Linguifex - User contributions [en]

Zinou Creole

2025-06-25T04:14:46Z

Notxvier: /* Personal Pronouns */

Zinou Creole

2025-06-25T03:43:57Z

Notxvier: /* Vowels */

Zinou Creole

2025-06-25T03:42:53Z

Notxvier: /* Introduction | Tamheed */

Akhyan

2025-06-08T08:18:02Z

Notxvier: /* Primary System */

==Introduction==








==Orthography==
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Non-Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Labial
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Dental
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Velar
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
|m
|မ
|n
|n
|န
|ŋ
|q
|င
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|p
|p
|ပ
|t
|t
|တ
|k
|k
|က
|-
!Aspirated
|pʰ
|ph
|ဖ
|tʰ
|th
|ထ
|kʰ
|kh
|ခ
|-
!Voiced
|b
|b
|ဗ
|d
|d
|ဒ
|g
|g
|ဂ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|f
|f
|ၾ
|
|
|
|h
|x
|ဟ
|-
!Voiced
|v
|v
|ဘ
|
|
|
|ʔ
|' (medial)
|အ
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|w
|w
|ဝ
|l
|l
|လ
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Retroflex
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Palatal
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|t͡s
|c
|ၸ
|t͡ʂ
|ç
|ဋ
|t͡ɕ
|ć
|စ
|-
!Aspirated
|t͡sʰ
|ch
|ႀ
|t͡ʂʰ
|çh
|ဌ
|t͡ɕʰ
|ćh
|ဆ
|-
!Voiced
|d͡z
|ð
|ၻ
|d͡ʐ
|ł
|ဍ
|d͡ʑ
|j
|ၺ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|s
|s
|သ
|ʂ
|ş
|ၑ
|ɕ
|ś
|ၔ
|-
!Voiced
|z
|z
|ဓ
|ʐ
|ẓ
|ၓ
|ʑ
|ź
|ည
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|ɹ
|r
|ရ
|
|
|
|j
|y
|ယ
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |Front
| rowspan="6" |
! colspan="7" |Back
|-
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
|-
!Close
|i
|i
|ကိ
|y
|ü
|ကၳ
|ɨ
|iu
|ကၖ
|u
|u
|ကု
|-
!Middle
|e
|e
|ကဲ
|ø
|ö
|ကၲ
|ə
|eo
|ကါ
|o
|o
|ကး
|-
!Open
|ɛ
|ai
|ကေ
|œ
|ä
|ကႄ
|ɐ
|a
|က
|ɔ
|au
|ကီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Vowel Diacritics
|-
|ိ
|ၳ
|ၖ
|ု
|-
|ဲ
|ၲ
|ါ
|း
|-
|ေ
|ႄ
|
|ီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
| colspan="2" |Nullification Diacritics
|-
|်
|္
|}

Although both '''Virama (္)''' and '''Asat (်)''' delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. '''Asat (်)''', as in '''က်''', marks syllable boundaries, while '''Virama (္)''', as in '''က္''', forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when '''ယ''', '''ဝ''', and '''ရ''' are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in '''ကျ''', '''ကွ''', and '''ကြ''', respectively.

===Phonotactics===

==Nouns & Adjectives==
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!1
|Numbers
|Singular & Plural
|-
!2
|Cases
|Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental
|}

Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:
* Akranta (-a stems)
* Zeokçho (-o stems)
* Mitaveş (Consonant stems)

According to the Rasthani, the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Türrao". The eight Türrao (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.
* Łiunaing '''Intransitive Case'''
* Kaothiv '''Ergative Case'''
* Penubo '''Accusative Case'''
* Nauthang '''Genitive Case'''
* Seomar '''Dative Case'''
* Baćhi '''Ablative Case'''
* Xallei '''Locative Case'''
* Reftou '''Instrumental Case'''

{| class="wikitable"
|+Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha "Storeroom"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -a
| -e
|Koşçh'''a'''
|Koşçh'''e'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ane
| -ene
|Koşçh'''ane'''
|Koşçh'''ene'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -am
| -as
|Koşçh'''am'''
|Koşçh'''as'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -arum
| -os
|Koşçh'''arum'''
|Koşçh'''os'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -avya
| -anya
|Koşçh'''avya'''
|Koşçh'''anya'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -aya
| -aye
|Koşçh'''aya'''
|Koşçh'''aye'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Koşçh'''i'''
|Koşçh'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -avi
| -avis
|Koşçh'''avi'''
|Koşçh'''avis'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo "Bed"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -o
| -ai
|Nintalp'''o'''
|Nintalp'''ai'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -one
| -ones
|Nintalp'''one'''
|Nintalp'''ones'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -um
| -ovas
|Nintalp'''um'''
|Nintalp'''ovas'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -una
| -unas
|Nintalp'''una'''
|Nintalp'''unas'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -us
| -os
|Nintalp'''us'''
|Nintalp'''os'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -au
| -om
|Nintalp'''au'''
|Nintalp'''om'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Nintalp'''i'''
|Nintalp'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -aun
| -aus
|Nintalp'''aun'''
|Nintalp'''aus'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät "Cotton"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -X
| -es
|Dazkhät
|Dazkhät'''es'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ne
| -nes
|Dazkhät'''ne'''
|Dazkhät'''nes'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -em
| -ya
|Dazkhät'''em'''
|Dazkhät'''ya'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -ae
| -yum
|Dazkhät'''ae'''
|Dazkhät'''yum'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -ye
| -we
|Dazkhät'''ye'''
|Dazkhät'''we'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -i
| -u
|Dazkhät'''i'''
|Dazkhät'''u'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -e
| -o
|Dazkhät'''e'''
|Dazkhät'''o'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -ai
| -au
|Dazkhät'''ai'''
|Dazkhät'''au'''
|}

== Verbs ==
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.

Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive ('''Kerraż'''), Intransitive ('''Padaizma'''), and Ambitransitive ('''Dosthu'''). Transitive verbs, such as '''Girtan''' “to carry”, require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like '''Naman''' “to sleep” function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.

==== Building Verbs ====
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root '''√girt'''- functions as the base for the verb Girtan, meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.

=== Non-Finite Forms ===
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

==== Infinitives ====
Infinitives are formed through affixing '''-an''' into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root '''√niut-''' "to dance" is '''Niutan'''. Imperatives can be formed through removing the '''n''' from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the '''n''' is omitted from the verb '''Niutan''', leaving '''Niuta''' as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs

==== Participles ====
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.

The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final '''''-n''''', serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word '''Thiźan''' "to tell" (root: '''√thiź-''')
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Present
| -ens
| -onc
|Thiź'''ens'''
|Thiź'''onc'''
|-
!Aorist
|
| -tyo
|
|Thiźa'''tyo'''
|-
!Perfect
| -yana
|
|Thiź'''yana'''
|
|-
!Future
| -śya
| -ndo
|Thiźa'''śya'''
|Thiźa'''ndo'''
|}

==== Gerunds ====
A gerund is a verbal noun formed from a verb that functions syntactically as a noun while retaining some verbal properties. Gerunds are created by attaching specific suffixes to verb roots, a process that is notably irregular and does not align with the standard patterns of declension found in the rest of the language. Unlike in many other languages, Akhyan gerunds undergo declension for both case and voice, but cannot decline for number.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example: kaltan root: √kalt-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Accusative
| -ime
| -ibe
|kalt'''ime'''
|kalt'''ibe'''
|-
!Genitive
| -ae
| -ao
|kalt'''ae'''
|kalt'''ao'''
|-
!Dative
| -ixar
| -iqar
|kalt'''ixar'''
|kalt'''iqar'''
|-
!Ablative
| -u
| -um
|kalt'''u'''
|kalt'''um'''
|-
!Instrumental
| -upi
| -ubi
|kalt'''upi'''
|kalt'''ubi'''
|}

===Verb Conjugation===
Akhyan verb conjugation consists of two main types: Primary and Secondary. The Primary conjugation is a thematic set, meaning it uses a connecting vowel, often called a "theme vowel" between the verb stem and the personal endings. In contrast, the Secondary conjugation is athematic, meaning it lacks this theme vowel and attaches the endings directly to the stem, often resulting in more irregular or complex forms.

==== Primary System ====
The Primary system is a thematic set of verb forms characterized by the use of two distinct vowels, -a- and -e-, to indicate different moods. Specifically, the vowel -a- is used for the Indicative mood, while -e- marks the Subjunctive mood. This system operates within three main tenses: '''Present''', '''Aorist''', and '''Perfect'''. It is also important to note that in the Subjunctive mood, the following are distinguished by aspect, not tense.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Primary System Personal Endings
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| -am
| -as
| -a
| -ami
| -asi
| -ati
|-
!Passive
| -arya
| -arus
| -are
| -arahe
| -ade
| -anta
|-
!Reflexive
| -arm
| -ars
| -art
| -ana
| -asva
| -adya
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| -em
| -es
| -e
| -emi
| -esi
| -eti
|-
!Passive
| -erya
| -erus
| -era
| -erahe
| -eda
| -enti
|-
!Reflexive
| -erm
| -ers
| -ert
| -ena
| -esva
| -edya
|}

The Present Tense of verbs are simply formed via affixing the various endings into the verb stem, connected by the thematic vowel. For instance the verb Naśan (verb root: √naś-) "to disappear" conjugated in the 3rd Person Plural Active Indicative becomes Naśati.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Present Tense of Pathan "to read"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| Path'''·a·m'''
| Path'''·a·s'''
| Path'''·a'''
| Path'''·a·mi'''
| Path'''·a·si'''
| Path'''·a·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| Path'''·a·rya'''
| Path'''·a·rus'''
| Path'''·a·re'''
| Path'''·a·rahe'''
| Path'''·a·de'''
| Path'''·a·nta'''
|-
!Reflexive
| Path'''·a·rm'''
| Path'''·a·rs'''
| Path'''·a·rt'''
| Path'''·a·na'''
| Path'''·a·sva'''
| Path'''·a·dya'''
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| Path'''·e·m'''
| Path'''·e·s'''
| Path'''·e'''
| Path'''·e·mi'''
| Path'''·e·si'''
| Path'''·e·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| Path'''·e·rya'''
| Path'''·e·rus'''
| Path'''·e·ra'''
| Path'''·e·rahe'''
| Path'''·e·da'''
| Path'''·e·nti'''
|-
!Reflexive
| Path'''·e·rm'''
| Path'''·e·rs'''
| Path'''·e·rt'''
| Path'''·e·na'''
| Path'''·e·sva'''
| Path'''·e·dya'''
|}
The perfect tense is formed through the perfect stem, which is created by modifying the verb root. This is usually done by reduplicating the first consonant of the root and placing it at the beginning of the word, followed by '''-e-'''. However, if the verb root already begins with a vowel, the prefix '''in-''' is added.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Perfect Tense of Kapatan "to deceive, to fool, to cheat"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·m'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·s'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·mi'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·si'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rya'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rus'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·re'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rahe'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·de'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·nta'''
|-
!Reflexive
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rm'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rs'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rt'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·na'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·sva'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·dya'''
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·m'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·s'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·mi'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·si'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rya'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rus'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·ra'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rahe'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·da'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·nti'''
|-
!Reflexive
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rm'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rs'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rt'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·na'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·sva'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·dya'''
|}
The aorist tense is formed using the aorist stem, which is created from the verb root by adding the prefix '''''e-'''''. In this process, the first vowel of the root is shifted to the position of the second vowel, and the original second vowel is removed. For instance, the verb '''Faran''' "to love" (rootː √far-), the aorist form becomesː '''Efr·a'''. Vülnan "to focus" (rootː √vüln-) is '''Evlün·a'''. If the verb root begins with a vowel, the first consonant that follows the vowel becomes the intermediary for vowel relocation. For instanceː Uppatan "to prove" (rootː √uppat-) becomes '''Epupat·a'''.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Aorist Tense of Sućan "to deceive, to fool, to cheat"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| Esćun'''·a·m'''
| Esćun'''·a·s'''
| Esćun'''·a'''
| Esćun'''·a·mi'''
| Esćun'''·a·si'''
| Esćun'''·a·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| Esćun'''·a·rya'''
| Esćun'''·a·rus'''
| Esćun'''·a·re'''
| Esćun'''·a·rahe'''
| Esćun'''·a·de'''
| Esćun'''·a·nta'''
|-
!Reflexive
| Esćun'''·a·rm'''
| Esćun'''·a·rs'''
| Esćun'''·a·rt'''
| Esćun'''·a·na'''
| Esćun'''·a·sva'''
| Esćun'''·a·dya'''
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| Esćun'''·e·m'''
| Esćun'''·e·s'''
| Esćun'''·e'''
| Esćun'''·e·mi'''
| Esćun'''·e·si'''
| Esćun'''·e·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| Esćun'''·e·rya'''
| Esćun'''·e·rus'''
| Esćun'''·e·ra'''
| Esćun'''·e·rahe'''
| Esćun'''·e·da'''
| Esćun'''·e·nti'''
|-
!Reflexive
| Esćun'''·e·rm'''
| Esćun'''·e·rs'''
| Esćun'''·e·rt'''
| Esćun'''·e·na'''
| Esćun'''·e·sva'''
| Esćun'''·e·dya'''
|}

==== Secondary System ====
The Secondary system refers to a group of verb forms that are characterized as athematic. This system do not use thematic vowels unlike the Primary System. This system appears only in the Indicative mood and includes four main tenses: the Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Conditional. A distinctive feature of these tenses is the use of the augment; a prefix added to the verb stem to indicate past time, applied to all except the Future tense.

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===

Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:Akhyan]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Akhyan

2025-06-08T08:16:42Z

Notxvier: /* Primary System */

==Introduction==








==Orthography==
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Non-Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Labial
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Dental
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Velar
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
|m
|မ
|n
|n
|န
|ŋ
|q
|င
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|p
|p
|ပ
|t
|t
|တ
|k
|k
|က
|-
!Aspirated
|pʰ
|ph
|ဖ
|tʰ
|th
|ထ
|kʰ
|kh
|ခ
|-
!Voiced
|b
|b
|ဗ
|d
|d
|ဒ
|g
|g
|ဂ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|f
|f
|ၾ
|
|
|
|h
|x
|ဟ
|-
!Voiced
|v
|v
|ဘ
|
|
|
|ʔ
|' (medial)
|အ
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|w
|w
|ဝ
|l
|l
|လ
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Retroflex
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Palatal
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|t͡s
|c
|ၸ
|t͡ʂ
|ç
|ဋ
|t͡ɕ
|ć
|စ
|-
!Aspirated
|t͡sʰ
|ch
|ႀ
|t͡ʂʰ
|çh
|ဌ
|t͡ɕʰ
|ćh
|ဆ
|-
!Voiced
|d͡z
|ð
|ၻ
|d͡ʐ
|ł
|ဍ
|d͡ʑ
|j
|ၺ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|s
|s
|သ
|ʂ
|ş
|ၑ
|ɕ
|ś
|ၔ
|-
!Voiced
|z
|z
|ဓ
|ʐ
|ẓ
|ၓ
|ʑ
|ź
|ည
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|ɹ
|r
|ရ
|
|
|
|j
|y
|ယ
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |Front
| rowspan="6" |
! colspan="7" |Back
|-
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
|-
!Close
|i
|i
|ကိ
|y
|ü
|ကၳ
|ɨ
|iu
|ကၖ
|u
|u
|ကု
|-
!Middle
|e
|e
|ကဲ
|ø
|ö
|ကၲ
|ə
|eo
|ကါ
|o
|o
|ကး
|-
!Open
|ɛ
|ai
|ကေ
|œ
|ä
|ကႄ
|ɐ
|a
|က
|ɔ
|au
|ကီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Vowel Diacritics
|-
|ိ
|ၳ
|ၖ
|ု
|-
|ဲ
|ၲ
|ါ
|း
|-
|ေ
|ႄ
|
|ီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
| colspan="2" |Nullification Diacritics
|-
|်
|္
|}

Although both '''Virama (္)''' and '''Asat (်)''' delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. '''Asat (်)''', as in '''က်''', marks syllable boundaries, while '''Virama (္)''', as in '''က္''', forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when '''ယ''', '''ဝ''', and '''ရ''' are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in '''ကျ''', '''ကွ''', and '''ကြ''', respectively.

===Phonotactics===

==Nouns & Adjectives==
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!1
|Numbers
|Singular & Plural
|-
!2
|Cases
|Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental
|}

Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:
* Akranta (-a stems)
* Zeokçho (-o stems)
* Mitaveş (Consonant stems)

According to the Rasthani, the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Türrao". The eight Türrao (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.
* Łiunaing '''Intransitive Case'''
* Kaothiv '''Ergative Case'''
* Penubo '''Accusative Case'''
* Nauthang '''Genitive Case'''
* Seomar '''Dative Case'''
* Baćhi '''Ablative Case'''
* Xallei '''Locative Case'''
* Reftou '''Instrumental Case'''

{| class="wikitable"
|+Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha "Storeroom"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -a
| -e
|Koşçh'''a'''
|Koşçh'''e'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ane
| -ene
|Koşçh'''ane'''
|Koşçh'''ene'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -am
| -as
|Koşçh'''am'''
|Koşçh'''as'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -arum
| -os
|Koşçh'''arum'''
|Koşçh'''os'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -avya
| -anya
|Koşçh'''avya'''
|Koşçh'''anya'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -aya
| -aye
|Koşçh'''aya'''
|Koşçh'''aye'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Koşçh'''i'''
|Koşçh'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -avi
| -avis
|Koşçh'''avi'''
|Koşçh'''avis'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo "Bed"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -o
| -ai
|Nintalp'''o'''
|Nintalp'''ai'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -one
| -ones
|Nintalp'''one'''
|Nintalp'''ones'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -um
| -ovas
|Nintalp'''um'''
|Nintalp'''ovas'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -una
| -unas
|Nintalp'''una'''
|Nintalp'''unas'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -us
| -os
|Nintalp'''us'''
|Nintalp'''os'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -au
| -om
|Nintalp'''au'''
|Nintalp'''om'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Nintalp'''i'''
|Nintalp'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -aun
| -aus
|Nintalp'''aun'''
|Nintalp'''aus'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät "Cotton"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -X
| -es
|Dazkhät
|Dazkhät'''es'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ne
| -nes
|Dazkhät'''ne'''
|Dazkhät'''nes'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -em
| -ya
|Dazkhät'''em'''
|Dazkhät'''ya'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -ae
| -yum
|Dazkhät'''ae'''
|Dazkhät'''yum'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -ye
| -we
|Dazkhät'''ye'''
|Dazkhät'''we'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -i
| -u
|Dazkhät'''i'''
|Dazkhät'''u'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -e
| -o
|Dazkhät'''e'''
|Dazkhät'''o'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -ai
| -au
|Dazkhät'''ai'''
|Dazkhät'''au'''
|}

== Verbs ==
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.

Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive ('''Kerraż'''), Intransitive ('''Padaizma'''), and Ambitransitive ('''Dosthu'''). Transitive verbs, such as '''Girtan''' “to carry”, require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like '''Naman''' “to sleep” function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.

==== Building Verbs ====
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root '''√girt'''- functions as the base for the verb Girtan, meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.

=== Non-Finite Forms ===
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

==== Infinitives ====
Infinitives are formed through affixing '''-an''' into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root '''√niut-''' "to dance" is '''Niutan'''. Imperatives can be formed through removing the '''n''' from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the '''n''' is omitted from the verb '''Niutan''', leaving '''Niuta''' as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs

==== Participles ====
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.

The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final '''''-n''''', serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word '''Thiźan''' "to tell" (root: '''√thiź-''')
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Present
| -ens
| -onc
|Thiź'''ens'''
|Thiź'''onc'''
|-
!Aorist
|
| -tyo
|
|Thiźa'''tyo'''
|-
!Perfect
| -yana
|
|Thiź'''yana'''
|
|-
!Future
| -śya
| -ndo
|Thiźa'''śya'''
|Thiźa'''ndo'''
|}

==== Gerunds ====
A gerund is a verbal noun formed from a verb that functions syntactically as a noun while retaining some verbal properties. Gerunds are created by attaching specific suffixes to verb roots, a process that is notably irregular and does not align with the standard patterns of declension found in the rest of the language. Unlike in many other languages, Akhyan gerunds undergo declension for both case and voice, but cannot decline for number.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example: kaltan root: √kalt-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Accusative
| -ime
| -ibe
|kalt'''ime'''
|kalt'''ibe'''
|-
!Genitive
| -ae
| -ao
|kalt'''ae'''
|kalt'''ao'''
|-
!Dative
| -ixar
| -iqar
|kalt'''ixar'''
|kalt'''iqar'''
|-
!Ablative
| -u
| -um
|kalt'''u'''
|kalt'''um'''
|-
!Instrumental
| -upi
| -ubi
|kalt'''upi'''
|kalt'''ubi'''
|}

===Verb Conjugation===
Akhyan verb conjugation consists of two main types: Primary and Secondary. The Primary conjugation is a thematic set, meaning it uses a connecting vowel, often called a "theme vowel" between the verb stem and the personal endings. In contrast, the Secondary conjugation is athematic, meaning it lacks this theme vowel and attaches the endings directly to the stem, often resulting in more irregular or complex forms.

==== Primary System ====
The Primary system is a thematic set of verb forms characterized by the use of two distinct vowels, -a- and -e-, to indicate different moods. Specifically, the vowel -a- is used for the Indicative mood, while -e- marks the Subjunctive mood. This system operates within three main tenses: '''Present''', '''Aorist''', and '''Perfect'''. It is also important to note that in the Subjunctive mood, the following are distinguished by aspect, not tense.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Primary System Personal Endings
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| -am
| -as
| -a
| -ami
| -asi
| -ati
|-
!Passive
| -arya
| -arus
| -are
| -arahe
| -ade
| -anta
|-
!Reflexive
| -arm
| -ars
| -art
| -ana
| -asva
| -adya
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| -em
| -es
| -e
| -emi
| -esi
| -eti
|-
!Passive
| -erya
| -erus
| -era
| -erahe
| -eda
| -enti
|-
!Reflexive
| -erm
| -ers
| -ert
| -ena
| -esva
| -edya
|}

The Present Tense of verbs are simply formed via affixing the various endings into the verb stem, connected by the thematic vowel. For instance the verb Naśan (verb root: √naś-) "to disappear" conjugated in the 3rd Person Plural Active Indicative becomes Naśati.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Present Tense of Pathan "to read"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| Path'''·a·m'''
| Path'''·a·s'''
| Path'''·a'''
| Path'''·ami'''
| Path'''·a·si'''
| Path'''·a·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| Path'''·a·rya'''
| Path'''·arus'''
| Path'''·a·re'''
| Path'''·a·rahe'''
| Path'''·a·de'''
| Path'''·a·nta'''
|-
!Reflexive
| Path'''·a·rm'''
| Path'''·ars'''
| Path'''·a·rt'''
| Path'''·a·na'''
| Path'''·a·sva'''
| Path'''·a·dya'''
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| Path'''·e·m'''
| Path'''·e·s'''
| Path'''·e'''
| Path'''·e·mi'''
| Path'''·e·si'''
| Path'''·e·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| Path'''·e·rya'''
| Path'''·e·rus'''
| Path'''·e·ra'''
| Path'''·e·rahe'''
| Path'''·e·da'''
| Path'''·e·nti'''
|-
!Reflexive
| Path'''·e·rm'''
| Path'''·e·rs'''
| Path'''·e·rt'''
| Path'''·e·na'''
| Path'''·e·sva'''
| Path'''·e·dya'''
|}
The perfect tense is formed through the perfect stem, which is created by modifying the verb root. This is usually done by reduplicating the first consonant of the root and placing it at the beginning of the word, followed by '''-e-'''. However, if the verb root already begins with a vowel, the prefix '''in-''' is added.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Perfect Tense of Kapatan "to deceive, to fool, to cheat"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·m'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·s'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·ami'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·si'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rya'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·arus'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·re'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rahe'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·de'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·nta'''
|-
!Reflexive
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rm'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·ars'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rt'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·na'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·sva'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·dya'''
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·m'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·s'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·mi'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·si'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rya'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rus'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·ra'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rahe'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·da'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·nti'''
|-
!Reflexive
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rm'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rs'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rt'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·na'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·sva'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·dya'''
|}
The aorist tense is formed using the aorist stem, which is created from the verb root by adding the prefix '''''e-'''''. In this process, the first vowel of the root is shifted to the position of the second vowel, and the original second vowel is removed. For instance, the verb '''Faran''' "to love" (rootː √far-), the aorist form becomesː '''Efr·a'''. Vülnan "to focus" (rootː √vüln-) is '''Evlün·a'''. If the verb root begins with a vowel, the first consonant that follows the vowel becomes the intermediary for vowel relocation. For instanceː Uppatan "to prove" (rootː √uppat-) becomes '''Epupat·a'''.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Aorist Tense of Sućan "to deceive, to fool, to cheat"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| Esćun'''·a·m'''
| Esćun'''·a·s'''
| Esćun'''·a'''
| Esćun'''·a·mi'''
| Esćun'''·a·si'''
| Esćun'''·a·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| Esćun'''·a·rya'''
| Esćun'''·arus'''
| Esćun'''·a·re'''
| Esćun'''·a·rahe'''
| Esćun'''·a·de'''
| Esćun'''·a·nta'''
|-
!Reflexive
| Esćun'''·a·rm'''
| Esćun'''·ars'''
| Esćun'''·a·rt'''
| Esćun'''·a·na'''
| Esćun'''·a·sva'''
| Esćun'''·a·dya'''
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| Esćun'''·e·m'''
| Esćun'''·e·s'''
| Esćun'''·e'''
| Esćun'''·e·mi'''
| Esćun'''·e·si'''
| Esćun'''·e·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| Esćun'''·e·rya'''
| Esćun'''·e·rus'''
| Esćun'''·e·ra'''
| Esćun'''·e·rahe'''
| Esćun'''·e·da'''
| Esćun'''·e·nti'''
|-
!Reflexive
| Esćun'''·e·rm'''
| Esćun'''·e·rs'''
| Esćun'''·e·rt'''
| Esćun'''·e·na'''
| Esćun'''·e·sva'''
| Esćun'''·e·dya'''
|}

==== Secondary System ====
The Secondary system refers to a group of verb forms that are characterized as athematic. This system do not use thematic vowels unlike the Primary System. This system appears only in the Indicative mood and includes four main tenses: the Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Conditional. A distinctive feature of these tenses is the use of the augment; a prefix added to the verb stem to indicate past time, applied to all except the Future tense.

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===

Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:Akhyan]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Akhyan

2025-06-07T14:18:36Z

Notxvier: /* Primary System */

==Introduction==








==Orthography==
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Non-Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Labial
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Dental
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Velar
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
|m
|မ
|n
|n
|န
|ŋ
|q
|င
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|p
|p
|ပ
|t
|t
|တ
|k
|k
|က
|-
!Aspirated
|pʰ
|ph
|ဖ
|tʰ
|th
|ထ
|kʰ
|kh
|ခ
|-
!Voiced
|b
|b
|ဗ
|d
|d
|ဒ
|g
|g
|ဂ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|f
|f
|ၾ
|
|
|
|h
|x
|ဟ
|-
!Voiced
|v
|v
|ဘ
|
|
|
|ʔ
|' (medial)
|အ
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|w
|w
|ဝ
|l
|l
|လ
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Retroflex
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Palatal
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|t͡s
|c
|ၸ
|t͡ʂ
|ç
|ဋ
|t͡ɕ
|ć
|စ
|-
!Aspirated
|t͡sʰ
|ch
|ႀ
|t͡ʂʰ
|çh
|ဌ
|t͡ɕʰ
|ćh
|ဆ
|-
!Voiced
|d͡z
|ð
|ၻ
|d͡ʐ
|ł
|ဍ
|d͡ʑ
|j
|ၺ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|s
|s
|သ
|ʂ
|ş
|ၑ
|ɕ
|ś
|ၔ
|-
!Voiced
|z
|z
|ဓ
|ʐ
|ẓ
|ၓ
|ʑ
|ź
|ည
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|ɹ
|r
|ရ
|
|
|
|j
|y
|ယ
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |Front
| rowspan="6" |
! colspan="7" |Back
|-
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
|-
!Close
|i
|i
|ကိ
|y
|ü
|ကၳ
|ɨ
|iu
|ကၖ
|u
|u
|ကု
|-
!Middle
|e
|e
|ကဲ
|ø
|ö
|ကၲ
|ə
|eo
|ကါ
|o
|o
|ကး
|-
!Open
|ɛ
|ai
|ကေ
|œ
|ä
|ကႄ
|ɐ
|a
|က
|ɔ
|au
|ကီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Vowel Diacritics
|-
|ိ
|ၳ
|ၖ
|ု
|-
|ဲ
|ၲ
|ါ
|း
|-
|ေ
|ႄ
|
|ီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
| colspan="2" |Nullification Diacritics
|-
|်
|္
|}

Although both '''Virama (္)''' and '''Asat (်)''' delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. '''Asat (်)''', as in '''က်''', marks syllable boundaries, while '''Virama (္)''', as in '''က္''', forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when '''ယ''', '''ဝ''', and '''ရ''' are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in '''ကျ''', '''ကွ''', and '''ကြ''', respectively.

===Phonotactics===

==Nouns & Adjectives==
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!1
|Numbers
|Singular & Plural
|-
!2
|Cases
|Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental
|}

Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:
* Akranta (-a stems)
* Zeokçho (-o stems)
* Mitaveş (Consonant stems)

According to the Rasthani, the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Türrao". The eight Türrao (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.
* Łiunaing '''Intransitive Case'''
* Kaothiv '''Ergative Case'''
* Penubo '''Accusative Case'''
* Nauthang '''Genitive Case'''
* Seomar '''Dative Case'''
* Baćhi '''Ablative Case'''
* Xallei '''Locative Case'''
* Reftou '''Instrumental Case'''

{| class="wikitable"
|+Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha "Storeroom"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -a
| -e
|Koşçh'''a'''
|Koşçh'''e'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ane
| -ene
|Koşçh'''ane'''
|Koşçh'''ene'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -am
| -as
|Koşçh'''am'''
|Koşçh'''as'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -arum
| -os
|Koşçh'''arum'''
|Koşçh'''os'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -avya
| -anya
|Koşçh'''avya'''
|Koşçh'''anya'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -aya
| -aye
|Koşçh'''aya'''
|Koşçh'''aye'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Koşçh'''i'''
|Koşçh'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -avi
| -avis
|Koşçh'''avi'''
|Koşçh'''avis'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo "Bed"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -o
| -ai
|Nintalp'''o'''
|Nintalp'''ai'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -one
| -ones
|Nintalp'''one'''
|Nintalp'''ones'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -um
| -ovas
|Nintalp'''um'''
|Nintalp'''ovas'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -una
| -unas
|Nintalp'''una'''
|Nintalp'''unas'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -us
| -os
|Nintalp'''us'''
|Nintalp'''os'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -au
| -om
|Nintalp'''au'''
|Nintalp'''om'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Nintalp'''i'''
|Nintalp'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -aun
| -aus
|Nintalp'''aun'''
|Nintalp'''aus'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät "Cotton"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -X
| -es
|Dazkhät
|Dazkhät'''es'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ne
| -nes
|Dazkhät'''ne'''
|Dazkhät'''nes'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -em
| -ya
|Dazkhät'''em'''
|Dazkhät'''ya'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -ae
| -yum
|Dazkhät'''ae'''
|Dazkhät'''yum'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -ye
| -we
|Dazkhät'''ye'''
|Dazkhät'''we'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -i
| -u
|Dazkhät'''i'''
|Dazkhät'''u'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -e
| -o
|Dazkhät'''e'''
|Dazkhät'''o'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -ai
| -au
|Dazkhät'''ai'''
|Dazkhät'''au'''
|}

== Verbs ==
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.

Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive ('''Kerraż'''), Intransitive ('''Padaizma'''), and Ambitransitive ('''Dosthu'''). Transitive verbs, such as '''Girtan''' “to carry”, require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like '''Naman''' “to sleep” function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.

==== Building Verbs ====
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root '''√girt'''- functions as the base for the verb Girtan, meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.

=== Non-Finite Forms ===
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

==== Infinitives ====
Infinitives are formed through affixing '''-an''' into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root '''√niut-''' "to dance" is '''Niutan'''. Imperatives can be formed through removing the '''n''' from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the '''n''' is omitted from the verb '''Niutan''', leaving '''Niuta''' as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs

==== Participles ====
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.

The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final '''''-n''''', serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word '''Thiźan''' "to tell" (root: '''√thiź-''')
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Present
| -ens
| -onc
|Thiź'''ens'''
|Thiź'''onc'''
|-
!Aorist
|
| -tyo
|
|Thiźa'''tyo'''
|-
!Perfect
| -yana
|
|Thiź'''yana'''
|
|-
!Future
| -śya
| -ndo
|Thiźa'''śya'''
|Thiźa'''ndo'''
|}

==== Gerunds ====
A gerund is a verbal noun formed from a verb that functions syntactically as a noun while retaining some verbal properties. Gerunds are created by attaching specific suffixes to verb roots, a process that is notably irregular and does not align with the standard patterns of declension found in the rest of the language. Unlike in many other languages, Akhyan gerunds undergo declension for both case and voice, but cannot decline for number.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example: kaltan root: √kalt-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Accusative
| -ime
| -ibe
|kalt'''ime'''
|kalt'''ibe'''
|-
!Genitive
| -ae
| -ao
|kalt'''ae'''
|kalt'''ao'''
|-
!Dative
| -ixar
| -iqar
|kalt'''ixar'''
|kalt'''iqar'''
|-
!Ablative
| -u
| -um
|kalt'''u'''
|kalt'''um'''
|-
!Instrumental
| -upi
| -ubi
|kalt'''upi'''
|kalt'''ubi'''
|}

===Verb Conjugation===
Akhyan verb conjugation consists of two main types: Primary and Secondary. The Primary conjugation is a thematic set, meaning it uses a connecting vowel, often called a "theme vowel" between the verb stem and the personal endings. In contrast, the Secondary conjugation is athematic, meaning it lacks this theme vowel and attaches the endings directly to the stem, often resulting in more irregular or complex forms.

==== Primary System ====
The Primary system is a thematic set of verb forms characterized by the use of two distinct vowels, -a- and -e-, to indicate different moods. Specifically, the vowel -a- is used for the Indicative mood, while -e- marks the Subjunctive mood. This system operates within three main tenses: '''Present''', '''Aorist''', and '''Perfect'''. It is also important to note that in the Subjunctive mood, the following are distinguished by aspect, not tense.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Primary System Personal Endings
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| -am
| -as
| -a
| -ami
| -asi
| -ati
|-
!Passive
| -arya
| -arus
| -are
| -arahe
| -ade
| -anta
|-
!Reflexive
| -arm
| -ars
| -art
| -ana
| -asva
| -adya
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| -em
| -es
| -e
| -emi
| -esi
| -eti
|-
!Passive
| -erya
| -erus
| -era
| -erahe
| -eda
| -enti
|-
!Reflexive
| -erm
| -ers
| -ert
| -ena
| -esva
| -edya
|}

The Present Tense of verbs are simply formed via affixing the various endings into the verb stem, connected by the thematic vowel. For instance the verb Naśan (verb root: √naś-) "to disappear" conjugated in the 3rd Person Plural Active Indicative becomes Naśati.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Present Tense of Pathan "to read"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| Path'''·a·m'''
| Path'''·a·s'''
| Path'''·a'''
| Path'''·ami'''
| Path'''·a·si'''
| Path'''·a·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| Path'''·a·rya'''
| Path'''·arus'''
| Path'''·a·re'''
| Path'''·a·rahe'''
| Path'''·a·de'''
| Path'''·a·nta'''
|-
!Reflexive
| Path'''·a·rm'''
| Path'''·ars'''
| Path'''·a·rt'''
| Path'''·a·na'''
| Path'''·a·sva'''
| Path'''·a·dya'''
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| Path'''·e·m'''
| Path'''·e·s'''
| Path'''·e'''
| Path'''·e·mi'''
| Path'''·e·si'''
| Path'''·e·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| Path'''·e·rya'''
| Path'''·e·rus'''
| Path'''·e·ra'''
| Path'''·e·rahe'''
| Path'''·e·da'''
| Path'''·e·nti'''
|-
!Reflexive
| Path'''·e·rm'''
| Path'''·e·rs'''
| Path'''·e·rt'''
| Path'''·e·na'''
| Path'''·e·sva'''
| Path'''·e·dya'''
|}
The perfect tense is formed through the perfect stem, which is created by modifying the verb root. This is usually done by reduplicating the first consonant of the root and placing it at the beginning of the word, followed by '''-e-'''. However, if the verb root already begins with a vowel, the prefix '''in-''' is added.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Perfect Tense of Kapatan "to deceive, to fool, to cheat"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·m'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·s'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·ami'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·si'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rya'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·arus'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·re'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rahe'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·de'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·nta'''
|-
!Reflexive
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rm'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·ars'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rt'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·na'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·sva'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·dya'''
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·m'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·s'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·mi'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·si'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rya'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rus'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·ra'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rahe'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·da'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·nti'''
|-
!Reflexive
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rm'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rs'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rt'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·na'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·sva'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·dya'''
|}
The aorist tense is formed using the aorist stem, which is created from the verb root by adding the prefix '''''e-'''''. In this process, the first vowel of the root is shifted to the position of the second vowel, and the original second vowel is removed. For instance, the verb '''Faran''' "to love" (rootː √far-), the aorist form becomesː '''Efr·a'''. Vülnan "to focus" (rootː √vüln-) is '''Evlün·a'''. If the verb root begins with a vowel, the first consonant that follows the vowel becomes the intermediary for vowel relocation. For instanceː Uppatan "to prove" (rootː √uppat-) becomes '''Epupat·a'''.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Aorist Tense of Sućan "to deceive, to fool, to cheat"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| Esćun'''·a·m'''
| Esćun'''·a·s'''
| Esćun'''·a'''
| Esćun'''·ami'''
| Esćun'''·a·si'''
| Esćun'''·a·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| Esćun'''·a·rya'''
| Esćun'''·arus'''
| Esćun'''·a·re'''
| Esćun'''·a·rahe'''
| Esćun'''·a·de'''
| Esćun'''·a·nta'''
|-
!Reflexive
| Esćun'''·a·rm'''
| Esćun'''·ars'''
| Esćun'''·a·rt'''
| Esćun'''·a·na'''
| Esćun'''·a·sva'''
| Esćun'''·a·dya'''
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| Esćun'''·e·m'''
| Esćun'''·e·s'''
| Esćun'''·e'''
| Esćun'''·e·mi'''
| Esćun'''·e·si'''
| Esćun'''·e·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| Esćun'''·e·rya'''
| Esćun'''·e·rus'''
| Esćun'''·e·ra'''
| Esćun'''·e·rahe'''
| Esćun'''·e·da'''
| Esćun'''·e·nti'''
|-
!Reflexive
| Esćun'''·e·rm'''
| Esćun'''·e·rs'''
| Esćun'''·e·rt'''
| Esćun'''·e·na'''
| Esćun'''·e·sva'''
| Esćun'''·e·dya'''
|}

==== Secondary System ====
The Secondary system refers to a group of verb forms that are characterized as athematic. This system do not use thematic vowels unlike the Primary System. This system appears only in the Indicative mood and includes four main tenses: the Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Conditional. A distinctive feature of these tenses is the use of the augment; a prefix added to the verb stem to indicate past time, applied to all except the Future tense.

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===

Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:Akhyan]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Akhyan

2025-06-05T13:48:36Z

Notxvier: /* Consonants */

==Introduction==








==Orthography==
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Non-Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Labial
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Dental
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Velar
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
|m
|မ
|n
|n
|န
|ŋ
|q
|င
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|p
|p
|ပ
|t
|t
|တ
|k
|k
|က
|-
!Aspirated
|pʰ
|ph
|ဖ
|tʰ
|th
|ထ
|kʰ
|kh
|ခ
|-
!Voiced
|b
|b
|ဗ
|d
|d
|ဒ
|g
|g
|ဂ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|f
|f
|ၾ
|
|
|
|h
|x
|ဟ
|-
!Voiced
|v
|v
|ဘ
|
|
|
|ʔ
|' (medial)
|အ
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|w
|w
|ဝ
|l
|l
|လ
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Retroflex
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Palatal
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|t͡s
|c
|ၸ
|t͡ʂ
|ç
|ဋ
|t͡ɕ
|ć
|စ
|-
!Aspirated
|t͡sʰ
|ch
|ႀ
|t͡ʂʰ
|çh
|ဌ
|t͡ɕʰ
|ćh
|ဆ
|-
!Voiced
|d͡z
|ð
|ၻ
|d͡ʐ
|ł
|ဍ
|d͡ʑ
|j
|ၺ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|s
|s
|သ
|ʂ
|ş
|ၑ
|ɕ
|ś
|ၔ
|-
!Voiced
|z
|z
|ဓ
|ʐ
|ẓ
|ၓ
|ʑ
|ź
|ည
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|ɹ
|r
|ရ
|
|
|
|j
|y
|ယ
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |Front
| rowspan="6" |
! colspan="7" |Back
|-
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
|-
!Close
|i
|i
|ကိ
|y
|ü
|ကၳ
|ɨ
|iu
|ကၖ
|u
|u
|ကု
|-
!Middle
|e
|e
|ကဲ
|ø
|ö
|ကၲ
|ə
|eo
|ကါ
|o
|o
|ကး
|-
!Open
|ɛ
|ai
|ကေ
|œ
|ä
|ကႄ
|ɐ
|a
|က
|ɔ
|au
|ကီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Vowel Diacritics
|-
|ိ
|ၳ
|ၖ
|ု
|-
|ဲ
|ၲ
|ါ
|း
|-
|ေ
|ႄ
|
|ီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
| colspan="2" |Nullification Diacritics
|-
|်
|္
|}

Although both '''Virama (္)''' and '''Asat (်)''' delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. '''Asat (်)''', as in '''က်''', marks syllable boundaries, while '''Virama (္)''', as in '''က္''', forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when '''ယ''', '''ဝ''', and '''ရ''' are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in '''ကျ''', '''ကွ''', and '''ကြ''', respectively.

===Phonotactics===

==Nouns & Adjectives==
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!1
|Numbers
|Singular & Plural
|-
!2
|Cases
|Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental
|}

Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:
* Akranta (-a stems)
* Zeokçho (-o stems)
* Mitaveş (Consonant stems)

According to the Rasthani, the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Türrao". The eight Türrao (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.
* Łiunaing '''Intransitive Case'''
* Kaothiv '''Ergative Case'''
* Penubo '''Accusative Case'''
* Nauthang '''Genitive Case'''
* Seomar '''Dative Case'''
* Baćhi '''Ablative Case'''
* Xallei '''Locative Case'''
* Reftou '''Instrumental Case'''

{| class="wikitable"
|+Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha "Storeroom"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -a
| -e
|Koşçh'''a'''
|Koşçh'''e'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ane
| -ene
|Koşçh'''ane'''
|Koşçh'''ene'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -am
| -as
|Koşçh'''am'''
|Koşçh'''as'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -arum
| -os
|Koşçh'''arum'''
|Koşçh'''os'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -avya
| -anya
|Koşçh'''avya'''
|Koşçh'''anya'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -aya
| -aye
|Koşçh'''aya'''
|Koşçh'''aye'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Koşçh'''i'''
|Koşçh'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -avi
| -avis
|Koşçh'''avi'''
|Koşçh'''avis'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo "Bed"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -o
| -ai
|Nintalp'''o'''
|Nintalp'''ai'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -one
| -ones
|Nintalp'''one'''
|Nintalp'''ones'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -um
| -ovas
|Nintalp'''um'''
|Nintalp'''ovas'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -una
| -unas
|Nintalp'''una'''
|Nintalp'''unas'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -us
| -os
|Nintalp'''us'''
|Nintalp'''os'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -au
| -om
|Nintalp'''au'''
|Nintalp'''om'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Nintalp'''i'''
|Nintalp'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -aun
| -aus
|Nintalp'''aun'''
|Nintalp'''aus'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät "Cotton"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -X
| -es
|Dazkhät
|Dazkhät'''es'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ne
| -nes
|Dazkhät'''ne'''
|Dazkhät'''nes'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -em
| -ya
|Dazkhät'''em'''
|Dazkhät'''ya'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -ae
| -yum
|Dazkhät'''ae'''
|Dazkhät'''yum'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -ye
| -we
|Dazkhät'''ye'''
|Dazkhät'''we'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -i
| -u
|Dazkhät'''i'''
|Dazkhät'''u'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -e
| -o
|Dazkhät'''e'''
|Dazkhät'''o'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -ai
| -au
|Dazkhät'''ai'''
|Dazkhät'''au'''
|}

== Verbs ==
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.

Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive ('''Kerraż'''), Intransitive ('''Padaizma'''), and Ambitransitive ('''Dosthu'''). Transitive verbs, such as '''Girtan''' “to carry”, require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like '''Naman''' “to sleep” function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.

==== Building Verbs ====
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root '''√girt'''- functions as the base for the verb Girtan, meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.

=== Non-Finite Forms ===
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

==== Infinitives ====
Infinitives are formed through affixing '''-an''' into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root '''√niut-''' "to dance" is '''Niutan'''. Imperatives can be formed through removing the '''n''' from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the '''n''' is omitted from the verb '''Niutan''', leaving '''Niuta''' as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs

==== Participles ====
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.

The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final '''''-n''''', serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word '''Thiźan''' "to tell" (root: '''√thiź-''')
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Present
| -ens
| -onc
|Thiź'''ens'''
|Thiź'''onc'''
|-
!Aorist
|
| -tyo
|
|Thiźa'''tyo'''
|-
!Perfect
| -yana
|
|Thiź'''yana'''
|
|-
!Future
| -śya
| -ndo
|Thiźa'''śya'''
|Thiźa'''ndo'''
|}

==== Gerunds ====
A gerund is a verbal noun formed from a verb that functions syntactically as a noun while retaining some verbal properties. Gerunds are created by attaching specific suffixes to verb roots, a process that is notably irregular and does not align with the standard patterns of declension found in the rest of the language. Unlike in many other languages, Akhyan gerunds undergo declension for both case and voice, but cannot decline for number.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example: kaltan root: √kalt-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Accusative
| -ime
| -ibe
|kalt'''ime'''
|kalt'''ibe'''
|-
!Genitive
| -ae
| -ao
|kalt'''ae'''
|kalt'''ao'''
|-
!Dative
| -ixar
| -iqar
|kalt'''ixar'''
|kalt'''iqar'''
|-
!Ablative
| -u
| -um
|kalt'''u'''
|kalt'''um'''
|-
!Instrumental
| -upi
| -ubi
|kalt'''upi'''
|kalt'''ubi'''
|}

===Verb Conjugation===
Akhyan verb conjugation consists of two main types: Primary and Secondary. The Primary conjugation is a thematic set, meaning it uses a connecting vowel, often called a "theme vowel" between the verb stem and the personal endings. In contrast, the Secondary conjugation is athematic, meaning it lacks this theme vowel and attaches the endings directly to the stem, often resulting in more irregular or complex forms.

==== Primary System ====
The Primary system is a thematic set of verb forms characterized by the use of two distinct vowels, -a- and -e-, to indicate different moods. Specifically, the vowel -a- is used for the Indicative mood, while -e- marks the Subjunctive mood. This system operates within three main tenses: '''Present''', '''Aorist''', and '''Perfect'''. It is also important to note that in the Subjunctive mood, the following are distinguished by aspect, not tense.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Primary System Personal Endings
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| -am
| -as
| -a
| -ami
| -asi
| -ati
|-
!Passive
| -arya
| -arus
| -are
| -arahe
| -adwe
| -anta
|-
!Reflexive
| -arm
| -ars
| -art
| -ana
| -asva
| -ada
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| -em
| -es
| -e
| -emi
| -esi
| -eti
|-
!Passive
| -erya
| -erus
| -era
| -erahe
| -edwe
| -enti
|-
!Reflexive
| -erm
| -ers
| -ert
| -ena
| -esva
| -eda
|}

The Present Tense of verbs are simply formed via affixing the various endings into the verb stem, connected by the thematic vowel. For instance the verb Naśan (verb root: √naś-) "to disappear" conjugated in the 3rd Person Plural Active Indicative becomes Naśati.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Present Tense of Pathan "to read"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| Patham
| Pathas
| Patha
| Pathami
| Pathasi
| Pathati
|-
!Passive
| Patharya
| Patharus
| Pathare
| Patharahe
| Pathadwe
| Pathanta
|-
!Reflexive
| Patharm
| Pathars
| Pathart
| Pathana
| Pathasva
| Pathada
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| Pathem
| Pathes
| Pathe
| Pathemi
| Pathesi
| Patheti
|-
!Passive
| Patherya
| Patherus
| Pathera
| Patherahe
| Pathedwe
| Pathenti
|-
!Reflexive
| Patherm
| Pathers
| Pathert
| Pathena
| Pathesva
| Patheda
|}

==== Secondary System ====
The Secondary system refers to a group of verb forms that are characterized as athematic. This system do not use thematic vowels unlike the Primary System. This system appears only in the Indicative mood and includes four main tenses: the Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Conditional. A distinctive feature of these tenses is the use of the augment; a prefix added to the verb stem to indicate past time, applied to all except the Future tense.

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===

Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:Akhyan]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Akhyan

2025-06-05T11:57:16Z

Notxvier: /* Gerunds */

==Introduction==








==Orthography==
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Non-Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Labial
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Dental
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Velar
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
|m
|မ
|n
|n
|န
|ŋ
|q
|င
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|p
|p
|ပ
|t
|t
|တ
|k
|k
|က
|-
!Aspirated
|pʰ
|ph
|ဖ
|tʰ
|th
|ထ
|kʰ
|kh
|ခ
|-
!Voiced
|b
|b
|ဗ
|d
|d
|ဒ
|g
|g
|ဂ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|f
|f
|ၾ
|
|
|
|h
|x
|ဟ
|-
!Voiced
|v
|v
|ဘ
|
|
|
|ʔ
|' (medial)
|အ
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|w
|w
|ဝ
|l
|l
|လ
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Retroflex
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Palatal
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|t͡s
|c
|ၸ
|t͡ʂ
|ç
|ဋ
|t͡ɕ
|ć
|စ
|-
!Aspirated
|t͡sʰ
|ch
|ႀ
|t͡ʂʰ
|çh
|ဌ
|t͡ɕʰ
|ćh
|ဆ
|-
!Voiced
|d͡z
|ð
|ၻ
|d͡ʐ
|ł
|ဍ
|d͡ʑ
|j
|ၺ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|s
|s
|သ
|ʂ
|ş
|ၑ
|ɕ
|ś
|ၔ
|-
!Voiced
|z
|z
|ဓ
|ʐ
|ż
|ၓ
|ʑ
|ź
|ည
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|ɹ
|r
|ရ
|
|
|
|j
|y
|ယ
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |Front
| rowspan="6" |
! colspan="7" |Back
|-
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
|-
!Close
|i
|i
|ကိ
|y
|ü
|ကၳ
|ɨ
|iu
|ကၖ
|u
|u
|ကု
|-
!Middle
|e
|e
|ကဲ
|ø
|ö
|ကၲ
|ə
|eo
|ကါ
|o
|o
|ကး
|-
!Open
|ɛ
|ai
|ကေ
|œ
|ä
|ကႄ
|ɐ
|a
|က
|ɔ
|au
|ကီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Vowel Diacritics
|-
|ိ
|ၳ
|ၖ
|ု
|-
|ဲ
|ၲ
|ါ
|း
|-
|ေ
|ႄ
|
|ီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
| colspan="2" |Nullification Diacritics
|-
|်
|္
|}

Although both '''Virama (္)''' and '''Asat (်)''' delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. '''Asat (်)''', as in '''က်''', marks syllable boundaries, while '''Virama (္)''', as in '''က္''', forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when '''ယ''', '''ဝ''', and '''ရ''' are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in '''ကျ''', '''ကွ''', and '''ကြ''', respectively.

===Phonotactics===

==Nouns & Adjectives==
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!1
|Numbers
|Singular & Plural
|-
!2
|Cases
|Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental
|}

Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:
* Akranta (-a stems)
* Zeokçho (-o stems)
* Mitaveş (Consonant stems)

According to the Rasthani, the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Türrao". The eight Türrao (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.
* Łiunaing '''Intransitive Case'''
* Kaothiv '''Ergative Case'''
* Penubo '''Accusative Case'''
* Nauthang '''Genitive Case'''
* Seomar '''Dative Case'''
* Baćhi '''Ablative Case'''
* Xallei '''Locative Case'''
* Reftou '''Instrumental Case'''

{| class="wikitable"
|+Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha "Storeroom"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -a
| -e
|Koşçh'''a'''
|Koşçh'''e'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ane
| -ene
|Koşçh'''ane'''
|Koşçh'''ene'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -am
| -as
|Koşçh'''am'''
|Koşçh'''as'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -arum
| -os
|Koşçh'''arum'''
|Koşçh'''os'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -avya
| -anya
|Koşçh'''avya'''
|Koşçh'''anya'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -aya
| -aye
|Koşçh'''aya'''
|Koşçh'''aye'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Koşçh'''i'''
|Koşçh'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -avi
| -avis
|Koşçh'''avi'''
|Koşçh'''avis'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo "Bed"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -o
| -ai
|Nintalp'''o'''
|Nintalp'''ai'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -one
| -ones
|Nintalp'''one'''
|Nintalp'''ones'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -um
| -ovas
|Nintalp'''um'''
|Nintalp'''ovas'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -una
| -unas
|Nintalp'''una'''
|Nintalp'''unas'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -us
| -os
|Nintalp'''us'''
|Nintalp'''os'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -au
| -om
|Nintalp'''au'''
|Nintalp'''om'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Nintalp'''i'''
|Nintalp'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -aun
| -aus
|Nintalp'''aun'''
|Nintalp'''aus'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät "Cotton"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -X
| -es
|Dazkhät
|Dazkhät'''es'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ne
| -nes
|Dazkhät'''ne'''
|Dazkhät'''nes'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -em
| -ya
|Dazkhät'''em'''
|Dazkhät'''ya'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -ae
| -yum
|Dazkhät'''ae'''
|Dazkhät'''yum'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -ye
| -we
|Dazkhät'''ye'''
|Dazkhät'''we'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -i
| -u
|Dazkhät'''i'''
|Dazkhät'''u'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -e
| -o
|Dazkhät'''e'''
|Dazkhät'''o'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -ai
| -au
|Dazkhät'''ai'''
|Dazkhät'''au'''
|}

== Verbs ==
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.

Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive ('''Kerraż'''), Intransitive ('''Padaizma'''), and Ambitransitive ('''Dosthu'''). Transitive verbs, such as '''Girtan''' “to carry”, require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like '''Naman''' “to sleep” function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.

==== Building Verbs ====
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root '''√girt'''- functions as the base for the verb Girtan, meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.

=== Non-Finite Forms ===
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

==== Infinitives ====
Infinitives are formed through affixing '''-an''' into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root '''√niut-''' "to dance" is '''Niutan'''. Imperatives can be formed through removing the '''n''' from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the '''n''' is omitted from the verb '''Niutan''', leaving '''Niuta''' as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs

==== Participles ====
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.

The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final '''''-n''''', serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word '''Thiźan''' "to tell" (root: '''√thiź-''')
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Present
| -ens
| -onc
|Thiź'''ens'''
|Thiź'''onc'''
|-
!Aorist
|
| -tyo
|
|Thiźa'''tyo'''
|-
!Perfect
| -yana
|
|Thiź'''yana'''
|
|-
!Future
| -śya
| -ndo
|Thiźa'''śya'''
|Thiźa'''ndo'''
|}

==== Gerunds ====
A gerund is a verbal noun formed from a verb that functions syntactically as a noun while retaining some verbal properties. Gerunds are created by attaching specific suffixes to verb roots, a process that is notably irregular and does not align with the standard patterns of declension found in the rest of the language. Unlike in many other languages, Akhyan gerunds undergo declension for both case and voice, but cannot decline for number.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example: kaltan root: √kalt-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Accusative
| -ime
| -ibe
|kalt'''ime'''
|kalt'''ibe'''
|-
!Genitive
| -ae
| -ao
|kalt'''ae'''
|kalt'''ao'''
|-
!Dative
| -ixar
| -iqar
|kalt'''ixar'''
|kalt'''iqar'''
|-
!Ablative
| -u
| -um
|kalt'''u'''
|kalt'''um'''
|-
!Instrumental
| -upi
| -ubi
|kalt'''upi'''
|kalt'''ubi'''
|}

===Verb Conjugation===
Akhyan verb conjugation consists of two main types: Primary and Secondary. The Primary conjugation is a thematic set, meaning it uses a connecting vowel, often called a "theme vowel" between the verb stem and the personal endings. In contrast, the Secondary conjugation is athematic, meaning it lacks this theme vowel and attaches the endings directly to the stem, often resulting in more irregular or complex forms.

==== Primary System ====
The Primary system is a thematic set of verb forms characterized by the use of two distinct vowels, -a- and -e-, to indicate different moods. Specifically, the vowel -a- is used for the Indicative mood, while -e- marks the Subjunctive mood. This system operates within three main tenses: '''Present''', '''Aorist''', and '''Perfect'''. It is also important to note that in the Subjunctive mood, the following are distinguished by aspect, not tense.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Primary System Personal Endings
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| -am
| -as
| -a
| -ami
| -asi
| -ati
|-
!Passive
| -arya
| -arus
| -are
| -arahe
| -adwe
| -anta
|-
!Reflexive
| -arm
| -ars
| -art
| -ana
| -asva
| -ada
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| -em
| -es
| -e
| -emi
| -esi
| -eti
|-
!Passive
| -erya
| -erus
| -era
| -erahe
| -edwe
| -enti
|-
!Reflexive
| -erm
| -ers
| -ert
| -ena
| -esva
| -eda
|}

The Present Tense of verbs are simply formed via affixing the various endings into the verb stem, connected by the thematic vowel. For instance the verb Naśan (verb root: √naś-) "to disappear" conjugated in the 3rd Person Plural Active Indicative becomes Naśati.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Present Tense of Pathan "to read"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| Patham
| Pathas
| Patha
| Pathami
| Pathasi
| Pathati
|-
!Passive
| Patharya
| Patharus
| Pathare
| Patharahe
| Pathadwe
| Pathanta
|-
!Reflexive
| Patharm
| Pathars
| Pathart
| Pathana
| Pathasva
| Pathada
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| Pathem
| Pathes
| Pathe
| Pathemi
| Pathesi
| Patheti
|-
!Passive
| Patherya
| Patherus
| Pathera
| Patherahe
| Pathedwe
| Pathenti
|-
!Reflexive
| Patherm
| Pathers
| Pathert
| Pathena
| Pathesva
| Patheda
|}

==== Secondary System ====
The Secondary system refers to a group of verb forms that are characterized as athematic. This system do not use thematic vowels unlike the Primary System. This system appears only in the Indicative mood and includes four main tenses: the Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Conditional. A distinctive feature of these tenses is the use of the augment; a prefix added to the verb stem to indicate past time, applied to all except the Future tense.

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===

Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:Akhyan]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Zinou Creole

2025-06-05T10:09:37Z

Notxvier: /* Personal Pronouns */

Zinou Creole

2025-06-05T10:09:02Z

Notxvier: /* Personal Pronouns */

Zinou Creole

2025-06-05T10:06:40Z

Notxvier: /* Personal Pronouns */

Zinou Creole

2025-06-03T13:25:11Z

Notxvier: /* Personal Pronouns */

Zinou Creole

2025-06-02T08:20:55Z

Notxvier: /* Personal Pronouns */

Zinou Creole

2025-06-02T08:08:51Z

Notxvier: /* Vowels */

Zinou Creole

2025-05-31T12:43:35Z

Notxvier: /* Personal Pronouns */

Zinou Creole

2025-05-31T12:33:24Z

Notxvier: /* Personal Pronouns */

Zinou Creole

2025-05-29T14:21:19Z

Notxvier: /* Morphology */

Zinou Creole

2025-05-29T13:38:33Z

Notxvier: /* Consonants */

Zinou Creole

2025-05-29T13:37:49Z

Notxvier: /* Consonants */

Zinou Creole

2025-05-27T07:12:45Z

Notxvier: /* Introduction */

Zinou Creole

2025-05-27T07:11:15Z

Notxvier: /* Phonology */

Zinou Creole

2025-05-27T06:53:53Z

Notxvier: Created page with "  ==Introduct..."

Akhyan

2025-05-09T11:18:57Z

Notxvier: /* Primary System */

==Introduction==








==Orthography==
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Non-Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Labial
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Dental
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Velar
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
|m
|မ
|n
|n
|န
|ŋ
|q
|င
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|p
|p
|ပ
|t
|t
|တ
|k
|k
|က
|-
!Aspirated
|pʰ
|ph
|ဖ
|tʰ
|th
|ထ
|kʰ
|kh
|ခ
|-
!Voiced
|b
|b
|ဗ
|d
|d
|ဒ
|g
|g
|ဂ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|f
|f
|ၾ
|
|
|
|h
|x
|ဟ
|-
!Voiced
|v
|v
|ဘ
|
|
|
|ʔ
|' (medial)
|အ
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|w
|w
|ဝ
|l
|l
|လ
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Retroflex
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Palatal
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|t͡s
|c
|ၸ
|t͡ʂ
|ç
|ဋ
|t͡ɕ
|ć
|စ
|-
!Aspirated
|t͡sʰ
|ch
|ႀ
|t͡ʂʰ
|çh
|ဌ
|t͡ɕʰ
|ćh
|ဆ
|-
!Voiced
|d͡z
|ð
|ၻ
|d͡ʐ
|ł
|ဍ
|d͡ʑ
|j
|ၺ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|s
|s
|သ
|ʂ
|ş
|ၑ
|ɕ
|ś
|ၔ
|-
!Voiced
|z
|z
|ဓ
|ʐ
|ż
|ၓ
|ʑ
|ź
|ည
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|ɹ
|r
|ရ
|
|
|
|j
|y
|ယ
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |Front
| rowspan="6" |
! colspan="7" |Back
|-
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
|-
!Close
|i
|i
|ကိ
|y
|ü
|ကၳ
|ɨ
|iu
|ကၖ
|u
|u
|ကု
|-
!Middle
|e
|e
|ကဲ
|ø
|ö
|ကၲ
|ə
|eo
|ကါ
|o
|o
|ကး
|-
!Open
|ɛ
|ai
|ကေ
|œ
|ä
|ကႄ
|ɐ
|a
|က
|ɔ
|au
|ကီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Vowel Diacritics
|-
|ိ
|ၳ
|ၖ
|ု
|-
|ဲ
|ၲ
|ါ
|း
|-
|ေ
|ႄ
|
|ီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
| colspan="2" |Nullification Diacritics
|-
|်
|္
|}

Although both '''Virama (္)''' and '''Asat (်)''' delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. '''Asat (်)''', as in '''က်''', marks syllable boundaries, while '''Virama (္)''', as in '''က္''', forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when '''ယ''', '''ဝ''', and '''ရ''' are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in '''ကျ''', '''ကွ''', and '''ကြ''', respectively.

===Phonotactics===

==Nouns & Adjectives==
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!1
|Numbers
|Singular & Plural
|-
!2
|Cases
|Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental
|}

Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:
* Akranta (-a stems)
* Zeokçho (-o stems)
* Mitaveş (Consonant stems)

According to the Rasthani, the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Türrao". The eight Türrao (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.
* Łiunaing '''Intransitive Case'''
* Kaothiv '''Ergative Case'''
* Penubo '''Accusative Case'''
* Nauthang '''Genitive Case'''
* Seomar '''Dative Case'''
* Baćhi '''Ablative Case'''
* Xallei '''Locative Case'''
* Reftou '''Instrumental Case'''

{| class="wikitable"
|+Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha "Storeroom"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -a
| -e
|Koşçh'''a'''
|Koşçh'''e'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ane
| -ene
|Koşçh'''ane'''
|Koşçh'''ene'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -am
| -as
|Koşçh'''am'''
|Koşçh'''as'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -arum
| -os
|Koşçh'''arum'''
|Koşçh'''os'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -avya
| -anya
|Koşçh'''avya'''
|Koşçh'''anya'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -aya
| -aye
|Koşçh'''aya'''
|Koşçh'''aye'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Koşçh'''i'''
|Koşçh'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -avi
| -avis
|Koşçh'''avi'''
|Koşçh'''avis'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo "Bed"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -o
| -ai
|Nintalp'''o'''
|Nintalp'''ai'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -one
| -ones
|Nintalp'''one'''
|Nintalp'''ones'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -um
| -ovas
|Nintalp'''um'''
|Nintalp'''ovas'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -una
| -unas
|Nintalp'''una'''
|Nintalp'''unas'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -us
| -os
|Nintalp'''us'''
|Nintalp'''os'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -au
| -om
|Nintalp'''au'''
|Nintalp'''om'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Nintalp'''i'''
|Nintalp'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -aun
| -aus
|Nintalp'''aun'''
|Nintalp'''aus'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät "Cotton"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -X
| -es
|Dazkhät
|Dazkhät'''es'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ne
| -nes
|Dazkhät'''ne'''
|Dazkhät'''nes'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -em
| -ya
|Dazkhät'''em'''
|Dazkhät'''ya'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -ae
| -yum
|Dazkhät'''ae'''
|Dazkhät'''yum'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -ye
| -we
|Dazkhät'''ye'''
|Dazkhät'''we'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -i
| -u
|Dazkhät'''i'''
|Dazkhät'''u'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -e
| -o
|Dazkhät'''e'''
|Dazkhät'''o'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -ai
| -au
|Dazkhät'''ai'''
|Dazkhät'''au'''
|}

== Verbs ==
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.

Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive ('''Kerraż'''), Intransitive ('''Padaizma'''), and Ambitransitive ('''Dosthu'''). Transitive verbs, such as '''Girtan''' “to carry”, require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like '''Naman''' “to sleep” function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.

==== Building Verbs ====
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root '''√girt'''- functions as the base for the verb Girtan, meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.

=== Non-Finite Forms ===
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

==== Infinitives ====
Infinitives are formed through affixing '''-an''' into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root '''√niut-''' "to dance" is '''Niutan'''. Imperatives can be formed through removing the '''n''' from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the '''n''' is omitted from the verb '''Niutan''', leaving '''Niuta''' as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs

==== Participles ====
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.

The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final '''''-n''''', serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word '''Thiźan''' "to tell" (root: '''√thiź-''')
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Present
| -ens
| -onc
|Thiź'''ens'''
|Thiź'''onc'''
|-
!Aorist
|
| -tyo
|
|Thiźa'''tyo'''
|-
!Perfect
| -yana
|
|Thiź'''yana'''
|
|-
!Future
| -śya
| -ndo
|Thiźa'''śya'''
|Thiźa'''ndo'''
|}

==== Gerunds ====
A gerund is a verbal noun formed from a verb that functions syntactically as a noun while retaining some verbal properties. Gerunds are created by attaching specific infixes to verb roots, a process that is notably irregular and does not align with the standard patterns of declension found in the rest of the language. Unlike in many other languages, Akhyan gerunds undergo declension for both case and voice.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example: kaltan root: √kalt-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Accusative
| -(t)am(a)-
| -(t)um(o)-
|kamalt
|kumolt
|-
!Genitive
| -(t)wa(y)-
| -(d)ya(w)-
|kwayalt
|kyawalt
|-
!Dative
| -(m)an(i)-
| -(v)ant(u)-
|kanalt
|kantalt
|-
!Ablative
| -(t)as(o)-
| -(t)os(a)-
|kasalt
|kosalt
|-
!Instrumental
| -(s)ae(s)-
| -(s)ao(s)-
|kaesalt
|kaosalt
|}

===Verb Conjugation===
Akhyan verb conjugation consists of two main types: Primary and Secondary. The Primary conjugation is a thematic set, meaning it uses a connecting vowel, often called a "theme vowel" between the verb stem and the personal endings. In contrast, the Secondary conjugation is athematic, meaning it lacks this theme vowel and attaches the endings directly to the stem, often resulting in more irregular or complex forms.

==== Primary System ====
The Primary system is a thematic set of verb forms characterized by the use of two distinct vowels, -a- and -e-, to indicate different moods. Specifically, the vowel -a- is used for the Indicative mood, while -e- marks the Subjunctive mood. This system operates within three main tenses: '''Present''', '''Aorist''', and '''Perfect'''. It is also important to note that in the Subjunctive mood, the following are distinguished by aspect, not tense.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Primary System Personal Endings
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| -am
| -as
| -a
| -ami
| -asi
| -ati
|-
!Passive
| -arya
| -arus
| -are
| -arahe
| -adwe
| -anta
|-
!Reflexive
| -arm
| -ars
| -art
| -ana
| -asva
| -ada
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| -em
| -es
| -e
| -emi
| -esi
| -eti
|-
!Passive
| -erya
| -erus
| -era
| -erahe
| -edwe
| -enti
|-
!Reflexive
| -erm
| -ers
| -ert
| -ena
| -esva
| -eda
|}

The Present Tense of verbs are simply formed via affixing the various endings into the verb stem, connected by the thematic vowel. For instance the verb Naśan (verb root: √naś-) "to disappear" conjugated in the 3rd Person Plural Active Indicative becomes Naśati.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Present Tense of Pathan "to read"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| Patham
| Pathas
| Patha
| Pathami
| Pathasi
| Pathati
|-
!Passive
| Patharya
| Patharus
| Pathare
| Patharahe
| Pathadwe
| Pathanta
|-
!Reflexive
| Patharm
| Pathars
| Pathart
| Pathana
| Pathasva
| Pathada
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| Pathem
| Pathes
| Pathe
| Pathemi
| Pathesi
| Patheti
|-
!Passive
| Patherya
| Patherus
| Pathera
| Patherahe
| Pathedwe
| Pathenti
|-
!Reflexive
| Patherm
| Pathers
| Pathert
| Pathena
| Pathesva
| Patheda
|}

==== Secondary System ====
The Secondary system refers to a group of verb forms that are characterized as athematic. This system do not use thematic vowels unlike the Primary System. This system appears only in the Indicative mood and includes four main tenses: the Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Conditional. A distinctive feature of these tenses is the use of the augment; a prefix added to the verb stem to indicate past time, applied to all except the Future tense.

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===

Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:Akhyan]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Akhyan

2025-05-09T11:08:17Z

Notxvier: /* Verbs */

==Introduction==








==Orthography==
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Non-Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Labial
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Dental
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Velar
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
|m
|မ
|n
|n
|န
|ŋ
|q
|င
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|p
|p
|ပ
|t
|t
|တ
|k
|k
|က
|-
!Aspirated
|pʰ
|ph
|ဖ
|tʰ
|th
|ထ
|kʰ
|kh
|ခ
|-
!Voiced
|b
|b
|ဗ
|d
|d
|ဒ
|g
|g
|ဂ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|f
|f
|ၾ
|
|
|
|h
|x
|ဟ
|-
!Voiced
|v
|v
|ဘ
|
|
|
|ʔ
|' (medial)
|အ
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|w
|w
|ဝ
|l
|l
|လ
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Retroflex
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Palatal
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|t͡s
|c
|ၸ
|t͡ʂ
|ç
|ဋ
|t͡ɕ
|ć
|စ
|-
!Aspirated
|t͡sʰ
|ch
|ႀ
|t͡ʂʰ
|çh
|ဌ
|t͡ɕʰ
|ćh
|ဆ
|-
!Voiced
|d͡z
|ð
|ၻ
|d͡ʐ
|ł
|ဍ
|d͡ʑ
|j
|ၺ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|s
|s
|သ
|ʂ
|ş
|ၑ
|ɕ
|ś
|ၔ
|-
!Voiced
|z
|z
|ဓ
|ʐ
|ż
|ၓ
|ʑ
|ź
|ည
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|ɹ
|r
|ရ
|
|
|
|j
|y
|ယ
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |Front
| rowspan="6" |
! colspan="7" |Back
|-
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
|-
!Close
|i
|i
|ကိ
|y
|ü
|ကၳ
|ɨ
|iu
|ကၖ
|u
|u
|ကု
|-
!Middle
|e
|e
|ကဲ
|ø
|ö
|ကၲ
|ə
|eo
|ကါ
|o
|o
|ကး
|-
!Open
|ɛ
|ai
|ကေ
|œ
|ä
|ကႄ
|ɐ
|a
|က
|ɔ
|au
|ကီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Vowel Diacritics
|-
|ိ
|ၳ
|ၖ
|ု
|-
|ဲ
|ၲ
|ါ
|း
|-
|ေ
|ႄ
|
|ီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
| colspan="2" |Nullification Diacritics
|-
|်
|္
|}

Although both '''Virama (္)''' and '''Asat (်)''' delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. '''Asat (်)''', as in '''က်''', marks syllable boundaries, while '''Virama (္)''', as in '''က္''', forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when '''ယ''', '''ဝ''', and '''ရ''' are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in '''ကျ''', '''ကွ''', and '''ကြ''', respectively.

===Phonotactics===

==Nouns & Adjectives==
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!1
|Numbers
|Singular & Plural
|-
!2
|Cases
|Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental
|}

Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:
* Akranta (-a stems)
* Zeokçho (-o stems)
* Mitaveş (Consonant stems)

According to the Rasthani, the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Türrao". The eight Türrao (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.
* Łiunaing '''Intransitive Case'''
* Kaothiv '''Ergative Case'''
* Penubo '''Accusative Case'''
* Nauthang '''Genitive Case'''
* Seomar '''Dative Case'''
* Baćhi '''Ablative Case'''
* Xallei '''Locative Case'''
* Reftou '''Instrumental Case'''

{| class="wikitable"
|+Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha "Storeroom"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -a
| -e
|Koşçh'''a'''
|Koşçh'''e'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ane
| -ene
|Koşçh'''ane'''
|Koşçh'''ene'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -am
| -as
|Koşçh'''am'''
|Koşçh'''as'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -arum
| -os
|Koşçh'''arum'''
|Koşçh'''os'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -avya
| -anya
|Koşçh'''avya'''
|Koşçh'''anya'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -aya
| -aye
|Koşçh'''aya'''
|Koşçh'''aye'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Koşçh'''i'''
|Koşçh'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -avi
| -avis
|Koşçh'''avi'''
|Koşçh'''avis'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo "Bed"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -o
| -ai
|Nintalp'''o'''
|Nintalp'''ai'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -one
| -ones
|Nintalp'''one'''
|Nintalp'''ones'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -um
| -ovas
|Nintalp'''um'''
|Nintalp'''ovas'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -una
| -unas
|Nintalp'''una'''
|Nintalp'''unas'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -us
| -os
|Nintalp'''us'''
|Nintalp'''os'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -au
| -om
|Nintalp'''au'''
|Nintalp'''om'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Nintalp'''i'''
|Nintalp'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -aun
| -aus
|Nintalp'''aun'''
|Nintalp'''aus'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät "Cotton"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -X
| -es
|Dazkhät
|Dazkhät'''es'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ne
| -nes
|Dazkhät'''ne'''
|Dazkhät'''nes'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -em
| -ya
|Dazkhät'''em'''
|Dazkhät'''ya'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -ae
| -yum
|Dazkhät'''ae'''
|Dazkhät'''yum'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -ye
| -we
|Dazkhät'''ye'''
|Dazkhät'''we'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -i
| -u
|Dazkhät'''i'''
|Dazkhät'''u'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -e
| -o
|Dazkhät'''e'''
|Dazkhät'''o'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -ai
| -au
|Dazkhät'''ai'''
|Dazkhät'''au'''
|}

== Verbs ==
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.

Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive ('''Kerraż'''), Intransitive ('''Padaizma'''), and Ambitransitive ('''Dosthu'''). Transitive verbs, such as '''Girtan''' “to carry”, require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like '''Naman''' “to sleep” function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.

==== Building Verbs ====
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root '''√girt'''- functions as the base for the verb Girtan, meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.

=== Non-Finite Forms ===
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

==== Infinitives ====
Infinitives are formed through affixing '''-an''' into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root '''√niut-''' "to dance" is '''Niutan'''. Imperatives can be formed through removing the '''n''' from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the '''n''' is omitted from the verb '''Niutan''', leaving '''Niuta''' as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs

==== Participles ====
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.

The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final '''''-n''''', serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word '''Thiźan''' "to tell" (root: '''√thiź-''')
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Present
| -ens
| -onc
|Thiź'''ens'''
|Thiź'''onc'''
|-
!Aorist
|
| -tyo
|
|Thiźa'''tyo'''
|-
!Perfect
| -yana
|
|Thiź'''yana'''
|
|-
!Future
| -śya
| -ndo
|Thiźa'''śya'''
|Thiźa'''ndo'''
|}

==== Gerunds ====
A gerund is a verbal noun formed from a verb that functions syntactically as a noun while retaining some verbal properties. Gerunds are created by attaching specific infixes to verb roots, a process that is notably irregular and does not align with the standard patterns of declension found in the rest of the language. Unlike in many other languages, Akhyan gerunds undergo declension for both case and voice.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example: kaltan root: √kalt-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Accusative
| -(t)am(a)-
| -(t)um(o)-
|kamalt
|kumolt
|-
!Genitive
| -(t)wa(y)-
| -(d)ya(w)-
|kwayalt
|kyawalt
|-
!Dative
| -(m)an(i)-
| -(v)ant(u)-
|kanalt
|kantalt
|-
!Ablative
| -(t)as(o)-
| -(t)os(a)-
|kasalt
|kosalt
|-
!Instrumental
| -(s)ae(s)-
| -(s)ao(s)-
|kaesalt
|kaosalt
|}

===Verb Conjugation===
Akhyan verb conjugation consists of two main types: Primary and Secondary. The Primary conjugation is a thematic set, meaning it uses a connecting vowel, often called a "theme vowel" between the verb stem and the personal endings. In contrast, the Secondary conjugation is athematic, meaning it lacks this theme vowel and attaches the endings directly to the stem, often resulting in more irregular or complex forms.

==== Primary System ====
The Primary system is a thematic set of verb forms characterized by the use of two distinct vowels, -a- and -e-, to indicate different moods. Specifically, the vowel -a- is used for the Indicative mood, while -e- marks the Subjunctive mood. This system operates within three main tenses: '''Present''', '''Aorist''', and '''Perfect'''. It is also important to note that in the Subjunctive mood, the following are distinguished by aspect, not tense.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Primary System Personal Endings
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| -am
| -as
| -a
| -ami
| -asi
| -ati
|-
!Passive
| -arya
| -arus
| -are
| -arahe
| -adwe
| -anta
|-
!Reflexive
| -arm
| -ars
| -art
| -ana
| -asva
| -ada
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| -em
| -es
| -e
| -emi
| -esi
| -eti
|-
!Passive
| -erya
| -erus
| -era
| -erahe
| -edwe
| -enti
|-
!Reflexive
| -erm
| -ers
| -ert
| -ena
| -esva
| -eda
|}

==== Secondary System ====
The Secondary system refers to a group of verb forms that are characterized as athematic. This system do not use thematic vowels unlike the Primary System. This system appears only in the Indicative mood and includes four main tenses: the Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Conditional. A distinctive feature of these tenses is the use of the augment; a prefix added to the verb stem to indicate past time, applied to all except the Future tense.

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===

Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:Akhyan]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Akhyan

2025-05-09T11:04:20Z

Notxvier: /* Nouns & Adjectives */

==Introduction==








==Orthography==
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Non-Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Labial
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Dental
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Velar
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
|m
|မ
|n
|n
|န
|ŋ
|q
|င
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|p
|p
|ပ
|t
|t
|တ
|k
|k
|က
|-
!Aspirated
|pʰ
|ph
|ဖ
|tʰ
|th
|ထ
|kʰ
|kh
|ခ
|-
!Voiced
|b
|b
|ဗ
|d
|d
|ဒ
|g
|g
|ဂ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|f
|f
|ၾ
|
|
|
|h
|x
|ဟ
|-
!Voiced
|v
|v
|ဘ
|
|
|
|ʔ
|' (medial)
|အ
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|w
|w
|ဝ
|l
|l
|လ
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Retroflex
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Palatal
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|t͡s
|c
|ၸ
|t͡ʂ
|ç
|ဋ
|t͡ɕ
|ć
|စ
|-
!Aspirated
|t͡sʰ
|ch
|ႀ
|t͡ʂʰ
|çh
|ဌ
|t͡ɕʰ
|ćh
|ဆ
|-
!Voiced
|d͡z
|ð
|ၻ
|d͡ʐ
|ł
|ဍ
|d͡ʑ
|j
|ၺ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|s
|s
|သ
|ʂ
|ş
|ၑ
|ɕ
|ś
|ၔ
|-
!Voiced
|z
|z
|ဓ
|ʐ
|ż
|ၓ
|ʑ
|ź
|ည
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|ɹ
|r
|ရ
|
|
|
|j
|y
|ယ
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |Front
| rowspan="6" |
! colspan="7" |Back
|-
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
|-
!Close
|i
|i
|ကိ
|y
|ü
|ကၳ
|ɨ
|iu
|ကၖ
|u
|u
|ကု
|-
!Middle
|e
|e
|ကဲ
|ø
|ö
|ကၲ
|ə
|eo
|ကါ
|o
|o
|ကး
|-
!Open
|ɛ
|ai
|ကေ
|œ
|ä
|ကႄ
|ɐ
|a
|က
|ɔ
|au
|ကီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Vowel Diacritics
|-
|ိ
|ၳ
|ၖ
|ု
|-
|ဲ
|ၲ
|ါ
|း
|-
|ေ
|ႄ
|
|ီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
| colspan="2" |Nullification Diacritics
|-
|်
|္
|}

Although both '''Virama (္)''' and '''Asat (်)''' delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. '''Asat (်)''', as in '''က်''', marks syllable boundaries, while '''Virama (္)''', as in '''က္''', forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when '''ယ''', '''ဝ''', and '''ရ''' are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in '''ကျ''', '''ကွ''', and '''ကြ''', respectively.

===Phonotactics===

==Nouns & Adjectives==
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!1
|Numbers
|Singular & Plural
|-
!2
|Cases
|Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental
|}

Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:
* Akranta (-a stems)
* Zeokçho (-o stems)
* Mitaveş (Consonant stems)

According to the Rasthani, the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Türrao". The eight Türrao (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.
* Łiunaing '''Intransitive Case'''
* Kaothiv '''Ergative Case'''
* Penubo '''Accusative Case'''
* Nauthang '''Genitive Case'''
* Seomar '''Dative Case'''
* Baćhi '''Ablative Case'''
* Xallei '''Locative Case'''
* Reftou '''Instrumental Case'''

{| class="wikitable"
|+Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha "Storeroom"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -a
| -e
|Koşçh'''a'''
|Koşçh'''e'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ane
| -ene
|Koşçh'''ane'''
|Koşçh'''ene'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -am
| -as
|Koşçh'''am'''
|Koşçh'''as'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -arum
| -os
|Koşçh'''arum'''
|Koşçh'''os'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -avya
| -anya
|Koşçh'''avya'''
|Koşçh'''anya'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -aya
| -aye
|Koşçh'''aya'''
|Koşçh'''aye'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Koşçh'''i'''
|Koşçh'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -avi
| -avis
|Koşçh'''avi'''
|Koşçh'''avis'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo "Bed"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -o
| -ai
|Nintalp'''o'''
|Nintalp'''ai'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -one
| -ones
|Nintalp'''one'''
|Nintalp'''ones'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -um
| -ovas
|Nintalp'''um'''
|Nintalp'''ovas'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -una
| -unas
|Nintalp'''una'''
|Nintalp'''unas'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -us
| -os
|Nintalp'''us'''
|Nintalp'''os'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -au
| -om
|Nintalp'''au'''
|Nintalp'''om'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Nintalp'''i'''
|Nintalp'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -aun
| -aus
|Nintalp'''aun'''
|Nintalp'''aus'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät "Cotton"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -X
| -es
|Dazkhät
|Dazkhät'''es'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ne
| -nes
|Dazkhät'''ne'''
|Dazkhät'''nes'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -em
| -ya
|Dazkhät'''em'''
|Dazkhät'''ya'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -ae
| -yum
|Dazkhät'''ae'''
|Dazkhät'''yum'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -ye
| -we
|Dazkhät'''ye'''
|Dazkhät'''we'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -i
| -u
|Dazkhät'''i'''
|Dazkhät'''u'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -e
| -o
|Dazkhät'''e'''
|Dazkhät'''o'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -ai
| -au
|Dazkhät'''ai'''
|Dazkhät'''au'''
|}

== Verbs ==
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.

Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive ('''Kerraż''' | '''ကဲရ်ရၓ်'''), Intransitive ('''Padaizma''' | '''ပဒေဓ်မ'''), and Ambitransitive ('''Dosthu''' | '''ဒးသ်ထု'''). Transitive verbs, such as '''Girtan''' ('''ဂိရ်တန်''' “to carry”), require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like '''Naman''' ('''နမန်''' “to sleep”) function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.

==== Building Verbs ====
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root '''√girt'''- (or '''√ဂိရ္တ်-''') functions as the base for the verb Girtan ('''ဂိရ်တန်'''), meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.

=== Non-Finite Forms ===
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

==== Infinitives ====
Infinitives are formed through affixing '''-an''' '''-အန်''' into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root '''√niut- √နၖတ်-''' "to dance" is '''Niutan နၖတန်'''. Imperatives can be formed through removing the '''န်''' from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the '''န်''' is omitted from the verb '''Niutan နၖတန်''', leaving '''Niuta နၖတ''' as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs

==== Participles ====
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.

The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final '''''-n''''' ('''-န်'''), serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word '''Thiźan''' '''ထိညန်''' "to tell" (root: '''√ထိည်-''')
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Present
| -ens
-အဲန္သ်
| -onc
-အးန္ၸ
|Thiź'''ens'''
ထိညဲန္သ်
|Thiź'''onc'''
ထိညးန္ၸ
|-
!Aorist
|
| -tyo
-တျး
|
|Thiźa'''tyo'''
ထိညတျး
|-
!Perfect
| -yana
-ယန
|
|Thiź'''yana'''
ထိည်ယန
|
|-
!Future
| -śya
-ၔျ
| -ndo
-န်ဒး
|Thiźa'''śya'''
ထိညၔျ
|Thiźa'''ndo'''
ထိညန်ဒး
|}

==== Gerunds ====
A gerund is a verbal noun formed from a verb that functions syntactically as a noun while retaining some verbal properties. Gerunds are created by attaching specific infixes to verb roots, a process that is notably irregular and does not align with the standard patterns of declension found in the rest of the language. Unlike in many other languages, Akhyan gerunds undergo declension for both case and voice.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example: kaltan root: √kalt-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Accusative
| -(t)am(a)-
| -(t)um(o)-
|kamalt
ကမလ္တ်
|kumolt
ကုမးလ္တ်
|-
!Genitive
| -(t)wa(y)-
| -(d)ya(w)-
|kwayalt
ကွယလ္တ်
|kyawalt
ကျဝလ္တ်
|-
!Dative
| -(m)an(i)-
| -(v)ant(u)-
|kanalt
ကနလ္တ်
|kantalt
ကန်တလ္တ်
|-
!Ablative
| -(t)as(o)-
| -(t)os(a)-
|kasalt
ကသလ္တ်
|kosalt
ကးသလ္တ်
|-
!Instrumental
| -(s)ae(s)-
| -(s)ao(s)-
|kaesalt
ကယ်သလ္တ်
|kaosalt
ကဝ်သလ္တ်
|}

===Verb Conjugation===
Akhyan verb conjugation consists of two main types: Primary and Secondary. The Primary conjugation is a thematic set, meaning it uses a connecting vowel, often called a "theme vowel" between the verb stem and the personal endings. In contrast, the Secondary conjugation is athematic, meaning it lacks this theme vowel and attaches the endings directly to the stem, often resulting in more irregular or complex forms.

==== Primary System ====
The Primary system is a thematic set of verb forms characterized by the use of two distinct vowels, -a- and -e-, to indicate different moods. Specifically, the vowel -a- is used for the Indicative mood, while -e- marks the Subjunctive mood. This system operates within three main tenses: '''Present''', '''Aorist''', and '''Perfect'''. It is also important to note that in the Subjunctive mood, the following are distinguished by aspect, not tense.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Primary System Personal Endings
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| -am
-အမ်
| -as
-အသ်
| -a
-အ
| -ami
-အမိ
| -asi
-အသိ
| -ati
-အတိ
|-
!Passive
| -arya
-အရျ
| -arus
-အရုသ်
| -are
-အရဲ
| -arahe
-အရဟဲ
| -adwe
-အဒွဲ
| -anta
-အန်တ
|-
!Reflexive
| -arm
-အရ္မ်
| -ars
-အရ္သ်
| -art
-အရ္တ်
| -ana
-အန
| -asva
-အသ်ဘ
| -ada
-အဒ
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| -em
-အဲမ်
| -es
-အဲသ်
| -e
-အဲ
| -emi
-အဲမိ
| -esi
-အဲသိ
| -eti
-အဲတိ
|-
!Passive
| -erya
-အဲရျ
| -erus
-အဲရုသ်
| -era
-အဲရ
| -erahe
-အဲ
| -edwe
-အဲ
| -enti
-အဲန်တိ
|-
!Reflexive
| -erm
-အဲရ္မ်
| -ers
-အဲရ္သ်
| -ert
-အဲရ္တ်
| -ena
-အဲန
| -esva
-အဲသ်ဘ
| -eda
-အဲဒ
|}

==== Secondary System ====
The Secondary system refers to a group of verb forms that are characterized as athematic. This system do not use thematic vowels unlike the Primary System. This system appears only in the Indicative mood and includes four main tenses: the Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Conditional. A distinctive feature of these tenses is the use of the augment; a prefix added to the verb stem to indicate past time, applied to all except the Future tense.

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===

Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:Akhyan]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Akhyan

2025-05-05T14:20:49Z

Notxvier: /* Primary System */

==Introduction==








==Orthography==
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Non-Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Labial
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Dental
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Velar
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
|m
|မ
|n
|n
|န
|ŋ
|q
|င
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|p
|p
|ပ
|t
|t
|တ
|k
|k
|က
|-
!Aspirated
|pʰ
|ph
|ဖ
|tʰ
|th
|ထ
|kʰ
|kh
|ခ
|-
!Voiced
|b
|b
|ဗ
|d
|d
|ဒ
|g
|g
|ဂ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|f
|f
|ၾ
|
|
|
|h
|x
|ဟ
|-
!Voiced
|v
|v
|ဘ
|
|
|
|ʔ
|' (medial)
|အ
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|w
|w
|ဝ
|l
|l
|လ
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Retroflex
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Palatal
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|t͡s
|c
|ၸ
|t͡ʂ
|ç
|ဋ
|t͡ɕ
|ć
|စ
|-
!Aspirated
|t͡sʰ
|ch
|ႀ
|t͡ʂʰ
|çh
|ဌ
|t͡ɕʰ
|ćh
|ဆ
|-
!Voiced
|d͡z
|ð
|ၻ
|d͡ʐ
|ł
|ဍ
|d͡ʑ
|j
|ၺ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|s
|s
|သ
|ʂ
|ş
|ၑ
|ɕ
|ś
|ၔ
|-
!Voiced
|z
|z
|ဓ
|ʐ
|ż
|ၓ
|ʑ
|ź
|ည
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|ɹ
|r
|ရ
|
|
|
|j
|y
|ယ
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |Front
| rowspan="6" |
! colspan="7" |Back
|-
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
|-
!Close
|i
|i
|ကိ
|y
|ü
|ကၳ
|ɨ
|iu
|ကၖ
|u
|u
|ကု
|-
!Middle
|e
|e
|ကဲ
|ø
|ö
|ကၲ
|ə
|eo
|ကါ
|o
|o
|ကး
|-
!Open
|ɛ
|ai
|ကေ
|œ
|ä
|ကႄ
|ɐ
|a
|က
|ɔ
|au
|ကီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Vowel Diacritics
|-
|ိ
|ၳ
|ၖ
|ု
|-
|ဲ
|ၲ
|ါ
|း
|-
|ေ
|ႄ
|
|ီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
| colspan="2" |Nullification Diacritics
|-
|်
|္
|}

Although both '''Virama (္)''' and '''Asat (်)''' delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. '''Asat (်)''', as in '''က်''', marks syllable boundaries, while '''Virama (္)''', as in '''က္''', forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when '''ယ''', '''ဝ''', and '''ရ''' are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in '''ကျ''', '''ကွ''', and '''ကြ''', respectively.

===Phonotactics===

==Nouns & Adjectives==
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!1
|Numbers
|Singular & Plural
|-
!2
|Cases
|Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental
|}

Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:
* Akranta '''အကြန်တ''' (-a stems)
* Zeokçho '''ဓါက်ဌး''' (-o stems)
* Mitaveş '''မိတဘဲၑ်''' (Consonant stems)

According to the Rasthani '''ရသ်ထနိ''', the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Fyaqä" '''ၾျငႄ'''. The eight fyaqä (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.
* Łiunaing '''ဍၖနေင်''' Intransitive Case
* Kaothiv '''ကဝ်ထိဘ''' Ergative Case
* Penubo '''ပဲနုဗး''' Accusative Case
* Nauthang '''နီထင်''' Genitive Case
* Seomar '''သါမရ်''' Dative Case
* Baćhi '''ဗဆိ''' Ablative Case
* Xallei '''ဟလ်လဲယ်''' Locative Case
* Reftou '''ရဲၾ်တးဝ်''' Instrumental Case

{| class="wikitable"
|+Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha ကးသ်ထ "Storeroom"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -a
-အ
| -e
-အဲ
|Koşçh'''a'''
ကးၑ်ဌ
|Koşçh'''e'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲ
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ane
-အနဲ
| -ene
-အဲနဲ
|Koşçh'''ane'''
ကးၑ်ဌနဲ
|Koşçh'''ene'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲနဲ
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -am
-အမ်
| -as
-အသ်
|Koşçh'''am'''
ကးၑ်ဌမ်
|Koşçh'''as'''
ကးၑ်ဌသ်
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -arum
-အရုမ်
| -os
-အးသ်
|Koşçh'''arum'''
ကးၑ်ဌရုမ်
|Koşçh'''os'''
ကးၑ်ဌးသ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -avya
-အဘျ
| -anya
-အနျ
|Koşçh'''avya'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘျ
|Koşçh'''anya'''
ကးၑ်ဌနျ
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -aya
-အယ
| -aye
-အယဲ
|Koşçh'''aya'''
ကးၑ်ဌယ
|Koşçh'''aye'''
ကးၑ်ဌယဲ
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -evya
-အဲဘျ
|Koşçh'''i'''
ကးၑ်ဌိ
|Koşçh'''evya'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲဘျ
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -avi
-အဘိ
| -avis
-အဘိသ်
|Koşçh'''avi'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘိ
|Koşçh'''avis'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘိသ်
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo နိန်တလ်ပး "Bed"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -o
-အး
| -ai
-အေ
|Nintalp'''o'''
နိန်တလ်ပး
|Nintalp'''ai'''
နိန်တလ်ပေ
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -one
-အးနဲ
| -ones
-အးနဲသ်
|Nintalp'''one'''
နိန်တလ်ပးနဲ
|Nintalp'''ones'''
နိန်တလ်ပးနဲသ်
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -um
-အုမ်
| -ovas
-အးဘသ်
|Nintalp'''um'''
နိန်တလ်ပုမ်
|Nintalp'''ovas'''
နိန်တလ်ပးဘသ်
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -una
-အုန
| -unas
-အုနသ်
|Nintalp'''una'''
နိန်တလ်ပုန
|Nintalp'''unas'''
နိန်တလ်ပုနသ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -us
-အုသ်
| -os
-အးသ်
|Nintalp'''us'''
နိန်တလ်ပုသ်
|Nintalp'''os'''
နိန်တလ်ပးသ်
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -au
-အီ
| -om
-အးမ်
|Nintalp'''au'''
နိန်တလ်ပီ
|Nintalp'''om'''
နိန်တလ်ပးမ်
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -evya
-အဲဘျ
|Nintalp'''i'''
နိန်တလ်ပိ
|Nintalp'''evya'''
နိန်တလ်ပဲဘျ
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -aun
-အီန်
| -aus
-အီသ်
|Nintalp'''aun'''
နိန်တလ်ပီန်
|Nintalp'''aus'''
နိန်တလ်ပီသ်
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät ဒဓ်ခႄတ် "Cotton"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -X
| -es
-အဲသ်
|Dazkhät
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်
|Dazkhät'''es'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲသ်
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ne
-နဲ
| -nes
-နဲသ်
|Dazkhät'''ne'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်နဲ
|Dazkhät'''nes'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်နဲသ်
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -em
-အဲမ်
| -ya
-ယ
|Dazkhät'''em'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲမ်
|Dazkhät'''ya'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယ
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -ae
-အယ်
| -yum
-ယုမ်
|Dazkhät'''ae'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတယ်
|Dazkhät'''yum'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယုမ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -ye
-ယဲ
| -we
-ဝဲ
|Dazkhät'''ye'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယဲ
|Dazkhät'''we'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ဝဲ
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -u
-အု
|Dazkhät'''i'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတိ
|Dazkhät'''u'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတု
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -e
-အဲ
| -o
-အး
|Dazkhät'''e'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲ
|Dazkhät'''o'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတး
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -ai
-အေ
| -au
-အီ
|Dazkhät'''ai'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတေ
|Dazkhät'''au'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတီ
|}

== Verbs ==
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.

Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive ('''Kerraż''' | '''ကဲရ်ရၓ်'''), Intransitive ('''Padaizma''' | '''ပဒေဓ်မ'''), and Ambitransitive ('''Dosthu''' | '''ဒးသ်ထု'''). Transitive verbs, such as '''Girtan''' ('''ဂိရ်တန်''' “to carry”), require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like '''Naman''' ('''နမန်''' “to sleep”) function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.

==== Building Verbs ====
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root '''√girt'''- (or '''√ဂိရ္တ်-''') functions as the base for the verb Girtan ('''ဂိရ်တန်'''), meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.

=== Non-Finite Forms ===
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

==== Infinitives ====
Infinitives are formed through affixing '''-an''' '''-အန်''' into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root '''√niut- √နၖတ်-''' "to dance" is '''Niutan နၖတန်'''. Imperatives can be formed through removing the '''န်''' from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the '''န်''' is omitted from the verb '''Niutan နၖတန်''', leaving '''Niuta နၖတ''' as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs

==== Participles ====
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.

The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final '''''-n''''' ('''-န်'''), serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word '''Thiźan''' '''ထိညန်''' "to tell" (root: '''√ထိည်-''')
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Present
| -ens
-အဲန္သ်
| -onc
-အးန္ၸ
|Thiź'''ens'''
ထိညဲန္သ်
|Thiź'''onc'''
ထိညးန္ၸ
|-
!Aorist
|
| -tyo
-တျး
|
|Thiźa'''tyo'''
ထိညတျး
|-
!Perfect
| -yana
-ယန
|
|Thiź'''yana'''
ထိည်ယန
|
|-
!Future
| -śya
-ၔျ
| -ndo
-န်ဒး
|Thiźa'''śya'''
ထိညၔျ
|Thiźa'''ndo'''
ထိညန်ဒး
|}

==== Gerunds ====
A gerund is a verbal noun formed from a verb that functions syntactically as a noun while retaining some verbal properties. Gerunds are created by attaching specific infixes to verb roots, a process that is notably irregular and does not align with the standard patterns of declension found in the rest of the language. Unlike in many other languages, Akhyan gerunds undergo declension for both case and voice.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example: kaltan root: √kalt-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Accusative
| -(t)am(a)-
| -(t)um(o)-
|kamalt
ကမလ္တ်
|kumolt
ကုမးလ္တ်
|-
!Genitive
| -(t)wa(y)-
| -(d)ya(w)-
|kwayalt
ကွယလ္တ်
|kyawalt
ကျဝလ္တ်
|-
!Dative
| -(m)an(i)-
| -(v)ant(u)-
|kanalt
ကနလ္တ်
|kantalt
ကန်တလ္တ်
|-
!Ablative
| -(t)as(o)-
| -(t)os(a)-
|kasalt
ကသလ္တ်
|kosalt
ကးသလ္တ်
|-
!Instrumental
| -(s)ae(s)-
| -(s)ao(s)-
|kaesalt
ကယ်သလ္တ်
|kaosalt
ကဝ်သလ္တ်
|}

===Verb Conjugation===
Akhyan verb conjugation consists of two main types: Primary and Secondary. The Primary conjugation is a thematic set, meaning it uses a connecting vowel, often called a "theme vowel" between the verb stem and the personal endings. In contrast, the Secondary conjugation is athematic, meaning it lacks this theme vowel and attaches the endings directly to the stem, often resulting in more irregular or complex forms.

==== Primary System ====
The Primary system is a thematic set of verb forms characterized by the use of two distinct vowels, -a- and -e-, to indicate different moods. Specifically, the vowel -a- is used for the Indicative mood, while -e- marks the Subjunctive mood. This system operates within three main tenses: '''Present''', '''Aorist''', and '''Perfect'''. It is also important to note that in the Subjunctive mood, the following are distinguished by aspect, not tense.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Primary System Personal Endings
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| -am
-အမ်
| -as
-အသ်
| -a
-အ
| -ami
-အမိ
| -asi
-အသိ
| -ati
-အတိ
|-
!Passive
| -arya
-အရျ
| -arus
-အရုသ်
| -are
-အရဲ
| -arahe
-အရဟဲ
| -adwe
-အဒွဲ
| -anta
-အန်တ
|-
!Reflexive
| -arm
-အရ္မ်
| -ars
-အရ္သ်
| -art
-အရ္တ်
| -ana
-အန
| -asva
-အသ်ဘ
| -ada
-အဒ
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| -em
-အဲမ်
| -es
-အဲသ်
| -e
-အဲ
| -emi
-အဲမိ
| -esi
-အဲသိ
| -eti
-အဲတိ
|-
!Passive
| -erya
-အဲရျ
| -erus
-အဲရုသ်
| -era
-အဲရ
| -erahe
-အဲ
| -edwe
-အဲ
| -enti
-အဲန်တိ
|-
!Reflexive
| -erm
-အဲရ္မ်
| -ers
-အဲရ္သ်
| -ert
-အဲရ္တ်
| -ena
-အဲန
| -esva
-အဲသ်ဘ
| -eda
-အဲဒ
|}

==== Secondary System ====
The Secondary system refers to a group of verb forms that are characterized as athematic. This system do not use thematic vowels unlike the Primary System. This system appears only in the Indicative mood and includes four main tenses: the Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Conditional. A distinctive feature of these tenses is the use of the augment; a prefix added to the verb stem to indicate past time, applied to all except the Future tense.

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===

Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:Akhyan]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Akhyan

2025-05-04T15:25:44Z

Notxvier: /* Primary System */

==Introduction==








==Orthography==
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Non-Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Labial
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Dental
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Velar
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
|m
|မ
|n
|n
|န
|ŋ
|q
|င
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|p
|p
|ပ
|t
|t
|တ
|k
|k
|က
|-
!Aspirated
|pʰ
|ph
|ဖ
|tʰ
|th
|ထ
|kʰ
|kh
|ခ
|-
!Voiced
|b
|b
|ဗ
|d
|d
|ဒ
|g
|g
|ဂ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|f
|f
|ၾ
|
|
|
|h
|x
|ဟ
|-
!Voiced
|v
|v
|ဘ
|
|
|
|ʔ
|' (medial)
|အ
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|w
|w
|ဝ
|l
|l
|လ
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Retroflex
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Palatal
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|t͡s
|c
|ၸ
|t͡ʂ
|ç
|ဋ
|t͡ɕ
|ć
|စ
|-
!Aspirated
|t͡sʰ
|ch
|ႀ
|t͡ʂʰ
|çh
|ဌ
|t͡ɕʰ
|ćh
|ဆ
|-
!Voiced
|d͡z
|ð
|ၻ
|d͡ʐ
|ł
|ဍ
|d͡ʑ
|j
|ၺ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|s
|s
|သ
|ʂ
|ş
|ၑ
|ɕ
|ś
|ၔ
|-
!Voiced
|z
|z
|ဓ
|ʐ
|ż
|ၓ
|ʑ
|ź
|ည
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|ɹ
|r
|ရ
|
|
|
|j
|y
|ယ
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |Front
| rowspan="6" |
! colspan="7" |Back
|-
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
|-
!Close
|i
|i
|ကိ
|y
|ü
|ကၳ
|ɨ
|iu
|ကၖ
|u
|u
|ကု
|-
!Middle
|e
|e
|ကဲ
|ø
|ö
|ကၲ
|ə
|eo
|ကါ
|o
|o
|ကး
|-
!Open
|ɛ
|ai
|ကေ
|œ
|ä
|ကႄ
|ɐ
|a
|က
|ɔ
|au
|ကီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Vowel Diacritics
|-
|ိ
|ၳ
|ၖ
|ု
|-
|ဲ
|ၲ
|ါ
|း
|-
|ေ
|ႄ
|
|ီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
| colspan="2" |Nullification Diacritics
|-
|်
|္
|}

Although both '''Virama (္)''' and '''Asat (်)''' delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. '''Asat (်)''', as in '''က်''', marks syllable boundaries, while '''Virama (္)''', as in '''က္''', forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when '''ယ''', '''ဝ''', and '''ရ''' are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in '''ကျ''', '''ကွ''', and '''ကြ''', respectively.

===Phonotactics===

==Nouns & Adjectives==
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!1
|Numbers
|Singular & Plural
|-
!2
|Cases
|Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental
|}

Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:
* Akranta '''အကြန်တ''' (-a stems)
* Zeokçho '''ဓါက်ဌး''' (-o stems)
* Mitaveş '''မိတဘဲၑ်''' (Consonant stems)

According to the Rasthani '''ရသ်ထနိ''', the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Fyaqä" '''ၾျငႄ'''. The eight fyaqä (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.
* Łiunaing '''ဍၖနေင်''' Intransitive Case
* Kaothiv '''ကဝ်ထိဘ''' Ergative Case
* Penubo '''ပဲနုဗး''' Accusative Case
* Nauthang '''နီထင်''' Genitive Case
* Seomar '''သါမရ်''' Dative Case
* Baćhi '''ဗဆိ''' Ablative Case
* Xallei '''ဟလ်လဲယ်''' Locative Case
* Reftou '''ရဲၾ်တးဝ်''' Instrumental Case

{| class="wikitable"
|+Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha ကးသ်ထ "Storeroom"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -a
-အ
| -e
-အဲ
|Koşçh'''a'''
ကးၑ်ဌ
|Koşçh'''e'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲ
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ane
-အနဲ
| -ene
-အဲနဲ
|Koşçh'''ane'''
ကးၑ်ဌနဲ
|Koşçh'''ene'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲနဲ
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -am
-အမ်
| -as
-အသ်
|Koşçh'''am'''
ကးၑ်ဌမ်
|Koşçh'''as'''
ကးၑ်ဌသ်
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -arum
-အရုမ်
| -os
-အးသ်
|Koşçh'''arum'''
ကးၑ်ဌရုမ်
|Koşçh'''os'''
ကးၑ်ဌးသ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -avya
-အဘျ
| -anya
-အနျ
|Koşçh'''avya'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘျ
|Koşçh'''anya'''
ကးၑ်ဌနျ
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -aya
-အယ
| -aye
-အယဲ
|Koşçh'''aya'''
ကးၑ်ဌယ
|Koşçh'''aye'''
ကးၑ်ဌယဲ
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -evya
-အဲဘျ
|Koşçh'''i'''
ကးၑ်ဌိ
|Koşçh'''evya'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲဘျ
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -avi
-အဘိ
| -avis
-အဘိသ်
|Koşçh'''avi'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘိ
|Koşçh'''avis'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘိသ်
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo နိန်တလ်ပး "Bed"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -o
-အး
| -ai
-အေ
|Nintalp'''o'''
နိန်တလ်ပး
|Nintalp'''ai'''
နိန်တလ်ပေ
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -one
-အးနဲ
| -ones
-အးနဲသ်
|Nintalp'''one'''
နိန်တလ်ပးနဲ
|Nintalp'''ones'''
နိန်တလ်ပးနဲသ်
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -um
-အုမ်
| -ovas
-အးဘသ်
|Nintalp'''um'''
နိန်တလ်ပုမ်
|Nintalp'''ovas'''
နိန်တလ်ပးဘသ်
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -una
-အုန
| -unas
-အုနသ်
|Nintalp'''una'''
နိန်တလ်ပုန
|Nintalp'''unas'''
နိန်တလ်ပုနသ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -us
-အုသ်
| -os
-အးသ်
|Nintalp'''us'''
နိန်တလ်ပုသ်
|Nintalp'''os'''
နိန်တလ်ပးသ်
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -au
-အီ
| -om
-အးမ်
|Nintalp'''au'''
နိန်တလ်ပီ
|Nintalp'''om'''
နိန်တလ်ပးမ်
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -evya
-အဲဘျ
|Nintalp'''i'''
နိန်တလ်ပိ
|Nintalp'''evya'''
နိန်တလ်ပဲဘျ
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -aun
-အီန်
| -aus
-အီသ်
|Nintalp'''aun'''
နိန်တလ်ပီန်
|Nintalp'''aus'''
နိန်တလ်ပီသ်
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät ဒဓ်ခႄတ် "Cotton"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -X
| -es
-အဲသ်
|Dazkhät
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်
|Dazkhät'''es'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲသ်
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ne
-နဲ
| -nes
-နဲသ်
|Dazkhät'''ne'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်နဲ
|Dazkhät'''nes'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်နဲသ်
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -em
-အဲမ်
| -ya
-ယ
|Dazkhät'''em'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲမ်
|Dazkhät'''ya'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယ
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -ae
-အယ်
| -yum
-ယုမ်
|Dazkhät'''ae'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတယ်
|Dazkhät'''yum'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယုမ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -ye
-ယဲ
| -we
-ဝဲ
|Dazkhät'''ye'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယဲ
|Dazkhät'''we'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ဝဲ
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -u
-အု
|Dazkhät'''i'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတိ
|Dazkhät'''u'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတု
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -e
-အဲ
| -o
-အး
|Dazkhät'''e'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲ
|Dazkhät'''o'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတး
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -ai
-အေ
| -au
-အီ
|Dazkhät'''ai'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတေ
|Dazkhät'''au'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတီ
|}

== Verbs ==
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.

Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive ('''Kerraż''' | '''ကဲရ်ရၓ်'''), Intransitive ('''Padaizma''' | '''ပဒေဓ်မ'''), and Ambitransitive ('''Dosthu''' | '''ဒးသ်ထု'''). Transitive verbs, such as '''Girtan''' ('''ဂိရ်တန်''' “to carry”), require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like '''Naman''' ('''နမန်''' “to sleep”) function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.

==== Building Verbs ====
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root '''√girt'''- (or '''√ဂိရ္တ်-''') functions as the base for the verb Girtan ('''ဂိရ်တန်'''), meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.

=== Non-Finite Forms ===
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

==== Infinitives ====
Infinitives are formed through affixing '''-an''' '''-အန်''' into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root '''√niut- √နၖတ်-''' "to dance" is '''Niutan နၖတန်'''. Imperatives can be formed through removing the '''န်''' from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the '''န်''' is omitted from the verb '''Niutan နၖတန်''', leaving '''Niuta နၖတ''' as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs

==== Participles ====
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.

The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final '''''-n''''' ('''-န်'''), serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word '''Thiźan''' '''ထိညန်''' "to tell" (root: '''√ထိည်-''')
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Present
| -ens
-အဲန္သ်
| -onc
-အးန္ၸ
|Thiź'''ens'''
ထိညဲန္သ်
|Thiź'''onc'''
ထိညးန္ၸ
|-
!Aorist
|
| -tyo
-တျး
|
|Thiźa'''tyo'''
ထိညတျး
|-
!Perfect
| -yana
-ယန
|
|Thiź'''yana'''
ထိည်ယန
|
|-
!Future
| -śya
-ၔျ
| -ndo
-န်ဒး
|Thiźa'''śya'''
ထိညၔျ
|Thiźa'''ndo'''
ထိညန်ဒး
|}

==== Gerunds ====
A gerund is a verbal noun formed from a verb that functions syntactically as a noun while retaining some verbal properties. Gerunds are created by attaching specific infixes to verb roots, a process that is notably irregular and does not align with the standard patterns of declension found in the rest of the language. Unlike in many other languages, Akhyan gerunds undergo declension for both case and voice.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example: kaltan root: √kalt-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Accusative
| -(t)am(a)-
| -(t)um(o)-
|kamalt
ကမလ္တ်
|kumolt
ကုမးလ္တ်
|-
!Genitive
| -(t)wa(y)-
| -(d)ya(w)-
|kwayalt
ကွယလ္တ်
|kyawalt
ကျဝလ္တ်
|-
!Dative
| -(m)an(i)-
| -(v)ant(u)-
|kanalt
ကနလ္တ်
|kantalt
ကန်တလ္တ်
|-
!Ablative
| -(t)as(o)-
| -(t)os(a)-
|kasalt
ကသလ္တ်
|kosalt
ကးသလ္တ်
|-
!Instrumental
| -(s)ae(s)-
| -(s)ao(s)-
|kaesalt
ကယ်သလ္တ်
|kaosalt
ကဝ်သလ္တ်
|}

===Verb Conjugation===
Akhyan verb conjugation consists of two main types: Primary and Secondary. The Primary conjugation is a thematic set, meaning it uses a connecting vowel, often called a "theme vowel" between the verb stem and the personal endings. In contrast, the Secondary conjugation is athematic, meaning it lacks this theme vowel and attaches the endings directly to the stem, often resulting in more irregular or complex forms.

==== Primary System ====
The Primary system is a thematic set of verb forms characterized by the use of two distinct vowels, -a- and -e-, to indicate different moods. Specifically, the vowel -a- is used for the Indicative mood, while -e- marks the Subjunctive mood. This system operates within three main tenses: '''Present''', '''Aorist''', and '''Perfect'''. It is also important to note that in the Subjunctive mood, the following are distinguished by aspect, not tense.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Primary System Personal Endings
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| -am
-အမ်
| -as
-အသ်
| -a
-အ
| -ami
-အမိ
| -asi
-အသိ
| -ati
-အတိ
|-
!Passive
| -arya
-အရျ
| -arus
-အရုသ်
| -are
-အရဲ
| -arahe
-အရဟဲ
| -adwe
-အဒွဲ
| -anta
-အန်တ
|-
!Reflexive
| -arm
-အရ္မ်
| -ars
-အရ္သ်
| -art
-အရ္တ်
| -ana
-အန
| -asva
-အသ်ဘ
| -ada
-အဒ
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| -em
-အဲမ်
| -es
-အဲသ်
| -e
-အဲ
| -emi
-အဲမိ
| -esi
-အဲသိ
| -eti
-အဲတိ
|-
!Passive
| -erya
-အဲရျ
| -erus
-အဲရုသ်
| -era
-အဲရ
| -erahe
-အဲ
| -edwe
-အဲ
| -enti
-အဲန်တိ
|-
!Reflexive
| -erm
-အဲရ္မ်
| -ers
-အဲရ္သ်
| -ert
-အဲရ္တ်
| -ena
-အဲန
| -esva
-အဲသ်ဘ
| -eda
-အဲဒ
|}

==== Secondary System ====
The Secondary system refers to a group of verb forms that are characterized as athematic. This system do not use thematic vowels unlike the Primary System. This system appears only in the Indicative mood and includes four main tenses: the Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Conditional. A distinctive feature of these tenses is the use of the augment; a prefix added to the verb stem to indicate past time, applied to all except the Future tense.

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===

Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:Akhyan]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Akhyan

2025-05-04T15:18:10Z

Notxvier: /* Verbs */

==Introduction==








==Orthography==
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Non-Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Labial
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Dental
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Velar
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
|m
|မ
|n
|n
|န
|ŋ
|q
|င
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|p
|p
|ပ
|t
|t
|တ
|k
|k
|က
|-
!Aspirated
|pʰ
|ph
|ဖ
|tʰ
|th
|ထ
|kʰ
|kh
|ခ
|-
!Voiced
|b
|b
|ဗ
|d
|d
|ဒ
|g
|g
|ဂ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|f
|f
|ၾ
|
|
|
|h
|x
|ဟ
|-
!Voiced
|v
|v
|ဘ
|
|
|
|ʔ
|' (medial)
|အ
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|w
|w
|ဝ
|l
|l
|လ
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Retroflex
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Palatal
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|t͡s
|c
|ၸ
|t͡ʂ
|ç
|ဋ
|t͡ɕ
|ć
|စ
|-
!Aspirated
|t͡sʰ
|ch
|ႀ
|t͡ʂʰ
|çh
|ဌ
|t͡ɕʰ
|ćh
|ဆ
|-
!Voiced
|d͡z
|ð
|ၻ
|d͡ʐ
|ł
|ဍ
|d͡ʑ
|j
|ၺ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|s
|s
|သ
|ʂ
|ş
|ၑ
|ɕ
|ś
|ၔ
|-
!Voiced
|z
|z
|ဓ
|ʐ
|ż
|ၓ
|ʑ
|ź
|ည
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|ɹ
|r
|ရ
|
|
|
|j
|y
|ယ
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |Front
| rowspan="6" |
! colspan="7" |Back
|-
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
|-
!Close
|i
|i
|ကိ
|y
|ü
|ကၳ
|ɨ
|iu
|ကၖ
|u
|u
|ကု
|-
!Middle
|e
|e
|ကဲ
|ø
|ö
|ကၲ
|ə
|eo
|ကါ
|o
|o
|ကး
|-
!Open
|ɛ
|ai
|ကေ
|œ
|ä
|ကႄ
|ɐ
|a
|က
|ɔ
|au
|ကီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Vowel Diacritics
|-
|ိ
|ၳ
|ၖ
|ု
|-
|ဲ
|ၲ
|ါ
|း
|-
|ေ
|ႄ
|
|ီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
| colspan="2" |Nullification Diacritics
|-
|်
|္
|}

Although both '''Virama (္)''' and '''Asat (်)''' delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. '''Asat (်)''', as in '''က်''', marks syllable boundaries, while '''Virama (္)''', as in '''က္''', forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when '''ယ''', '''ဝ''', and '''ရ''' are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in '''ကျ''', '''ကွ''', and '''ကြ''', respectively.

===Phonotactics===

==Nouns & Adjectives==
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!1
|Numbers
|Singular & Plural
|-
!2
|Cases
|Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental
|}

Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:
* Akranta '''အကြန်တ''' (-a stems)
* Zeokçho '''ဓါက်ဌး''' (-o stems)
* Mitaveş '''မိတဘဲၑ်''' (Consonant stems)

According to the Rasthani '''ရသ်ထနိ''', the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Fyaqä" '''ၾျငႄ'''. The eight fyaqä (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.
* Łiunaing '''ဍၖနေင်''' Intransitive Case
* Kaothiv '''ကဝ်ထိဘ''' Ergative Case
* Penubo '''ပဲနုဗး''' Accusative Case
* Nauthang '''နီထင်''' Genitive Case
* Seomar '''သါမရ်''' Dative Case
* Baćhi '''ဗဆိ''' Ablative Case
* Xallei '''ဟလ်လဲယ်''' Locative Case
* Reftou '''ရဲၾ်တးဝ်''' Instrumental Case

{| class="wikitable"
|+Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha ကးသ်ထ "Storeroom"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -a
-အ
| -e
-အဲ
|Koşçh'''a'''
ကးၑ်ဌ
|Koşçh'''e'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲ
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ane
-အနဲ
| -ene
-အဲနဲ
|Koşçh'''ane'''
ကးၑ်ဌနဲ
|Koşçh'''ene'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲနဲ
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -am
-အမ်
| -as
-အသ်
|Koşçh'''am'''
ကးၑ်ဌမ်
|Koşçh'''as'''
ကးၑ်ဌသ်
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -arum
-အရုမ်
| -os
-အးသ်
|Koşçh'''arum'''
ကးၑ်ဌရုမ်
|Koşçh'''os'''
ကးၑ်ဌးသ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -avya
-အဘျ
| -anya
-အနျ
|Koşçh'''avya'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘျ
|Koşçh'''anya'''
ကးၑ်ဌနျ
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -aya
-အယ
| -aye
-အယဲ
|Koşçh'''aya'''
ကးၑ်ဌယ
|Koşçh'''aye'''
ကးၑ်ဌယဲ
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -evya
-အဲဘျ
|Koşçh'''i'''
ကးၑ်ဌိ
|Koşçh'''evya'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲဘျ
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -avi
-အဘိ
| -avis
-အဘိသ်
|Koşçh'''avi'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘိ
|Koşçh'''avis'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘိသ်
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo နိန်တလ်ပး "Bed"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -o
-အး
| -ai
-အေ
|Nintalp'''o'''
နိန်တလ်ပး
|Nintalp'''ai'''
နိန်တလ်ပေ
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -one
-အးနဲ
| -ones
-အးနဲသ်
|Nintalp'''one'''
နိန်တလ်ပးနဲ
|Nintalp'''ones'''
နိန်တလ်ပးနဲသ်
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -um
-အုမ်
| -ovas
-အးဘသ်
|Nintalp'''um'''
နိန်တလ်ပုမ်
|Nintalp'''ovas'''
နိန်တလ်ပးဘသ်
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -una
-အုန
| -unas
-အုနသ်
|Nintalp'''una'''
နိန်တလ်ပုန
|Nintalp'''unas'''
နိန်တလ်ပုနသ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -us
-အုသ်
| -os
-အးသ်
|Nintalp'''us'''
နိန်တလ်ပုသ်
|Nintalp'''os'''
နိန်တလ်ပးသ်
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -au
-အီ
| -om
-အးမ်
|Nintalp'''au'''
နိန်တလ်ပီ
|Nintalp'''om'''
နိန်တလ်ပးမ်
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -evya
-အဲဘျ
|Nintalp'''i'''
နိန်တလ်ပိ
|Nintalp'''evya'''
နိန်တလ်ပဲဘျ
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -aun
-အီန်
| -aus
-အီသ်
|Nintalp'''aun'''
နိန်တလ်ပီန်
|Nintalp'''aus'''
နိန်တလ်ပီသ်
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät ဒဓ်ခႄတ် "Cotton"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -X
| -es
-အဲသ်
|Dazkhät
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်
|Dazkhät'''es'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲသ်
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ne
-နဲ
| -nes
-နဲသ်
|Dazkhät'''ne'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်နဲ
|Dazkhät'''nes'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်နဲသ်
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -em
-အဲမ်
| -ya
-ယ
|Dazkhät'''em'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲမ်
|Dazkhät'''ya'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယ
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -ae
-အယ်
| -yum
-ယုမ်
|Dazkhät'''ae'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတယ်
|Dazkhät'''yum'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယုမ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -ye
-ယဲ
| -we
-ဝဲ
|Dazkhät'''ye'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယဲ
|Dazkhät'''we'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ဝဲ
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -u
-အု
|Dazkhät'''i'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတိ
|Dazkhät'''u'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတု
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -e
-အဲ
| -o
-အး
|Dazkhät'''e'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲ
|Dazkhät'''o'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတး
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -ai
-အေ
| -au
-အီ
|Dazkhät'''ai'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတေ
|Dazkhät'''au'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတီ
|}

== Verbs ==
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.

Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive ('''Kerraż''' | '''ကဲရ်ရၓ်'''), Intransitive ('''Padaizma''' | '''ပဒေဓ်မ'''), and Ambitransitive ('''Dosthu''' | '''ဒးသ်ထု'''). Transitive verbs, such as '''Girtan''' ('''ဂိရ်တန်''' “to carry”), require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like '''Naman''' ('''နမန်''' “to sleep”) function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.

==== Building Verbs ====
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root '''√girt'''- (or '''√ဂိရ္တ်-''') functions as the base for the verb Girtan ('''ဂိရ်တန်'''), meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.

=== Non-Finite Forms ===
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

==== Infinitives ====
Infinitives are formed through affixing '''-an''' '''-အန်''' into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root '''√niut- √နၖတ်-''' "to dance" is '''Niutan နၖတန်'''. Imperatives can be formed through removing the '''န်''' from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the '''န်''' is omitted from the verb '''Niutan နၖတန်''', leaving '''Niuta နၖတ''' as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs

==== Participles ====
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.

The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final '''''-n''''' ('''-န်'''), serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word '''Thiźan''' '''ထိညန်''' "to tell" (root: '''√ထိည်-''')
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Present
| -ens
-အဲန္သ်
| -onc
-အးန္ၸ
|Thiź'''ens'''
ထိညဲန္သ်
|Thiź'''onc'''
ထိညးန္ၸ
|-
!Aorist
|
| -tyo
-တျး
|
|Thiźa'''tyo'''
ထိညတျး
|-
!Perfect
| -yana
-ယန
|
|Thiź'''yana'''
ထိည်ယန
|
|-
!Future
| -śya
-ၔျ
| -ndo
-န်ဒး
|Thiźa'''śya'''
ထိညၔျ
|Thiźa'''ndo'''
ထိညန်ဒး
|}

==== Gerunds ====
A gerund is a verbal noun formed from a verb that functions syntactically as a noun while retaining some verbal properties. Gerunds are created by attaching specific infixes to verb roots, a process that is notably irregular and does not align with the standard patterns of declension found in the rest of the language. Unlike in many other languages, Akhyan gerunds undergo declension for both case and voice.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example: kaltan root: √kalt-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Accusative
| -(t)am(a)-
| -(t)um(o)-
|kamalt
ကမလ္တ်
|kumolt
ကုမးလ္တ်
|-
!Genitive
| -(t)wa(y)-
| -(d)ya(w)-
|kwayalt
ကွယလ္တ်
|kyawalt
ကျဝလ္တ်
|-
!Dative
| -(m)an(i)-
| -(v)ant(u)-
|kanalt
ကနလ္တ်
|kantalt
ကန်တလ္တ်
|-
!Ablative
| -(t)as(o)-
| -(t)os(a)-
|kasalt
ကသလ္တ်
|kosalt
ကးသလ္တ်
|-
!Instrumental
| -(s)ae(s)-
| -(s)ao(s)-
|kaesalt
ကယ်သလ္တ်
|kaosalt
ကဝ်သလ္တ်
|}

===Verb Conjugation===
Akhyan verb conjugation consists of two main types: Primary and Secondary. The Primary conjugation is a thematic set, meaning it uses a connecting vowel, often called a "theme vowel" between the verb stem and the personal endings. In contrast, the Secondary conjugation is athematic, meaning it lacks this theme vowel and attaches the endings directly to the stem, often resulting in more irregular or complex forms.

==== Primary System ====
The Primary system is a thematic set of verb forms characterized by the use of two distinct vowels, -a- and -e-, to indicate different moods. Specifically, the vowel -a- is used for the Indicative mood, while -e- marks the Subjunctive mood. This system operates within three main tenses: '''Present''', '''Aorist''', and '''Perfect'''. It is also important to note that in the Subjunctive mood, the following are distinguished by aspect, not tense.

==== Secondary System ====
The Secondary system refers to a group of verb forms that are characterized as athematic. This system do not use thematic vowels unlike the Primary System. This system appears only in the Indicative mood and includes four main tenses: the Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Conditional. A distinctive feature of these tenses is the use of the augment; a prefix added to the verb stem to indicate past time, applied to all except the Future tense.

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===

Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:Akhyan]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Akhyan

2025-05-04T15:10:52Z

Notxvier: /* Verbs */

==Introduction==








==Orthography==
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Non-Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Labial
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Dental
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Velar
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
|m
|မ
|n
|n
|န
|ŋ
|q
|င
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|p
|p
|ပ
|t
|t
|တ
|k
|k
|က
|-
!Aspirated
|pʰ
|ph
|ဖ
|tʰ
|th
|ထ
|kʰ
|kh
|ခ
|-
!Voiced
|b
|b
|ဗ
|d
|d
|ဒ
|g
|g
|ဂ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|f
|f
|ၾ
|
|
|
|h
|x
|ဟ
|-
!Voiced
|v
|v
|ဘ
|
|
|
|ʔ
|' (medial)
|အ
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|w
|w
|ဝ
|l
|l
|လ
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Retroflex
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Palatal
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|t͡s
|c
|ၸ
|t͡ʂ
|ç
|ဋ
|t͡ɕ
|ć
|စ
|-
!Aspirated
|t͡sʰ
|ch
|ႀ
|t͡ʂʰ
|çh
|ဌ
|t͡ɕʰ
|ćh
|ဆ
|-
!Voiced
|d͡z
|ð
|ၻ
|d͡ʐ
|ł
|ဍ
|d͡ʑ
|j
|ၺ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|s
|s
|သ
|ʂ
|ş
|ၑ
|ɕ
|ś
|ၔ
|-
!Voiced
|z
|z
|ဓ
|ʐ
|ż
|ၓ
|ʑ
|ź
|ည
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|ɹ
|r
|ရ
|
|
|
|j
|y
|ယ
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |Front
| rowspan="6" |
! colspan="7" |Back
|-
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
|-
!Close
|i
|i
|ကိ
|y
|ü
|ကၳ
|ɨ
|iu
|ကၖ
|u
|u
|ကု
|-
!Middle
|e
|e
|ကဲ
|ø
|ö
|ကၲ
|ə
|eo
|ကါ
|o
|o
|ကး
|-
!Open
|ɛ
|ai
|ကေ
|œ
|ä
|ကႄ
|ɐ
|a
|က
|ɔ
|au
|ကီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Vowel Diacritics
|-
|ိ
|ၳ
|ၖ
|ု
|-
|ဲ
|ၲ
|ါ
|း
|-
|ေ
|ႄ
|
|ီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
| colspan="2" |Nullification Diacritics
|-
|်
|္
|}

Although both '''Virama (္)''' and '''Asat (်)''' delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. '''Asat (်)''', as in '''က်''', marks syllable boundaries, while '''Virama (္)''', as in '''က္''', forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when '''ယ''', '''ဝ''', and '''ရ''' are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in '''ကျ''', '''ကွ''', and '''ကြ''', respectively.

===Phonotactics===

==Nouns & Adjectives==
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!1
|Numbers
|Singular & Plural
|-
!2
|Cases
|Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental
|}

Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:
* Akranta '''အကြန်တ''' (-a stems)
* Zeokçho '''ဓါက်ဌး''' (-o stems)
* Mitaveş '''မိတဘဲၑ်''' (Consonant stems)

According to the Rasthani '''ရသ်ထနိ''', the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Fyaqä" '''ၾျငႄ'''. The eight fyaqä (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.
* Łiunaing '''ဍၖနေင်''' Intransitive Case
* Kaothiv '''ကဝ်ထိဘ''' Ergative Case
* Penubo '''ပဲနုဗး''' Accusative Case
* Nauthang '''နီထင်''' Genitive Case
* Seomar '''သါမရ်''' Dative Case
* Baćhi '''ဗဆိ''' Ablative Case
* Xallei '''ဟလ်လဲယ်''' Locative Case
* Reftou '''ရဲၾ်တးဝ်''' Instrumental Case

{| class="wikitable"
|+Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha ကးသ်ထ "Storeroom"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -a
-အ
| -e
-အဲ
|Koşçh'''a'''
ကးၑ်ဌ
|Koşçh'''e'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲ
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ane
-အနဲ
| -ene
-အဲနဲ
|Koşçh'''ane'''
ကးၑ်ဌနဲ
|Koşçh'''ene'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲနဲ
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -am
-အမ်
| -as
-အသ်
|Koşçh'''am'''
ကးၑ်ဌမ်
|Koşçh'''as'''
ကးၑ်ဌသ်
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -arum
-အရုမ်
| -os
-အးသ်
|Koşçh'''arum'''
ကးၑ်ဌရုမ်
|Koşçh'''os'''
ကးၑ်ဌးသ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -avya
-အဘျ
| -anya
-အနျ
|Koşçh'''avya'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘျ
|Koşçh'''anya'''
ကးၑ်ဌနျ
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -aya
-အယ
| -aye
-အယဲ
|Koşçh'''aya'''
ကးၑ်ဌယ
|Koşçh'''aye'''
ကးၑ်ဌယဲ
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -evya
-အဲဘျ
|Koşçh'''i'''
ကးၑ်ဌိ
|Koşçh'''evya'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲဘျ
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -avi
-အဘိ
| -avis
-အဘိသ်
|Koşçh'''avi'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘိ
|Koşçh'''avis'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘိသ်
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo နိန်တလ်ပး "Bed"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -o
-အး
| -ai
-အေ
|Nintalp'''o'''
နိန်တလ်ပး
|Nintalp'''ai'''
နိန်တလ်ပေ
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -one
-အးနဲ
| -ones
-အးနဲသ်
|Nintalp'''one'''
နိန်တလ်ပးနဲ
|Nintalp'''ones'''
နိန်တလ်ပးနဲသ်
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -um
-အုမ်
| -ovas
-အးဘသ်
|Nintalp'''um'''
နိန်တလ်ပုမ်
|Nintalp'''ovas'''
နိန်တလ်ပးဘသ်
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -una
-အုန
| -unas
-အုနသ်
|Nintalp'''una'''
နိန်တလ်ပုန
|Nintalp'''unas'''
နိန်တလ်ပုနသ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -us
-အုသ်
| -os
-အးသ်
|Nintalp'''us'''
နိန်တလ်ပုသ်
|Nintalp'''os'''
နိန်တလ်ပးသ်
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -au
-အီ
| -om
-အးမ်
|Nintalp'''au'''
နိန်တလ်ပီ
|Nintalp'''om'''
နိန်တလ်ပးမ်
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -evya
-အဲဘျ
|Nintalp'''i'''
နိန်တလ်ပိ
|Nintalp'''evya'''
နိန်တလ်ပဲဘျ
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -aun
-အီန်
| -aus
-အီသ်
|Nintalp'''aun'''
နိန်တလ်ပီန်
|Nintalp'''aus'''
နိန်တလ်ပီသ်
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät ဒဓ်ခႄတ် "Cotton"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -X
| -es
-အဲသ်
|Dazkhät
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်
|Dazkhät'''es'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲသ်
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ne
-နဲ
| -nes
-နဲသ်
|Dazkhät'''ne'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်နဲ
|Dazkhät'''nes'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်နဲသ်
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -em
-အဲမ်
| -ya
-ယ
|Dazkhät'''em'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲမ်
|Dazkhät'''ya'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယ
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -ae
-အယ်
| -yum
-ယုမ်
|Dazkhät'''ae'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတယ်
|Dazkhät'''yum'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယုမ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -ye
-ယဲ
| -we
-ဝဲ
|Dazkhät'''ye'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယဲ
|Dazkhät'''we'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ဝဲ
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -u
-အု
|Dazkhät'''i'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတိ
|Dazkhät'''u'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတု
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -e
-အဲ
| -o
-အး
|Dazkhät'''e'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲ
|Dazkhät'''o'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတး
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -ai
-အေ
| -au
-အီ
|Dazkhät'''ai'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတေ
|Dazkhät'''au'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတီ
|}

== Verbs ==
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.

Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive ('''Kerraż''' | '''ကဲရ်ရၓ်'''), Intransitive ('''Padaizma''' | '''ပဒေဓ်မ'''), and Ambitransitive ('''Dosthu''' | '''ဒးသ်ထု'''). Transitive verbs, such as '''Girtan''' ('''ဂိရ်တန်''' “to carry”), require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like '''Naman''' ('''နမန်''' “to sleep”) function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.

==== Building Verbs ====
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root '''√girt'''- (or '''√ဂိရ္တ်-''') functions as the base for the verb Girtan ('''ဂိရ်တန်'''), meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.

=== Non-Finite Forms ===
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

==== Infinitives ====
Infinitives are formed through affixing '''-an''' '''-အန်''' into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root '''√niut- √နၖတ်-''' "to dance" is '''Niutan နၖတန်'''. Imperatives can be formed through removing the '''န်''' from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the '''န်''' is omitted from the verb '''Niutan နၖတန်''', leaving '''Niuta နၖတ''' as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs

==== Participles ====
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.

The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final '''''-n''''' ('''-န်'''), serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word '''Thiźan''' '''ထိညန်''' "to tell" (root: '''√ထိည်-''')
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Present
| -ens
-အဲန္သ်
| -onc
-အးန္ၸ
|Thiź'''ens'''
ထိညဲန္သ်
|Thiź'''onc'''
ထိညးန္ၸ
|-
!Aorist
|
| -tyo
-တျး
|
|Thiźa'''tyo'''
ထိညတျး
|-
!Perfect
| -yana
-ယန
|
|Thiź'''yana'''
ထိည်ယန
|
|-
!Future
| -śya
-ၔျ
| -ndo
-န်ဒး
|Thiźa'''śya'''
ထိညၔျ
|Thiźa'''ndo'''
ထိညန်ဒး
|}

==== Gerunds ====
A gerund is a verbal noun formed from a verb that functions syntactically as a noun while retaining some verbal properties. Gerunds are created by attaching specific infixes to verb roots, a process that is notably irregular and does not align with the standard patterns of declension found in the rest of the language. Unlike in many other languages, Akhyan gerunds undergo declension for both case and voice.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example: kaltan root: √kalt-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Accusative
| -(t)am(a)-
| -(t)um(o)-
|kamalt
ကမလ္တ်
|kumolt
ကုမးလ္တ်
|-
!Genitive
| -(t)wa(y)-
| -(d)ya(w)-
|kwayalt
ကွယလ္တ်
|kyawalt
ကျဝလ္တ်
|-
!Dative
| -(m)an(i)-
| -(v)ant(u)-
|kanalt
ကနလ္တ်
|kantalt
ကန်တလ္တ်
|-
!Ablative
| -(t)as(o)-
| -(t)os(a)-
|kasalt
ကသလ္တ်
|kosalt
ကးသလ္တ်
|-
!Instrumental
| -(s)ae(s)-
| -(s)ao(s)-
|kaesalt
ကယ်သလ္တ်
|kaosalt
ကဝ်သလ္တ်
|}

===Particles===

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===

Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:Akhyan]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Akhyan

2025-05-04T15:10:09Z

Notxvier: /* Adverbs */

==Introduction==








==Orthography==
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Non-Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Labial
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Dental
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Velar
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
|m
|မ
|n
|n
|န
|ŋ
|q
|င
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|p
|p
|ပ
|t
|t
|တ
|k
|k
|က
|-
!Aspirated
|pʰ
|ph
|ဖ
|tʰ
|th
|ထ
|kʰ
|kh
|ခ
|-
!Voiced
|b
|b
|ဗ
|d
|d
|ဒ
|g
|g
|ဂ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|f
|f
|ၾ
|
|
|
|h
|x
|ဟ
|-
!Voiced
|v
|v
|ဘ
|
|
|
|ʔ
|' (medial)
|အ
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|w
|w
|ဝ
|l
|l
|လ
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Retroflex
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Palatal
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|t͡s
|c
|ၸ
|t͡ʂ
|ç
|ဋ
|t͡ɕ
|ć
|စ
|-
!Aspirated
|t͡sʰ
|ch
|ႀ
|t͡ʂʰ
|çh
|ဌ
|t͡ɕʰ
|ćh
|ဆ
|-
!Voiced
|d͡z
|ð
|ၻ
|d͡ʐ
|ł
|ဍ
|d͡ʑ
|j
|ၺ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|s
|s
|သ
|ʂ
|ş
|ၑ
|ɕ
|ś
|ၔ
|-
!Voiced
|z
|z
|ဓ
|ʐ
|ż
|ၓ
|ʑ
|ź
|ည
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|ɹ
|r
|ရ
|
|
|
|j
|y
|ယ
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |Front
| rowspan="6" |
! colspan="7" |Back
|-
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
|-
!Close
|i
|i
|ကိ
|y
|ü
|ကၳ
|ɨ
|iu
|ကၖ
|u
|u
|ကု
|-
!Middle
|e
|e
|ကဲ
|ø
|ö
|ကၲ
|ə
|eo
|ကါ
|o
|o
|ကး
|-
!Open
|ɛ
|ai
|ကေ
|œ
|ä
|ကႄ
|ɐ
|a
|က
|ɔ
|au
|ကီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Vowel Diacritics
|-
|ိ
|ၳ
|ၖ
|ု
|-
|ဲ
|ၲ
|ါ
|း
|-
|ေ
|ႄ
|
|ီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
| colspan="2" |Nullification Diacritics
|-
|်
|္
|}

Although both '''Virama (္)''' and '''Asat (်)''' delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. '''Asat (်)''', as in '''က်''', marks syllable boundaries, while '''Virama (္)''', as in '''က္''', forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when '''ယ''', '''ဝ''', and '''ရ''' are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in '''ကျ''', '''ကွ''', and '''ကြ''', respectively.

===Phonotactics===

==Nouns & Adjectives==
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!1
|Numbers
|Singular & Plural
|-
!2
|Cases
|Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental
|}

Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:
* Akranta '''အကြန်တ''' (-a stems)
* Zeokçho '''ဓါက်ဌး''' (-o stems)
* Mitaveş '''မိတဘဲၑ်''' (Consonant stems)

According to the Rasthani '''ရသ်ထနိ''', the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Fyaqä" '''ၾျငႄ'''. The eight fyaqä (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.
* Łiunaing '''ဍၖနေင်''' Intransitive Case
* Kaothiv '''ကဝ်ထိဘ''' Ergative Case
* Penubo '''ပဲနုဗး''' Accusative Case
* Nauthang '''နီထင်''' Genitive Case
* Seomar '''သါမရ်''' Dative Case
* Baćhi '''ဗဆိ''' Ablative Case
* Xallei '''ဟလ်လဲယ်''' Locative Case
* Reftou '''ရဲၾ်တးဝ်''' Instrumental Case

{| class="wikitable"
|+Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha ကးသ်ထ "Storeroom"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -a
-အ
| -e
-အဲ
|Koşçh'''a'''
ကးၑ်ဌ
|Koşçh'''e'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲ
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ane
-အနဲ
| -ene
-အဲနဲ
|Koşçh'''ane'''
ကးၑ်ဌနဲ
|Koşçh'''ene'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲနဲ
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -am
-အမ်
| -as
-အသ်
|Koşçh'''am'''
ကးၑ်ဌမ်
|Koşçh'''as'''
ကးၑ်ဌသ်
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -arum
-အရုမ်
| -os
-အးသ်
|Koşçh'''arum'''
ကးၑ်ဌရုမ်
|Koşçh'''os'''
ကးၑ်ဌးသ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -avya
-အဘျ
| -anya
-အနျ
|Koşçh'''avya'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘျ
|Koşçh'''anya'''
ကးၑ်ဌနျ
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -aya
-အယ
| -aye
-အယဲ
|Koşçh'''aya'''
ကးၑ်ဌယ
|Koşçh'''aye'''
ကးၑ်ဌယဲ
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -evya
-အဲဘျ
|Koşçh'''i'''
ကးၑ်ဌိ
|Koşçh'''evya'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲဘျ
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -avi
-အဘိ
| -avis
-အဘိသ်
|Koşçh'''avi'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘိ
|Koşçh'''avis'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘိသ်
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo နိန်တလ်ပး "Bed"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -o
-အး
| -ai
-အေ
|Nintalp'''o'''
နိန်တလ်ပး
|Nintalp'''ai'''
နိန်တလ်ပေ
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -one
-အးနဲ
| -ones
-အးနဲသ်
|Nintalp'''one'''
နိန်တလ်ပးနဲ
|Nintalp'''ones'''
နိန်တလ်ပးနဲသ်
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -um
-အုမ်
| -ovas
-အးဘသ်
|Nintalp'''um'''
နိန်တလ်ပုမ်
|Nintalp'''ovas'''
နိန်တလ်ပးဘသ်
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -una
-အုန
| -unas
-အုနသ်
|Nintalp'''una'''
နိန်တလ်ပုန
|Nintalp'''unas'''
နိန်တလ်ပုနသ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -us
-အုသ်
| -os
-အးသ်
|Nintalp'''us'''
နိန်တလ်ပုသ်
|Nintalp'''os'''
နိန်တလ်ပးသ်
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -au
-အီ
| -om
-အးမ်
|Nintalp'''au'''
နိန်တလ်ပီ
|Nintalp'''om'''
နိန်တလ်ပးမ်
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -evya
-အဲဘျ
|Nintalp'''i'''
နိန်တလ်ပိ
|Nintalp'''evya'''
နိန်တလ်ပဲဘျ
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -aun
-အီန်
| -aus
-အီသ်
|Nintalp'''aun'''
နိန်တလ်ပီန်
|Nintalp'''aus'''
နိန်တလ်ပီသ်
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät ဒဓ်ခႄတ် "Cotton"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -X
| -es
-အဲသ်
|Dazkhät
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်
|Dazkhät'''es'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲသ်
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ne
-နဲ
| -nes
-နဲသ်
|Dazkhät'''ne'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်နဲ
|Dazkhät'''nes'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်နဲသ်
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -em
-အဲမ်
| -ya
-ယ
|Dazkhät'''em'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲမ်
|Dazkhät'''ya'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယ
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -ae
-အယ်
| -yum
-ယုမ်
|Dazkhät'''ae'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတယ်
|Dazkhät'''yum'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယုမ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -ye
-ယဲ
| -we
-ဝဲ
|Dazkhät'''ye'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယဲ
|Dazkhät'''we'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ဝဲ
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -u
-အု
|Dazkhät'''i'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတိ
|Dazkhät'''u'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတု
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -e
-အဲ
| -o
-အး
|Dazkhät'''e'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲ
|Dazkhät'''o'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတး
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -ai
-အေ
| -au
-အီ
|Dazkhät'''ai'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတေ
|Dazkhät'''au'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတီ
|}

== Verbs ==
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.

Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive ('''Kerraż''' | '''ကဲရ်ရၓ်'''), Intransitive ('''Padaizma''' | '''ပဒေဓ်မ'''), and Ambitransitive ('''Dosthu''' | '''ဒးသ်ထု'''). Transitive verbs, such as '''Girtan''' ('''ဂိရ်တန်''' “to carry”), require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like '''Naman''' ('''နမန်''' “to sleep”) function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.

==== Building Verbs ====
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root '''√girt'''- (or '''√ဂိရ္တ်-''') functions as the base for the verb Girtan ('''ဂိရ်တန်'''), meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.

=== Non-Finite Forms ===
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

==== Infinitives ====
Infinitives are formed through affixing '''-an''' '''-အန်''' into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root '''√niut- √နၖတ်-''' "to dance" is '''Niutan နၖတန်'''. Imperatives can be formed through removing the '''န်''' from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the '''န်''' is omitted from the verb '''Niutan နၖတန်''', leaving '''Niuta နၖတ''' as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs

==== Participles ====
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.

The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final '''''-n''''' ('''-န်'''), serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word '''Thiźan''' '''ထိညန်''' "to tell" (root: '''√ထိည်-''')
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Present
| -ens
-အဲန္သ်
| -onc
-အးန္ၸ
|Thiź'''ens'''
ထိညဲန္သ်
|Thiź'''onc'''
ထိညးန္ၸ
|-
!Aorist
|
| -tyo
-တျး
|
|Thiźa'''tyo'''
ထိညတျး
|-
!Perfect
| -yana
-ယန
|
|Thiź'''yana'''
ထိည်ယန
|
|-
!Future
| -śya
-ၔျ
| -ndo
-န်ဒး
|Thiźa'''śya'''
ထိညၔျ
|Thiźa'''ndo'''
ထိညန်ဒး
|}

=== Gerunds ===
A gerund is a verbal noun formed from a verb that functions syntactically as a noun while retaining some verbal properties. Gerunds are created by attaching specific infixes to verb roots, a process that is notably irregular and does not align with the standard patterns of declension found in the rest of the language. Unlike in many other languages, Akhyan gerunds undergo declension for both case and voice.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example: kaltan root: √kalt-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Accusative
| -(t)am(a)-
| -(t)um(o)-
|kamalt
ကမလ္တ်
|kumolt
ကုမးလ္တ်
|-
!Genitive
| -(t)wa(y)-
| -(d)ya(w)-
|kwayalt
ကွယလ္တ်
|kyawalt
ကျဝလ္တ်
|-
!Dative
| -(m)an(i)-
| -(v)ant(u)-
|kanalt
ကနလ္တ်
|kantalt
ကန်တလ္တ်
|-
!Ablative
| -(t)as(o)-
| -(t)os(a)-
|kasalt
ကသလ္တ်
|kosalt
ကးသလ္တ်
|-
!Instrumental
| -(s)ae(s)-
| -(s)ao(s)-
|kaesalt
ကယ်သလ္တ်
|kaosalt
ကဝ်သလ္တ်
|}

===Particles===

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===

Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:Akhyan]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Contionary:ဂိရ်တန်

2025-04-28T14:41:14Z

Notxvier: /* Verb */

==Akhyan==
===Alternative forms===

===Etymology===

===Pronunciation===
(''Akhyan'') [[Guide:IPA|IPA]]: /giɹ.tɐn/
===Verb===
'''ဂိရ်တန်'''

# to carry
#:''သ္ထဘဲမ် အဂြိတ.''
#:: ''Sthavem agrita.''
#:: ''He carried a bag.''

====Usage notes====
====Inflection====
====Synonyms====
====Derived terms====
====Related terms====

[[Category:Contionary]] [[Category:Akhyan verbs]] [[Category:Akhyan words]]

Contionary:ဂိရ်တန်

2025-04-28T14:38:32Z

Notxvier: /* Verb */

==Akhyan==
===Alternative forms===

===Etymology===

===Pronunciation===
(''Akhyan'') [[Guide:IPA|IPA]]: /giɹ.tɐn/
===Verb===
'''ဂိရ်တန်'''

# to carry
#:''သ္ထဘဲမ် အဂြိတ.''
#:: ''He carried a bag.''

====Usage notes====
====Inflection====
====Synonyms====
====Derived terms====
====Related terms====

[[Category:Contionary]] [[Category:Akhyan verbs]] [[Category:Akhyan words]]

Contionary:ဂိရ်တန်

2025-04-28T14:30:25Z

Notxvier: Created page with " {{subst:User:Chrysophylax/Template:nous |1=Akhyan |2=ဂိရ်တန် |POS=Verb |IPA=giɹ.tɐn |POS2=verb }}"

==Akhyan==
===Alternative forms===

===Etymology===

===Pronunciation===
(''Akhyan'') [[Guide:IPA|IPA]]: /giɹ.tɐn/
===Verb===
'''ဂိရ်တန်'''

# definition
#:''example usage of '''ဂိရ်တန်''' here''
#:: ''italicised translation here.''

====Usage notes====
====Inflection====
====Synonyms====
====Derived terms====
====Related terms====

[[Category:Contionary]] [[Category:Akhyan verbs]] [[Category:Akhyan words]]

Akhyan

2025-04-28T14:10:12Z

Notxvier: /* Vowels */

==Introduction==








==Orthography==
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Non-Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Labial
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Dental
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Velar
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
|m
|မ
|n
|n
|န
|ŋ
|q
|င
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|p
|p
|ပ
|t
|t
|တ
|k
|k
|က
|-
!Aspirated
|pʰ
|ph
|ဖ
|tʰ
|th
|ထ
|kʰ
|kh
|ခ
|-
!Voiced
|b
|b
|ဗ
|d
|d
|ဒ
|g
|g
|ဂ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|f
|f
|ၾ
|
|
|
|h
|x
|ဟ
|-
!Voiced
|v
|v
|ဘ
|
|
|
|ʔ
|' (medial)
|အ
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|w
|w
|ဝ
|l
|l
|လ
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Retroflex
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Palatal
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|t͡s
|c
|ၸ
|t͡ʂ
|ç
|ဋ
|t͡ɕ
|ć
|စ
|-
!Aspirated
|t͡sʰ
|ch
|ႀ
|t͡ʂʰ
|çh
|ဌ
|t͡ɕʰ
|ćh
|ဆ
|-
!Voiced
|d͡z
|ð
|ၻ
|d͡ʐ
|ł
|ဍ
|d͡ʑ
|j
|ၺ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|s
|s
|သ
|ʂ
|ş
|ၑ
|ɕ
|ś
|ၔ
|-
!Voiced
|z
|z
|ဓ
|ʐ
|ż
|ၓ
|ʑ
|ź
|ည
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|ɹ
|r
|ရ
|
|
|
|j
|y
|ယ
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |Front
| rowspan="6" |
! colspan="7" |Back
|-
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
|-
!Close
|i
|i
|ကိ
|y
|ü
|ကၳ
|ɨ
|iu
|ကၖ
|u
|u
|ကု
|-
!Middle
|e
|e
|ကဲ
|ø
|ö
|ကၲ
|ə
|eo
|ကါ
|o
|o
|ကး
|-
!Open
|ɛ
|ai
|ကေ
|œ
|ä
|ကႄ
|ɐ
|a
|က
|ɔ
|au
|ကီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Vowel Diacritics
|-
|ိ
|ၳ
|ၖ
|ု
|-
|ဲ
|ၲ
|ါ
|း
|-
|ေ
|ႄ
|
|ီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
| colspan="2" |Nullification Diacritics
|-
|်
|္
|}

Although both '''Virama (္)''' and '''Asat (်)''' delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. '''Asat (်)''', as in '''က်''', marks syllable boundaries, while '''Virama (္)''', as in '''က္''', forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when '''ယ''', '''ဝ''', and '''ရ''' are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in '''ကျ''', '''ကွ''', and '''ကြ''', respectively.

===Phonotactics===

==Nouns & Adjectives==
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!1
|Numbers
|Singular & Plural
|-
!2
|Cases
|Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental
|}

Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:
* Akranta '''အကြန်တ''' (-a stems)
* Zeokçho '''ဓါက်ဌး''' (-o stems)
* Mitaveş '''မိတဘဲၑ်''' (Consonant stems)

According to the Rasthani '''ရသ်ထနိ''', the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Fyaqä" '''ၾျငႄ'''. The eight fyaqä (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.
* Łiunaing '''ဍၖနေင်''' Intransitive Case
* Kaothiv '''ကဝ်ထိဘ''' Ergative Case
* Penubo '''ပဲနုဗး''' Accusative Case
* Nauthang '''နီထင်''' Genitive Case
* Seomar '''သါမရ်''' Dative Case
* Baćhi '''ဗဆိ''' Ablative Case
* Xallei '''ဟလ်လဲယ်''' Locative Case
* Reftou '''ရဲၾ်တးဝ်''' Instrumental Case

{| class="wikitable"
|+Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha ကးသ်ထ "Storeroom"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -a
-အ
| -e
-အဲ
|Koşçh'''a'''
ကးၑ်ဌ
|Koşçh'''e'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲ
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ane
-အနဲ
| -ene
-အဲနဲ
|Koşçh'''ane'''
ကးၑ်ဌနဲ
|Koşçh'''ene'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲနဲ
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -am
-အမ်
| -as
-အသ်
|Koşçh'''am'''
ကးၑ်ဌမ်
|Koşçh'''as'''
ကးၑ်ဌသ်
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -arum
-အရုမ်
| -os
-အးသ်
|Koşçh'''arum'''
ကးၑ်ဌရုမ်
|Koşçh'''os'''
ကးၑ်ဌးသ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -avya
-အဘျ
| -anya
-အနျ
|Koşçh'''avya'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘျ
|Koşçh'''anya'''
ကးၑ်ဌနျ
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -aya
-အယ
| -aye
-အယဲ
|Koşçh'''aya'''
ကးၑ်ဌယ
|Koşçh'''aye'''
ကးၑ်ဌယဲ
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -evya
-အဲဘျ
|Koşçh'''i'''
ကးၑ်ဌိ
|Koşçh'''evya'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲဘျ
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -avi
-အဘိ
| -avis
-အဘိသ်
|Koşçh'''avi'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘိ
|Koşçh'''avis'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘိသ်
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo နိန်တလ်ပး "Bed"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -o
-အး
| -ai
-အေ
|Nintalp'''o'''
နိန်တလ်ပး
|Nintalp'''ai'''
နိန်တလ်ပေ
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -one
-အးနဲ
| -ones
-အးနဲသ်
|Nintalp'''one'''
နိန်တလ်ပးနဲ
|Nintalp'''ones'''
နိန်တလ်ပးနဲသ်
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -um
-အုမ်
| -ovas
-အးဘသ်
|Nintalp'''um'''
နိန်တလ်ပုမ်
|Nintalp'''ovas'''
နိန်တလ်ပးဘသ်
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -una
-အုန
| -unas
-အုနသ်
|Nintalp'''una'''
နိန်တလ်ပုန
|Nintalp'''unas'''
နိန်တလ်ပုနသ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -us
-အုသ်
| -os
-အးသ်
|Nintalp'''us'''
နိန်တလ်ပုသ်
|Nintalp'''os'''
နိန်တလ်ပးသ်
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -au
-အီ
| -om
-အးမ်
|Nintalp'''au'''
နိန်တလ်ပီ
|Nintalp'''om'''
နိန်တလ်ပးမ်
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -evya
-အဲဘျ
|Nintalp'''i'''
နိန်တလ်ပိ
|Nintalp'''evya'''
နိန်တလ်ပဲဘျ
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -aun
-အီန်
| -aus
-အီသ်
|Nintalp'''aun'''
နိန်တလ်ပီန်
|Nintalp'''aus'''
နိန်တလ်ပီသ်
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät ဒဓ်ခႄတ် "Cotton"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -X
| -es
-အဲသ်
|Dazkhät
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်
|Dazkhät'''es'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲသ်
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ne
-နဲ
| -nes
-နဲသ်
|Dazkhät'''ne'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်နဲ
|Dazkhät'''nes'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်နဲသ်
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -em
-အဲမ်
| -ya
-ယ
|Dazkhät'''em'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲမ်
|Dazkhät'''ya'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယ
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -ae
-အယ်
| -yum
-ယုမ်
|Dazkhät'''ae'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတယ်
|Dazkhät'''yum'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယုမ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -ye
-ယဲ
| -we
-ဝဲ
|Dazkhät'''ye'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယဲ
|Dazkhät'''we'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ဝဲ
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -u
-အု
|Dazkhät'''i'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတိ
|Dazkhät'''u'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတု
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -e
-အဲ
| -o
-အး
|Dazkhät'''e'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲ
|Dazkhät'''o'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတး
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -ai
-အေ
| -au
-အီ
|Dazkhät'''ai'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတေ
|Dazkhät'''au'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတီ
|}

== Verbs ==
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.

Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive ('''Kerraż''' | '''ကဲရ်ရၓ်'''), Intransitive ('''Padaizma''' | '''ပဒေဓ်မ'''), and Ambitransitive ('''Dosthu''' | '''ဒးသ်ထု'''). Transitive verbs, such as '''Girtan''' ('''ဂိရ်တန်''' “to carry”), require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like '''Naman''' ('''နမန်''' “to sleep”) function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.

==== Building Verbs ====
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root '''√girt'''- (or '''√ဂိရ္တ်-''') functions as the base for the verb Girtan ('''ဂိရ်တန်'''), meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.

=== Non-Finite Forms ===
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

==== Infinitives ====
Infinitives are formed through affixing '''-an''' '''-အန်''' into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root '''√niut- √နၖတ်-''' "to dance" is '''Niutan နၖတန်'''. Imperatives can be formed through removing the '''န်''' from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the '''န်''' is omitted from the verb '''Niutan နၖတန်''', leaving '''Niuta နၖတ''' as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs

==== Participles ====
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.

The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final '''''-n''''' ('''-န်'''), serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word '''Thiźan''' '''ထိညန်''' "to tell" (root: '''√ထိည်-''')
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Present
| -ens
-အဲန္သ်
| -onc
-အးန္ၸ
|Thiź'''ens'''
ထိညဲန္သ်
|Thiź'''onc'''
ထိညးန္ၸ
|-
!Aorist
|
| -tyo
-တျး
|
|Thiźa'''tyo'''
ထိညတျး
|-
!Perfect
| -yana
-ယန
|
|Thiź'''yana'''
ထိည်ယန
|
|-
!Future
| -śya
-ၔျ
| -ndo
-န်ဒး
|Thiźa'''śya'''
ထိညၔျ
|Thiźa'''ndo'''
ထိညန်ဒး
|}

===Adverbs===
===Particles===

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===

Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:Akhyan]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Akhyan

2025-04-26T05:31:42Z

Notxvier: /* Participles */

==Introduction==








==Orthography==
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Non-Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Labial
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Dental
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Velar
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
|m
|မ
|n
|n
|န
|ŋ
|q
|င
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|p
|p
|ပ
|t
|t
|တ
|k
|k
|က
|-
!Aspirated
|pʰ
|ph
|ဖ
|tʰ
|th
|ထ
|kʰ
|kh
|ခ
|-
!Voiced
|b
|b
|ဗ
|d
|d
|ဒ
|g
|g
|ဂ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|f
|f
|ၾ
|
|
|
|h
|x
|ဟ
|-
!Voiced
|v
|v
|ဘ
|
|
|
|ʔ
|' (medial)
|အ
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|w
|w
|ဝ
|l
|l
|လ
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sibilants
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Retroflex
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Palatal
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|t͡s
|c
|ၸ
|t͡ʂ
|ç
|ဋ
|t͡ɕ
|ć
|စ
|-
!Aspirated
|t͡sʰ
|ch
|ႀ
|t͡ʂʰ
|çh
|ဌ
|t͡ɕʰ
|ćh
|ဆ
|-
!Voiced
|d͡z
|ð
|ၻ
|d͡ʐ
|ł
|ဍ
|d͡ʑ
|j
|ၺ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|s
|s
|သ
|ʂ
|ş
|ၑ
|ɕ
|ś
|ၔ
|-
!Voiced
|z
|z
|ဓ
|ʐ
|ż
|ၓ
|ʑ
|ź
|ည
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|ɹ
|r
|ရ
|
|
|
|j
|y
|ယ
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |Front
| rowspan="6" |
! colspan="7" |Back
|-
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
|-
!Close
|i
|i
|ကိ ိ
|y
|ü
|ကၳ ၳ
|ɨ
|iu
|ကၖ ၖ
|u
|u
|ကု ု
|-
!Middle
|e
|e
|ကဲ ဲ
|ø
|ö
|ကၲ ၲ
|ə
|eo
|ကါ ါ
|o
|o
|ကး း
|-
!Open
|ɛ
|ai
|ကေ ေ
|œ
|ä
|ကႄ ႄ
|ɐ
|a
|က
|ɔ
|au
|ကီ ီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Vowel Diacritics
|-
|ိ
|ၳ
|ၖ
|ု
|-
|ဲ
|ၲ
|ါ
|း
|-
|ေ
|ႄ
|
|ီ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
| colspan="2" |Nullification Diacritics
|-
|်
|္
|}

Although both '''Virama (္)''' and '''Asat (်)''' delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. '''Asat (်)''', as in '''က်''', marks syllable boundaries, while '''Virama (္)''', as in '''က္''', forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when '''ယ''', '''ဝ''', and '''ရ''' are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in '''ကျ''', '''ကွ''', and '''ကြ''', respectively.

===Phonotactics===

==Nouns & Adjectives==
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!1
|Numbers
|Singular & Plural
|-
!2
|Cases
|Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental
|}

Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:
* Akranta '''အကြန်တ''' (-a stems)
* Zeokçho '''ဓါက်ဌး''' (-o stems)
* Mitaveş '''မိတဘဲၑ်''' (Consonant stems)

According to the Rasthani '''ရသ်ထနိ''', the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Fyaqä" '''ၾျငႄ'''. The eight fyaqä (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.
* Łiunaing '''ဍၖနေင်''' Intransitive Case
* Kaothiv '''ကဝ်ထိဘ''' Ergative Case
* Penubo '''ပဲနုဗး''' Accusative Case
* Nauthang '''နီထင်''' Genitive Case
* Seomar '''သါမရ်''' Dative Case
* Baćhi '''ဗဆိ''' Ablative Case
* Xallei '''ဟလ်လဲယ်''' Locative Case
* Reftou '''ရဲၾ်တးဝ်''' Instrumental Case

{| class="wikitable"
|+Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha ကးသ်ထ "Storeroom"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -a
-အ
| -e
-အဲ
|Koşçh'''a'''
ကးၑ်ဌ
|Koşçh'''e'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲ
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ane
-အနဲ
| -ene
-အဲနဲ
|Koşçh'''ane'''
ကးၑ်ဌနဲ
|Koşçh'''ene'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲနဲ
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -am
-အမ်
| -as
-အသ်
|Koşçh'''am'''
ကးၑ်ဌမ်
|Koşçh'''as'''
ကးၑ်ဌသ်
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -arum
-အရုမ်
| -os
-အးသ်
|Koşçh'''arum'''
ကးၑ်ဌရုမ်
|Koşçh'''os'''
ကးၑ်ဌးသ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -avya
-အဘျ
| -anya
-အနျ
|Koşçh'''avya'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘျ
|Koşçh'''anya'''
ကးၑ်ဌနျ
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -aya
-အယ
| -aye
-အယဲ
|Koşçh'''aya'''
ကးၑ်ဌယ
|Koşçh'''aye'''
ကးၑ်ဌယဲ
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -evya
-အဲဘျ
|Koşçh'''i'''
ကးၑ်ဌိ
|Koşçh'''evya'''
ကးၑ်ဌဲဘျ
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -avi
-အဘိ
| -avis
-အဘိသ်
|Koşçh'''avi'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘိ
|Koşçh'''avis'''
ကးၑ်ဌဘိသ်
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo နိန်တလ်ပး "Bed"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -o
-အး
| -ai
-အေ
|Nintalp'''o'''
နိန်တလ်ပး
|Nintalp'''ai'''
နိန်တလ်ပေ
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -one
-အးနဲ
| -ones
-အးနဲသ်
|Nintalp'''one'''
နိန်တလ်ပးနဲ
|Nintalp'''ones'''
နိန်တလ်ပးနဲသ်
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -um
-အုမ်
| -ovas
-အးဘသ်
|Nintalp'''um'''
နိန်တလ်ပုမ်
|Nintalp'''ovas'''
နိန်တလ်ပးဘသ်
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -una
-အုန
| -unas
-အုနသ်
|Nintalp'''una'''
နိန်တလ်ပုန
|Nintalp'''unas'''
နိန်တလ်ပုနသ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -us
-အုသ်
| -os
-အးသ်
|Nintalp'''us'''
နိန်တလ်ပုသ်
|Nintalp'''os'''
နိန်တလ်ပးသ်
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -au
-အီ
| -om
-အးမ်
|Nintalp'''au'''
နိန်တလ်ပီ
|Nintalp'''om'''
နိန်တလ်ပးမ်
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -evya
-အဲဘျ
|Nintalp'''i'''
နိန်တလ်ပိ
|Nintalp'''evya'''
နိန်တလ်ပဲဘျ
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -aun
-အီန်
| -aus
-အီသ်
|Nintalp'''aun'''
နိန်တလ်ပီန်
|Nintalp'''aus'''
နိန်တလ်ပီသ်
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät ဒဓ်ခႄတ် "Cotton"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -X
| -es
-အဲသ်
|Dazkhät
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်
|Dazkhät'''es'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲသ်
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ne
-နဲ
| -nes
-နဲသ်
|Dazkhät'''ne'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်နဲ
|Dazkhät'''nes'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်နဲသ်
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -em
-အဲမ်
| -ya
-ယ
|Dazkhät'''em'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲမ်
|Dazkhät'''ya'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယ
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -ae
-အယ်
| -yum
-ယုမ်
|Dazkhät'''ae'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတယ်
|Dazkhät'''yum'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယုမ်
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -ye
-ယဲ
| -we
-ဝဲ
|Dazkhät'''ye'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ယဲ
|Dazkhät'''we'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတ်ဝဲ
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -i
-အိ
| -u
-အု
|Dazkhät'''i'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတိ
|Dazkhät'''u'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတု
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -e
-အဲ
| -o
-အး
|Dazkhät'''e'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတဲ
|Dazkhät'''o'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတး
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -ai
-အေ
| -au
-အီ
|Dazkhät'''ai'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတေ
|Dazkhät'''au'''
ဒဓ်ခႄတီ
|}

== Verbs ==
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.

Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive ('''Kerraż''' | '''ကဲရ်ရၓ်'''), Intransitive ('''Padaizma''' | '''ပဒေဓ်မ'''), and Ambitransitive ('''Dosthu''' | '''ဒးသ်ထု'''). Transitive verbs, such as '''Girtan''' ('''ဂိရ်တန်''' “to carry”), require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like '''Naman''' ('''နမန်''' “to sleep”) function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.

==== Building Verbs ====
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root '''√girt'''- (or '''√ဂိရ္တ်-''') functions as the base for the verb Girtan ('''ဂိရ်တန်'''), meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.

=== Non-Finite Forms ===
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

==== Infinitives ====
Infinitives are formed through affixing '''-an''' '''-အန်''' into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root '''√niut- √နၖတ်-''' "to dance" is '''Niutan နၖတန်'''. Imperatives can be formed through removing the '''န်''' from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the '''န်''' is omitted from the verb '''Niutan နၖတန်''', leaving '''Niuta နၖတ''' as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs

==== Participles ====
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.

The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final '''''-n''''' ('''-န်'''), serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word '''Thiźan''' '''ထိညန်''' "to tell" (root: '''√ထိည်-''')
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Present
| -ens
-အဲန္သ်
| -onc
-အးန္ၸ
|Thiź'''ens'''
ထိညဲန္သ်
|Thiź'''onc'''
ထိညးန္ၸ
|-
!Aorist
|
| -tyo
-တျး
|
|Thiźa'''tyo'''
ထိညတျး
|-
!Perfect
| -yana
-ယန
|
|Thiź'''yana'''
ထိည်ယန
|
|-
!Future
| -śya
-ၔျ
| -ndo
-န်ဒး
|Thiźa'''śya'''
ထိညၔျ
|Thiźa'''ndo'''
ထိညန်ဒး
|}

===Adverbs===
===Particles===

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===

Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:Akhyan]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Akhyan

2025-04-26T05:09:07Z

Notxvier: /* Infinitives */

Akhyan

2025-04-25T13:43:58Z

Notxvier: /* Verb phrase */

Akhyan

2025-04-25T13:43:39Z

Notxvier: /* Non-Finite Forms */

Akhyan

2025-04-25T13:25:39Z

Notxvier: /* Morphology */

Akhyan

2025-04-25T13:24:52Z

Notxvier: /* Verbs */

Akhyan

2025-04-25T13:02:17Z

Notxvier: /* Nouns & Adjectives */

Akhyan

2025-04-25T03:48:25Z

Notxvier: /* Nouns & Adjectives */

Akhyan

2025-04-25T03:46:00Z

Notxvier: /* Nouns & Adjectives */

Akhyan

2025-04-25T03:29:03Z

Notxvier: /* Nouns & Adjectives */

Akhyan

2025-04-24T13:27:44Z

Notxvier: /* Nouns & Adjectives */

Akhyan

2025-04-23T11:06:34Z

Notxvier: /* Nouns & Adjectives */

Akhyan

2025-04-23T10:52:09Z

Notxvier: /* Nouns & Adjectives */

Akhyan

2025-04-23T04:09:48Z

Notxvier: /* Adjectives */

Akhyan

2025-04-23T04:08:29Z

Notxvier: /* Nouns & Adjectives */

Akhyan

2025-04-23T04:08:02Z

Notxvier: /* Nouns & Adjectives */