Linguifex - User contributions [en]

Filch

2025-11-17T22:06:42Z

Prinsessa: /* Design goals and process */ Apostrophe -> asterisk

{{Infobox language
|name = Filch
|nativename = {{ash|fylsche tunge}}
|pronunciation = ˈfʏl.ʃxə ˈtˢʊŋ.gə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = Germanic
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Filch''' ({{ash|fylsch}}, equivalent to "folk" + "-ish") is an artistic auxiliary language in the Germanic family.

It is not actually intended as an auxiliary language but designed for fun with the intention of the highest possible intelligibility to modern Germanic speakers while still seeming like a naturalistic descendant of Proto-Germanic that evolved organically. Ease of learning and producing Filch fluently is secondary. Vocabulary and phrases are only added if they have widespread counterparts, so Filch does not necessarily have a one-word translation of everything, and descriptive language to get around this is expected.

For the English name compare "French" from Old English ''Frenċisċ'' with the same umlaut and palatalisation.

===Sample===

{{ash|Næhst de aulde·lighe cyrce stoud e heugh byrc, full e breune mærce opaų s' barc.<br />
Come somer wære de leufe greune, æfter dæt geulwe, e fore de jaur s' ende wære dei reude.<br />
Come wįter fælle dei af, dogh thącc de sneu war de byrc ne nace næy, for dæ war gefe e hweit croune.<br />
Warme weder sunge flyghene foughele; caulde weder saung frysene wind.}}

{{IPA|ˌnɛxs‿tə ˈaʊ̯l.dəˌlɪ.ɣə ˈcʰʏr.cə ˌʃtɔʊ̯d ə ˈheʊ̯ɣ ˈbʏrc ˌfʊlː ə ˈbreʊ̯.nə ˈmɛr.cə ˌʔɔ.pãʊ̯̃ zə ˈbark<br />
ˌkʰoːmə ˈsoː.mər ˌwɛ(ː).rə də ˈleʊ̯.və ˈgreʊ̯.nə ❘ ˌʔɛftər ˈdɛːtˢ ˈɟeʊ̯l.wə ❘ ʔə ˌfo(ː).rə də ˈjaʊ̯r ˈz‿en.də ˌwɛ(ː).rə dəɪ̯ ˈreʊ̯.də<br />
ˌkʰoːmə ˈwĩː.tˢər ˌfɛl.lə dəɪ̯ aːf ❘ ˌdo(ː)ɣ ˌθãkː tə ˈʃneʊ̯ ˌwa(ː)r də ˈbʏrc nə ˈnaːcə ˌnɛʏ̯ ❘ ˌfo(ː)r də ˌwa(ː)r ˈɟeː.və ʔə ˈʍeɪ̯tˢ ˈkʰrɔʊ̯.nə<br />
ˈwar.mə ˌweː.dər ˌsuŋ.gə ˈflyː.ɣə.nə ˈfɔʊ̯.ɣə.lə ‖ ˈkʰaʊ̯l.də ˌweː.dər ˌsaʊ̯ŋg ˈfryː.zə.nə ˈwɪnd}}

===Design goals and process===

Filch is meant to cast as wide a net as possible in terms of understanding. This makes peripheral varieties such as Icelandic and English, which often have less in common with the rest of the family, equally important when deciding on words or phrases.

An example of the considerations made in such a choice:

{| class="wikitable"
! PG
! HWG
! LWG
! IWG
! NG
! Filch
|-
| *bi
| bei
| bij
| by
| (bí)
| {{ash|*bei}}
|-
| *wiþ-
| (wider)
| (we[d]er)
| (with)
| við
| {{ash|*wid}}
|-
| *at
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | *at
| at
| at
| {{ash|*at}}
|-
| *midi
| mit
| met
| —
| með
| {{ash|*mid}}
|-
| *nēhwist
| nächst
| naast
| next [to]
| ~næst [eftir]
| {{ash|'''næhst'''}}
|}

Representative branches are very roughly divided into somewhat inaccurate, but useful, groups: Proto-Germanic, "High West Germanic", "Low West Germanic", "Insular West Germanic" and North Germanic respectively. "Insular" refers to the English-Scots continuum. "High" and "low" roughly represent the respective ends of the mainland continuum. Frisian may fall under either of these depending, simply for convenience. North is usually represented by Old Norse unless descendants disagree. Multiple reflexes may occur in one cell, and cells may merge.

Asterisk, tilde, parentheses and brackets represent various considerations. Filch forms with an asterisk show what disqualified cognates would look like. The final word in bold matches all branches well enough to be selected.

====Internal derivation====

Words are regularly derived from PG as much as possible but if the result is a bad compromise between branches various excuses are available to nudge it in the desired direction: perhaps it was from a slightly different stem; perhaps it was changed by analogy; perhaps it was not directly inherited but loaned at some point from a neighbouring variety.

The word stock is mostly Germanic but loans that are thoroughly entrenched across the board (e.g. {{ash|cyrce}}) can make the cut.

====Phrases====

When all else fails there might be a phrase that's cross-compatible when no single word is.

{| class="wikitable"
! PG
! HWG
! LWG
! IWG
! NG
! Filch
|-
| *-sta(nd)a-
| (ver)stehen
| (ver)staan
| (under)stand
| *(for)stå
| {{ash|*-sta(nd)e}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | *grip-,<br />*grīp-
| (be)greifen
| (be)grijpen
| —
| *(be)gripa
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|'''hæfe grip aų'''}},<br />{{ash|'''greipe (meining)'''}}
|-
| (be)griff haben von
| (be)grip hebben van
| have a ~grip/grasp on
| hafa ~grip á
|}

Results:

:: {{ash|hæfe du grip aų hwat igh sæghe?}}

:: {{ash|greipe du hwat igh meine?}}

==Grammar==

The word order lies somewhere between the extant varieties. Basic order is SVO. Adverbs cause V2. Questions are VSO. Objects may be fronted, especially when auxiliaries are present. Otherwise the auxiliary's main verb may shift to the end.

{| class="wikitable"
! SVO
! V2
! VSO
! Fronting
! Shifting
|-
| {{ash|wi ete æpele}}
| {{ash|neu ete wi æpele}}
| {{ash|ete wi æpele?}}
| {{ash|æpele cunne wi ete}}
| {{ash|cunne wi æpele ete?}}
|}

===Nouns and adjectives===

Nouns have lost gender and (mostly) case through mergers. The plural suffix is invariably {{ash|-e}} (unless the word already ends in a vowel in which case it is unmarked) but there may also be umlaut.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! rowspan="2" | Consonant stem
! No umlaut
| {{ash|dægh}}
| {{ash|dæghe}}
|-
! Umlaut
| {{ash|gaųs}}
| {{ash|gæ̨se}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | Vowel stem
! Stressed
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{ash|schou}}
|-
! Unstressed
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{ash|name}}
|}

Adjectives take the same suffix in the plural as well as in definite (strong) form and in the dative (see below).

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Indefinite
| {{ash|nyw dægh}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|nywe dæghe}}
|-
! Definite
| {{ash|nywe dægh}}
|}

====Dative====

While nouns are unmarked for case, unmarked dative constructions as in English (e.g. "give the cat some food") are common, and attributive adjectives once again take the same suffix as above in these instances. The construction is also used of partitives.

{| class="wikitable"
! Attributive
! Partitive
|-
| {{ash|warm-e weder}}
| {{ash|full-∅ hole}}
|}

For example:

:: {{ash|Caulde weder cann igh socce fulle hole ne hæfe opaų mine fæyte næy.}}

However {{ash|full}} can sometimes also be followed by a singular or plural indefinite article that may seem like a preposition.

Dative nouns are sometimes fossilised with the ending {{ash|-e}} in certain expressions, generally without any article.

:: {{ash|Igh cam te werlde schreighene e nace.}}

====Articles====

There is an indefinite article {{ash|e}} used both in the singular and sometimes in the plural, and an indefinite article {{ash|de}}. Both articles are invariable for number. They precede the noun phrase. They are not as frequent as in English and the definite article remains more like a demonstrative.

===Adverbs===

Adverbs are productively formed the same way as definite (strong) adjectives. Some inherited ones have umlaut or otherwise break the pattern, e.g. through suppletion.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Adjective
! Adverb
|-
! Regular
| {{ash|full}}
| {{ash|fulle}}
|-
! Umlaut
| {{ash|laung}}
| {{ash|længe}}
|-
! Suppletion
| {{ash|goud}}
| {{ash|wel}}
|}

For example:

:: {{ash|Igh hæfe længe lifd į de heus.}}

===Pronouns===

Pronouns come from unstressed forms so lack diphthongisation. First and second person pronouns retain obliques and possessives. Third person only distinguishes between number and anaphora. Preferably avoided as much as possible when composing cross-intelligible texts as these are probably the weakest link between Germanic varieties.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! 1sg
! 2sg
! 1pl
! 2pl
! 3sg cataphoric
! 3sg anaphoric
! 3pl
|-
! subject
| {{ash|igh}}
| {{ash|du}}
| {{ash|wi}}
| {{ash|ji}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|dæt}}, {{ash|'t}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|dæ}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|dei}}
|-
! oblique
| {{ash|mi}}
| {{ash|di}}
| {{ash|ǫss}}
| {{ash|jer}}
|-
! reflexive
| {{ash|mi sælf}}
| {{ash|di sælf}}
| {{ash|ǫss sælfe}}
| {{ash|jer sælfe}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{ash|s' sælf}}
| {{ash|s' sælfe}}
|-
! possessive
| {{ash|mi', mine}}
| {{ash|di', dine}}
| {{ash|ǫsse}}
| {{ash|jere}}
| colspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | {{ash|s'}}
|}

====Possession====

The nasal forms of the 1sg and 2sg possessives are for plural possessa. Other possessives are invariable.

{| class="wikitable"
! Singular
! Plural
|-
| {{ash|mi' heus}}
| {{ash|mine heuse}}
|}

The third person {{ash|s'}} also works as a possessive marker on nouns, similar to Scandinavian ''sin'' or German ''sein'', e.g. {{ash|de junge mann s' heus}}.

===Verbs===

Infinitives end in {{ash|-e}} and take the marker {{ash|t'}}. Weak verbs do not differentiate between number and strong verbs only do so in the past, with the exception of the copula and preterite-present stems. Participles work like adjectives but the present one is invariable. The past one (or the supine) never takes a prefix like German ''ge-''.

====Weak dental stems====

These take a dissimilatory vowel between the stem and the past tense/participle suffix.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Present
! Past
! Imperative
! Pres. participle
! Past participle
|-
! Singular
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|hate}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|hatede}}
| {{ash|hat (du)}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|hatene}}
| {{ash|hated}}
|-
! Plural
| {{ash|hate (ji)}}
| {{ash|hatede}}
|}

====Weak non-dental stems====

These attach the dental past tense/participle suffix directly to the non-dental stem. Voicing assimilation occurs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Present
! Past
! Imperative
! Pres. participle
! Past participle
|-
! Singular
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|hacce}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|haccte}}
| {{ash|hacc (du)}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|haccene}}
| {{ash|hacct}}
|-
! Plural
| {{ash|hacce (ji)}}
| {{ash|haccte}}
|}

====Strong stems====

These follow various inherited ablaut patterns for the past tense/participle. The past participle ends invariably in {{ash|-e}}.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Present
! Past
! Imperative
! Pres. participle
! Past participle
|-
! Singular
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|finde}}
| {{ash|fand}}
| {{ash|find (du)}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|findene}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|funde}}
|-
! Plural
| {{ash|funde}}
| {{ash|finde (ji)}}
|}

====Copula====

Irregular and defective but simplified through analogy between the few remaining forms.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Present
! Past
|-
! Singular
| {{ash|es}}
| {{ash|war}}
|-
! Plural
| {{ash|ese}}
| {{ash|wære}}
|}

====Preterite-present stems====

These look like strong past forms in the present and like weak past forms in the past. They are defective similarly to the copula.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Present
! Past
|-
! Singular
| {{ash|cann}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|cųdde}}
|-
! Plural
| {{ash|cunne}}
|}

====Mood====

Indicative and conjunctive/subjunctive have merged, but the latter is still formed syntactically by fronting the verb and applying VSO order.

:: {{ash|Come ji te mi, gefe igh jer mi' heus.}}

====Separable verbs====

Verbs with a preposition-like particle as an inseparable part of the lexeme are common as in other Germanic languages. They generally don't fuse.

:: {{ash|Greune leufe falle af, e lande opaų de frose græs.}}

==Phonology and spelling==

There isn't necessarily a strict pronunciation system meant to be followed, but in the spirit of maximising intelligibility also here, this is the baseline.

Spelling is largely phonetic, the main exception being {{ash|⟨sch⟩}} for {{IPA|[ʃx]}} with an etymological {{ash|⟨c⟩}} to aid in recognition.

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |
! Labial
! Coronal
! Palatal
! Velar
! Glottal
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| {{ash|⟨m⟩}} {{IPA|[m]}}
| {{ash|⟨n⟩}} {{IPA|[n]}}
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| ( {{ash|⟨n⟩}} {{IPA|[ŋ]}} )
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
|-
! rowspan="2" | Plosive
! Voiceless
| {{ash|⟨p⟩}} {{IPA|[pʰ~p]}}
| {{ash|⟨t⟩}} {{IPA|[tˢ~t]}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{ash|⟨c⟩}} {{IPA|[cʰ~c~kʰ~k]}}
| ( {{IPA|[ʔ]}} )
|-
! Voiced
| {{ash|⟨b⟩}} {{IPA|[b]}}
| {{ash|⟨d⟩}} {{IPA|[d]}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{ash|⟨g⟩}} {{IPA|[ɟ~g]}}
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
|-
! rowspan="3" | Fricative
! Voiceless
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|⟨f⟩}} {{IPA|[f~v]}}
| {{ash|⟨th⟩}} {{IPA|[θ]}}
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{ash|⟨h⟩}} {{IPA|[x~h]}}
|-
! Voiced
| {{ash|⟨dh⟩}} {{IPA|[ð]}}
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| {{ash|⟨gh⟩}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}}
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
|-
! Sibilant
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| {{ash|⟨s⟩}} {{IPA|[s~ʃ~z]}}
| colspan="3" style="background-color:#aaa" |
|-
! colspan="2" | Rhotic
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| {{ash|⟨r⟩}} {{IPA|[r]}}
| colspan="3" style="background-color:#aaa" |
|-
! colspan="2" | Lateral
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| {{ash|⟨l⟩}} {{IPA|[l]}}
| colspan="3" style="background-color:#aaa" |
|-
! colspan="2" | Glide
| {{ash|⟨w⟩}} {{IPA|[w]}}
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| {{ash|⟨j⟩}} {{IPA|[j]}}
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#aaa" |
|}

* Velar nasal {{IPA|[ŋ]}} occurs before {{IPA|/k g/}}; the {{ash|⟨g⟩}} is pronounced in the {{ash|⟨ng⟩}} cluster.
* Velar stops {{IPA|/k g/}} are palatal around front vowels.
* Glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}} only occurs allophonically to break up vowels between words and is not written.
* Labiodental frivative {{IPA|/f/}} is voiced {{IPA|[v]}} between vowels and before voiced consonants.
* Glottal frivative {{IPA|/h/}} is velar {{IPA|[x]}} in clusters.
* Sibilant fricative {{IPA|/s/}} is voiced {{IPA|[z]}} between vowels and before voiced consonants, and {{IPA|[ʃ]}} initially in clusters.
* The cluster {{IPA|/hw/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[ʍ]}}.
* Voiceless plosives {{IPA|/p k/}} are aspirated initially; {{IPA|/t/}} has a sibilant release everywhere except in clusters.
* There is no word-final devoicing.

===Vowels===

Filch is characterised, like the rest of its family, by many vowel qualities and diphthongs. Vowel length is not phonemic, but phonetically vowels are long in stressed weak syllables (no coda except at the end of a word). There are nasal vowels marked by an ogonek; in nasal diphthongs it goes on the last vowel letter.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vowel
! Long
! Short
|-
| {{ash|⟨a⟩}}
| {{IPA|[aː]}}
| {{IPA|[a]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨e⟩}}
| {{IPA|[eː]}}
| {{IPA|([e]), [ə]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨æ⟩}}
| {{IPA|[ɛː]}}
| {{IPA|[ɛ]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨i⟩}}
| {{IPA|[iː]}}
| {{IPA|[ɪ]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨o⟩}}
| {{IPA|[oː]}}
| {{IPA|[ɔ]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨u⟩}}
| {{IPA|([uː])}}
| {{IPA|[ʊ]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨y⟩}}
| {{IPA|[yː]}}
| {{IPA|[ʏ]}}
|}

* The letter {{ash|⟨e⟩}} in unstressed syllables represents schwa {{IPA|[ə]}}; short {{IPA|[e]}} only appears in diphthongs.
* Oral long {{ash|⟨u⟩}} does not exist because original PG ''*ū'' diphthongised into {{ash|⟨eu⟩}} and PG ''*u'' turned into either {{ash|⟨o⟩}} or {{ash|⟨y⟩}} in weak syllables depending on umlaut. Its nasal counterpart does exist in a few words.
* Nasals are pronounced like their oral counterparts with nasalisation.
* Diphthongs are pronounced like their (short) monophthong constituents in succession.

These are the diphthongs:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|⟨au⟩}}
| {{ash|⟨ea⟩}}
| {{ash|⟨ei⟩}}
| {{ash|⟨eu⟩}}
| {{ash|⟨æy⟩}}
| {{ash|⟨ou⟩}}
|}

===Stress===

Stress is always on the first syllable. Monosyllabic function words are unstressed so take short unstressed pronunciation:

{| class="wikitable"
! Word
! Pronunciation
|-
| {{ash|⟨de⟩}}
| {{IPA|[də]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨mi⟩}}
| {{IPA|[mɪ]}}
|}

===Conventions===

* Compound words are separated by a hyphen {{ash|-}} to make it easier to tease words apart.
* Derivational suffixes such as {{ash|·ligh}} are separated from the stem with an interpunct {{ash|·}} for the same reason.
* Quotation marks are {{ash|«}} and {{ash|»}}.

===Examples===

{| class="wikitable"
! Spelling
! Pronunciation
|-
| {{ash|⟨fisch⟩}}
| {{IPA|[fɪʃx]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨cyrce⟩}}
| {{IPA|[cʰʏr.cə]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨dægh⟩}}
| {{IPA|[dɛːɣ]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨dægh·ligh⟩}}
| {{IPA|[dɛːɣ.lɪɣ]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨hafde⟩}}
| {{IPA|[hav.də]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨stæyn⟩}}
| {{IPA|[ʃtɛʏ̯n]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨taųdh⟩}}
| {{IPA|[tˢãʊ̯̃ð]}}
|}

==Translations==

These are all loose and rely on rewording to capture the ideas of the original texts using only widely recognisable vocabulary. They may also provide more information than the original story to add context that could help understand words that might be trickier in isolation. This is how Filch would actually be used for auxiliary purposes, but of course this is not actually the intention.

===Article one of the universal declaration of human rights===

{{ash|All folc come frei te werlde.<br />
Dei hæfe leice weurde e rehte.<br />
Dei hæfe goude heufde opaų næcce.<br />
Dei finde alle life weghe leice.<br />
All folc es freunde.}}

===Schleicher's fable===

{{ash|Į de greune græs war e gæyte-bocc.<br />
Wull hafde ne de bocc næy; dæ war wulle·leus.<br />
So saugh dæ folc comene, reidene; dei ræyde opaų merre.<br />
Fyrste merr drough e waughen; aųdhere merr baur e weghene byrde.<br />
Bocc sæghde te merre: «igh finde peine į mi' hearte, neu igh sæe mænne reide opaų merre».<br />
Merre sæghde: «heur ǫss; wi finde peine į ǫsse hearte, neu wi sæe mænne į wulle-clæyde, næhst e wulle·leus bocc».<br />
Bocc heurde merre, e leupte af wegh.}}

===First paragraph of The Hobbit===

{{ash|Į hol under eurde lifde e «hobbe».<br />
Ne war 't e scheite-hol full e wate næy; her wære ne creupene worme, ne feul rotning næy.<br />
De hol war ne bar, ne nace, ne full e sand næy.<br />
Her cųdde folc sitte, e her cųdde dei ete: 't war e «hobbe-hol», e dæt seghe, her es 't goud.}}

{{IPA|ɪ̃ ˈhoːl ˌʊn.dər ˈeʊ̯r.də ˈlɪv.də ʔə ˈhɔb.bə<br />
nə ˌwa(ː)r ətˢ ə ˈʃxeɪ̯.tˢəˌhoːl ˌfʊlː ə ˈwaː.tˢə ˌnɛʏ̯ ‖ ˈheːr ˌwɛː.rə nə ˈkʰreʊ̯.pə.nə ˈwɔr.mə nə ˈfeʊ̯l ˈrɔt.nɪŋg ˌnɛʏ̯<br />
də ˈhoːl ˌwa(ː)r nə ˈbaːr nə ˈnaːcə nə ˌfʊlː ə ˈsand ˌnɛʏ̯<br />
ˈheːr ˌkʰʊ̃d.də ˈfɔlk ˈsɪt.tˢə ʔə ˈheːr ˌkʰʊ̃d.də dəɪ̯ ˈeː.tˢə ‖ (ʔə)t ˌwa(ː)r ə ˈhɔb.bəˌhoːl ə ˈdɛːtˢ ˌsɛː.ɣə ˈheːr əz‿ətˢ ˈgɔʊ̯d}}

==Phrases and words==

===Greetings===

* {{ash|goude morghening}}
* {{ash|goude dægh}}
* {{ash|goude næht}}
* {{ash|wel come}}
* {{ash|fare wel}}

===Questions===

* {{ash|hwat es de name?}}
* {{ash|hwat es de eur neu?}}
* {{ash|hæfe hunger?}}
* {{ash|hæfe thorste?}}

===Answers===

* {{ash|name es…}}
* {{ash|eur es…}}
* {{ash|ja}}
* {{ash|næy}}
* {{ash|thącce}}

===Numbers===

* {{ash|æyn}}
* {{ash|twæy}}
* {{ash|threi}}
* {{ash|feure}}
* {{ash|feųf}}
* {{ash|sehs}}
* {{ash|seų}}
* {{ash|æhte}}
* {{ash|neų}}
* {{ash|teų}}
* {{ash|ellefe}}
* {{ash|twælf}}
* {{ash|hundred(e)}}
* {{ash|theusend(e)}}

===Body parts===

* {{ash|heufd}}
* {{ash|eure}}
* {{ash|æyghe}}
* {{ash|neuse}}
* {{ash|mųdh}}
* {{ash|tunge}}
* {{ash|taųdh}} - {{ash|tæ̨dhe}}
* {{ash|hand}} - {{ash|hænde}}
* {{ash|fout}} - {{ash|fæyte}}

===Animals===

* {{ash|catt}}
* {{ash|hund}}
* {{ash|fisch}}
* {{ash|wulf}}
* {{ash|meus}} - {{ash|mæyse}}
* {{ash|gaųs}} - {{ash|gæ̨se}}

===Other===

* {{ash|Launge fische fylle mi' flyghene schip!}}

Ash

2024-01-30T09:27:02Z

Prinsessa: /* Locative verbs */ me > ne + updated semantic range

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{interlinear|abbreviations=PROX:proximal deixis; INTS:intensive; MOD:modal auxiliary verb; CLF:classifier auxiliary verb; INV:inverse agency; CONJ:conjunct involvement
|{{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo}} {{ash|ya ẻsbadsas yo}} {{ash|ảo ga}}
|PROX-head{{=}}CLF DET{{=}}PROX-INV-braid-CONJ{{=}}MOD Ao{{=}}CLF
|Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|ne}}
| :PYR
| Inside, essence, fire
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
</div>
</div>

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

===Reported speech===

As mentioned previously, while languages with speaker's involvement marking will often express reported speech from the perspective of the one whose speech is being reported, this is not the case in Ash. However there are direct and indirect modals for reported speech in Ash which may depend on who was talking to whom. Some examples follow below.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏsgaas yo ebmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DIST-INV-say-CONJ=MOD:DECL PROX-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me my head is big.
}}

Here the speaker uses the declarative modal {{ash|yo}} as they were spoken to directly so no evidential is needed. The actual reported speech is followed by the {{ash|ıhga}} modal marking a direct report, i.e. something the speaker heard personally.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy oa gõ bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This sentence has more referents and so additional markers are necessary to keep track of things. The experiential evidential {{ash|e}} is now used as the speaker was not spoken to but merely witnessed a conversation. The contrastive function of determiners is used to shift the topic back to Dosmo after Oas is introduced.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa hga oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda wwa}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:DIR Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:INDIR
|translation=I'm told Dosmo told Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This last example uses {{ash|ıhga}} in the first half to denote that the speaker was told by someone else what Dosmo had said and so the actual speech must be reported using the indirect speech report marker {{ash|ıwwa}} instead.

<div begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
PROX:proximal deixis
INTS:intensive
MOD:modal auxiliary verb
CLF:classifier auxiliary verb
INV:inverse agency
CONJ:conjunct involvement
</div><div end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Template:AshStyle/style.css

2024-01-29T08:31:48Z

Prinsessa: Removed interlinear margin

/*@import url('https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Noto+Sans:ital,wght@0,400;0,700;1,400;1,700&display=swap');*/

.ash {
font-family:
'Lucida Grande',
'Noto Sans',
'Lucida Sans Unicode',
'Arial',
'Verdana',
'Helvetica',
'Tahoma',
sans-serif;
font-style: normal;
font-weight: normal;
position: relative;
}

.ash-columns {
display: flex;
flex-wrap: wrap;
}

.ash-column {
margin: 0.5em 0; /* Copied from regular p style */
}

.interlinear {
background: #f3f3f3;
padding: 1em;
padding-bottom: 0.5em;
padding-left: 2em;
}

/*
.ash-mh { position: relative; }

.ash-mh::before {
position: absolute;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
left: 0;
content: 'ả';
clip: rect(0, 2em, 1.075ex, 0);
}

.ash-mh > span {
height: 1.25ex;
overflow: hidden;
display: inline-flex;
align-items: flex-start;
line-height: 0.75ex;
}
*/

Template:AshStyle/style.css

2024-01-29T08:31:26Z

Prinsessa: Some extra style to make interlinear blocks stand out.

/*@import url('https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Noto+Sans:ital,wght@0,400;0,700;1,400;1,700&display=swap');*/

.ash {
font-family:
'Lucida Grande',
'Noto Sans',
'Lucida Sans Unicode',
'Arial',
'Verdana',
'Helvetica',
'Tahoma',
sans-serif;
font-style: normal;
font-weight: normal;
position: relative;
}

.ash-columns {
display: flex;
flex-wrap: wrap;
}

.ash-column {
margin: 0.5em 0; /* Copied from regular p style */
}

.interlinear {
margin-left: 2em;
background: #f3f3f3;
padding: 1em;
padding-bottom: 0.5em;
padding-left: 2em;
}

/*
.ash-mh { position: relative; }

.ash-mh::before {
position: absolute;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
left: 0;
content: 'ả';
clip: rect(0, 2em, 1.075ex, 0);
}

.ash-mh > span {
height: 1.25ex;
overflow: hidden;
display: inline-flex;
align-items: flex-start;
line-height: 0.75ex;
}
*/

Template:AshStyle/style.css

2024-01-29T08:28:53Z

Prinsessa: Left margin for interlinear class.

/*@import url('https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Noto+Sans:ital,wght@0,400;0,700;1,400;1,700&display=swap');*/

.ash {
font-family:
'Lucida Grande',
'Noto Sans',
'Lucida Sans Unicode',
'Arial',
'Verdana',
'Helvetica',
'Tahoma',
sans-serif;
font-style: normal;
font-weight: normal;
position: relative;
}

.ash-columns {
display: flex;
flex-wrap: wrap;
}

.ash-column {
margin: 0.5em 0; /* Copied from regular p style */
}

.interlinear {
margin-left: 2em;
}

/*
.ash-mh { position: relative; }

.ash-mh::before {
position: absolute;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
left: 0;
content: 'ả';
clip: rect(0, 2em, 1.075ex, 0);
}

.ash-mh > span {
height: 1.25ex;
overflow: hidden;
display: inline-flex;
align-items: flex-start;
line-height: 0.75ex;
}
*/

Ash

2024-01-29T08:23:45Z

Prinsessa: Added custom definitions for the interlinear INV and CONJ abbreviations.

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{interlinear|abbreviations=PROX:proximal deixis; INTS:intensive; MOD:modal auxiliary verb; CLF:classifier auxiliary verb; INV:inverse agency; CONJ:conjunct involvement
|{{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo}} {{ash|ya ẻsbadsas yo}} {{ash|ảo ga}}
|PROX-head{{=}}CLF DET{{=}}PROX-INV-braid-CONJ{{=}}MOD Ao{{=}}CLF
|Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
</div>
</div>

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

===Reported speech===

As mentioned previously, while languages with speaker's involvement marking will often express reported speech from the perspective of the one whose speech is being reported, this is not the case in Ash. However there are direct and indirect modals for reported speech in Ash which may depend on who was talking to whom. Some examples follow below.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏsgaas yo ebmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DIST-INV-say-CONJ=MOD:DECL PROX-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me my head is big.
}}

Here the speaker uses the declarative modal {{ash|yo}} as they were spoken to directly so no evidential is needed. The actual reported speech is followed by the {{ash|ıhga}} modal marking a direct report, i.e. something the speaker heard personally.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy oa gõ bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This sentence has more referents and so additional markers are necessary to keep track of things. The experiential evidential {{ash|e}} is now used as the speaker was not spoken to but merely witnessed a conversation. The contrastive function of determiners is used to shift the topic back to Dosmo after Oas is introduced.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa hga oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda wwa}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:DIR Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:INDIR
|translation=I'm told Dosmo told Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This last example uses {{ash|ıhga}} in the first half to denote that the speaker was told by someone else what Dosmo had said and so the actual speech must be reported using the indirect speech report marker {{ash|ıwwa}} instead.

<div begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
PROX:proximal deixis
INTS:intensive
MOD:modal auxiliary verb
CLF:classifier auxiliary verb
INV:inverse agency
CONJ:conjunct involvement
</div><div end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-29T08:22:31Z

Prinsessa: Added custom definitions for the interlinear MOD and CLF abbreviations.

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{interlinear|abbreviations=PROX:proximal deixis; INTS:intensive; MOD:modal auxiliary verb; CLF:classifier auxiliary verb
|{{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo}} {{ash|ya ẻsbadsas yo}} {{ash|ảo ga}}
|PROX-head{{=}}CLF DET{{=}}PROX-INV-braid-CONJ{{=}}MOD Ao{{=}}CLF
|Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
</div>
</div>

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

===Reported speech===

As mentioned previously, while languages with speaker's involvement marking will often express reported speech from the perspective of the one whose speech is being reported, this is not the case in Ash. However there are direct and indirect modals for reported speech in Ash which may depend on who was talking to whom. Some examples follow below.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏsgaas yo ebmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DIST-INV-say-CONJ=MOD:DECL PROX-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me my head is big.
}}

Here the speaker uses the declarative modal {{ash|yo}} as they were spoken to directly so no evidential is needed. The actual reported speech is followed by the {{ash|ıhga}} modal marking a direct report, i.e. something the speaker heard personally.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy oa gõ bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This sentence has more referents and so additional markers are necessary to keep track of things. The experiential evidential {{ash|e}} is now used as the speaker was not spoken to but merely witnessed a conversation. The contrastive function of determiners is used to shift the topic back to Dosmo after Oas is introduced.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa hga oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda wwa}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:DIR Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:INDIR
|translation=I'm told Dosmo told Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This last example uses {{ash|ıhga}} in the first half to denote that the speaker was told by someone else what Dosmo had said and so the actual speech must be reported using the indirect speech report marker {{ash|ıwwa}} instead.

<div begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
PROX:proximal deixis
INTS:intensive
MOD:modal auxiliary verb
CLF:classifier auxiliary verb
</div><div end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-29T08:17:31Z

Prinsessa: /* Indirect involvement */ Replacing the first gloss template with an interlinear template (will replace all) and simplifying the gloss to a level relevant to the example at hand (will again do for all).

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{interlinear|abbreviations=PROX:proximal deixis; INTS:intensive
|{{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo}} {{ash|ya ẻsbadsas yo}} {{ash|ảo ga}}
|PROX-head{{=}}CLF DET{{=}}PROX-INV-braid-CONJ{{=}}MOD Ao{{=}}CLF
|Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
</div>
</div>

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

===Reported speech===

As mentioned previously, while languages with speaker's involvement marking will often express reported speech from the perspective of the one whose speech is being reported, this is not the case in Ash. However there are direct and indirect modals for reported speech in Ash which may depend on who was talking to whom. Some examples follow below.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏsgaas yo ebmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DIST-INV-say-CONJ=MOD:DECL PROX-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me my head is big.
}}

Here the speaker uses the declarative modal {{ash|yo}} as they were spoken to directly so no evidential is needed. The actual reported speech is followed by the {{ash|ıhga}} modal marking a direct report, i.e. something the speaker heard personally.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy oa gõ bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This sentence has more referents and so additional markers are necessary to keep track of things. The experiential evidential {{ash|e}} is now used as the speaker was not spoken to but merely witnessed a conversation. The contrastive function of determiners is used to shift the topic back to Dosmo after Oas is introduced.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa hga oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda wwa}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:DIR Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:INDIR
|translation=I'm told Dosmo told Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This last example uses {{ash|ıhga}} in the first half to denote that the speaker was told by someone else what Dosmo had said and so the actual speech must be reported using the indirect speech report marker {{ash|ıwwa}} instead.

<div begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
PROX:proximal deixis
INTS:intensive</div><div end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-29T08:14:50Z

Prinsessa: Article-level custom abbreviations might be broken on Linguifex, doing inline in the meantime.

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

{{interlinear|abbreviations=PROX:proximal deixis; INTS:intensive
|{{ash|ẽbmo͠o{{=}}mo}} {{ash|ya{{=}}ẻsbadsas{{=}}yo}} {{ash|ảo{{=}}ga}}
|PROX-POSS-head{{=}}CLF DET:PROX{{=}}PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ{{=}}MOD:DECL Ao{{=}}CLF
|Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
</div>
</div>

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

===Reported speech===

As mentioned previously, while languages with speaker's involvement marking will often express reported speech from the perspective of the one whose speech is being reported, this is not the case in Ash. However there are direct and indirect modals for reported speech in Ash which may depend on who was talking to whom. Some examples follow below.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏsgaas yo ebmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DIST-INV-say-CONJ=MOD:DECL PROX-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me my head is big.
}}

Here the speaker uses the declarative modal {{ash|yo}} as they were spoken to directly so no evidential is needed. The actual reported speech is followed by the {{ash|ıhga}} modal marking a direct report, i.e. something the speaker heard personally.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy oa gõ bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This sentence has more referents and so additional markers are necessary to keep track of things. The experiential evidential {{ash|e}} is now used as the speaker was not spoken to but merely witnessed a conversation. The contrastive function of determiners is used to shift the topic back to Dosmo after Oas is introduced.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa hga oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda wwa}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:DIR Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:INDIR
|translation=I'm told Dosmo told Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This last example uses {{ash|ıhga}} in the first half to denote that the speaker was told by someone else what Dosmo had said and so the actual speech must be reported using the indirect speech report marker {{ash|ıwwa}} instead.

<div begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
PROX:proximal deixis
INTS:intensive</div><div end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-29T08:13:26Z

Prinsessa: Custom abbreviations not working, trying div instead of section.

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

{{interlinear
|{{ash|ẽbmo͠o{{=}}mo}} {{ash|ya{{=}}ẻsbadsas{{=}}yo}} {{ash|ảo{{=}}ga}}
|PROX-POSS-head{{=}}CLF DET:PROX{{=}}PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ{{=}}MOD:DECL Ao{{=}}CLF
|Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
</div>
</div>

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

===Reported speech===

As mentioned previously, while languages with speaker's involvement marking will often express reported speech from the perspective of the one whose speech is being reported, this is not the case in Ash. However there are direct and indirect modals for reported speech in Ash which may depend on who was talking to whom. Some examples follow below.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏsgaas yo ebmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DIST-INV-say-CONJ=MOD:DECL PROX-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me my head is big.
}}

Here the speaker uses the declarative modal {{ash|yo}} as they were spoken to directly so no evidential is needed. The actual reported speech is followed by the {{ash|ıhga}} modal marking a direct report, i.e. something the speaker heard personally.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy oa gõ bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This sentence has more referents and so additional markers are necessary to keep track of things. The experiential evidential {{ash|e}} is now used as the speaker was not spoken to but merely witnessed a conversation. The contrastive function of determiners is used to shift the topic back to Dosmo after Oas is introduced.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa hga oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda wwa}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:DIR Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:INDIR
|translation=I'm told Dosmo told Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This last example uses {{ash|ıhga}} in the first half to denote that the speaker was told by someone else what Dosmo had said and so the actual speech must be reported using the indirect speech report marker {{ash|ıwwa}} instead.

<div begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
PROX:Proximal deixis
INTS:Intensive stem</div><div end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-29T08:12:11Z

Prinsessa: Adding custom glossing abbreviations.

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

{{interlinear
|{{ash|ẽbmo͠o{{=}}mo}} {{ash|ya{{=}}ẻsbadsas{{=}}yo}} {{ash|ảo{{=}}ga}}
|PROX-POSS-head{{=}}CLF DET:PROX{{=}}PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ{{=}}MOD:DECL Ao{{=}}CLF
|Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
</div>
</div>

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

===Reported speech===

As mentioned previously, while languages with speaker's involvement marking will often express reported speech from the perspective of the one whose speech is being reported, this is not the case in Ash. However there are direct and indirect modals for reported speech in Ash which may depend on who was talking to whom. Some examples follow below.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏsgaas yo ebmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DIST-INV-say-CONJ=MOD:DECL PROX-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me my head is big.
}}

Here the speaker uses the declarative modal {{ash|yo}} as they were spoken to directly so no evidential is needed. The actual reported speech is followed by the {{ash|ıhga}} modal marking a direct report, i.e. something the speaker heard personally.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy oa gõ bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This sentence has more referents and so additional markers are necessary to keep track of things. The experiential evidential {{ash|e}} is now used as the speaker was not spoken to but merely witnessed a conversation. The contrastive function of determiners is used to shift the topic back to Dosmo after Oas is introduced.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa hga oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda wwa}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:DIR Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:INDIR
|translation=I'm told Dosmo told Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This last example uses {{ash|ıhga}} in the first half to denote that the speaker was told by someone else what Dosmo had said and so the actual speech must be reported using the indirect speech report marker {{ash|ıwwa}} instead.

<section begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
PROX:Proximal deixis
INTS:Intensive stem</div><section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-29T08:10:36Z

Prinsessa: /* Indirect involvement */ Temporary testing since the preview is a bit broken for some templates…

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

{{interlinear
|{{ash|ẽbmo͠o{{=}}mo}} {{ash|ya{{=}}ẻsbadsas{{=}}yo}} {{ash|ảo{{=}}ga}}
|PROX-POSS-head{{=}}CLF DET:PROX{{=}}PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ{{=}}MOD:DECL Ao{{=}}CLF
|Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
</div>
</div>

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

===Reported speech===

As mentioned previously, while languages with speaker's involvement marking will often express reported speech from the perspective of the one whose speech is being reported, this is not the case in Ash. However there are direct and indirect modals for reported speech in Ash which may depend on who was talking to whom. Some examples follow below.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏsgaas yo ebmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DIST-INV-say-CONJ=MOD:DECL PROX-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me my head is big.
}}

Here the speaker uses the declarative modal {{ash|yo}} as they were spoken to directly so no evidential is needed. The actual reported speech is followed by the {{ash|ıhga}} modal marking a direct report, i.e. something the speaker heard personally.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy oa gõ bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This sentence has more referents and so additional markers are necessary to keep track of things. The experiential evidential {{ash|e}} is now used as the speaker was not spoken to but merely witnessed a conversation. The contrastive function of determiners is used to shift the topic back to Dosmo after Oas is introduced.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa hga oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda wwa}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:DIR Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:INDIR
|translation=I'm told Dosmo told Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This last example uses {{ash|ıhga}} in the first half to denote that the speaker was told by someone else what Dosmo had said and so the actual speech must be reported using the indirect speech report marker {{ash|ıwwa}} instead.

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-29T08:10:19Z

Prinsessa: /* Indirect involvement */ Temporary testing since the preview is a bit broken for some templates…

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

{{interlinear
|{{ash|ẽbmo͠o{{=}}mo}} ya{{=}}ẻsbadsas{{=}}yo ảo{{=}}ga
|PROX-POSS-head{{=}}CLF DET:PROX{{=}}PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ{{=}}MOD:DECL Ao{{=}}CLF
|Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
</div>
</div>

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

===Reported speech===

As mentioned previously, while languages with speaker's involvement marking will often express reported speech from the perspective of the one whose speech is being reported, this is not the case in Ash. However there are direct and indirect modals for reported speech in Ash which may depend on who was talking to whom. Some examples follow below.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏsgaas yo ebmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DIST-INV-say-CONJ=MOD:DECL PROX-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me my head is big.
}}

Here the speaker uses the declarative modal {{ash|yo}} as they were spoken to directly so no evidential is needed. The actual reported speech is followed by the {{ash|ıhga}} modal marking a direct report, i.e. something the speaker heard personally.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy oa gõ bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This sentence has more referents and so additional markers are necessary to keep track of things. The experiential evidential {{ash|e}} is now used as the speaker was not spoken to but merely witnessed a conversation. The contrastive function of determiners is used to shift the topic back to Dosmo after Oas is introduced.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa hga oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda wwa}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:DIR Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:INDIR
|translation=I'm told Dosmo told Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This last example uses {{ash|ıhga}} in the first half to denote that the speaker was told by someone else what Dosmo had said and so the actual speech must be reported using the indirect speech report marker {{ash|ıwwa}} instead.

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-29T08:09:58Z

Prinsessa: /* Indirect involvement */ Temporary testing since the preview is a bit broken for some templates…

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

{{ash|{{interlinear
|ẽbmo͠o{{=}}mo ya{{=}}ẻsbadsas{{=}}yo ảo{{=}}ga
|PROX-POSS-head{{=}}CLF DET:PROX{{=}}PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ{{=}}MOD:DECL Ao{{=}}CLF
|Ao is braiding my hair.
}}}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
</div>
</div>

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

===Reported speech===

As mentioned previously, while languages with speaker's involvement marking will often express reported speech from the perspective of the one whose speech is being reported, this is not the case in Ash. However there are direct and indirect modals for reported speech in Ash which may depend on who was talking to whom. Some examples follow below.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏsgaas yo ebmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DIST-INV-say-CONJ=MOD:DECL PROX-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me my head is big.
}}

Here the speaker uses the declarative modal {{ash|yo}} as they were spoken to directly so no evidential is needed. The actual reported speech is followed by the {{ash|ıhga}} modal marking a direct report, i.e. something the speaker heard personally.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy oa gõ bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This sentence has more referents and so additional markers are necessary to keep track of things. The experiential evidential {{ash|e}} is now used as the speaker was not spoken to but merely witnessed a conversation. The contrastive function of determiners is used to shift the topic back to Dosmo after Oas is introduced.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa hga oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda wwa}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:DIR Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:INDIR
|translation=I'm told Dosmo told Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This last example uses {{ash|ıhga}} in the first half to denote that the speaker was told by someone else what Dosmo had said and so the actual speech must be reported using the indirect speech report marker {{ash|ıwwa}} instead.

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-29T08:05:52Z

Prinsessa: /* Indirect involvement */ Temporary testing since the preview is a bit broken for some templates…

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

{{interlinear
|ẽbmo͠o=mo ya=ẻsbadsas=yo ảo=ga
|PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
</div>
</div>

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

===Reported speech===

As mentioned previously, while languages with speaker's involvement marking will often express reported speech from the perspective of the one whose speech is being reported, this is not the case in Ash. However there are direct and indirect modals for reported speech in Ash which may depend on who was talking to whom. Some examples follow below.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏsgaas yo ebmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DIST-INV-say-CONJ=MOD:DECL PROX-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me my head is big.
}}

Here the speaker uses the declarative modal {{ash|yo}} as they were spoken to directly so no evidential is needed. The actual reported speech is followed by the {{ash|ıhga}} modal marking a direct report, i.e. something the speaker heard personally.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy oa gõ bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This sentence has more referents and so additional markers are necessary to keep track of things. The experiential evidential {{ash|e}} is now used as the speaker was not spoken to but merely witnessed a conversation. The contrastive function of determiners is used to shift the topic back to Dosmo after Oas is introduced.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa hga oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda wwa}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:DIR Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:INDIR
|translation=I'm told Dosmo told Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This last example uses {{ash|ıhga}} in the first half to denote that the speaker was told by someone else what Dosmo had said and so the actual speech must be reported using the indirect speech report marker {{ash|ıwwa}} instead.

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-29T08:05:11Z

Prinsessa: /* Indirect involvement */ Temporary testing since the preview is a bit broken for some templates…

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

{{interlinear
|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo ảo ga
|PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
</div>
</div>

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

===Reported speech===

As mentioned previously, while languages with speaker's involvement marking will often express reported speech from the perspective of the one whose speech is being reported, this is not the case in Ash. However there are direct and indirect modals for reported speech in Ash which may depend on who was talking to whom. Some examples follow below.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏsgaas yo ebmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DIST-INV-say-CONJ=MOD:DECL PROX-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me my head is big.
}}

Here the speaker uses the declarative modal {{ash|yo}} as they were spoken to directly so no evidential is needed. The actual reported speech is followed by the {{ash|ıhga}} modal marking a direct report, i.e. something the speaker heard personally.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy oa gõ bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This sentence has more referents and so additional markers are necessary to keep track of things. The experiential evidential {{ash|e}} is now used as the speaker was not spoken to but merely witnessed a conversation. The contrastive function of determiners is used to shift the topic back to Dosmo after Oas is introduced.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa hga oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda wwa}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:DIR Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:INDIR
|translation=I'm told Dosmo told Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This last example uses {{ash|ıhga}} in the first half to denote that the speaker was told by someone else what Dosmo had said and so the actual speech must be reported using the indirect speech report marker {{ash|ıwwa}} instead.

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-29T08:04:51Z

Prinsessa: /* Indirect involvement */ Temporary testing since the preview is a bit broken for some templates…

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

{{interlinear
|{{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
</div>
</div>

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

===Reported speech===

As mentioned previously, while languages with speaker's involvement marking will often express reported speech from the perspective of the one whose speech is being reported, this is not the case in Ash. However there are direct and indirect modals for reported speech in Ash which may depend on who was talking to whom. Some examples follow below.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏsgaas yo ebmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DIST-INV-say-CONJ=MOD:DECL PROX-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me my head is big.
}}

Here the speaker uses the declarative modal {{ash|yo}} as they were spoken to directly so no evidential is needed. The actual reported speech is followed by the {{ash|ıhga}} modal marking a direct report, i.e. something the speaker heard personally.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy oa gõ bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This sentence has more referents and so additional markers are necessary to keep track of things. The experiential evidential {{ash|e}} is now used as the speaker was not spoken to but merely witnessed a conversation. The contrastive function of determiners is used to shift the topic back to Dosmo after Oas is introduced.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa hga oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda wwa}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:DIR Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:INDIR
|translation=I'm told Dosmo told Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This last example uses {{ash|ıhga}} in the first half to denote that the speaker was told by someone else what Dosmo had said and so the actual speech must be reported using the indirect speech report marker {{ash|ıwwa}} instead.

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-28T01:08:40Z

Prinsessa: /* Reported speech */ Forgot to update the glosses in the last edit.

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
</div>
</div>

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

===Reported speech===

As mentioned previously, while languages with speaker's involvement marking will often express reported speech from the perspective of the one whose speech is being reported, this is not the case in Ash. However there are direct and indirect modals for reported speech in Ash which may depend on who was talking to whom. Some examples follow below.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏsgaas yo ebmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DIST-INV-say-CONJ=MOD:DECL PROX-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me my head is big.
}}

Here the speaker uses the declarative modal {{ash|yo}} as they were spoken to directly so no evidential is needed. The actual reported speech is followed by the {{ash|ıhga}} modal marking a direct report, i.e. something the speaker heard personally.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy oa gõ bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This sentence has more referents and so additional markers are necessary to keep track of things. The experiential evidential {{ash|e}} is now used as the speaker was not spoken to but merely witnessed a conversation. The contrastive function of determiners is used to shift the topic back to Dosmo after Oas is introduced.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa hga oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda wwa}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:DIR Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:INDIR
|translation=I'm told Dosmo told Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This last example uses {{ash|ıhga}} in the first half to denote that the speaker was told by someone else what Dosmo had said and so the actual speech must be reported using the indirect speech report marker {{ash|ıwwa}} instead.

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-28T01:06:39Z

Prinsessa: /* Reported speech */ Corrected some mistakes and decided to remove some of the examples as this page is not meant to be exhaustive.

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
</div>
</div>

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

===Reported speech===

As mentioned previously, while languages with speaker's involvement marking will often express reported speech from the perspective of the one whose speech is being reported, this is not the case in Ash. However there are direct and indirect modals for reported speech in Ash which may depend on who was talking to whom. Some examples follow below.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏsgaas yo ebmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF said=MOD:EXP PROX-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me my head is big.
}}

Here the speaker uses the declarative modal {{ash|yo}} as they were spoken to directly so no evidential is needed. The actual reported speech is followed by the {{ash|ıhga}} modal marking a direct report, i.e. something the speaker heard personally.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy oa gõ bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=said=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This sentence has more referents and so additional markers are necessary to keep track of things. Here the contrastive function of determiners is used to shift the topic back to Dosmo after Oas is introduced.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa hga oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda wwa}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=said=MOD:DIR Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:INDIR
|translation=I'm told Dosmo told Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

This last example uses {{ash|ıhga}} in the first half to denote that the speaker was told by someone else what Dosmo had said and so the actual speech must be reported using the indirect speech report marker {{ash|ıwwa}} instead.

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-28T00:37:46Z

Prinsessa: /* Pragmatics and conventions */ Reported speech

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
</div>
</div>

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

===Reported speech===

As mentioned previously, while languages with speaker's involvement marking will often express reported speech from the perspective of the one whose speech is being reported, this is not the case in Ash. However there are direct and indirect modals for reported speech in Ash which may depend on who was talking to whom.

Below are some examples of increasingly complex reports of speech also demonstrating obviation.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏhgaa e ebmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF said=MOD:EXP PROX-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me my head is big.
}}

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏhgaa e obmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF said=MOD:EXP DIST-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏhgaa e oas gã bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF said=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me Oas's head is big.
}}

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=said=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DIST-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Oas's) head is big.
}}

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy oa gõ bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=said=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa hga oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda wwa}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=said=MOD:DIR Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:INDIR
|translation=I'm told Dosmo told Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}

All examples except the last have the experiential modal {{ash|e}} to denote that the speaker directly saw or heard what Dosmo said, and the modal {{ash|ıhga}} marking a direct report of speech (the speaker heard it). The last example instead uses {{ash|hga}} in the first half to denote that the speaker was told by someone else what Dosmo had said and so the actual speech must be reported using the indirect speech report marker {{ash|ıwwa}} instead.

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-27T13:06:17Z

Prinsessa: /* Colour terms */ Added non-attributive/non-subordinating use of oa(da).

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
</div>
</div>

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-27T12:59:48Z

Prinsessa: /* Modality */ Changed table formatting to match updated evidentiality table below.

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-27T12:58:09Z

Prinsessa: /* Evidentiality */ More evidentials.

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
! Inferential
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}

Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-27T12:46:02Z

Prinsessa: /* Morphology */ Commas, more details on nominalisation (determiners), some wording/clarification/correction (agency)

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-27T12:38:52Z

Prinsessa: /* Romanisation */ Apostrophe, reverted previous change after realising there are non-word-final instances

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-27T12:38:06Z

Prinsessa: /* Romanisation */ Apostrophe, specified word-finally

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel word-finally. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-27T12:37:11Z

Prinsessa: /* Romanisation */ Apostrophe

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Filch

2024-01-24T12:22:20Z

Prinsessa: /* Pronouns */ mi', mine / di', dine

{{Infobox language
|name = Filch
|nativename = {{ash|fylsche tunge}}
|pronunciation = ˈfʏl.ʃxə ˈtˢʊŋ.gə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = Germanic
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Filch''' ({{ash|fylsch}}, equivalent to "folk" + "-ish") is an artistic auxiliary language in the Germanic family.

It is not actually intended as an auxiliary language but designed for fun with the intention of the highest possible intelligibility to modern Germanic speakers while still seeming like a naturalistic descendant of Proto-Germanic that evolved organically. Ease of learning and producing Filch fluently is secondary. Vocabulary and phrases are only added if they have widespread counterparts, so Filch does not necessarily have a one-word translation of everything, and descriptive language to get around this is expected.

For the English name compare "French" from Old English ''Frenċisċ'' with the same umlaut and palatalisation.

===Sample===

{{ash|Næhst de aulde·lighe cyrce stoud e heugh byrc, full e breune mærce opaų s' barc.<br />
Come somer wære de leufe greune, æfter dæt geulwe, e fore de jaur s' ende wære dei reude.<br />
Come wįter fælle dei af, dogh thącc de sneu war de byrc ne nace næy, for dæ war gefe e hweit croune.<br />
Warme weder sunge flyghene foughele; caulde weder saung frysene wind.}}

{{IPA|ˌnɛxs‿tə ˈaʊ̯l.dəˌlɪ.ɣə ˈcʰʏr.cə ˌʃtɔʊ̯d ə ˈheʊ̯ɣ ˈbʏrc ˌfʊlː ə ˈbreʊ̯.nə ˈmɛr.cə ˌʔɔ.pãʊ̯̃ zə ˈbark<br />
ˌkʰoːmə ˈsoː.mər ˌwɛ(ː).rə də ˈleʊ̯.və ˈgreʊ̯.nə ❘ ˌʔɛftər ˈdɛːtˢ ˈɟeʊ̯l.wə ❘ ʔə ˌfo(ː).rə də ˈjaʊ̯r ˈz‿en.də ˌwɛ(ː).rə dəɪ̯ ˈreʊ̯.də<br />
ˌkʰoːmə ˈwĩː.tˢər ˌfɛl.lə dəɪ̯ aːf ❘ ˌdo(ː)ɣ ˌθãkː tə ˈʃneʊ̯ ˌwa(ː)r də ˈbʏrc nə ˈnaːcə ˌnɛʏ̯ ❘ ˌfo(ː)r də ˌwa(ː)r ˈɟeː.və ʔə ˈʍeɪ̯tˢ ˈkʰrɔʊ̯.nə<br />
ˈwar.mə ˌweː.dər ˌsuŋ.gə ˈflyː.ɣə.nə ˈfɔʊ̯.ɣə.lə ‖ ˈkʰaʊ̯l.də ˌweː.dər ˌsaʊ̯ŋg ˈfryː.zə.nə ˈwɪnd}}

===Design goals and process===

Filch is meant to cast as wide a net as possible in terms of understanding. This makes peripheral varieties such as Icelandic and English, which often have less in common with the rest of the family, equally important when deciding on words or phrases.

An example of the considerations made in such a choice:

{| class="wikitable"
! PG
! HWG
! LWG
! IWG
! NG
! Filch
|-
| *bi
| bei
| bij
| by
| (bí)
| {{ash|*bei}}
|-
| *wiþ-
| (wider)
| (we[d]er)
| (with)
| við
| {{ash|*wid}}
|-
| *at
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | *at
| at
| at
| {{ash|*at}}
|-
| *midi
| mit
| met
| —
| með
| {{ash|*mid}}
|-
| *nēhwist
| nächst
| naast
| next [to]
| ~næst [eftir]
| {{ash|'''næhst'''}}
|}

Representative branches are very roughly divided into somewhat inaccurate, but useful, groups: Proto-Germanic, "High West Germanic", "Low West Germanic", "Insular West Germanic" and North Germanic respectively. "Insular" refers to the English-Scots continuum. "High" and "low" roughly represent the respective ends of the mainland continuum. Frisian may fall under either of these depending, simply for convenience. North is usually represented by Old Norse unless descendants disagree. Multiple reflexes may occur in one cell, and cells may merge.

Apostrophe, tilde, parentheses and brackets represent various considerations. Filch forms with an apostrophe show what disqualified cognates would look like. The final word in bold matches all branches well enough to be selected.

====Internal derivation====

Words are regularly derived from PG as much as possible but if the result is a bad compromise between branches various excuses are available to nudge it in the desired direction: perhaps it was from a slightly different stem; perhaps it was changed by analogy; perhaps it was not directly inherited but loaned at some point from a neighbouring variety.

The word stock is mostly Germanic but loans that are thoroughly entrenched across the board (e.g. {{ash|cyrce}}) can make the cut.

====Phrases====

When all else fails there might be a phrase that's cross-compatible when no single word is.

{| class="wikitable"
! PG
! HWG
! LWG
! IWG
! NG
! Filch
|-
| *-sta(nd)a-
| (ver)stehen
| (ver)staan
| (under)stand
| *(for)stå
| {{ash|*-sta(nd)e}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | *grip-,<br />*grīp-
| (be)greifen
| (be)grijpen
| —
| *(be)gripa
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|'''hæfe grip aų'''}},<br />{{ash|'''greipe (meining)'''}}
|-
| (be)griff haben von
| (be)grip hebben van
| have a ~grip/grasp on
| hafa ~grip á
|}

Results:

:: {{ash|hæfe du grip aų hwat igh sæghe?}}

:: {{ash|greipe du hwat igh meine?}}

==Grammar==

The word order lies somewhere between the extant varieties. Basic order is SVO. Adverbs cause V2. Questions are VSO. Objects may be fronted, especially when auxiliaries are present. Otherwise the auxiliary's main verb may shift to the end.

{| class="wikitable"
! SVO
! V2
! VSO
! Fronting
! Shifting
|-
| {{ash|wi ete æpele}}
| {{ash|neu ete wi æpele}}
| {{ash|ete wi æpele?}}
| {{ash|æpele cunne wi ete}}
| {{ash|cunne wi æpele ete?}}
|}

===Nouns and adjectives===

Nouns have lost gender and (mostly) case through mergers. The plural suffix is invariably {{ash|-e}} (unless the word already ends in a vowel in which case it is unmarked) but there may also be umlaut.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! rowspan="2" | Consonant stem
! No umlaut
| {{ash|dægh}}
| {{ash|dæghe}}
|-
! Umlaut
| {{ash|gaųs}}
| {{ash|gæ̨se}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | Vowel stem
! Stressed
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{ash|schou}}
|-
! Unstressed
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{ash|name}}
|}

Adjectives take the same suffix in the plural as well as in definite (strong) form and in the dative (see below).

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Indefinite
| {{ash|nyw dægh}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|nywe dæghe}}
|-
! Definite
| {{ash|nywe dægh}}
|}

====Dative====

While nouns are unmarked for case, unmarked dative constructions as in English (e.g. "give the cat some food") are common, and attributive adjectives once again take the same suffix as above in these instances. The construction is also used of partitives.

{| class="wikitable"
! Attributive
! Partitive
|-
| {{ash|warm-e weder}}
| {{ash|full-∅ hole}}
|}

For example:

:: {{ash|Caulde weder cann igh socce fulle hole ne hæfe opaų mine fæyte næy.}}

However {{ash|full}} can sometimes also be followed by a singular or plural indefinite article that may seem like a preposition.

Dative nouns are sometimes fossilised with the ending {{ash|-e}} in certain expressions, generally without any article.

:: {{ash|Igh cam te werlde schreighene e nace.}}

====Articles====

There is an indefinite article {{ash|e}} used both in the singular and sometimes in the plural, and an indefinite article {{ash|de}}. Both articles are invariable for number. They precede the noun phrase. They are not as frequent as in English and the definite article remains more like a demonstrative.

===Adverbs===

Adverbs are productively formed the same way as definite (strong) adjectives. Some inherited ones have umlaut or otherwise break the pattern, e.g. through suppletion.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Adjective
! Adverb
|-
! Regular
| {{ash|full}}
| {{ash|fulle}}
|-
! Umlaut
| {{ash|laung}}
| {{ash|længe}}
|-
! Suppletion
| {{ash|goud}}
| {{ash|wel}}
|}

For example:

:: {{ash|Igh hæfe længe lifd į de heus.}}

===Pronouns===

Pronouns come from unstressed forms so lack diphthongisation. First and second person pronouns retain obliques and possessives. Third person only distinguishes between number and anaphora. Preferably avoided as much as possible when composing cross-intelligible texts as these are probably the weakest link between Germanic varieties.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! 1sg
! 2sg
! 1pl
! 2pl
! 3sg cataphoric
! 3sg anaphoric
! 3pl
|-
! subject
| {{ash|igh}}
| {{ash|du}}
| {{ash|wi}}
| {{ash|ji}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|dæt}}, {{ash|'t}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|dæ}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|dei}}
|-
! oblique
| {{ash|mi}}
| {{ash|di}}
| {{ash|ǫss}}
| {{ash|jer}}
|-
! reflexive
| {{ash|mi sælf}}
| {{ash|di sælf}}
| {{ash|ǫss sælfe}}
| {{ash|jer sælfe}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{ash|s' sælf}}
| {{ash|s' sælfe}}
|-
! possessive
| {{ash|mi', mine}}
| {{ash|di', dine}}
| {{ash|ǫsse}}
| {{ash|jere}}
| colspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | {{ash|s'}}
|}

====Possession====

The nasal forms of the 1sg and 2sg possessives are for plural possessa. Other possessives are invariable.

{| class="wikitable"
! Singular
! Plural
|-
| {{ash|mi' heus}}
| {{ash|mine heuse}}
|}

The third person {{ash|s'}} also works as a possessive marker on nouns, similar to Scandinavian ''sin'' or German ''sein'', e.g. {{ash|de junge mann s' heus}}.

===Verbs===

Infinitives end in {{ash|-e}} and take the marker {{ash|t'}}. Weak verbs do not differentiate between number and strong verbs only do so in the past, with the exception of the copula and preterite-present stems. Participles work like adjectives but the present one is invariable. The past one (or the supine) never takes a prefix like German ''ge-''.

====Weak dental stems====

These take a dissimilatory vowel between the stem and the past tense/participle suffix.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Present
! Past
! Imperative
! Pres. participle
! Past participle
|-
! Singular
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|hate}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|hatede}}
| {{ash|hat (du)}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|hatene}}
| {{ash|hated}}
|-
! Plural
| {{ash|hate (ji)}}
| {{ash|hatede}}
|}

====Weak non-dental stems====

These attach the dental past tense/participle suffix directly to the non-dental stem. Voicing assimilation occurs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Present
! Past
! Imperative
! Pres. participle
! Past participle
|-
! Singular
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|hacce}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|haccte}}
| {{ash|hacc (du)}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|haccene}}
| {{ash|hacct}}
|-
! Plural
| {{ash|hacce (ji)}}
| {{ash|haccte}}
|}

====Strong stems====

These follow various inherited ablaut patterns for the past tense/participle. The past participle ends invariably in {{ash|-e}}.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Present
! Past
! Imperative
! Pres. participle
! Past participle
|-
! Singular
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|finde}}
| {{ash|fand}}
| {{ash|find (du)}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|findene}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|funde}}
|-
! Plural
| {{ash|funde}}
| {{ash|finde (ji)}}
|}

====Copula====

Irregular and defective but simplified through analogy between the few remaining forms.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Present
! Past
|-
! Singular
| {{ash|es}}
| {{ash|war}}
|-
! Plural
| {{ash|ese}}
| {{ash|wære}}
|}

====Preterite-present stems====

These look like strong past forms in the present and like weak past forms in the past. They are defective similarly to the copula.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Present
! Past
|-
! Singular
| {{ash|cann}}
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|cųdde}}
|-
! Plural
| {{ash|cunne}}
|}

====Mood====

Indicative and conjunctive/subjunctive have merged, but the latter is still formed syntactically by fronting the verb and applying VSO order.

:: {{ash|Come ji te mi, gefe igh jer mi' heus.}}

====Separable verbs====

Verbs with a preposition-like particle as an inseparable part of the lexeme are common as in other Germanic languages. They generally don't fuse.

:: {{ash|Greune leufe falle af, e lande opaų de frose græs.}}

==Phonology and spelling==

There isn't necessarily a strict pronunciation system meant to be followed, but in the spirit of maximising intelligibility also here, this is the baseline.

Spelling is largely phonetic, the main exception being {{ash|⟨sch⟩}} for {{IPA|[ʃx]}} with an etymological {{ash|⟨c⟩}} to aid in recognition.

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |
! Labial
! Coronal
! Palatal
! Velar
! Glottal
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| {{ash|⟨m⟩}} {{IPA|[m]}}
| {{ash|⟨n⟩}} {{IPA|[n]}}
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| ( {{ash|⟨n⟩}} {{IPA|[ŋ]}} )
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
|-
! rowspan="2" | Plosive
! Voiceless
| {{ash|⟨p⟩}} {{IPA|[pʰ~p]}}
| {{ash|⟨t⟩}} {{IPA|[tˢ~t]}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{ash|⟨c⟩}} {{IPA|[cʰ~c~kʰ~k]}}
| ( {{IPA|[ʔ]}} )
|-
! Voiced
| {{ash|⟨b⟩}} {{IPA|[b]}}
| {{ash|⟨d⟩}} {{IPA|[d]}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{ash|⟨g⟩}} {{IPA|[ɟ~g]}}
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
|-
! rowspan="3" | Fricative
! Voiceless
| rowspan="2" | {{ash|⟨f⟩}} {{IPA|[f~v]}}
| {{ash|⟨th⟩}} {{IPA|[θ]}}
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{ash|⟨h⟩}} {{IPA|[x~h]}}
|-
! Voiced
| {{ash|⟨dh⟩}} {{IPA|[ð]}}
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| {{ash|⟨gh⟩}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}}
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
|-
! Sibilant
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| {{ash|⟨s⟩}} {{IPA|[s~ʃ~z]}}
| colspan="3" style="background-color:#aaa" |
|-
! colspan="2" | Rhotic
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| {{ash|⟨r⟩}} {{IPA|[r]}}
| colspan="3" style="background-color:#aaa" |
|-
! colspan="2" | Lateral
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| {{ash|⟨l⟩}} {{IPA|[l]}}
| colspan="3" style="background-color:#aaa" |
|-
! colspan="2" | Glide
| {{ash|⟨w⟩}} {{IPA|[w]}}
| style="background-color:#aaa" |
| {{ash|⟨j⟩}} {{IPA|[j]}}
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#aaa" |
|}

* Velar nasal {{IPA|[ŋ]}} occurs before {{IPA|/k g/}}; the {{ash|⟨g⟩}} is pronounced in the {{ash|⟨ng⟩}} cluster.
* Velar stops {{IPA|/k g/}} are palatal around front vowels.
* Glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}} only occurs allophonically to break up vowels between words and is not written.
* Labiodental frivative {{IPA|/f/}} is voiced {{IPA|[v]}} between vowels and before voiced consonants.
* Glottal frivative {{IPA|/h/}} is velar {{IPA|[x]}} in clusters.
* Sibilant fricative {{IPA|/s/}} is voiced {{IPA|[z]}} between vowels and before voiced consonants, and {{IPA|[ʃ]}} initially in clusters.
* The cluster {{IPA|/hw/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[ʍ]}}.
* Voiceless plosives {{IPA|/p k/}} are aspirated initially; {{IPA|/t/}} has a sibilant release everywhere except in clusters.
* There is no word-final devoicing.

===Vowels===

Filch is characterised, like the rest of its family, by many vowel qualities and diphthongs. Vowel length is not phonemic, but phonetically vowels are long in stressed weak syllables (no coda except at the end of a word). There are nasal vowels marked by an ogonek; in nasal diphthongs it goes on the last vowel letter.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vowel
! Long
! Short
|-
| {{ash|⟨a⟩}}
| {{IPA|[aː]}}
| {{IPA|[a]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨e⟩}}
| {{IPA|[eː]}}
| {{IPA|([e]), [ə]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨æ⟩}}
| {{IPA|[ɛː]}}
| {{IPA|[ɛ]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨i⟩}}
| {{IPA|[iː]}}
| {{IPA|[ɪ]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨o⟩}}
| {{IPA|[oː]}}
| {{IPA|[ɔ]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨u⟩}}
| {{IPA|([uː])}}
| {{IPA|[ʊ]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨y⟩}}
| {{IPA|[yː]}}
| {{IPA|[ʏ]}}
|}

* The letter {{ash|⟨e⟩}} in unstressed syllables represents schwa {{IPA|[ə]}}; short {{IPA|[e]}} only appears in diphthongs.
* Oral long {{ash|⟨u⟩}} does not exist because original PG ''*ū'' diphthongised into {{ash|⟨eu⟩}} and PG ''*u'' turned into either {{ash|⟨o⟩}} or {{ash|⟨y⟩}} in weak syllables depending on umlaut. Its nasal counterpart does exist in a few words.
* Nasals are pronounced like their oral counterparts with nasalisation.
* Diphthongs are pronounced like their (short) monophthong constituents in succession.

These are the diphthongs:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|⟨au⟩}}
| {{ash|⟨ea⟩}}
| {{ash|⟨ei⟩}}
| {{ash|⟨eu⟩}}
| {{ash|⟨æy⟩}}
| {{ash|⟨ou⟩}}
|}

===Stress===

Stress is always on the first syllable. Monosyllabic function words are unstressed so take short unstressed pronunciation:

{| class="wikitable"
! Word
! Pronunciation
|-
| {{ash|⟨de⟩}}
| {{IPA|[də]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨mi⟩}}
| {{IPA|[mɪ]}}
|}

===Conventions===

* Compound words are separated by a hyphen {{ash|-}} to make it easier to tease words apart.
* Derivational suffixes such as {{ash|·ligh}} are separated from the stem with an interpunct {{ash|·}} for the same reason.
* Quotation marks are {{ash|«}} and {{ash|»}}.

===Examples===

{| class="wikitable"
! Spelling
! Pronunciation
|-
| {{ash|⟨fisch⟩}}
| {{IPA|[fɪʃx]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨cyrce⟩}}
| {{IPA|[cʰʏr.cə]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨dægh⟩}}
| {{IPA|[dɛːɣ]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨dægh·ligh⟩}}
| {{IPA|[dɛːɣ.lɪɣ]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨hafde⟩}}
| {{IPA|[hav.də]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨stæyn⟩}}
| {{IPA|[ʃtɛʏ̯n]}}
|-
| {{ash|⟨taųdh⟩}}
| {{IPA|[tˢãʊ̯̃ð]}}
|}

==Translations==

These are all loose and rely on rewording to capture the ideas of the original texts using only widely recognisable vocabulary. They may also provide more information than the original story to add context that could help understand words that might be trickier in isolation. This is how Filch would actually be used for auxiliary purposes, but of course this is not actually the intention.

===Article one of the universal declaration of human rights===

{{ash|All folc come frei te werlde.<br />
Dei hæfe leice weurde e rehte.<br />
Dei hæfe goude heufde opaų næcce.<br />
Dei finde alle life weghe leice.<br />
All folc es freunde.}}

===Schleicher's fable===

{{ash|Į de greune græs war e gæyte-bocc.<br />
Wull hafde ne de bocc næy; dæ war wulle·leus.<br />
So saugh dæ folc comene, reidene; dei ræyde opaų merre.<br />
Fyrste merr drough e waughen; aųdhere merr baur e weghene byrde.<br />
Bocc sæghde te merre: «igh finde peine į mi' hearte, neu igh sæe mænne reide opaų merre».<br />
Merre sæghde: «heur ǫss; wi finde peine į ǫsse hearte, neu wi sæe mænne į wulle-clæyde, næhst e wulle·leus bocc».<br />
Bocc heurde merre, e leupte af wegh.}}

===First paragraph of The Hobbit===

{{ash|Į hol under eurde lifde e «hobbe».<br />
Ne war 't e scheite-hol full e wate næy; her wære ne creupene worme, ne feul rotning næy.<br />
De hol war ne bar, ne nace, ne full e sand næy.<br />
Her cųdde folc sitte, e her cųdde dei ete: 't war e «hobbe-hol», e dæt seghe, her es 't goud.}}

{{IPA|ɪ̃ ˈhoːl ˌʊn.dər ˈeʊ̯r.də ˈlɪv.də ʔə ˈhɔb.bə<br />
nə ˌwa(ː)r ətˢ ə ˈʃxeɪ̯.tˢəˌhoːl ˌfʊlː ə ˈwaː.tˢə ˌnɛʏ̯ ‖ ˈheːr ˌwɛː.rə nə ˈkʰreʊ̯.pə.nə ˈwɔr.mə nə ˈfeʊ̯l ˈrɔt.nɪŋg ˌnɛʏ̯<br />
də ˈhoːl ˌwa(ː)r nə ˈbaːr nə ˈnaːcə nə ˌfʊlː ə ˈsand ˌnɛʏ̯<br />
ˈheːr ˌkʰʊ̃d.də ˈfɔlk ˈsɪt.tˢə ʔə ˈheːr ˌkʰʊ̃d.də dəɪ̯ ˈeː.tˢə ‖ (ʔə)t ˌwa(ː)r ə ˈhɔb.bəˌhoːl ə ˈdɛːtˢ ˌsɛː.ɣə ˈheːr əz‿ətˢ ˈgɔʊ̯d}}

==Phrases and words==

===Greetings===

* {{ash|goude morghening}}
* {{ash|goude dægh}}
* {{ash|goude næht}}
* {{ash|wel come}}
* {{ash|fare wel}}

===Questions===

* {{ash|hwat es de name?}}
* {{ash|hwat es de eur neu?}}
* {{ash|hæfe hunger?}}
* {{ash|hæfe thorste?}}

===Answers===

* {{ash|name es…}}
* {{ash|eur es…}}
* {{ash|ja}}
* {{ash|næy}}
* {{ash|thącce}}

===Numbers===

* {{ash|æyn}}
* {{ash|twæy}}
* {{ash|threi}}
* {{ash|feure}}
* {{ash|feųf}}
* {{ash|sehs}}
* {{ash|seų}}
* {{ash|æhte}}
* {{ash|neų}}
* {{ash|teų}}
* {{ash|ellefe}}
* {{ash|twælf}}
* {{ash|hundred(e)}}
* {{ash|theusend(e)}}

===Body parts===

* {{ash|heufd}}
* {{ash|eure}}
* {{ash|æyghe}}
* {{ash|neuse}}
* {{ash|mųdh}}
* {{ash|tunge}}
* {{ash|taųdh}} - {{ash|tæ̨dhe}}
* {{ash|hand}} - {{ash|hænde}}
* {{ash|fout}} - {{ash|fæyte}}

===Animals===

* {{ash|catt}}
* {{ash|hund}}
* {{ash|fisch}}
* {{ash|wulf}}
* {{ash|meus}} - {{ash|mæyse}}
* {{ash|gaųs}} - {{ash|gæ̨se}}

===Other===

* {{ash|Launge fische fylle mi' flyghene schip!}}

Ash

2024-01-24T12:18:11Z

Prinsessa: Reverting CLFV and MODV back to CLF and MOD

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-24T12:09:56Z

Prinsessa: /* Weather and phenomena */

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLFV DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MODV:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLFV dog REFL-sound=MODV:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLFV DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MODV:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog=CLFV DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MODV:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-foot=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:LOC bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:BEN bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MODV:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MODV:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-24T12:08:23Z

Prinsessa: /* Weather and phenomena */

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLFV DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MODV:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLFV dog REFL-sound=MODV:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLFV DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MODV:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog=CLFV DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MODV:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-foot=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:LOC bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:BEN bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MODV:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodsa hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS=MODV:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-24T12:07:59Z

Prinsessa: /* Weather and phenomena */

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLFV DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MODV:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLFV dog REFL-sound=MODV:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLFV DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MODV:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog=CLFV DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MODV:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-foot=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:LOC bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:BEN bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

===Weather and phenomena===

Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy (where high animates outrank even conjunct referents) means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MODV:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodsa hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS=MODV:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-24T12:06:38Z

Prinsessa: /* Weather and phenomena */

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLFV DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MODV:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLFV dog REFL-sound=MODV:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLFV DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MODV:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog=CLFV DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MODV:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-foot=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:LOC bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:BEN bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

===Weather and phenomena===

Because these forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy (where high animates outrank even conjunct referents) means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MODV:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodsa hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS=MODV:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-24T11:46:07Z

Prinsessa: /* Classificatory topicalisation */ e > ya

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLFV DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MODV:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLFV dog REFL-sound=MODV:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLFV DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MODV:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog=CLFV DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MODV:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-foot=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:LOC bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:BEN bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

===Weather and phenomena===

Because these things are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy means that verbs referring to them take on inverse agency when used with the conjunct suffix.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻ<u>s</u>dseena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=PROX-<u>INV</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MODV:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

When the speaker is not involved, active agency is used rather than no agency.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ỏ<u>d</u>sansa hga}}
|gloss=DIST-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INTS=MODV:REP:DIR
|translation=They said it was raining there.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-24T11:45:49Z

Prinsessa: /* Topicalisation */ o > wa

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLFV DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MODV:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLFV dog REFL-sound=MODV:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLFV DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MODV:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo e ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog=CLFV DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MODV:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-foot=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:LOC bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:BEN bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

===Weather and phenomena===

Because these things are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy means that verbs referring to them take on inverse agency when used with the conjunct suffix.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻ<u>s</u>dseena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=PROX-<u>INV</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MODV:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

When the speaker is not involved, active agency is used rather than no agency.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ỏ<u>d</u>sansa hga}}
|gloss=DIST-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INTS=MODV:REP:DIR
|translation=They said it was raining there.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-24T11:45:21Z

Prinsessa: /* Valency */ o > wa

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLFV DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MODV:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLFV dog REFL-sound=MODV:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> o ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> o ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLFV DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MODV:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo e ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog=CLFV DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MODV:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-foot=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:LOC bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:BEN bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

===Weather and phenomena===

Because these things are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy means that verbs referring to them take on inverse agency when used with the conjunct suffix.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻ<u>s</u>dseena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=PROX-<u>INV</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MODV:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

When the speaker is not involved, active agency is used rather than no agency.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ỏ<u>d</u>sansa hga}}
|gloss=DIST-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INTS=MODV:REP:DIR
|translation=They said it was raining there.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-24T11:44:46Z

Prinsessa: /* Indirect involvement */ e > ya

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLFV DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>o</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga o sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MODV:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLFV dog REFL-sound=MODV:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga o meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> o ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> o ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLFV DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MODV:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo e ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog=CLFV DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MODV:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-foot=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:LOC bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:BEN bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

===Weather and phenomena===

Because these things are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy means that verbs referring to them take on inverse agency when used with the conjunct suffix.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻ<u>s</u>dseena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=PROX-<u>INV</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MODV:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

When the speaker is not involved, active agency is used rather than no agency.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ỏ<u>d</u>sansa hga}}
|gloss=DIST-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INTS=MODV:REP:DIR
|translation=They said it was raining there.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2024-01-14T19:36:46Z

Prinsessa: /* Pragmatics and conventions */ Weather and phenomena

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLFV DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo e ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>o</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga o sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MODV:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLFV dog REFL-sound=MODV:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga o meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> o ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> o ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLFV DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MODV:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo e ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog=CLFV DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MODV:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-foot=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:LOC bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:BEN bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

===Weather and phenomena===

Because these things are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy means that verbs referring to them take on inverse agency when used with the conjunct suffix.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻ<u>s</u>dseena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=PROX-<u>INV</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MODV:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}

When the speaker is not involved, active agency is used rather than no agency.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ỏ<u>d</u>sansa hga}}
|gloss=DIST-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INTS=MODV:REP:DIR
|translation=They said it was raining there.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2023-08-11T17:09:16Z

Prinsessa: /* Modality */ Missing CONJ -s

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLFV DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo e ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>o</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga o sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MODV:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLFV dog REFL-sound=MODV:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga o meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> o ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> o ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLFV DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MODV:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo e ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog=CLFV DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MODV:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-foot=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:LOC bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:BEN bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2023-08-11T17:07:15Z

Prinsessa: /* Pragmatics and conventions */ Wrong apostrophe

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLFV DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo e ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>o</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga o sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MODV:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLFV dog REFL-sound=MODV:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga o meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> o ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> o ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLFV DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MODV:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo e ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog=CLFV DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MODV:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-foot=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:LOC bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:BEN bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadse no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2023-08-11T16:29:10Z

Prinsessa: Fixed up all the glosses

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLFV DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo e ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>o</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga o sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MODV:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLFV dog REFL-sound=MODV:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga o meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> o ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> o ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLFV DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MODV:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo e ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog=CLFV DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MODV:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-foot=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-head=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:LOC bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:BEN bread=CLFV
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=DET:PROX-CVB:QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy' ensae ẻhbadse no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2023-08-11T16:16:03Z

Prinsessa: /* Pragmatics and conventions */ ınsaa & ĩdnaa

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS.IND=Q=CLF.TOP DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo e ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF.TOP DET.PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF.TOP dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see.ACT.RLS=REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF.TOP dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.RLS=REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>o</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF.TOP <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see.ACT.RLS=REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF.TOP dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS.RLS=REP
|translation=it was Oas who gave the dog water to drink
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga o sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF.TOP DET.DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS.RLS=REP dog=CLF
|translation=it was Oas the dog offered water to
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see.ACT.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|translation=I am looking at them
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.RLS-CONJ=EXP
|translation=they are looking at me
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH.RLS-DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF.TOP shine.INCH.RLS-DUR REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.RLS=NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=CLF.TOP PROX-INV-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|translation=you are braiding my hair
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=CLF.TOP PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF.TOP dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.RLS=REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF.TOP dog REFL-sound.RLS=EXP
|translation=my sibling barks like a dog
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga o meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF.TOP DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS.RLS=REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> o ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> o ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[yesterday dog=CLF.TOP DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.RLS=EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see.STAT.RLS-CONJ=DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-QUAL shine.ATTR gloss=dog=CLF.TOP shine.STAT.RLS PROX-INV-see.STAT.RLS-CONJ=Q
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF.TOP
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF.TOP
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo e ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=CLF.TOP DET.PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF.TOP dog=CLF.TOP DIST-LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.RLS=EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.RLS
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.RLS
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF.TOP
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF.TOP
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-LOC bread=CLF.TOP
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-BEN bread=CLF.TOP
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Perhaps I should eat something.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=Maybe the dog is hungry.
}}
</div>
</div>

Related are the fully stressed verbs referring to experiences and emotions. Two very versatile words in Ash are {{ash|ınsaa}} "to please, to like" and {{ash|ĩdnaa}} "to displease, to dislike". They can stand in for many words where the Ash speaker chooses to focus instead on the resulting emotion, while fully conveying the intended meaning in context.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|eae ẻhbadse no ẽdnae e}}
|gloss=PROX-QUAL PROX-DIR-handle.INTS.IRR=MOD:NDET PROX-displease.IRR=MOD:EXP
|translation=Doing it like that won't work / lead anywhere. (lit. "will displease")
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy' ensae ẻhbadse no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV
|translation=A brown dog.
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Ash

2023-08-11T11:12:04Z

Prinsessa: /* Indirect involvement */ PROX because in same place

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnost|Onnost]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = ˈʔɑħ.qə
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = [[Proto-Ash-Ish]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Ash]]
|notice = IPA
}}
<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
==Introduction==

'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħ.qə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. They are in close linguistic and cultural contact with the neighbouring speakers of [[Ish]]. Going back many millennia the languages are in fact related through [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] but speakers were separated until recent centuries after a long history of migration among both groups.

The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. There are many allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, which is an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

Additional notes:

* The unusual poststopped nasals appear to derive from a merger of prenasalised stops and plain nasals in [[Proto-Ash-Ish]] going into [[Proto-Ash]]. This surfaces in various ways in clusters but is also articulated initially during emphasis and after pausa.
* The bilabial trill {{IPA|[ʙ]}} occurs as a free variation allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} in some contexts and is common in emphatic pronunciations of the declarative modal clitic {{ash|yo}}, sometimes allophonically altered into {{ash|wo}} and {{ash|ww}}. It is also a common approximation when Ash speakers try to produce [[Ish]]'s velarised labiodental flap {{IPA|[ⱱᶭ]}}.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{ash|a}}
| {{ash|ı}}
| {{ash|e}}
| {{ash|y}}
| {{ash|o}}
| {{ash|w}}
| {{ash|b}}
| {{ash|d}}
| {{ash|g}}
| {{ash|l}}
| {{ash|s}}
| {{ash|h}}
| {{ash|m}}
| {{ash|n}}
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}

Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//i.hVhˈwu.i//}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.ji/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Clusters===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates reduce to plain fricatives intervocalically, before other affricates or plosives, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation spreads in both directions through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} in coda position.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[mʷ.mʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠ʷ.s̠ʷ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ̥.ʎ̥]}}
| {{IPA|[ɬʷ.ɬʷ]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̪~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
</div>

A nasal before another nasal due to its poststopped nature results in the same kind of cluster as a plosive before a nasal but additionally nasalises the preceding vowel, even across words.

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| Agency
| Incorp.
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Mood
| Involv.
|}

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
! Realis
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ħ.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᵈn̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯s̠.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.t̠͡s̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oesya}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|-
! Irrealis
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ᶡɲə]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ͡ɑ̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕə]}}
| {{ash|oesse}}
{{IPA|[ˈʊ͡ɪ̯ɕ.ɕə]}}
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Intensive
! Causative
|-
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| {{ash|odsa}}
| {{ash|oyya}}
|}

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed noun:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS.IND=Q=CLF.TOP DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains
}}

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Long
! Short
! Example
|-
! Locative
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}, {{ash|-nda}}
| {{ash|-s}}
| {{ash|sonda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
! Durative
| {{ash|-ya}}, {{ash|-nya}}
| {{ash|-h}}
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| {{ash|-wa}}
| {{ash|-o}}, {{ash|-wı}}
| {{ash|ehwa}} "in order to see"
|-
! Qualitative
| {{ash|-ya}}
| {{ash|-e}}, {{ash|-yı}}
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|-
! Quantitative
| {{ash|~dna}}
| {{ash|-na}}
| {{ash|nõdna}} "how many; some amount"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker; unspecified (neutral) deixis is also possible, denoting a general fact. Deixis is simultaneously spatial and temporal, focussing on the proximity of an event to the speaker's current frame of reference.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| ∅- (unmarked; verbs and inalienable nouns),<br />N- (deverbal and deconverbial nouns)
|-
! Proximal
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
! Distal
| {{ash|o-}}
|}

Deixis also occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

A conjunct verb denotes the involvement of the speaker and thus the first person. Note that there is no number distinction.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Declarative
! Interrogative
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> e}}<br />"I am warm", "we are warm"
| {{ash|emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"am I warm?", "are we warm?", "maybe I am warm", "maybe we are warm"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|emea e}}<br />"you/they are warm"
| {{ash|emea no}}<br />"are you/they warm?", "maybe you/they are warm"
|}

The additional unstressed words {{ash|e}} and {{ash|no}} are obligatory modal clitics and will be described in a later section.

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo e ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF.TOP DET.PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

====Interrogatives and reported speech====

Unlike in some languages with involvement marking, the reference point of the conjunct marker does not change in questions or quotations in Ash. This has partially to do with the lack of distinct personal pronouns, and partially to do with the difference in the evidential (first-person-centric) nature of its modal devices (the reportative word {{ash|gaa}} and its reduced clitic form {{ash|ga}}, and the the interrogative clitic {{ash|no}}), and the fact that the interrogative is really "indeterminate" and also used for (again first-person-centric) uncertainties ("maybe").

Thus the conjunct {{ash|-s}} always refers to the first person, i.e. the speaker, but again not as a subject or agent marker but merely an involvement marker, thus also as an object or patient marker.

==Syntax==

The basic word order is fairly strictly noun-verb, with converbs preceding verb phrases. The opposite order makes the verb attributive. Word order alone does not mark a noun phrase for any particular role (e.g. subject or object). This is determined instead by context and factors like salience, agency, and animacy. An explicit topic governing the main verb is introduced by a preceding auxiliary verb phrase.

===Valency===

====Agency====

Ash is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment direct-inverse language]. Transitivity and volition are tied up into a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked, and the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order by way of an inversion marker on the verb. The purpose of this is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires such a topical marker, which will be detailed in the section on locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF.TOP dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see.ACT.RLS=REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
}}

A simple transitive phrase like this can be inverted:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF.TOP dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.RLS=REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog
}}

Such a phrase can also have the agent moved after the verb-final clitic and classified in its own right. A determiner is placed in its position in the initial phrase.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>o</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF.TOP <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see.ACT.RLS=REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog
}}

With ditransitive verbs such as causatives two referents can appear before the verb or the same displacement can take place.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF.TOP dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS.RLS=REP
|translation=it was Oas who gave the dog water to drink
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga o sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLF.TOP DET.DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS.RLS=REP dog=CLF
|translation=it was Oas the dog offered water to
}}
</div>
</div>

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see.ACT.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|translation=I am looking at them
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.RLS-CONJ=EXP
|translation=they are looking at me
}}
</div>
</div>

====Reflexivity====

Besides the direct and inverse agency prefixes, verbs can also take a reflexive one.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH.RLS-DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF.TOP shine.INCH.RLS-DUR REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.RLS=NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
}}
</div>
</div>

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between referents.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=CLF.TOP PROX-INV-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|translation=you are braiding my hair
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=CLF.TOP PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair
}}
</div>
</div>

====Incorporation====

The number of unmarked nominal arguments that a verb can take depends on its valency. There are other ways to introduce more referents, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF.TOP dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.RLS=REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
}}

However this is limited to very few nouns and is more of a derivational process than a grammatical one. On the other hand, the fact that the main verb phrase is separate from the topic (or classifier) phrase means that it's possible to use one of its argument slots, even when intransitive, as a kind of subject with semantics much like that of an incorporated noun, as the subject implicitly remains the topic from the previous clause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF.TOP dog REFL-sound.RLS=EXP
|translation=my sibling barks like a dog
}}

The above main verb phrase can be taken to mean something like "dog-sounds (oneself)" or "dog-calls (oneself)".

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga o meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF.TOP DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS.RLS=REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence. Conjunct verbs are treated as if between regular animates and high animates.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verb information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> o ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> o ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[yesterday dog=CLF.TOP DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.RLS=EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see.STAT.RLS-CONJ=DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-QUAL shine.ATTR gloss=dog=CLF.TOP shine.STAT.RLS PROX-INV-see.STAT.RLS-CONJ=Q
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Felicitative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Reportative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|laa}}
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| {{ash|goa}}
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| {{ash|sea}}
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| {{ash|boa}}
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| {{ash|doa}}
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}

There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}

Others do have corresponding verbs but not locative ones, such as the personal {{ash|ga}}~{{ash|ŋa}} corresponding to {{ash|gaa}} "say", used for referring to individuals by name (e.g. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}} the person vs. {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sa}} the sea).

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF.TOP
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF.TOP
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
</div>
</div>

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs and form separate clauses.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo e ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=CLF.TOP DET.PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLF.TOP dog=CLF.TOP DIST-LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.RLS=EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
}}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.RLS
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLF-LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.RLS
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
</div>
</div>

===Possession===

The fossilised set of nouns that take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF.TOP
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF.TOP
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
</div>
</div>

Otherwise converbs such as the locative {{ash|-s}} serve to mark the possessor of a possessum depending on the relationship.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-LOC bread=CLF.TOP
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-BEN bread=CLF.TOP
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
</div>
</div>

==Pragmatics and conventions==

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=DECL
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhoes no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR-CONJ=Q
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhoe no}}
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.ACT.IRR=Q
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
}}
</div>
</div>

===Colour terms===

Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF.TOP
|translation=a brown dog
}}

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Proto-Ash-Ish

2023-08-08T12:57:23Z

Prinsessa: /* Reduplication */ -er, not -ar

<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
'''Proto-Ash-Ish''' (henceforth referred to as PAI) is the reconstructed protolanguage linking the [[Ash]] and [[Ish]] languages through their own respective protolanguages, [[Proto-Ash]] and [[Proto-Ish]].

The PAI speakers would have lived in a mountainous area during a period of glaciation which forced them to seek new lands. Those who would become speakers of Ish left the mountains altogether and found a temperate climate where the sea was not frozen over and became skilled sailors. Those who would go on to speak Ash delved further into the mountains, finding oases of heat in geologically active areas and came to worship the dual nature of fire. Eventually the ice age subsided and perhaps following volcanic eruptions they followed in the footsteps of their long lost kin and arrived at the ocean which now reached much further inland. This is where the two groups would eventually meet again and new cultures combining the old with the new would develop.

==Phonology==

Ish appears to be much more conservative than Ash or even Proto-Ash when it comes to the inventory of phonemes as the reconstruction of PAI is quite similar.

===Vowels===

The following vowels (with conventional romanisation rather than IPA) are posited:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Front
! Back
|-
! Short
| {{ash|*e}}
| {{ash|*a}}
|}

PAI appears to have had neither the nasal vowels of Ish nor the long vowels of Proto-Ash, but otherwise the same two-way contrast as Ish.

===Consonants===

These are the basic consonants:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Coronal
! Dorsal
! Laryngeal
|-
! Oral
| {{ash|*t}}
| {{ash|*k}}
| {{ash|*q}}
|-
! Nasal
| colspan="3" | {{ash|*n}}
|-
! Approximant
| {{ash|*r}}
| {{ash|*w}}
|
|}

Here a big difference from modern Ish is the presence of a nasal consonant whereas Ish has transferred nasality as a feature onto its vowels, losing the consonant in the process.

* As in Proto-Ash, it is unclear exactly what {{ash|*q}} was. It merged with {{ash|*k}} in Ish so may have been a uvular plosive but in Ash it developed into a glottal.
* The nasal {{ash|*n}} likely assimilated the point of articulation of any other consonant in a cluster.
* The approximant {{ash|*w}} was probably {{IPA|*/ɰ/}} as in Ish.
* The approximant {{ash|*r}} might have been {{IPA|*/ɹ/}}. It became {{IPA|/l~ɾ/}} in Ish and disappeared in Ash.

Additionally there were important clusters that developed into new consonants in the descendants and may have been single phonemes already in PAI:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Coronal
! Dorsal
! Laryngeal
|-
! Prenasalised
| {{ash|*nt~*ⁿt}}
| {{ash|*nk~*ⁿk}}
| {{ash|*nq~*ⁿq}}
|-
! Velarised
| {{ash|*tw~*tʷ~*tᶭ}}
| {{ash|*kw~*kʷ~*kᶭ}}
| {{ash|*qw~*qʷ~*qᶭ}}
|}

The fact that these may have been single phonemes is supported by the fact that no other clusters seem to have been permitted. The convention is still to write these combinations as clusters.

* The velarised consonants may have been labiovelarised already in PAI.
* Consonants could also be both prenasalised and (labio)velarised at the same time.

The main developments into Ash and Ish were as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*k}}
| → {{ash|/k/}}
| → {{ash|/kˣ/}}
|-
| {{ash|*nk}}
| → {{ash|/ŋᵍ/}}
| → {{ash|/k/}}
|-
| {{ash|*kw}}
| → {{ash|/p/}}
| → {{ash|/kˣɰ/}}
|-
| {{ash|*nkw}}
| → {{ash|/mᵇ/}}
| → {{ash|/kɰ/}}
|}

Ash developed poststopped nasals (which merged with the plain nasals, poststopping becoming an allophonic feature) and Ish developed a distinction between plain and aspirated or postfricated plosives.

==Grammar and features==

===Nouns===

PAI would have had some nominal morphology in the form of case endings inherited by the daughter branches only to be mostly lost or repurposed in various ways.

===Deixis===

The proximal and distal determiners are an example of common inheritance from PAI shared between the daughter branches.

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Proto-Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ewe}} "this"
| → {{ash|*i(j), *(i)ja-}} → {{ash|*i, *ja-}}
| → {{ash|(iy)i /(e)ɰe/}}
|-
| {{ash|*awa}} "that"
| → {{ash|*u(w), *(u)wa-}} → {{ash|*u, *wa-}}
| → {{ash|(ow)o /(a)ɰa/}}
|}

===Verbs===

Verb morphology seems to have been reduced mainly to auxiliaries while the main verb was quite invariant. These auxiliaries were inherited by Ash and Ish but treated somewhat differently. In Ash they became prefixes while in Ish they became nominal prepositions or verbal suffixes depending on analysis.

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*qeka}} (transitive verb, direct object)
| → {{ash|*qaka}} → {{ash|ảh-}} (direct agency)
| → {{ash|*ek}} → e(g), iq- {{ash|/e(k(ˣ))/}} (direct object)
|-
| {{ash|*qate}} (reflexive/passive verb, indirect object)
| → {{ash|*qati}} → {{ash|ảs-}} (inverse agency)
| → {{ash|*at}} → a(d), at- {{ash|/a(t(ˢ))/}} (indirect object, passive)
|}

While these still serve somewhat similar functions in both languages, they work quite differently on a syntactic level.

===Syntax===

Thanks to the grammatical cases word order was probably somewhat free in PAI, reflected by the resulting differences in the daughter branches as they solidified their own word order in different ways as the case endings collapsed. Ash settled on auxiliary-noun-verb whereas Ish settled on verb-auxiliary-noun.

The auxiliary verbs appear to have been used with a kind of participle ending in {{ash|*-er}}.

A sentence in PAI may thus have looked as follows:

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*ntaw qeka te kaw-er}}
|gloss=fire.SUBJ AUX.ACT water.OBJ whirl-PTCP
|translation=Fire stirs water.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*kaw-er qeka te ntaw}}
|gloss=whirl-PTCP AUX.ACT water.OBJ fire.SUBJ
|translation=Fire stirs water.
}}
</div>
</div>

It seems Ash preferred the first syntax while Ish settled on the second. The corresponding sentences in their own protolanguages would have been something like the following:

{| class="wikitable"
! Proto-Ash
! Proto-Ish
|-
| {{ash|*naw qaka ti kwa:}}
| {{ash|*kaɰe ek te daɰ}}
|}

The auxiliary {{ash|*qate}} was somewhat unusual. It appears to have been reflexive while able to take a benefactor as a direct object. Some of its usages might be compared to the verbal "be-" prefix of Germanic languages. Looking at its modern reflexes, it seems to have denoted a lack of volition.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*taw-er qate ewe ntaw}}
|gloss=stand-PTCP AUX.PASS PROX.OBJ fire.SUBJ
|translation=Fire was stood for/by this one.
}}

This corresponds quite straightforwardly to modern Ish, besides a change in meaning, and the fact that a verb prefix is now required as well:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|attayáti dow}}
|morphemes=/VC-tˢaɰe=aT-ɰe taɰ/
|gloss=NDIR-appear=NDIR-PROX fire
|translation=I saw the fire.
}}

The order of the referents and the participle were probably free to move around:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*te qate kaw~kaw-er}}
|gloss=water.OBJ AUX.PASS whirl~REDUP-PTCP
|translation=It is being whirled for/by water.
}}

This instead corresponds to modern Ash syntax although this is no longer the common word for water:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|see ảsgoa}}
|morphemes=/ti hat͡s-kuwa/
|gloss=water/air INV-LOCV:DYN
|translation=They are moved by water/air.
}}

===Reduplication===

Reduplication seems to have formed frequentatives already in PAI as reflexes show up in Proto-Ash as well as modern Ish. In the latter it forms the continuous aspect whereas in Ash the reduplicated forms seem to simply have become separate words or to have replaced the non-reduplicated forms altogether, although this might not have happened until later when it may have been necessary to differentiate between words that were becoming homophonous due to sound changes.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*kaw~kaw(-er)}}
| "whirl, swirl, whorl, cycle, wrap"
| → *ku~kwa: → {{ash|goa}}
| "be/move around, elapse"
| → {{ash|qacow /kˣa.kaɰ/}}
| "be passing (of time, weather)"
|}

==Vocabulary==

Some core vocabulary is shared between Ish and Ash but does not always mean the same thing or have a similar sound anymore. This word stock includes elements of nature, common actions, and cultural aspects.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ntaw-}}
| "fire, burn, glow"
| → {{ash|*n(t)w-aj-}} → {{ash|mee}}
| "fire, heart, core, essence"
| → {{ash|dow /taɰ/}}
| "fire, light"
|-
| {{ash|*qat-}}
| "uncomfortable, harsh"
| → {{ash|ảdla}}
| "cold"
| → {{ash|qat /kˣatˢ/}}
| "bad"
|-
| {{ash|*taw(-er)-}}
| "stand"
| → {{ash|*twa:}} → {{ash|laa}}
| "be, stand"
| → {{ash|tayi /tˢaɰe/}}
| "appear, see"
|}

==Developments==

The general changes of individual sounds are fairly straightforward given the small inventory of PAI itself as well as its descendants. However in particular contexts many factors would have come into play at once, yielding more complex changes. Likewise roots were often extended with additional affixes in the daughter branches and so may not always correspond to them perfectly.

===Laryngeal and rhotic colouring===

The back consonant {{ash|*q}} sometimes affected vowels in the daughter languages.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| rowspan="2" |{{ash|*nteq-}}
| rowspan="2" | "experience, feel"
| → "suffer" → {{ash|naa}}; {{ash|nahga}}
| "die"; "itch, irritate"
| → {{ash|nẽɱ /tẽkɰ/}}
| "be, live, make"
|-
| → {{ash|nao}}
| "(sentient/mortal) individual, soul"
| → {{ash|nẽɱ /tẽkɰ/}}
| "(sentient) being, individual"
|}

In this case we see backing of {{ash|*e}} to {{ash|*a}} in Ash while in Ish [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinoglottophilia rhinoglottophilia] served as one of the sources of its nasal vowels. Ish also appears to have extended the root with a suffix of which today remains only {{ash|/-ɰ/}}.

The same seems to have happened around {{ash|*r}}:

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ner-}}
| "smell"
| → {{ash|*nana}} → {{ash|ıdna͠a}}
| "nose"
| → {{ash|nẽdẽ /DẽDẽ/}}
| "nose, smell"
|}

Proto-Ash-Ish

2023-08-08T12:54:30Z

Prinsessa: /* Syntax */ Avoiding repetition

<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
'''Proto-Ash-Ish''' (henceforth referred to as PAI) is the reconstructed protolanguage linking the [[Ash]] and [[Ish]] languages through their own respective protolanguages, [[Proto-Ash]] and [[Proto-Ish]].

The PAI speakers would have lived in a mountainous area during a period of glaciation which forced them to seek new lands. Those who would become speakers of Ish left the mountains altogether and found a temperate climate where the sea was not frozen over and became skilled sailors. Those who would go on to speak Ash delved further into the mountains, finding oases of heat in geologically active areas and came to worship the dual nature of fire. Eventually the ice age subsided and perhaps following volcanic eruptions they followed in the footsteps of their long lost kin and arrived at the ocean which now reached much further inland. This is where the two groups would eventually meet again and new cultures combining the old with the new would develop.

==Phonology==

Ish appears to be much more conservative than Ash or even Proto-Ash when it comes to the inventory of phonemes as the reconstruction of PAI is quite similar.

===Vowels===

The following vowels (with conventional romanisation rather than IPA) are posited:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Front
! Back
|-
! Short
| {{ash|*e}}
| {{ash|*a}}
|}

PAI appears to have had neither the nasal vowels of Ish nor the long vowels of Proto-Ash, but otherwise the same two-way contrast as Ish.

===Consonants===

These are the basic consonants:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Coronal
! Dorsal
! Laryngeal
|-
! Oral
| {{ash|*t}}
| {{ash|*k}}
| {{ash|*q}}
|-
! Nasal
| colspan="3" | {{ash|*n}}
|-
! Approximant
| {{ash|*r}}
| {{ash|*w}}
|
|}

Here a big difference from modern Ish is the presence of a nasal consonant whereas Ish has transferred nasality as a feature onto its vowels, losing the consonant in the process.

* As in Proto-Ash, it is unclear exactly what {{ash|*q}} was. It merged with {{ash|*k}} in Ish so may have been a uvular plosive but in Ash it developed into a glottal.
* The nasal {{ash|*n}} likely assimilated the point of articulation of any other consonant in a cluster.
* The approximant {{ash|*w}} was probably {{IPA|*/ɰ/}} as in Ish.
* The approximant {{ash|*r}} might have been {{IPA|*/ɹ/}}. It became {{IPA|/l~ɾ/}} in Ish and disappeared in Ash.

Additionally there were important clusters that developed into new consonants in the descendants and may have been single phonemes already in PAI:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Coronal
! Dorsal
! Laryngeal
|-
! Prenasalised
| {{ash|*nt~*ⁿt}}
| {{ash|*nk~*ⁿk}}
| {{ash|*nq~*ⁿq}}
|-
! Velarised
| {{ash|*tw~*tʷ~*tᶭ}}
| {{ash|*kw~*kʷ~*kᶭ}}
| {{ash|*qw~*qʷ~*qᶭ}}
|}

The fact that these may have been single phonemes is supported by the fact that no other clusters seem to have been permitted. The convention is still to write these combinations as clusters.

* The velarised consonants may have been labiovelarised already in PAI.
* Consonants could also be both prenasalised and (labio)velarised at the same time.

The main developments into Ash and Ish were as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*k}}
| → {{ash|/k/}}
| → {{ash|/kˣ/}}
|-
| {{ash|*nk}}
| → {{ash|/ŋᵍ/}}
| → {{ash|/k/}}
|-
| {{ash|*kw}}
| → {{ash|/p/}}
| → {{ash|/kˣɰ/}}
|-
| {{ash|*nkw}}
| → {{ash|/mᵇ/}}
| → {{ash|/kɰ/}}
|}

Ash developed poststopped nasals (which merged with the plain nasals, poststopping becoming an allophonic feature) and Ish developed a distinction between plain and aspirated or postfricated plosives.

==Grammar and features==

===Nouns===

PAI would have had some nominal morphology in the form of case endings inherited by the daughter branches only to be mostly lost or repurposed in various ways.

===Deixis===

The proximal and distal determiners are an example of common inheritance from PAI shared between the daughter branches.

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Proto-Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ewe}} "this"
| → {{ash|*i(j), *(i)ja-}} → {{ash|*i, *ja-}}
| → {{ash|(iy)i /(e)ɰe/}}
|-
| {{ash|*awa}} "that"
| → {{ash|*u(w), *(u)wa-}} → {{ash|*u, *wa-}}
| → {{ash|(ow)o /(a)ɰa/}}
|}

===Verbs===

Verb morphology seems to have been reduced mainly to auxiliaries while the main verb was quite invariant. These auxiliaries were inherited by Ash and Ish but treated somewhat differently. In Ash they became prefixes while in Ish they became nominal prepositions or verbal suffixes depending on analysis.

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*qeka}} (transitive verb, direct object)
| → {{ash|*qaka}} → {{ash|ảh-}} (direct agency)
| → {{ash|*ek}} → e(g), iq- {{ash|/e(k(ˣ))/}} (direct object)
|-
| {{ash|*qate}} (reflexive/passive verb, indirect object)
| → {{ash|*qati}} → {{ash|ảs-}} (inverse agency)
| → {{ash|*at}} → a(d), at- {{ash|/a(t(ˢ))/}} (indirect object, passive)
|}

While these still serve somewhat similar functions in both languages, they work quite differently on a syntactic level.

===Syntax===

Thanks to the grammatical cases word order was probably somewhat free in PAI, reflected by the resulting differences in the daughter branches as they solidified their own word order in different ways as the case endings collapsed. Ash settled on auxiliary-noun-verb whereas Ish settled on verb-auxiliary-noun.

The auxiliary verbs appear to have been used with a kind of participle ending in {{ash|*-er}}.

A sentence in PAI may thus have looked as follows:

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*ntaw qeka te kaw-er}}
|gloss=fire.SUBJ AUX.ACT water.OBJ whirl-PTCP
|translation=Fire stirs water.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*kaw-er qeka te ntaw}}
|gloss=whirl-PTCP AUX.ACT water.OBJ fire.SUBJ
|translation=Fire stirs water.
}}
</div>
</div>

It seems Ash preferred the first syntax while Ish settled on the second. The corresponding sentences in their own protolanguages would have been something like the following:

{| class="wikitable"
! Proto-Ash
! Proto-Ish
|-
| {{ash|*naw qaka ti kwa:}}
| {{ash|*kaɰe ek te daɰ}}
|}

The auxiliary {{ash|*qate}} was somewhat unusual. It appears to have been reflexive while able to take a benefactor as a direct object. Some of its usages might be compared to the verbal "be-" prefix of Germanic languages. Looking at its modern reflexes, it seems to have denoted a lack of volition.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*taw-er qate ewe ntaw}}
|gloss=stand-PTCP AUX.PASS PROX.OBJ fire.SUBJ
|translation=Fire was stood for/by this one.
}}

This corresponds quite straightforwardly to modern Ish, besides a change in meaning, and the fact that a verb prefix is now required as well:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|attayáti dow}}
|morphemes=/VC-tˢaɰe=aT-ɰe taɰ/
|gloss=NDIR-appear=NDIR-PROX fire
|translation=I saw the fire.
}}

The order of the referents and the participle were probably free to move around:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*te qate kaw~kaw-er}}
|gloss=water.OBJ AUX.PASS whirl~REDUP-PTCP
|translation=It is being whirled for/by water.
}}

This instead corresponds to modern Ash syntax although this is no longer the common word for water:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|see ảsgoa}}
|morphemes=/ti hat͡s-kuwa/
|gloss=water/air INV-LOCV:DYN
|translation=They are moved by water/air.
}}

===Reduplication===

Reduplication seems to have formed frequentatives already in PAI as reflexes show up in Proto-Ash as well as modern Ish. In the latter it forms the continuous aspect whereas in Ash the reduplicated forms seem to simply have become separate words or to have replaced the non-reduplicated forms altogether, although this might not have happened until later when it may have been necessary to differentiate between words that were becoming homophonous due to sound changes.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*kaw~kaw(-ar)}}
| "whirl, swirl, whorl, cycle, wrap"
| → *ku~kwa: → {{ash|goa}}
| "be/move around, elapse"
| → {{ash|qacow /kˣa.kaɰ/}}
| "be passing (of time, weather)"
|}

==Vocabulary==

Some core vocabulary is shared between Ish and Ash but does not always mean the same thing or have a similar sound anymore. This word stock includes elements of nature, common actions, and cultural aspects.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ntaw-}}
| "fire, burn, glow"
| → {{ash|*n(t)w-aj-}} → {{ash|mee}}
| "fire, heart, core, essence"
| → {{ash|dow /taɰ/}}
| "fire, light"
|-
| {{ash|*qat-}}
| "uncomfortable, harsh"
| → {{ash|ảdla}}
| "cold"
| → {{ash|qat /kˣatˢ/}}
| "bad"
|-
| {{ash|*taw(-er)-}}
| "stand"
| → {{ash|*twa:}} → {{ash|laa}}
| "be, stand"
| → {{ash|tayi /tˢaɰe/}}
| "appear, see"
|}

==Developments==

The general changes of individual sounds are fairly straightforward given the small inventory of PAI itself as well as its descendants. However in particular contexts many factors would have come into play at once, yielding more complex changes. Likewise roots were often extended with additional affixes in the daughter branches and so may not always correspond to them perfectly.

===Laryngeal and rhotic colouring===

The back consonant {{ash|*q}} sometimes affected vowels in the daughter languages.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| rowspan="2" |{{ash|*nteq-}}
| rowspan="2" | "experience, feel"
| → "suffer" → {{ash|naa}}; {{ash|nahga}}
| "die"; "itch, irritate"
| → {{ash|nẽɱ /tẽkɰ/}}
| "be, live, make"
|-
| → {{ash|nao}}
| "(sentient/mortal) individual, soul"
| → {{ash|nẽɱ /tẽkɰ/}}
| "(sentient) being, individual"
|}

In this case we see backing of {{ash|*e}} to {{ash|*a}} in Ash while in Ish [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinoglottophilia rhinoglottophilia] served as one of the sources of its nasal vowels. Ish also appears to have extended the root with a suffix of which today remains only {{ash|/-ɰ/}}.

The same seems to have happened around {{ash|*r}}:

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ner-}}
| "smell"
| → {{ash|*nana}} → {{ash|ıdna͠a}}
| "nose"
| → {{ash|nẽdẽ /DẽDẽ/}}
| "nose, smell"
|}

Proto-Ash-Ish

2023-08-08T12:50:26Z

Prinsessa: /* Consonants */ develops => developed

<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
'''Proto-Ash-Ish''' (henceforth referred to as PAI) is the reconstructed protolanguage linking the [[Ash]] and [[Ish]] languages through their own respective protolanguages, [[Proto-Ash]] and [[Proto-Ish]].

The PAI speakers would have lived in a mountainous area during a period of glaciation which forced them to seek new lands. Those who would become speakers of Ish left the mountains altogether and found a temperate climate where the sea was not frozen over and became skilled sailors. Those who would go on to speak Ash delved further into the mountains, finding oases of heat in geologically active areas and came to worship the dual nature of fire. Eventually the ice age subsided and perhaps following volcanic eruptions they followed in the footsteps of their long lost kin and arrived at the ocean which now reached much further inland. This is where the two groups would eventually meet again and new cultures combining the old with the new would develop.

==Phonology==

Ish appears to be much more conservative than Ash or even Proto-Ash when it comes to the inventory of phonemes as the reconstruction of PAI is quite similar.

===Vowels===

The following vowels (with conventional romanisation rather than IPA) are posited:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Front
! Back
|-
! Short
| {{ash|*e}}
| {{ash|*a}}
|}

PAI appears to have had neither the nasal vowels of Ish nor the long vowels of Proto-Ash, but otherwise the same two-way contrast as Ish.

===Consonants===

These are the basic consonants:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Coronal
! Dorsal
! Laryngeal
|-
! Oral
| {{ash|*t}}
| {{ash|*k}}
| {{ash|*q}}
|-
! Nasal
| colspan="3" | {{ash|*n}}
|-
! Approximant
| {{ash|*r}}
| {{ash|*w}}
|
|}

Here a big difference from modern Ish is the presence of a nasal consonant whereas Ish has transferred nasality as a feature onto its vowels, losing the consonant in the process.

* As in Proto-Ash, it is unclear exactly what {{ash|*q}} was. It merged with {{ash|*k}} in Ish so may have been a uvular plosive but in Ash it developed into a glottal.
* The nasal {{ash|*n}} likely assimilated the point of articulation of any other consonant in a cluster.
* The approximant {{ash|*w}} was probably {{IPA|*/ɰ/}} as in Ish.
* The approximant {{ash|*r}} might have been {{IPA|*/ɹ/}}. It became {{IPA|/l~ɾ/}} in Ish and disappeared in Ash.

Additionally there were important clusters that developed into new consonants in the descendants and may have been single phonemes already in PAI:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Coronal
! Dorsal
! Laryngeal
|-
! Prenasalised
| {{ash|*nt~*ⁿt}}
| {{ash|*nk~*ⁿk}}
| {{ash|*nq~*ⁿq}}
|-
! Velarised
| {{ash|*tw~*tʷ~*tᶭ}}
| {{ash|*kw~*kʷ~*kᶭ}}
| {{ash|*qw~*qʷ~*qᶭ}}
|}

The fact that these may have been single phonemes is supported by the fact that no other clusters seem to have been permitted. The convention is still to write these combinations as clusters.

* The velarised consonants may have been labiovelarised already in PAI.
* Consonants could also be both prenasalised and (labio)velarised at the same time.

The main developments into Ash and Ish were as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*k}}
| → {{ash|/k/}}
| → {{ash|/kˣ/}}
|-
| {{ash|*nk}}
| → {{ash|/ŋᵍ/}}
| → {{ash|/k/}}
|-
| {{ash|*kw}}
| → {{ash|/p/}}
| → {{ash|/kˣɰ/}}
|-
| {{ash|*nkw}}
| → {{ash|/mᵇ/}}
| → {{ash|/kɰ/}}
|}

Ash developed poststopped nasals (which merged with the plain nasals, poststopping becoming an allophonic feature) and Ish developed a distinction between plain and aspirated or postfricated plosives.

==Grammar and features==

===Nouns===

PAI would have had some nominal morphology in the form of case endings inherited by the daughter branches only to be mostly lost or repurposed in various ways.

===Deixis===

The proximal and distal determiners are an example of common inheritance from PAI shared between the daughter branches.

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Proto-Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ewe}} "this"
| → {{ash|*i(j), *(i)ja-}} → {{ash|*i, *ja-}}
| → {{ash|(iy)i /(e)ɰe/}}
|-
| {{ash|*awa}} "that"
| → {{ash|*u(w), *(u)wa-}} → {{ash|*u, *wa-}}
| → {{ash|(ow)o /(a)ɰa/}}
|}

===Verbs===

Verb morphology seems to have been reduced mainly to auxiliaries while the main verb was quite invariant. These auxiliaries were inherited by Ash and Ish but treated somewhat differently. In Ash they became prefixes while in Ish they became nominal prepositions or verbal suffixes depending on analysis.

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*qeka}} (transitive verb, direct object)
| → {{ash|*qaka}} → {{ash|ảh-}} (direct agency)
| → {{ash|*ek}} → e(g), iq- {{ash|/e(k(ˣ))/}} (direct object)
|-
| {{ash|*qate}} (reflexive/passive verb, indirect object)
| → {{ash|*qati}} → {{ash|ảs-}} (inverse agency)
| → {{ash|*at}} → a(d), at- {{ash|/a(t(ˢ))/}} (indirect object, passive)
|}

While these still serve somewhat similar functions in both languages, they work quite differently on a syntactic level.

===Syntax===

Thanks to the grammatical cases word order was probably somewhat free in PAI, reflected by the resulting differences in word order in the daughter branches as they solidified their own word order in different ways as the case endings collapsed. Ash settled on auxiliary-noun-verb whereas Ish settled on verb-auxiliary-noun.

The auxiliary verbs appear to have been used with a kind of participle ending in {{ash|*-er}}.

A sentence in PAI may thus have looked as follows:

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*ntaw qeka te kaw-er}}
|gloss=fire.SUBJ AUX.ACT water.OBJ whirl-PTCP
|translation=Fire stirs water.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*kaw-er qeka te ntaw}}
|gloss=whirl-PTCP AUX.ACT water.OBJ fire.SUBJ
|translation=Fire stirs water.
}}
</div>
</div>

It seems Ash preferred the first syntax while Ish settled on the second. The corresponding sentences in their own protolanguages would have been something like the following:

{| class="wikitable"
! Proto-Ash
! Proto-Ish
|-
| {{ash|*naw qaka ti kwa:}}
| {{ash|*kaɰe ek te daɰ}}
|}

The auxiliary {{ash|*qate}} was somewhat unusual. It appears to have been reflexive while able to take a benefactor as a direct object. Some of its usages might be compared to the verbal "be-" prefix of Germanic languages. Looking at its modern reflexes, it seems to have denoted a lack of volition.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*taw-er qate ewe ntaw}}
|gloss=stand-PTCP AUX.PASS PROX.OBJ fire.SUBJ
|translation=Fire was stood for/by this one.
}}

This corresponds quite straightforwardly to modern Ish, besides a change in meaning, and the fact that a verb prefix is now required as well:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|attayáti dow}}
|morphemes=/VC-tˢaɰe=aT-ɰe taɰ/
|gloss=NDIR-appear=NDIR-PROX fire
|translation=I saw the fire.
}}

The order of the referents and the participle were probably free to move around:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*te qate kaw~kaw-er}}
|gloss=water.OBJ AUX.PASS whirl~REDUP-PTCP
|translation=It is being whirled for/by water.
}}

This instead corresponds to modern Ash syntax although this is no longer the common word for water:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|see ảsgoa}}
|morphemes=/ti hat͡s-kuwa/
|gloss=water/air INV-LOCV:DYN
|translation=They are moved by water/air.
}}

===Reduplication===

Reduplication seems to have formed frequentatives already in PAI as reflexes show up in Proto-Ash as well as modern Ish. In the latter it forms the continuous aspect whereas in Ash the reduplicated forms seem to simply have become separate words or to have replaced the non-reduplicated forms altogether, although this might not have happened until later when it may have been necessary to differentiate between words that were becoming homophonous due to sound changes.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*kaw~kaw(-ar)}}
| "whirl, swirl, whorl, cycle, wrap"
| → *ku~kwa: → {{ash|goa}}
| "be/move around, elapse"
| → {{ash|qacow /kˣa.kaɰ/}}
| "be passing (of time, weather)"
|}

==Vocabulary==

Some core vocabulary is shared between Ish and Ash but does not always mean the same thing or have a similar sound anymore. This word stock includes elements of nature, common actions, and cultural aspects.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ntaw-}}
| "fire, burn, glow"
| → {{ash|*n(t)w-aj-}} → {{ash|mee}}
| "fire, heart, core, essence"
| → {{ash|dow /taɰ/}}
| "fire, light"
|-
| {{ash|*qat-}}
| "uncomfortable, harsh"
| → {{ash|ảdla}}
| "cold"
| → {{ash|qat /kˣatˢ/}}
| "bad"
|-
| {{ash|*taw(-er)-}}
| "stand"
| → {{ash|*twa:}} → {{ash|laa}}
| "be, stand"
| → {{ash|tayi /tˢaɰe/}}
| "appear, see"
|}

==Developments==

The general changes of individual sounds are fairly straightforward given the small inventory of PAI itself as well as its descendants. However in particular contexts many factors would have come into play at once, yielding more complex changes. Likewise roots were often extended with additional affixes in the daughter branches and so may not always correspond to them perfectly.

===Laryngeal and rhotic colouring===

The back consonant {{ash|*q}} sometimes affected vowels in the daughter languages.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| rowspan="2" |{{ash|*nteq-}}
| rowspan="2" | "experience, feel"
| → "suffer" → {{ash|naa}}; {{ash|nahga}}
| "die"; "itch, irritate"
| → {{ash|nẽɱ /tẽkɰ/}}
| "be, live, make"
|-
| → {{ash|nao}}
| "(sentient/mortal) individual, soul"
| → {{ash|nẽɱ /tẽkɰ/}}
| "(sentient) being, individual"
|}

In this case we see backing of {{ash|*e}} to {{ash|*a}} in Ash while in Ish [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinoglottophilia rhinoglottophilia] served as one of the sources of its nasal vowels. Ish also appears to have extended the root with a suffix of which today remains only {{ash|/-ɰ/}}.

The same seems to have happened around {{ash|*r}}:

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ner-}}
| "smell"
| → {{ash|*nana}} → {{ash|ıdna͠a}}
| "nose"
| → {{ash|nẽdẽ /DẽDẽ/}}
| "nose, smell"
|}

Proto-Ash-Ish

2023-08-08T12:43:53Z

Prinsessa: culture => cultures

<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
'''Proto-Ash-Ish''' (henceforth referred to as PAI) is the reconstructed protolanguage linking the [[Ash]] and [[Ish]] languages through their own respective protolanguages, [[Proto-Ash]] and [[Proto-Ish]].

The PAI speakers would have lived in a mountainous area during a period of glaciation which forced them to seek new lands. Those who would become speakers of Ish left the mountains altogether and found a temperate climate where the sea was not frozen over and became skilled sailors. Those who would go on to speak Ash delved further into the mountains, finding oases of heat in geologically active areas and came to worship the dual nature of fire. Eventually the ice age subsided and perhaps following volcanic eruptions they followed in the footsteps of their long lost kin and arrived at the ocean which now reached much further inland. This is where the two groups would eventually meet again and new cultures combining the old with the new would develop.

==Phonology==

Ish appears to be much more conservative than Ash or even Proto-Ash when it comes to the inventory of phonemes as the reconstruction of PAI is quite similar.

===Vowels===

The following vowels (with conventional romanisation rather than IPA) are posited:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Front
! Back
|-
! Short
| {{ash|*e}}
| {{ash|*a}}
|}

PAI appears to have had neither the nasal vowels of Ish nor the long vowels of Proto-Ash, but otherwise the same two-way contrast as Ish.

===Consonants===

These are the basic consonants:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Coronal
! Dorsal
! Laryngeal
|-
! Oral
| {{ash|*t}}
| {{ash|*k}}
| {{ash|*q}}
|-
! Nasal
| colspan="3" | {{ash|*n}}
|-
! Approximant
| {{ash|*r}}
| {{ash|*w}}
|
|}

Here a big difference from modern Ish is the presence of a nasal consonant whereas Ish has transferred nasality as a feature onto its vowels, losing the consonant in the process.

* As in Proto-Ash, it is unclear exactly what {{ash|*q}} was. It merged with {{ash|*k}} in Ish so may have been a uvular plosive but in Ash it develops into a glottal.
* The nasal {{ash|*n}} likely assimilated the point of articulation of any other consonant in a cluster.
* The approximant {{ash|*w}} was probably {{IPA|*/ɰ/}} as in Ish.
* The approximant {{ash|*r}} might have been {{IPA|*/ɹ/}}. It became {{IPA|/l~ɾ/}} in Ish and disappeared in Ash.

Additionally there were important clusters that developed into new consonants in the descendants and may have been single phonemes already in PAI:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Coronal
! Dorsal
! Laryngeal
|-
! Prenasalised
| {{ash|*nt~*ⁿt}}
| {{ash|*nk~*ⁿk}}
| {{ash|*nq~*ⁿq}}
|-
! Velarised
| {{ash|*tw~*tʷ~*tᶭ}}
| {{ash|*kw~*kʷ~*kᶭ}}
| {{ash|*qw~*qʷ~*qᶭ}}
|}

The fact that these may have been single phonemes is supported by the fact that no other clusters seem to have been permitted. The convention is still to write these combinations as clusters.

* The velarised consonants may have been labiovelarised already in PAI.
* Consonants could also be both prenasalised and (labio)velarised at the same time.

The main developments into Ash and Ish were as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*k}}
| → {{ash|/k/}}
| → {{ash|/kˣ/}}
|-
| {{ash|*nk}}
| → {{ash|/ŋᵍ/}}
| → {{ash|/k/}}
|-
| {{ash|*kw}}
| → {{ash|/p/}}
| → {{ash|/kˣɰ/}}
|-
| {{ash|*nkw}}
| → {{ash|/mᵇ/}}
| → {{ash|/kɰ/}}
|}

Ash developed poststopped nasals (which merged with the plain nasals, poststopping becoming an allophonic feature) and Ish developed a distinction between plain and aspirated or postfricated plosives.

==Grammar and features==

===Nouns===

PAI would have had some nominal morphology in the form of case endings inherited by the daughter branches only to be mostly lost or repurposed in various ways.

===Deixis===

The proximal and distal determiners are an example of common inheritance from PAI shared between the daughter branches.

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Proto-Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ewe}} "this"
| → {{ash|*i(j), *(i)ja-}} → {{ash|*i, *ja-}}
| → {{ash|(iy)i /(e)ɰe/}}
|-
| {{ash|*awa}} "that"
| → {{ash|*u(w), *(u)wa-}} → {{ash|*u, *wa-}}
| → {{ash|(ow)o /(a)ɰa/}}
|}

===Verbs===

Verb morphology seems to have been reduced mainly to auxiliaries while the main verb was quite invariant. These auxiliaries were inherited by Ash and Ish but treated somewhat differently. In Ash they became prefixes while in Ish they became nominal prepositions or verbal suffixes depending on analysis.

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*qeka}} (transitive verb, direct object)
| → {{ash|*qaka}} → {{ash|ảh-}} (direct agency)
| → {{ash|*ek}} → e(g), iq- {{ash|/e(k(ˣ))/}} (direct object)
|-
| {{ash|*qate}} (reflexive/passive verb, indirect object)
| → {{ash|*qati}} → {{ash|ảs-}} (inverse agency)
| → {{ash|*at}} → a(d), at- {{ash|/a(t(ˢ))/}} (indirect object, passive)
|}

While these still serve somewhat similar functions in both languages, they work quite differently on a syntactic level.

===Syntax===

Thanks to the grammatical cases word order was probably somewhat free in PAI, reflected by the resulting differences in word order in the daughter branches as they solidified their own word order in different ways as the case endings collapsed. Ash settled on auxiliary-noun-verb whereas Ish settled on verb-auxiliary-noun.

The auxiliary verbs appear to have been used with a kind of participle ending in {{ash|*-er}}.

A sentence in PAI may thus have looked as follows:

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*ntaw qeka te kaw-er}}
|gloss=fire.SUBJ AUX.ACT water.OBJ whirl-PTCP
|translation=Fire stirs water.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*kaw-er qeka te ntaw}}
|gloss=whirl-PTCP AUX.ACT water.OBJ fire.SUBJ
|translation=Fire stirs water.
}}
</div>
</div>

It seems Ash preferred the first syntax while Ish settled on the second. The corresponding sentences in their own protolanguages would have been something like the following:

{| class="wikitable"
! Proto-Ash
! Proto-Ish
|-
| {{ash|*naw qaka ti kwa:}}
| {{ash|*kaɰe ek te daɰ}}
|}

The auxiliary {{ash|*qate}} was somewhat unusual. It appears to have been reflexive while able to take a benefactor as a direct object. Some of its usages might be compared to the verbal "be-" prefix of Germanic languages. Looking at its modern reflexes, it seems to have denoted a lack of volition.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*taw-er qate ewe ntaw}}
|gloss=stand-PTCP AUX.PASS PROX.OBJ fire.SUBJ
|translation=Fire was stood for/by this one.
}}

This corresponds quite straightforwardly to modern Ish, besides a change in meaning, and the fact that a verb prefix is now required as well:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|attayáti dow}}
|morphemes=/VC-tˢaɰe=aT-ɰe taɰ/
|gloss=NDIR-appear=NDIR-PROX fire
|translation=I saw the fire.
}}

The order of the referents and the participle were probably free to move around:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*te qate kaw~kaw-er}}
|gloss=water.OBJ AUX.PASS whirl~REDUP-PTCP
|translation=It is being whirled for/by water.
}}

This instead corresponds to modern Ash syntax although this is no longer the common word for water:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|see ảsgoa}}
|morphemes=/ti hat͡s-kuwa/
|gloss=water/air INV-LOCV:DYN
|translation=They are moved by water/air.
}}

===Reduplication===

Reduplication seems to have formed frequentatives already in PAI as reflexes show up in Proto-Ash as well as modern Ish. In the latter it forms the continuous aspect whereas in Ash the reduplicated forms seem to simply have become separate words or to have replaced the non-reduplicated forms altogether, although this might not have happened until later when it may have been necessary to differentiate between words that were becoming homophonous due to sound changes.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*kaw~kaw(-ar)}}
| "whirl, swirl, whorl, cycle, wrap"
| → *ku~kwa: → {{ash|goa}}
| "be/move around, elapse"
| → {{ash|qacow /kˣa.kaɰ/}}
| "be passing (of time, weather)"
|}

==Vocabulary==

Some core vocabulary is shared between Ish and Ash but does not always mean the same thing or have a similar sound anymore. This word stock includes elements of nature, common actions, and cultural aspects.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ntaw-}}
| "fire, burn, glow"
| → {{ash|*n(t)w-aj-}} → {{ash|mee}}
| "fire, heart, core, essence"
| → {{ash|dow /taɰ/}}
| "fire, light"
|-
| {{ash|*qat-}}
| "uncomfortable, harsh"
| → {{ash|ảdla}}
| "cold"
| → {{ash|qat /kˣatˢ/}}
| "bad"
|-
| {{ash|*taw(-er)-}}
| "stand"
| → {{ash|*twa:}} → {{ash|laa}}
| "be, stand"
| → {{ash|tayi /tˢaɰe/}}
| "appear, see"
|}

==Developments==

The general changes of individual sounds are fairly straightforward given the small inventory of PAI itself as well as its descendants. However in particular contexts many factors would have come into play at once, yielding more complex changes. Likewise roots were often extended with additional affixes in the daughter branches and so may not always correspond to them perfectly.

===Laryngeal and rhotic colouring===

The back consonant {{ash|*q}} sometimes affected vowels in the daughter languages.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| rowspan="2" |{{ash|*nteq-}}
| rowspan="2" | "experience, feel"
| → "suffer" → {{ash|naa}}; {{ash|nahga}}
| "die"; "itch, irritate"
| → {{ash|nẽɱ /tẽkɰ/}}
| "be, live, make"
|-
| → {{ash|nao}}
| "(sentient/mortal) individual, soul"
| → {{ash|nẽɱ /tẽkɰ/}}
| "(sentient) being, individual"
|}

In this case we see backing of {{ash|*e}} to {{ash|*a}} in Ash while in Ish [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinoglottophilia rhinoglottophilia] served as one of the sources of its nasal vowels. Ish also appears to have extended the root with a suffix of which today remains only {{ash|/-ɰ/}}.

The same seems to have happened around {{ash|*r}}:

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ner-}}
| "smell"
| → {{ash|*nana}} → {{ash|ıdna͠a}}
| "nose"
| → {{ash|nẽdẽ /DẽDẽ/}}
| "nose, smell"
|}

Proto-Ash-Ish

2023-08-08T12:43:02Z

Prinsessa: their => the

<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
'''Proto-Ash-Ish''' (henceforth referred to as PAI) is the reconstructed protolanguage linking the [[Ash]] and [[Ish]] languages through their own respective protolanguages, [[Proto-Ash]] and [[Proto-Ish]].

The PAI speakers would have lived in a mountainous area during a period of glaciation which forced them to seek new lands. Those who would become speakers of Ish left the mountains altogether and found a temperate climate where the sea was not frozen over and became skilled sailors. Those who would go on to speak Ash delved further into the mountains, finding oases of heat in geologically active areas and came to worship the dual nature of fire. Eventually the ice age subsided and perhaps following volcanic eruptions they followed in the footsteps of their long lost kin and arrived at the ocean which now reached much further inland. This is where the two groups would eventually meet again and new culture combining the old with the new would develop.

==Phonology==

Ish appears to be much more conservative than Ash or even Proto-Ash when it comes to the inventory of phonemes as the reconstruction of PAI is quite similar.

===Vowels===

The following vowels (with conventional romanisation rather than IPA) are posited:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Front
! Back
|-
! Short
| {{ash|*e}}
| {{ash|*a}}
|}

PAI appears to have had neither the nasal vowels of Ish nor the long vowels of Proto-Ash, but otherwise the same two-way contrast as Ish.

===Consonants===

These are the basic consonants:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Coronal
! Dorsal
! Laryngeal
|-
! Oral
| {{ash|*t}}
| {{ash|*k}}
| {{ash|*q}}
|-
! Nasal
| colspan="3" | {{ash|*n}}
|-
! Approximant
| {{ash|*r}}
| {{ash|*w}}
|
|}

Here a big difference from modern Ish is the presence of a nasal consonant whereas Ish has transferred nasality as a feature onto its vowels, losing the consonant in the process.

* As in Proto-Ash, it is unclear exactly what {{ash|*q}} was. It merged with {{ash|*k}} in Ish so may have been a uvular plosive but in Ash it develops into a glottal.
* The nasal {{ash|*n}} likely assimilated the point of articulation of any other consonant in a cluster.
* The approximant {{ash|*w}} was probably {{IPA|*/ɰ/}} as in Ish.
* The approximant {{ash|*r}} might have been {{IPA|*/ɹ/}}. It became {{IPA|/l~ɾ/}} in Ish and disappeared in Ash.

Additionally there were important clusters that developed into new consonants in the descendants and may have been single phonemes already in PAI:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Coronal
! Dorsal
! Laryngeal
|-
! Prenasalised
| {{ash|*nt~*ⁿt}}
| {{ash|*nk~*ⁿk}}
| {{ash|*nq~*ⁿq}}
|-
! Velarised
| {{ash|*tw~*tʷ~*tᶭ}}
| {{ash|*kw~*kʷ~*kᶭ}}
| {{ash|*qw~*qʷ~*qᶭ}}
|}

The fact that these may have been single phonemes is supported by the fact that no other clusters seem to have been permitted. The convention is still to write these combinations as clusters.

* The velarised consonants may have been labiovelarised already in PAI.
* Consonants could also be both prenasalised and (labio)velarised at the same time.

The main developments into Ash and Ish were as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*k}}
| → {{ash|/k/}}
| → {{ash|/kˣ/}}
|-
| {{ash|*nk}}
| → {{ash|/ŋᵍ/}}
| → {{ash|/k/}}
|-
| {{ash|*kw}}
| → {{ash|/p/}}
| → {{ash|/kˣɰ/}}
|-
| {{ash|*nkw}}
| → {{ash|/mᵇ/}}
| → {{ash|/kɰ/}}
|}

Ash developed poststopped nasals (which merged with the plain nasals, poststopping becoming an allophonic feature) and Ish developed a distinction between plain and aspirated or postfricated plosives.

==Grammar and features==

===Nouns===

PAI would have had some nominal morphology in the form of case endings inherited by the daughter branches only to be mostly lost or repurposed in various ways.

===Deixis===

The proximal and distal determiners are an example of common inheritance from PAI shared between the daughter branches.

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Proto-Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ewe}} "this"
| → {{ash|*i(j), *(i)ja-}} → {{ash|*i, *ja-}}
| → {{ash|(iy)i /(e)ɰe/}}
|-
| {{ash|*awa}} "that"
| → {{ash|*u(w), *(u)wa-}} → {{ash|*u, *wa-}}
| → {{ash|(ow)o /(a)ɰa/}}
|}

===Verbs===

Verb morphology seems to have been reduced mainly to auxiliaries while the main verb was quite invariant. These auxiliaries were inherited by Ash and Ish but treated somewhat differently. In Ash they became prefixes while in Ish they became nominal prepositions or verbal suffixes depending on analysis.

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*qeka}} (transitive verb, direct object)
| → {{ash|*qaka}} → {{ash|ảh-}} (direct agency)
| → {{ash|*ek}} → e(g), iq- {{ash|/e(k(ˣ))/}} (direct object)
|-
| {{ash|*qate}} (reflexive/passive verb, indirect object)
| → {{ash|*qati}} → {{ash|ảs-}} (inverse agency)
| → {{ash|*at}} → a(d), at- {{ash|/a(t(ˢ))/}} (indirect object, passive)
|}

While these still serve somewhat similar functions in both languages, they work quite differently on a syntactic level.

===Syntax===

Thanks to the grammatical cases word order was probably somewhat free in PAI, reflected by the resulting differences in word order in the daughter branches as they solidified their own word order in different ways as the case endings collapsed. Ash settled on auxiliary-noun-verb whereas Ish settled on verb-auxiliary-noun.

The auxiliary verbs appear to have been used with a kind of participle ending in {{ash|*-er}}.

A sentence in PAI may thus have looked as follows:

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*ntaw qeka te kaw-er}}
|gloss=fire.SUBJ AUX.ACT water.OBJ whirl-PTCP
|translation=Fire stirs water.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*kaw-er qeka te ntaw}}
|gloss=whirl-PTCP AUX.ACT water.OBJ fire.SUBJ
|translation=Fire stirs water.
}}
</div>
</div>

It seems Ash preferred the first syntax while Ish settled on the second. The corresponding sentences in their own protolanguages would have been something like the following:

{| class="wikitable"
! Proto-Ash
! Proto-Ish
|-
| {{ash|*naw qaka ti kwa:}}
| {{ash|*kaɰe ek te daɰ}}
|}

The auxiliary {{ash|*qate}} was somewhat unusual. It appears to have been reflexive while able to take a benefactor as a direct object. Some of its usages might be compared to the verbal "be-" prefix of Germanic languages. Looking at its modern reflexes, it seems to have denoted a lack of volition.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*taw-er qate ewe ntaw}}
|gloss=stand-PTCP AUX.PASS PROX.OBJ fire.SUBJ
|translation=Fire was stood for/by this one.
}}

This corresponds quite straightforwardly to modern Ish, besides a change in meaning, and the fact that a verb prefix is now required as well:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|attayáti dow}}
|morphemes=/VC-tˢaɰe=aT-ɰe taɰ/
|gloss=NDIR-appear=NDIR-PROX fire
|translation=I saw the fire.
}}

The order of the referents and the participle were probably free to move around:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*te qate kaw~kaw-er}}
|gloss=water.OBJ AUX.PASS whirl~REDUP-PTCP
|translation=It is being whirled for/by water.
}}

This instead corresponds to modern Ash syntax although this is no longer the common word for water:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|see ảsgoa}}
|morphemes=/ti hat͡s-kuwa/
|gloss=water/air INV-LOCV:DYN
|translation=They are moved by water/air.
}}

===Reduplication===

Reduplication seems to have formed frequentatives already in PAI as reflexes show up in Proto-Ash as well as modern Ish. In the latter it forms the continuous aspect whereas in Ash the reduplicated forms seem to simply have become separate words or to have replaced the non-reduplicated forms altogether, although this might not have happened until later when it may have been necessary to differentiate between words that were becoming homophonous due to sound changes.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*kaw~kaw(-ar)}}
| "whirl, swirl, whorl, cycle, wrap"
| → *ku~kwa: → {{ash|goa}}
| "be/move around, elapse"
| → {{ash|qacow /kˣa.kaɰ/}}
| "be passing (of time, weather)"
|}

==Vocabulary==

Some core vocabulary is shared between Ish and Ash but does not always mean the same thing or have a similar sound anymore. This word stock includes elements of nature, common actions, and cultural aspects.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ntaw-}}
| "fire, burn, glow"
| → {{ash|*n(t)w-aj-}} → {{ash|mee}}
| "fire, heart, core, essence"
| → {{ash|dow /taɰ/}}
| "fire, light"
|-
| {{ash|*qat-}}
| "uncomfortable, harsh"
| → {{ash|ảdla}}
| "cold"
| → {{ash|qat /kˣatˢ/}}
| "bad"
|-
| {{ash|*taw(-er)-}}
| "stand"
| → {{ash|*twa:}} → {{ash|laa}}
| "be, stand"
| → {{ash|tayi /tˢaɰe/}}
| "appear, see"
|}

==Developments==

The general changes of individual sounds are fairly straightforward given the small inventory of PAI itself as well as its descendants. However in particular contexts many factors would have come into play at once, yielding more complex changes. Likewise roots were often extended with additional affixes in the daughter branches and so may not always correspond to them perfectly.

===Laryngeal and rhotic colouring===

The back consonant {{ash|*q}} sometimes affected vowels in the daughter languages.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| rowspan="2" |{{ash|*nteq-}}
| rowspan="2" | "experience, feel"
| → "suffer" → {{ash|naa}}; {{ash|nahga}}
| "die"; "itch, irritate"
| → {{ash|nẽɱ /tẽkɰ/}}
| "be, live, make"
|-
| → {{ash|nao}}
| "(sentient/mortal) individual, soul"
| → {{ash|nẽɱ /tẽkɰ/}}
| "(sentient) being, individual"
|}

In this case we see backing of {{ash|*e}} to {{ash|*a}} in Ash while in Ish [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinoglottophilia rhinoglottophilia] served as one of the sources of its nasal vowels. Ish also appears to have extended the root with a suffix of which today remains only {{ash|/-ɰ/}}.

The same seems to have happened around {{ash|*r}}:

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ner-}}
| "smell"
| → {{ash|*nana}} → {{ash|ıdna͠a}}
| "nose"
| → {{ash|nẽdẽ /DẽDẽ/}}
| "nose, smell"
|}

Proto-Ash-Ish

2023-08-08T12:42:50Z

Prinsessa:

<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
'''Proto-Ash-Ish''' (henceforth referred to as PAI) is the reconstructed protolanguage linking the [[Ash]] and [[Ish]] languages through their own respective protolanguages, [[Proto-Ash]] and [[Proto-Ish]].

Their PAI speakers would have lived in a mountainous area during a period of glaciation which forced them to seek new lands. Those who would become speakers of Ish left the mountains altogether and found a temperate climate where the sea was not frozen over and became skilled sailors. Those who would go on to speak Ash delved further into the mountains, finding oases of heat in geologically active areas and came to worship the dual nature of fire. Eventually the ice age subsided and perhaps following volcanic eruptions they followed in the footsteps of their long lost kin and arrived at the ocean which now reached much further inland. This is where the two groups would eventually meet again and new culture combining the old with the new would develop.

==Phonology==

Ish appears to be much more conservative than Ash or even Proto-Ash when it comes to the inventory of phonemes as the reconstruction of PAI is quite similar.

===Vowels===

The following vowels (with conventional romanisation rather than IPA) are posited:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Front
! Back
|-
! Short
| {{ash|*e}}
| {{ash|*a}}
|}

PAI appears to have had neither the nasal vowels of Ish nor the long vowels of Proto-Ash, but otherwise the same two-way contrast as Ish.

===Consonants===

These are the basic consonants:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Coronal
! Dorsal
! Laryngeal
|-
! Oral
| {{ash|*t}}
| {{ash|*k}}
| {{ash|*q}}
|-
! Nasal
| colspan="3" | {{ash|*n}}
|-
! Approximant
| {{ash|*r}}
| {{ash|*w}}
|
|}

Here a big difference from modern Ish is the presence of a nasal consonant whereas Ish has transferred nasality as a feature onto its vowels, losing the consonant in the process.

* As in Proto-Ash, it is unclear exactly what {{ash|*q}} was. It merged with {{ash|*k}} in Ish so may have been a uvular plosive but in Ash it develops into a glottal.
* The nasal {{ash|*n}} likely assimilated the point of articulation of any other consonant in a cluster.
* The approximant {{ash|*w}} was probably {{IPA|*/ɰ/}} as in Ish.
* The approximant {{ash|*r}} might have been {{IPA|*/ɹ/}}. It became {{IPA|/l~ɾ/}} in Ish and disappeared in Ash.

Additionally there were important clusters that developed into new consonants in the descendants and may have been single phonemes already in PAI:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Coronal
! Dorsal
! Laryngeal
|-
! Prenasalised
| {{ash|*nt~*ⁿt}}
| {{ash|*nk~*ⁿk}}
| {{ash|*nq~*ⁿq}}
|-
! Velarised
| {{ash|*tw~*tʷ~*tᶭ}}
| {{ash|*kw~*kʷ~*kᶭ}}
| {{ash|*qw~*qʷ~*qᶭ}}
|}

The fact that these may have been single phonemes is supported by the fact that no other clusters seem to have been permitted. The convention is still to write these combinations as clusters.

* The velarised consonants may have been labiovelarised already in PAI.
* Consonants could also be both prenasalised and (labio)velarised at the same time.

The main developments into Ash and Ish were as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*k}}
| → {{ash|/k/}}
| → {{ash|/kˣ/}}
|-
| {{ash|*nk}}
| → {{ash|/ŋᵍ/}}
| → {{ash|/k/}}
|-
| {{ash|*kw}}
| → {{ash|/p/}}
| → {{ash|/kˣɰ/}}
|-
| {{ash|*nkw}}
| → {{ash|/mᵇ/}}
| → {{ash|/kɰ/}}
|}

Ash developed poststopped nasals (which merged with the plain nasals, poststopping becoming an allophonic feature) and Ish developed a distinction between plain and aspirated or postfricated plosives.

==Grammar and features==

===Nouns===

PAI would have had some nominal morphology in the form of case endings inherited by the daughter branches only to be mostly lost or repurposed in various ways.

===Deixis===

The proximal and distal determiners are an example of common inheritance from PAI shared between the daughter branches.

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Proto-Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ewe}} "this"
| → {{ash|*i(j), *(i)ja-}} → {{ash|*i, *ja-}}
| → {{ash|(iy)i /(e)ɰe/}}
|-
| {{ash|*awa}} "that"
| → {{ash|*u(w), *(u)wa-}} → {{ash|*u, *wa-}}
| → {{ash|(ow)o /(a)ɰa/}}
|}

===Verbs===

Verb morphology seems to have been reduced mainly to auxiliaries while the main verb was quite invariant. These auxiliaries were inherited by Ash and Ish but treated somewhat differently. In Ash they became prefixes while in Ish they became nominal prepositions or verbal suffixes depending on analysis.

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*qeka}} (transitive verb, direct object)
| → {{ash|*qaka}} → {{ash|ảh-}} (direct agency)
| → {{ash|*ek}} → e(g), iq- {{ash|/e(k(ˣ))/}} (direct object)
|-
| {{ash|*qate}} (reflexive/passive verb, indirect object)
| → {{ash|*qati}} → {{ash|ảs-}} (inverse agency)
| → {{ash|*at}} → a(d), at- {{ash|/a(t(ˢ))/}} (indirect object, passive)
|}

While these still serve somewhat similar functions in both languages, they work quite differently on a syntactic level.

===Syntax===

Thanks to the grammatical cases word order was probably somewhat free in PAI, reflected by the resulting differences in word order in the daughter branches as they solidified their own word order in different ways as the case endings collapsed. Ash settled on auxiliary-noun-verb whereas Ish settled on verb-auxiliary-noun.

The auxiliary verbs appear to have been used with a kind of participle ending in {{ash|*-er}}.

A sentence in PAI may thus have looked as follows:

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*ntaw qeka te kaw-er}}
|gloss=fire.SUBJ AUX.ACT water.OBJ whirl-PTCP
|translation=Fire stirs water.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*kaw-er qeka te ntaw}}
|gloss=whirl-PTCP AUX.ACT water.OBJ fire.SUBJ
|translation=Fire stirs water.
}}
</div>
</div>

It seems Ash preferred the first syntax while Ish settled on the second. The corresponding sentences in their own protolanguages would have been something like the following:

{| class="wikitable"
! Proto-Ash
! Proto-Ish
|-
| {{ash|*naw qaka ti kwa:}}
| {{ash|*kaɰe ek te daɰ}}
|}

The auxiliary {{ash|*qate}} was somewhat unusual. It appears to have been reflexive while able to take a benefactor as a direct object. Some of its usages might be compared to the verbal "be-" prefix of Germanic languages. Looking at its modern reflexes, it seems to have denoted a lack of volition.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*taw-er qate ewe ntaw}}
|gloss=stand-PTCP AUX.PASS PROX.OBJ fire.SUBJ
|translation=Fire was stood for/by this one.
}}

This corresponds quite straightforwardly to modern Ish, besides a change in meaning, and the fact that a verb prefix is now required as well:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|attayáti dow}}
|morphemes=/VC-tˢaɰe=aT-ɰe taɰ/
|gloss=NDIR-appear=NDIR-PROX fire
|translation=I saw the fire.
}}

The order of the referents and the participle were probably free to move around:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*te qate kaw~kaw-er}}
|gloss=water.OBJ AUX.PASS whirl~REDUP-PTCP
|translation=It is being whirled for/by water.
}}

This instead corresponds to modern Ash syntax although this is no longer the common word for water:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|see ảsgoa}}
|morphemes=/ti hat͡s-kuwa/
|gloss=water/air INV-LOCV:DYN
|translation=They are moved by water/air.
}}

===Reduplication===

Reduplication seems to have formed frequentatives already in PAI as reflexes show up in Proto-Ash as well as modern Ish. In the latter it forms the continuous aspect whereas in Ash the reduplicated forms seem to simply have become separate words or to have replaced the non-reduplicated forms altogether, although this might not have happened until later when it may have been necessary to differentiate between words that were becoming homophonous due to sound changes.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*kaw~kaw(-ar)}}
| "whirl, swirl, whorl, cycle, wrap"
| → *ku~kwa: → {{ash|goa}}
| "be/move around, elapse"
| → {{ash|qacow /kˣa.kaɰ/}}
| "be passing (of time, weather)"
|}

==Vocabulary==

Some core vocabulary is shared between Ish and Ash but does not always mean the same thing or have a similar sound anymore. This word stock includes elements of nature, common actions, and cultural aspects.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ntaw-}}
| "fire, burn, glow"
| → {{ash|*n(t)w-aj-}} → {{ash|mee}}
| "fire, heart, core, essence"
| → {{ash|dow /taɰ/}}
| "fire, light"
|-
| {{ash|*qat-}}
| "uncomfortable, harsh"
| → {{ash|ảdla}}
| "cold"
| → {{ash|qat /kˣatˢ/}}
| "bad"
|-
| {{ash|*taw(-er)-}}
| "stand"
| → {{ash|*twa:}} → {{ash|laa}}
| "be, stand"
| → {{ash|tayi /tˢaɰe/}}
| "appear, see"
|}

==Developments==

The general changes of individual sounds are fairly straightforward given the small inventory of PAI itself as well as its descendants. However in particular contexts many factors would have come into play at once, yielding more complex changes. Likewise roots were often extended with additional affixes in the daughter branches and so may not always correspond to them perfectly.

===Laryngeal and rhotic colouring===

The back consonant {{ash|*q}} sometimes affected vowels in the daughter languages.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| rowspan="2" |{{ash|*nteq-}}
| rowspan="2" | "experience, feel"
| → "suffer" → {{ash|naa}}; {{ash|nahga}}
| "die"; "itch, irritate"
| → {{ash|nẽɱ /tẽkɰ/}}
| "be, live, make"
|-
| → {{ash|nao}}
| "(sentient/mortal) individual, soul"
| → {{ash|nẽɱ /tẽkɰ/}}
| "(sentient) being, individual"
|}

In this case we see backing of {{ash|*e}} to {{ash|*a}} in Ash while in Ish [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinoglottophilia rhinoglottophilia] served as one of the sources of its nasal vowels. Ish also appears to have extended the root with a suffix of which today remains only {{ash|/-ɰ/}}.

The same seems to have happened around {{ash|*r}}:

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ner-}}
| "smell"
| → {{ash|*nana}} → {{ash|ıdna͠a}}
| "nose"
| → {{ash|nẽdẽ /DẽDẽ/}}
| "nose, smell"
|}

Proto-Ash-Ish

2023-08-08T12:14:02Z

Prinsessa: /* Laryngeal and rhotic colouring */ Ish: nose, smell

<templatestyles src="AshStyle/style.css" />
'''Proto-Ash-Ish''' (henceforth referred to as PAI) is the reconstructed protolanguage linking the [[Ash]] and [[Ish]] languages through their own respective protolanguages, [[Proto-Ash]] and [[Proto-Ish]].

==Phonology==

Ish appears to be much more conservative than Ash or even Proto-Ash when it comes to the inventory of phonemes as the reconstruction of PAI is quite similar.

===Vowels===

The following vowels (with conventional romanisation rather than IPA) are posited:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Front
! Back
|-
! Short
| {{ash|*e}}
| {{ash|*a}}
|}

PAI appears to have had neither the nasal vowels of Ish nor the long vowels of Proto-Ash, but otherwise the same two-way contrast as Ish.

===Consonants===

These are the basic consonants:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Coronal
! Dorsal
! Laryngeal
|-
! Oral
| {{ash|*t}}
| {{ash|*k}}
| {{ash|*q}}
|-
! Nasal
| colspan="3" | {{ash|*n}}
|-
! Approximant
| {{ash|*r}}
| {{ash|*w}}
|
|}

Here a big difference from modern Ish is the presence of a nasal consonant whereas Ish has transferred nasality as a feature onto its vowels, losing the consonant in the process.

* As in Proto-Ash, it is unclear exactly what {{ash|*q}} was. It merged with {{ash|*k}} in Ish so may have been a uvular plosive but in Ash it develops into a glottal.
* The nasal {{ash|*n}} likely assimilated the point of articulation of any other consonant in a cluster.
* The approximant {{ash|*w}} was probably {{IPA|*/ɰ/}} as in Ish.
* The approximant {{ash|*r}} might have been {{IPA|*/ɹ/}}. It became {{IPA|/l~ɾ/}} in Ish and disappeared in Ash.

Additionally there were important clusters that developed into new consonants in the descendants and may have been single phonemes already in PAI:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Coronal
! Dorsal
! Laryngeal
|-
! Prenasalised
| {{ash|*nt~*ⁿt}}
| {{ash|*nk~*ⁿk}}
| {{ash|*nq~*ⁿq}}
|-
! Velarised
| {{ash|*tw~*tʷ~*tᶭ}}
| {{ash|*kw~*kʷ~*kᶭ}}
| {{ash|*qw~*qʷ~*qᶭ}}
|}

The fact that these may have been single phonemes is supported by the fact that no other clusters seem to have been permitted. The convention is still to write these combinations as clusters.

* The velarised consonants may have been labiovelarised already in PAI.
* Consonants could also be both prenasalised and (labio)velarised at the same time.

The main developments into Ash and Ish were as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*k}}
| → {{ash|/k/}}
| → {{ash|/kˣ/}}
|-
| {{ash|*nk}}
| → {{ash|/ŋᵍ/}}
| → {{ash|/k/}}
|-
| {{ash|*kw}}
| → {{ash|/p/}}
| → {{ash|/kˣɰ/}}
|-
| {{ash|*nkw}}
| → {{ash|/mᵇ/}}
| → {{ash|/kɰ/}}
|}

Ash developed poststopped nasals (which merged with the plain nasals, poststopping becoming an allophonic feature) and Ish developed a distinction between plain and aspirated or postfricated plosives.

==Grammar and features==

===Nouns===

PAI would have had some nominal morphology in the form of case endings inherited by the daughter branches only to be mostly lost or repurposed in various ways.

===Deixis===

The proximal and distal determiners are an example of common inheritance from PAI shared between the daughter branches.

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Proto-Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ewe}} "this"
| → {{ash|*i(j), *(i)ja-}} → {{ash|*i, *ja-}}
| → {{ash|(iy)i /(e)ɰe/}}
|-
| {{ash|*awa}} "that"
| → {{ash|*u(w), *(u)wa-}} → {{ash|*u, *wa-}}
| → {{ash|(ow)o /(a)ɰa/}}
|}

===Verbs===

Verb morphology seems to have been reduced mainly to auxiliaries while the main verb was quite invariant. These auxiliaries were inherited by Ash and Ish but treated somewhat differently. In Ash they became prefixes while in Ish they became nominal prepositions or verbal suffixes depending on analysis.

{| class="wikitable"
! PAI
! Ash
! Ish
|-
| {{ash|*qeka}} (transitive verb, direct object)
| → {{ash|*qaka}} → {{ash|ảh-}} (direct agency)
| → {{ash|*ek}} → e(g), iq- {{ash|/e(k(ˣ))/}} (direct object)
|-
| {{ash|*qate}} (reflexive/passive verb, indirect object)
| → {{ash|*qati}} → {{ash|ảs-}} (inverse agency)
| → {{ash|*at}} → a(d), at- {{ash|/a(t(ˢ))/}} (indirect object, passive)
|}

While these still serve somewhat similar functions in both languages, they work quite differently on a syntactic level.

===Syntax===

Thanks to the grammatical cases word order was probably somewhat free in PAI, reflected by the resulting differences in word order in the daughter branches as they solidified their own word order in different ways as the case endings collapsed. Ash settled on auxiliary-noun-verb whereas Ish settled on verb-auxiliary-noun.

The auxiliary verbs appear to have been used with a kind of participle ending in {{ash|*-er}}.

A sentence in PAI may thus have looked as follows:

<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*ntaw qeka te kaw-er}}
|gloss=fire.SUBJ AUX.ACT water.OBJ whirl-PTCP
|translation=Fire stirs water.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*kaw-er qeka te ntaw}}
|gloss=whirl-PTCP AUX.ACT water.OBJ fire.SUBJ
|translation=Fire stirs water.
}}
</div>
</div>

It seems Ash preferred the first syntax while Ish settled on the second. The corresponding sentences in their own protolanguages would have been something like the following:

{| class="wikitable"
! Proto-Ash
! Proto-Ish
|-
| {{ash|*naw qaka ti kwa:}}
| {{ash|*kaɰe ek te daɰ}}
|}

The auxiliary {{ash|*qate}} was somewhat unusual. It appears to have been reflexive while able to take a benefactor as a direct object. Some of its usages might be compared to the verbal "be-" prefix of Germanic languages. Looking at its modern reflexes, it seems to have denoted a lack of volition.

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*taw-er qate ewe ntaw}}
|gloss=stand-PTCP AUX.PASS PROX.OBJ fire.SUBJ
|translation=Fire was stood for/by this one.
}}

This corresponds quite straightforwardly to modern Ish, besides a change in meaning, and the fact that a verb prefix is now required as well:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|attayáti dow}}
|morphemes=/VC-tˢaɰe=aT-ɰe taɰ/
|gloss=NDIR-appear=NDIR-PROX fire
|translation=I saw the fire.
}}

The order of the referents and the participle were probably free to move around:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|*te qate kaw~kaw-er}}
|gloss=water.OBJ AUX.PASS whirl~REDUP-PTCP
|translation=It is being whirled for/by water.
}}

This instead corresponds to modern Ash syntax although this is no longer the common word for water:

{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|see ảsgoa}}
|morphemes=/ti hat͡s-kuwa/
|gloss=water/air INV-LOCV:DYN
|translation=They are moved by water/air.
}}

===Reduplication===

Reduplication seems to have formed frequentatives already in PAI as reflexes show up in Proto-Ash as well as modern Ish. In the latter it forms the continuous aspect whereas in Ash the reduplicated forms seem to simply have become separate words or to have replaced the non-reduplicated forms altogether, although this might not have happened until later when it may have been necessary to differentiate between words that were becoming homophonous due to sound changes.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*kaw~kaw(-ar)}}
| "whirl, swirl, whorl, cycle, wrap"
| → *ku~kwa: → {{ash|goa}}
| "be/move around, elapse"
| → {{ash|qacow /kˣa.kaɰ/}}
| "be passing (of time, weather)"
|}

==Vocabulary==

Some core vocabulary is shared between Ish and Ash but does not always mean the same thing or have a similar sound anymore. This word stock includes elements of nature, common actions, and cultural aspects.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ntaw-}}
| "fire, burn, glow"
| → {{ash|*n(t)w-aj-}} → {{ash|mee}}
| "fire, heart, core, essence"
| → {{ash|dow /taɰ/}}
| "fire, light"
|-
| {{ash|*qat-}}
| "uncomfortable, harsh"
| → {{ash|ảdla}}
| "cold"
| → {{ash|qat /kˣatˢ/}}
| "bad"
|-
| {{ash|*taw(-er)-}}
| "stand"
| → {{ash|*twa:}} → {{ash|laa}}
| "be, stand"
| → {{ash|tayi /tˢaɰe/}}
| "appear, see"
|}

==Developments==

The general changes of individual sounds are fairly straightforward given the small inventory of PAI itself as well as its descendants. However in particular contexts many factors would have come into play at once, yielding more complex changes. Likewise roots were often extended with additional affixes in the daughter branches and so may not always correspond to them perfectly.

===Laryngeal and rhotic colouring===

The back consonant {{ash|*q}} sometimes affected vowels in the daughter languages.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| rowspan="2" |{{ash|*nteq-}}
| rowspan="2" | "experience, feel"
| → "suffer" → {{ash|naa}}; {{ash|nahga}}
| "die"; "itch, irritate"
| → {{ash|nẽɱ /tẽkɰ/}}
| "be, live, make"
|-
| → {{ash|nao}}
| "(sentient/mortal) individual, soul"
| → {{ash|nẽɱ /tẽkɰ/}}
| "(sentient) being, individual"
|}

In this case we see backing of {{ash|*e}} to {{ash|*a}} in Ash while in Ish [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinoglottophilia rhinoglottophilia] served as one of the sources of its nasal vowels. Ish also appears to have extended the root with a suffix of which today remains only {{ash|/-ɰ/}}.

The same seems to have happened around {{ash|*r}}:

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | PAI
! colspan="2" | Ash
! colspan="2" | Ish
|-
| {{ash|*ner-}}
| "smell"
| → {{ash|*nana}} → {{ash|ıdna͠a}}
| "nose"
| → {{ash|nẽdẽ /DẽDẽ/}}
| "nose, smell"
|}