' (like) with genitive; as an adverb "similarly"<br />
*''jak'' (away, despite) with ablative; as an adverb as well<br />
*''mai'' (excluding) with ablative<br />
*''mak'' (except) with ablative<br />
*''mats'' (instead of) with ablative<br />
*''sai'' (including) with comitative<br />
*''sak'' (concerning, regarding) with comitative; with ablative to emphasize the causal aspect (due to, because of, thanks to)<br />
*''phe'' (for the sake of) with lative<br />
<br />
====Pronominal====<br />
<br />
When used with pronouns, separate adpositions only come with dative forms to indicate lative. Otherwise adpositions take possessive suffixes, inalienable for locative and alienable for ablative: ''voi nai'' (into me), ''voinga'' (inside me), ''voiń'' (from inside me)<br />
<br />
Of the polite possessive suffixes, alienable is added onto the adposition and then the entire compound is conjugated for lative, locative or ablative: ''voitha'' (in You; attributive), ''voithaga'' (into You), ''voithakha'' (inside You; predicative), ''voithapa'' (from inside You)<br />
<br />
===Derivational Morphology===<br />
<br />
Verbs and adjectives are derived from nouns by adding suffixes and in some cases prefixes as well.<br />
<br />
====Noun====<br />
<br />
Many nouns share same origins and these endings are the most common forms of derivation:<br />
*Suffixing verbs with once established ending vowels or consonant appropriate for the noun class. <br />
*place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix<br />
*collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish)<br />
*being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy")<br />
**doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer)<br />
**experiencer, patient: ABS with ''(k)ois'' or ''(k)oit'' depending on animacy: ''kepois'' (person being washed)<br />
**origin: ABL with ''(o)su'': ''ukopposu'' (person from north)<br />
**characteristic (from abstract quality): INS with final duplicated vowel and ''tu'': ''luwishitu'' (beauty)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)n'' (AN) or ''(o)l'' (INAN): ''koson'' (wood), ''qotol'' (stone)<br />
*diminutive: reduplication of final sound with ''t'' between vowels and ''i'' between consonants: ''kosis'' (small tree)<br />
*augmentative: reduplication of final sound with ''g'' between vowels and ''a'' between consonants: ''kosas'' (great tree)<br />
**apotheosis: augmentative with ''a''-ending: ''kosonana'' (godwood)<br />
*abstract quality, feature: ABS suffixed with ''(k)oti'': ''dothoti'' (manliness)<br />
*'''gerund''' (act of doing): via derivated [[Sceptrian#Verb|verb]] suffixed with ''(o)pi'': ''glerkurpi'' (mace-battering)<br />
<br />
====Adjective====<br />
<br />
Different cases and affixes are used for the derivation:<br />
*similarity, having something: ''dh'' suffix to abstract gender and animate ''u''-ending; voicing of fricatives (''h→qh'', no change with affricates); nasals [[Sceptrian#Consonant_form|"lateralized"]] + ''o''; voicing of plosives + ''o'' (''q→g''); l-declension as in INS-COM: ''evadh'' (bright), ''dodh'' (masculine)<br />
**full of, having something: previous suffixed with ''ol'': ''mel muvol'' (waters full of fish)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)p'': ''kosonop'' (wooden)<br />
*origin, relation: ABL form with a final ''ó'' added or replacing the original ending vowel: ''kusupó'' (friendly)<br />
*absence, without: ''ti'' suffixed to VOC form: ''evæti'' (lightless=dark)<br />
*doing: ''on'' added after INS case: ''kephon'' (washing)<br />
*who did: INS with ''ompu'': ''kephompu'' (who washed = ''pessyt'' in Finnish)<br />
*done by: INS with ''empo'' and possibly inalienable possessive suffix: ''kephemponga'' (washed by me)<br />
*not done: LAT suffixed with ''tip'': ''kepóotip'' (unwashed)<br />
*experiencing: LAT suffixed with ''p'': kepóop (being washed)<br />
*result (wanted): LAT suffixed with ''pi'': ''kepóopi'' (washed=clean)<br />
**if unwanted: LAT suffixed with ''pot'': ''vangostóopot'' (drunk)<br />
*possible: POS with ''ta'': ''kenta'' (washable)<br />
*requiring: LOC with ''rt'': ''kepurt'' (needs to be washed)<br />
*opposite, negation: VOC with ''tot''<br />
<br />
Notice that plural forms of adjectives may be derived from plural nouns: ''dolth kep'''s'''on'' (men who are washing)<br />
<br />
====Verb====<br />
<br />
A declined core noun receives an ending which describes how the verb reflects the noun:<br />
*In some cases, the vowel ending of nouns may simply be removed or the absolutive of a consonant-ending noun may also serve as a verb.<br />
*ABS = "happens, is": ''kep'' (is washed)<br />
*COM = "using": ''tuph'' (is poked with a stick), ''glerkh'' (is hit with a mace)<br />
*POS + ''k'' = "similarity": ''melonk'' (is wet)<br />
*DAT + ''k'' = "making/becoming" (no ''k'' with Abstract): ''zurmu'' → ''zurmjik'' (strong person → is strengthened), ''zurp'' → ''zurpeik'' (strong, durable object → hardens) & ''zurma'' → ''zurmak'' (strength → intensifies)<br />
*LAT + ''t'' = "movement, quasi-inceptive": ''glerkóot'' (swings a mace, INTR), ''melot'' (flows), ''latepóot'' (is persuaded to dance, INTR; begins a dance with, TR), ''lehkot'' (runs) <br />
*LOC + ''r'' = "frequentative": ''glerkur'' (is battered with a mace), ''melur'' (rains; drips)<br />
*VOC + ''k'' = "momentane": ''glerkék'' (is hit once with a mace), ''melék'' (splashes once)<br />
*POS + ''(o)v'' = "consider, feel": ''vongv'' (is considered strange = ''oudoksutaan'' in Finnish)<br />
* Several endings can be stacked on verbs without turning it into a noun in between: ''melurék'' (shower of rain falls), ''tup(o)hkur'' (is often poked with a stick). When deriving, the ''r''-ending are declined according to the ''l''-paradigm.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Sceptrian agree with the gender, number and cases of their head. When an adjective is used as a predicative, it comes before its head, but when as an attributive, it comes after. Adjective declension follows approximately the same rules as [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun declension]]. In the common ''dh''-ending F-declension, ''o'' is added between ''dh'' and case-endings with consonants. Changes in both casual and poetic speech include mirroring onset into coda: ''dothklu jadaadh'''ulk''''' (near nice men)<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+DH-declension<br />
! !! ABS !! ERG !! DAT !! POS !! INS !! LAT !! LOC !! ABL !! VOC<br />
|-<br />
!SG<br />
|dh || dhee || dhi || dhor || dhos || dh'''ok''' || dh'''uk''' || dh'''op''' || dhé<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
| ldh(o) || dhele || dhil || dhoŕ || dhosh || dh'''olk''' || dh'''ulk''' || dh'''olp''' || ldhé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Sceptrian#Apophony|Apophony]] in the stressed syllable is used to indicate the gender: base for inanimate, first apophony with animate and second with abstract gender: ''eja jadædh, doth jadaadh, latep jadadh'' <br />
<br />
Polite adjectives are formed from the abstract form with predicative prefix ''nga'' and attributive suffix ''æ'': ''ngaluwidh Nith'' (You are beautiful), ''shosleetha luwidhæ'' (a beautiful knight)<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
<br />
'''Positive''' of an adjective is the base form.<br />
*When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.)<br />
*Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle.<br />
*When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii fældh dolth lutush.'' (As many men as women.) <br />
<br />
'''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). <br />
*Manner quatifiers ''orkai, jofai'' and ''zei'' can be used to indicate the degree: ''luwidhé orkai'' (much more beautiful), ''luwidhé jofai'' (slightly more beautiful), ''luwidhé zei'' (not more beautiful)<br />
*When comparing two nouns adjective comes first (predicative comparative), the standard acquires the dative case, and comparative forms agree with their head in gender and number: ''luwildhé po swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*Pronoun comparison is also possible to construct with alienable possessional suffixes: ''luwildhév swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*When adjective comparative is not included, postpositional ''fadhé'' (more) or ''føødhi'' (less) can be used with noun plurals: ''dolth faldhé lutwi'' (more men than women)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative''' is similar to noun apotheosis: the ending is reduplicated with ''é'' between consonants and ''j'' between vowels, and an ''a'' added to the end: ''luwidhédha'' (most beautiful). Similarly to comparative, ''ti'' gives the meaning of "least": ''luwidhédhati'' (least beautiful).<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly)<br />
<br />
Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh òomidhé'' (very beautiful < "largely")<br />
<br />
'''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative adverb''' is similar to adjective superlative in its reduplication but with an ''æ''-ending: ''zaivie jadædhédhæ'' (you sing most pleasantly)<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Missing verbs: <br />
*"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man)<br />
**Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith)<br />
**Showing tense:<br />
***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past)<br />
***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective<br />
***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense<br />
***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" <br />
* "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man")<br />
<br />
====Conjugation====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, primary conjugation of verbs indicates person, number and tense-aspect, and it includes affixation and apophony. Conjugation for different [[Sceptrian#Mood|moods]] is slightly more complex.<br />
<br />
=====Root=====<br />
<br />
Verbs are given in their 3SG.INAN GNO form which is used to form all of the third person forms. With first and second person subjects, the first apophony is used in indicative inceptive and future. Polite second person forms use the second apophony<br />
<br />
=====Affixes=====<br />
<br />
Fusional conjugation affixes convey the person, number, tense and aspect (and honorific). Subject and object suffixes are almost always used with verbs, the antipassive being the only exception. Agent prefixes aren't often used in the casual register, mostly to form the [[Sceptrian#Reflexive|reflexive]], but they have to be used in the formal register. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense <br />
!Aspect<br />
!1SG<br />
!1PL<br />
!2SG<br />
!2PL<br />
!2SG.POL<br />
!2PL.POL<br />
!3SG.A<br />
!3PL.A<br />
!3SG.INAN<br />
!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a<br />
| ha<br />
| e<br />
| he<br />
| ahi<br />
| aqhi<br />
| ó<br />
| hó<br />
| (o)<br />
| l<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an<br />
| han<br />
| en<br />
| hen<br />
| ang<br />
| aing<br />
| ón<br />
| hón<br />
| on <br />
| lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| ast<br />
| last<br />
| est<br />
| lest<br />
| æst<br />
| hæst<br />
| ós<br />
| lós<br />
| os<br />
| osl<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| ajin<br />
| hajin<br />
| ejin<br />
| hejin<br />
| azing<br />
| izing<br />
| ójin<br />
| hójin<br />
| oin<br />
| loin<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai<br />
| hai<br />
| ei<br />
| hei<br />
| athi<br />
| idhi<br />
| óji<br />
| hóji<br />
| oi<br />
| loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| har<br />
| +har<br />
| her<br />
| +her<br />
| athar<br />
| idhar<br />
| hór<br />
| +hór<br />
| ho<br />
| +ho<br />
|}<br />
* initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive<br />
* initial ''h'' is for aspiration of the final plosive or simply ''h'' after a vowel<br />
**if the final plosive is already breathy, ''o'' is added after it<br />
*+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration<br />
**simple ''h'' becomes ''qh''<br />
*Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense <br />
!Aspect<br />
!1SG<br />
!1PL<br />
!2SG<br />
!2PL<br />
!2SG.POL<br />
!2PL.POL<br />
!3SG.A<br />
!3PL.A<br />
!3SG.INAN<br />
!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a<br />
| sa<br />
| e<br />
| se<br />
| æ<br />
| hæ<br />
| ó<br />
| só<br />
| o<br />
| lo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an<br />
| san<br />
| en<br />
| sen<br />
| nga<br />
| ngai<br />
| ón<br />
| són<br />
| on <br />
| lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| tsa<br />
| tsla<br />
| tse<br />
| tsle<br />
| tsæ<br />
| tshæ<br />
| tsó<br />
| tsló<br />
| so<br />
| slo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| jan<br />
| zhan<br />
| jen<br />
| zhen<br />
| izæ<br />
| izhæ<br />
| jón<br />
| zhón<br />
| i<br />
| li<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai<br />
| sai<br />
| ei<br />
| sei<br />
| thæ<br />
| dhæ<br />
| jó<br />
| zhó<br />
| oi<br />
| loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| ar<br />
| sar<br />
| er<br />
| ser<br />
| thar<br />
| dhar<br />
| ór<br />
| sór<br />
| or<br />
| lor<br />
|}<br />
*Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.)<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ónbouson dothee pof.'' (A man (ERG) is lifting a feather (ABS).), ''Bousón doth.'' (The man falls.) ''Bouson pof.'' (The feather (ABS) falls.).<br />
<br />
====Tense====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, verbs are conjugated for three tenses: past, present and future. These tenses describe when an action took place relative to current moment as their names indicate. <br />
<br />
====Aspect====<br />
<br />
Gnomic-static aspect is used to indicate general truths ''Zaitó Hala.'' (sun rises) and static situations ''Mépa lusha.'' (I can speak Sceptrian). It can be used with expressions of time to specify when something was static ''Petsipha kas arakha.'' (dress-STAT.1SG this.COM yesterday.TEMP "I was dressed in these clothes yesterday (as well).")<br />
<br />
Present progressive describes dynamic actions ''Anbaplóph lusha kha.'' (I'm reading Sceptrian at the moment). Present inceptive is used when an action is about to begin or someone is starting to do something.<br />
*Inceptive is only used once: Subject inceptive with intransitive and mostly agent inceptive with translative verbs. Object ending is either PRES.PROG, when something was begun only a moment ago, or FUT, when something is about to begin.<br />
**Translative object inceptive if the object caused the initialization: ''Órlateepast.'' (He is about to take me to dancing through my initiative.)<br />
<br />
Past imperfective is used with continuous activities which were happening before the present. The contrasting perfective aspect describes the event as a whole and having an endpoint in the past.<br />
<br />
In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used.<br />
<br />
Endings with different tenses may be mixed:<br />
*PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) <br />
*PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while))<br />
<br />
====Mood====<br />
<br />
Moods express speaker's attitude towards the subject or their knowledge of it. They are divided into realis and irrealis moods: the former expresses factual statements while the latter indicates that an event hasn't taken place or the speaker is uncertain of a situation.<br />
<br />
=====Realis=====<br />
<br />
'''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well)<br />
<br />
'''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.)<br />
<br />
=====Irrealis=====<br />
<br />
'''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?)<br />
<br />
'''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) <br />
*The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!)<br />
<br />
'''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original second syllable: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: '''''la'''latép'' (may dance), '''''ak'''aktæsos'' (may hear), ''rorøt'' (may go)<br />
*The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject.<br />
*The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished<br />
<br />
=====Particles=====<br />
<br />
Particles are placed after a verb to alter or to specify its meaning.<br />
<br />
Realis<br />
*''pai'' mirative (with soft imperative in present): ''Rótóji pai!'' (He went!?)<br />
**with adjectives or as an adverb: ''Luwi pai!'' (How beautiful!) <br />
<br />
Evidentials (with causatives)<br />
*''atasi'' hearsay: ''Rotóji tasi fope.'' (I heard from you that he went.)<br />
*''tesei'' visual: ''Rótoutóji tesei nape.'' (I didn't see him go.)<br />
<br />
Irrealis<br />
*''norka'' dubitative (with subjunctive): ''Rorøtóji norka.'' (I doubt he went.)<br />
*''gana'' volitive (with future subjunctive): ''Lalatépar gana.'' (I wish I could dance.)<br />
<br />
Conditional (with subjunctive)<br />
*''ta'' apodosis: ''Arziizeither ta'' (I will raise you...)<br />
*''-ti-'' infixed between reduplicated form for protasis: ''boutiboisen'' (if you fall)<br />
<br />
Hortatives (with soft imperative which itself works as an adhortative or dehortative with negation (unwillingness))<br />
*Cohortative: ''Latéprlast kha!'' (Let's dance now!), ''Rótrlastonget khugu.'' (Let's not go there.)<br />
*''jokæ'' exhortative (inhortative through negation): ''Rótrest jokæ.'' (You really should go.)<br />
<br />
'''Formal''' register differences:<br />
*''aktasosai'' (hears) conjugated for hearsay: ''Røtathi aiaktasosóji.'' (I heard from her that you left.)<br />
*''tesos'' (sees) conjugated for visual evidentiality: ''Rotóji tesosai.'' (I saw her go.)<br />
*''tsmaadhoré'' (doubtfully) used for dubitative<br />
*''tutaadhoré'' (wishfully) used for volitive<br />
*''alké'' permissive with dative: ''Rótest alké foki.'' (You may leave.)<br />
**prohibitive with negated (inability) imperative infinitive: ''Rótrostodi alké foki.'' (You aren't allowed to leave.)<br />
*both conditional particles are used separately and they are prefixed with the subjunctive reduplication: ''Arziizeither zaita bouboisen bouti.'' (I will raise you if you fall.)<br />
<br />
'''In literature''' to express the peaking pitch of ironical statements and lowered pitch of sarcastic expressions:<br />
*''jø'' verbal irony: ''Jótesosoi melurpi, jóbatophoi "Luwidh jø hi loi khu".'' (He saw the rain and said: "''Beautiful'' day out there")<br />
*''gæ'' sarcasm: ''Uu, eiluwikoi gæ pai.'' (Oh, ''how beautiful'' you made it.)<br />
<br />
====Negation====<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Negation affixes<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Manner→<br />
! Inability<br />
!colspan="6"| Unwillingness<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Form→<br />
!2nd apophony +infix<br>(before patient-suffix)<br />
!colspan="3"|Intranslative<br>suffix<br />
!colspan="3"|Translative<br>infix (after agent-prefix)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Person→<br />
!All<br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!SG<br />
|ost<br />
|net<br />
|fep<br />
|set<br />
|no<br />
|fo<br />
|so<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|osht<br />
|nget<br />
|vep<br />
|slet<br />
|ngo<br />
|flo<br />
|slo<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|PST<br />
|out<br />
|colspan="3"|nait<br />
|colspan="3"|me<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|FUT<br />
|oz<br />
|colspan="3"|nort<br />
|colspan="3"|mor<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse'''fó'''lateephar?'' (You don't want to begin dancing with me?)<br />
<br />
'''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.)<br />
<br />
Second apophony of negation affixes with subjunctive mood: ''Rorøthórn'''ø'''rt.'' (He may not be willing to go.)<br />
<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
<br />
=====Gerund=====<br />
*Base nouns or their abstract variants may serve as gerunds, which describe the action of doing, but otherwise they are created with the suffix ''(o)pi'' added to a verb root. The suffic also helps to distinguish the forms.<br />
<br />
=====Infinitives=====<br />
*PRES ''-odi'', PST ''-oudi'', FUT ''ordi''<br />
*used with modal verbs<br />
*subjunctive form created with duplication<br />
<br />
=====Participles=====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian participles work as adjectives. Following table shows which "case" and suffix the verb base (or gerund in formal register) takes.<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Present participle suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!IPFV<br />
!PFV<br />
|-<br />
!Patientive (LAT)<br />
|''p''<br />
|''pi/pot''<br />
|-<br />
!Negative (LAT)<br />
|<br />
|''tip''<br />
|-<br />
!Active (INS)<br />
|rowspan="2"|''on''<br />
|''ompu''<br />
|-<br />
!Agentive (INS)<br />
|''empo''<br />
|}<br />
*Also the "requiring" (FUT) form LOC+''rt'' and "possible" (GNO) POS+''ta'' <br />
*Past forms are created by adding ''i'' to the end: ''kephoni'' (was being washed)<br />
*Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed)<br />
*Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]]<br />
<br />
Relative form with word-order and prefix? + formal register particle<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, auxiliary verbs are conjugated only for subject which may act as the agent of the clause. The verbs can either precede (dynamic, deontic) or come after (epistemic) different verb infinitives. Since regular object-patient conjugation can't be used, objects have to be written (no pro-drop) and they are declined into instrumental-comitative case.<br />
*''tut'' "want" (from ''tuta'' "craving, wish"): ''Tutajin kepoudi his.'' (I wanted to wash it.)<br />
**infinitive in lative case for "want something to be done": ''Tutan kepordiki his.'' (I want it to be washed.)<br />
**"be going to" (FUT): ''Tuutar latepordi.'' (I'm going to dance.)<br />
**"wish" (SBJV) mostly as the subjunctive of the absent ''to be''-verb: ''Tutitan khau fos.'' (I wish you were here) <br />
*''mép'' "can, know how to" (dynamic) (from ''mépi'' "skill"): ''Mépa latepodi'' ("I can dance"; notice gnomic-static mood)<br />
*''kuut'' "can, may" (deontic / epistemic) (from ''kuutó'' "possibility"): ''Kuutest rotordi.'' (You may leave.), ''Fendógópot kuutó pai.'' (He may unexpectedly be dead.)<br />
**particle ''nor'' added after the verb for lower possibility i.e. "could, might": ''Fendógópi kuut nor.'' (It might be dead.)<br />
**particle ''ga'' added for "should, must": ''Fendógópi kuut ga.'' (It should be dead, as we wanted.)<br />
*''khet'' "must" (deontic) (from ''kheti'' "necessity"): ''Khetan rotodi.'' (I must go now), ''Kheetar rotordi.'' (I must go soon)<br />
*''khurd'' "dare" (from ''khurdi'' "daring"): ''¿Khurde glerkékodi nas?'' (Do you dare hit me with a mace?)<br />
<br />
Mixing tenses: <br />
*''Tutitai latepordi.'' SBJV.want-PST.PFV.1SG dance-INF.FUT "I would've wanted to dance"<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian distinguishes between two voices, active and antipassive. Passive is very similar to active since Sceptrian is absolutive-ergative, and thus isn't considered a true change in voice. Antipassive is used to reduce the valency of the verbs by removing the object of a transitive clause.<br />
<br />
Active construction: verb-agent-object and verb-object-agent are used so that a comment (rheme) precedes the topic (theme). [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|Emphasizing clitics]] are used to mark the topic. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Ónzaiton dothee pof.<br />
|IPA = /ɔ̃zaɪ̯tə̃ dəθe: pəf/<br />
| morphemes = ón-zait-on doth-ee pof-Ø<br />
| gloss = 3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV man-ERG feather-ABS<br />
| translation = A man is lifting a feather.<br />
}} <br />
<br />
Passive construction: To demote the agent (ERG), it's either removed or inflected into causal ablative (ABL). Verb is only conjugated for the object.<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Zaiton pof (dothpo).<br />
|IPA = /zaɪ̯tə̃ pəf (dəθpə)/<br />
| morphemes = zait-on pof-Ø (doth-po)<br />
| gloss = lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV feather-ABS (man-ABL)<br />
| translation = A feather is being lifted (by a man).<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Antipassive''' construction: Agent (ERG) transforms into subject (ABS) and object (ABS) takes the instrumental-comitative (INS) case. Word order becomes SV(O), and the verb is conjugated according to the agent only and the stressed syllable undergoes second [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]]. The verb is also suffixed with the emphasizing clitic ''ma'' in the formal register. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Doth ónzeit(ma) (pofos).<br />
|IPA = /dəθ ɔ̃zei̯t(mä) (pəfəs)/<br />
| morphemes = doth-Ø ón-zeit-Ø(or =ma) (pof-os)<br />
| gloss = man-ABS ANTIP\3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-ANTIP(or =ANTIP.FORM) (feather-INS)<br />
| translation = The man is lifting (a feather). <br />
}}<br />
<br />
Instrument and turning it into an agent:<br />
* ''Ónzaiton dothee pof vakuhosozh.'' (...with his own hand...)<br />
**''Ónzaiton pof vakuhp dothir.'' (the feather is raised by the man's hand)<br />
**''Onzaiton pof tuph dothi'''sh''' slokli.'' (The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them.) Inanimate agent conjugation, and dative of possession is inflected to avoid misinterpretation!<br />
* ''Vakuh ónzeit pofos.'' (The hand lifts something, which happens to be a feather)/(someone intentionally lifts a feather with their hand) Notice animate conjugation!<br />
**''Tup onzeit dothpo pofos.'' (The stick, which is being held by a man, lifts something, which happens to be a feather) ABL as causative since inanimate ''tup''.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
Decimal base was adopted due to commerce, but traces of the former octal base remain. <br />
<br />
Numerals are placed before their head. Last part of a cardinal determiner agrees with case through matching declension: ''op'''l''' tupl'' (two sticks)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Numeral system<br />
|-<br />
! Number <br />
! Number !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional !! Multiplicative adverb !! Multiplicative adjective !! Group !! Polygon<br />
|-<br />
!Zero<br />
| ozi || oz || ozhi || - || zeng (never) || - || ze (no) || -<br />
|-<br />
!One<br />
| ipi || ip || iphi || liku (whole) || ohu (once) || ipitse (onefold) || ipisi (singular) || ipirt (dot) <br />
|-<br />
!Two <br />
| opi || op || ophi || lopu (half) || ophu (twice) || opitse (twofold) || opisi (pair) || opart (line)<br />
|-<br />
!Three<br />
| oki || ok || okhi || loku || okhu || okitse || okisi || okart (triangle)<br />
|-<br />
!Four<br />
| óppi || óp || óphi || lóppu || óphu || óphitse || óphisi || ópart <br />
|-<br />
!Five<br />
| ofi || of || offi || lofu || offu || ofitse || ofisi || ofart<br />
|-<br />
!Six<br />
| ókki || ók || ókhi || lókku || ókhu || ókhitse || ókhisi || ókart<br />
|-<br />
!Seven<br />
| omi || om || ongi || lomu || ongu || omitse || omisi || omart<br />
|-<br />
!Eight<br />
| ngovi || ngov || ngovvi || longovu || ngovvu || ngovitse || ngovisi || jart<br />
|-<br />
!Nine<br />
| ngoipi || ngoip || ngoiphi || longoipu || ngoiphu || ngoipitse || ngoipisi || ngoipart<br />
|-<br />
!Ten<br />
| jopi || jop || jophi || lojopu || jophu || jopitse || jopisi || jopart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!Eleven<br />
!Twelve<br />
!Thirteen<br />
!Fourteen<br />
!Fifteen<br />
!Sixteen<br />
!Seventeen<br />
!Eighteen<br />
!Nineteen<br />
!Twenty<br />
|-<br />
| ngoki <br />
| ngópi <br />
| ngofi<br />
| ngóki<br />
| ngomi <br />
| ophungovi <br />
| jopomi<br />
| jopingovi<br />
| jopingoipi<br />
| ophujopi<br />
|-<br />
!Twenty-one<br />
!Thirty<br />
!Fourty<br />
!Fifty<br />
!Sixty<br />
!Sixty-four<br />
!Sixty-five<br />
!Seventy<br />
!Eighty<br />
!Ninety<br />
|-<br />
| ophujopipi <br />
| okhujopi<br />
| offungovi <br />
| offujopi <br />
|ókhujopi<br />
| mouti<br />
| moutipi<br />
|ongujopi<br />
|ngowopi<br />
|ngoiphujopi<br />
|-<br />
!One hundred<br />
!One hundred<br/>and twenty-two<br />
!One hundred<br/>and sixty-six<br />
!Two hundred<br />
!Thousand<br />
!Three thousand<br/>four hundred<br />
!Ten thousand<br />
!Hundred thousand<br />
!Million<br />
!Billion<br />
|-<br />
| toti <br />
|toti(s)<br>ophujopopi<br />
|toti(s)<br>moutókki<br />
|ophutoti<br />
| mopi<br />
|okhumopi(s)<br>óphutoti<br />
|tothutoti<br />
|tothumopi<br />
|hamisi<br />
|mowisi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Multiplicative adverb form is used in front of the powers of ten (tens, hundreds, ...)<br />
*Digits are annexed into the tens by using the cardinal or determiner form depending whether the digit begins with a vowel or not.<br />
*Fractions are constructed by placing the ''l(o)''-prefixed form after the multiplicative number: ''okhu lóppu'' ("thrice one quarter" = three quarters). The noun is in ablative case and only the fraction is inflected: ''lopu'''ji''' tuppo'' (for one half of a stick)<br />
*Large numbers (from hundred) are written separately from smaller, but in formal register ''s''-letter is added between each power of ten.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
*VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive<br />
* possessives follow nouns<br />
* predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns<br />
<br />
===Emphasizing clitics===<br />
<br />
Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton dothee'''noh''' pof.'' (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. ''Ónzaiton dothee pof'''ma'''.'' (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used with verbs in antipassive constructions.<br />
<br />
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) <br />
<br />
The suffixes are also used with alienable possessive forms to separate the possessor from indirect objects. Chosen depending on the ergativity of the possessum: ''Jóvakuhoi suu pof swi'''ma''' swi.'' (He gave her feather to him.)<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
<br />
====Independent====<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Conjunction====<br />
<br />
coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?)<br />
<br />
====Noun clauses====<br />
<br />
WIP ... to be redone<br />
*Infinitive.tense + ... + causatives: ''Tesosan kepó vakuhos supe.'' (I see that he washes his hands) vs. ''Onluvakan kep'''óo''' vakuhos supe.'' (The washing of his hands brings me pleasure.)<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
<br />
Nominalizing relative clauses with participles is common.<br />
<br />
Using [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|an emphasizing clitic]] to mark the antecedent for the class-appropriate proximal demonstrative pronoun (thaka/saitu/ka declined for number) which works as a relative pronoun - case chosen according to the embedded clause: <br />
*''Rotóji dothma saituh latepai.'' (leave-PST.PFV.3SG man.ABS-EMPH.ABS P.PROX.AN-COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The man, with whom I danced, left.") <br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahul dothelenos saitush latepai.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS man-PL.ERG-EMPH.ERG P.PROX.AN-PL.COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The men with whom I danced are starting to drink beer.")<br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahulma dothele ka tutitai vangosordi.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS-EMPH.ABS man-PL.ERG P.PROX.INAN SBJV-want-PST.PFV.1SG drink-INF.FUT "Men are starting to drink the beer which I would've wanted to drink."<br />
<br />
====Adverbial clauses====<br />
<br />
non-finite forms + possessive suffixes to indicate subject<br />
<br />
====Conditional clauses====<br />
<br />
subjunctive as explained in verb particle section<br />
<br />
====Indirect speech====<br />
<br />
==Register==<br />
<br />
Different endings which reflect the conversation situation: speakers, familiarity, formality, location... <br />
<br />
===Intimate===<br />
<br />
Agent prefixes aren't used. No ''t'' in inceptive. Due to apophony, subject suffix can be dropped from FUT/INCEP if 1st or 2nd person distinction is clear.<br />
<br />
===Casual===<br />
<br />
In casual register, verb forms are chosen differently when the subject is agent-like (he dances) or patient-like (he fell): ''latepóji'' (he danced AN) vs. ''bousoi'' (he fell INAN)<br />
<br />
===Formal===<br />
<br />
Mandatory use of pronouns and agent prefixes.<br />
<br />
One may use inanimate verb forms as anti-honorific? ''Ondakon næ ka Nithki.'' (I humbly offer this to You)<br />
<br />
Apophony of basic prepositions with root ''oi'': ''Oisti Hala, óosti vakuhanga, ousti qorel'' (under the Sun, under my hand, under the earth)<br />
<br />
In formal register, it is preferred to use only animate nouns as agents while abstract and inanimate are as antipassive subjects: ''luwi... nas'' ("beauty-of.yours it-un-eye-ful-makes me-with", your beauty makes me blind) vs. ''en fø na'' (you are making me blind)<br />
<br />
Distinction between abstract and animate in some categories, such as verb conjugation (''wa'')<br />
<br />
Can people with higher status be abstract or do they occupy a special animate category? (æ inside?)<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
See the [[Sceptrian/Dictionary|dictionary page]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Juhhmihttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Talk:Fourth_Linguifex_Relay&diff=35556Talk:Fourth Linguifex Relay2015-07-06T16:27:24Z<p>Juhhmi: /* Start date? */</p>
<hr />
<div>I hereby announce that my relay page is now done! When shall the relay commence and how long will the time limit be (in light of the fact that e.g. juhhmi <br />
doesn't seem to be active these days, and we have a longer line than usual)? [[User:IlL|IlL]] ([[User talk:IlL|talk]]) 00:07, 3 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
<br />
I'm actually alive! Since about yesterday! How very fitting! [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 00:21, 3 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
:Any means to contact juhhmi? [[User:IlL|IlL]] ([[User talk:IlL|talk]]) 00:50, 3 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
::I still visit the site quite often although I haven't had time to continue with my languages due to studies + everything else. I have more time now, and it might be nice to participate. Considering how much vocabulary I should invent for Sceptrian, though, I doubt it would work well. Perhaps I should just use Aoma. Okay, decided: I shall use Aoma. I hope the following person hasn't yet viewed Sceptrian. [[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 01:17, 3 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
::Edit: On second thought, Sceptrian would be more challenging... <br />
::Edit2: By the way, didn't we have a template for interlinear gloss? It might be helpful to mention it in the relay rules. [[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 01:32, 3 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
:::The text is pretty simple, I suggest you reconsider doing it in Sceptrian. [[User:IlL|IlL]] ([[User talk:IlL|talk]]) 01:35, 3 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
::::Great :) Also template I mentioned is below, though, it requires IPA. [[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 01:43, 3 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
::::{{tl|Gloss}}<br />
:::::OK, I made the IPA optional. [[User:IlL|IlL]] ([[User talk:IlL|talk]]) 01:45, 3 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
::::::That makes writing faster. Hmm... I guess, one shouldn't use the translation slot :P [[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 01:48, 3 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== Start date? ==<br />
<br />
A lot of the new sign-ups came via the [https://www.facebook.com/groups/constructedlanguages/ FB group] I help administrate and it might be easier to get people to complete the relay if we post about it in the group when it starts. <br />
This'd then remind everyone a bit. So, any start date? --[[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Χρυσοφύλαξ</span>]]''' 14:14, 3 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
I wonder if more participants will appear anymore. I guess, I could start translating for instance right now. Any opinions? [[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 18:27, 6 July 2015 (CEST)</div>Juhhmi