https://linguifex.com/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=SJLinguifex - User contributions [en]2026-04-06T15:03:26ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.43.6https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=469848Bresserian2025-09-03T04:09:39Z<p>SJ: /* Adjectives */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' ([[w:Help:IPA/English|/brəˈsiːriɪn/]]; ''broisseureis'' or ''broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[w:Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[w:voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[w:voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x~χ)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
*[œ] is the realisation of /ø/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables<br />
*[ɔ] is the realisation of /o/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables.<br />
*/ə/ could be described as the unstressed allophone of [ɛ]<br />
*Some speakers are undergoing a vowel shift in long vowels in which /iː/ > [ɛi], /yː/ > [œy], /uː/ > [ɔu], /ɛː/ > [ɪə], /ɔː/ > [ʊə], /ɑː/ > [ɒː]<br />
*/g/ is pronounced as [x] or [χ] word initially before back vowels<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[w:Latin_alphabet|Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[w:Diacritic|diacritics]] and two [[w:orthography|orthographic]] [[w:typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but as [χ] before other vowels when word initial, and as [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs, Trigraphs and Diacritics===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures. Diacritics are also widely used.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Â || a mé reuf || {{IPA|/a me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɑː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ain || a mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/a me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ç || cé mé cédille || {{IPA|/se me sedij/}} ||pronounced as [s]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| É || e mé acute || {{IPA|/ə me akyt/}} ||pronounced as [e]<br />
|-<br />
| È || e mé grave || {{IPA|/ə me gʁav/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ê || e mé reuf || {{IPA|/ə me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɛː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| Ein || e mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɐ̃j]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| Î || i mé reuf || {{IPA|/i me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [iː]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Ô || o mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɔː]<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| Oin || o mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/o me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [wɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Oû || o mé u mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [uː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ph || pé mé ache || {{IPA|/pe me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [f]; only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| Û || u mé reuf || {{IPA|/y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [yː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
Bresserian is a moderately inflected language and is generally considered a [[w:Fusional_language|Fusional]] language, though it does have strong [[w:Analytic_language|Analytic]] tendencies much like neighboring languages such as French and German. Bresserian also shares many similar developments grammatically to neighboring languages, such as:<br />
*Development of indefinite and definite articles (‘a’ and ‘the’)<br />
*Loss of the neuter gender<br />
*Loss of case marking in nouns<br />
*SVO word order<br />
===Nouns===<br />
All Bresserian nouns are either masculine or feminine. Generally, although with notable exceptions, feminine nouns will end with an ''-e'', while masculine nouns do not. While the gender of a majority of nouns is arbitrary, those referring to people and living things often correspond to the perceived gender of the referent. For example, a male teacher is ''en tiègar'' while a female teacher is ''enne tiègâtre''. When referring to multiple teachers of varying gender, the masculine plural ''tiègars'' would be used. Terms for common animals, primarily domesticated ones, also have distinct gendered forms. Some are simple, such as male ''chat'' and female ''chatte'' meaning “cat”, while others use different words, such as ''ceu'' "cow" and ''bou'' "bull" referring to a female and male bovine respectively. The default form for animals is most often the feminine form, which is used when referring to an animal generally or a mixed-gender group. A notable exception is ''besse'' "dog" which, despite being a feminine noun, is used to refer to both male and female dogs.<br />
<br />
Due to sound changes, a majority of nouns’ singular and plural forms are pronounced identically. For example, ‘tiègar’ and the plural ‘tiègars’ are both pronounced [tjɛʒaʁ], with the final ''-s'' being a historical spelling much like the silent letters in English words such as ''knee'' and ''night''. As many plural nouns are pronounced identically to their singular forms, the distinction between singular and plural is distinguished by the article ''de/da'', which becomes ''der'' in the plural. For example, “the man” is ''de gom'' [də χɔ̃ˑ], while "the men" is ''der goms'' [dɛʁ χɔ̃ˑ]<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives order is complex and not fixed, with some being strongly pre-nominal, some strongly post-nominal and some varying in position depending on meaning or context. the noun and agree with gender and plurality. See the differences between:<br />
*''d’écourt gom'' [d.ekuʁ χɔ̃ˑ] – “the short man” <br />
*''d’écourte quienne'' [d.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short woman”<br />
*''der écourts goms'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁ χɔ̃ˑ] – “the short men”<br />
*''der écourtes quiennes'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short women”<br />
*''de gom gamau'' [də χɔ̃ˑ ʒamo] – “the old man” <br />
*''da quienne gamalle'' [da kjɛn ʒamal] – “the old woman”<br />
*''der goms gamaux'' [dəʁ χɔ̃ˑ ʒamo] – “the old men”<br />
*''der quiennes gamalles'' [dəʁ kjɛn ʒamal] – “the old women”<br />
While the plural marker of nouns is always silent, the plural forms of adjectives may occasionally be pronounced in a phenomenon known as ''bendenge'' (aka. ''liaison'' in French) which occurs when preceding a noun beginning with a vowel. In this context, the final (usually mute) consonants of masculine adjectives may also be pronounced:<br />
*''en meille éterre'' [ɑ̃ˑ mɛj etɛʁ] – “a big star”<br />
*''meilles éterres'' [mɛjz‿etɛʁ] – “big stars”<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Bresserian verbs are arguably the most challenging aspect of the language’s grammar, being highly irregular due to extensive sound changes to both strong and weak verbs. Verbs conjugation for person, plurality, tense, imperative mood and present and past participles. Like English and other Germanic languages, verbs are divided into two main categories, “strong” and “weak”, with strong verbs conjugating in more irregular and unpredictable ways, while weak verbs have the ''-de'' suffix in the past tense and are as a whole more predictable and regular. Below will be example conjugation tables for the strong verb ‘écrive’ (“to write”) and the weak verb ‘bleue’ (“to bleed”).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Strong verb ''écrive'' ("to write")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|écrive<br />
|écroif<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
| écriver<br />
| écroives<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
| écrivé<br />
| écroif<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivé<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Weak verb ''bleue'' ("to bleed")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|bleue<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
|bleuer<br />
|bloudes<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
|bleué<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns and Determiners===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Pronouns (reduced forms in brackets)<br />
|-<br />
!Number<br />
!Person<br />
!Gender<br />
!Nominative<br />
!Accusative<br />
!Disjunctive<br />
!Genitive<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="5" | singular<br />
! 1st<br />
! –<br />
|y (y')<br />
|me (m')<br />
|moi<br />
|min/mine<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|du (d')<br />
|de (d')<br />
|doi<br />
|din/dine<br />
|- <br />
! rowspan="3" | 3rd <br />
!masculine<br />
|ir (r')<br />
|colspan="2" | emme<br />
|jes<br />
|-<br />
!feminine<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|-<br />
!inanimate<br />
|dé (d')<br />
|dé<br />
|dé<br />
|(ve dé)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3"| plural<br />
!1st<br />
!–<br />
|voi (v')<br />
|colspan="2" | us<br />
|ure<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|joi (j')<br />
|colspan="2" | jus<br />
|jure<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
!–<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|}<br />
*The third person plural is the same as the third person feminine singular, with the only distinction being the verb conjugation (ending in ''-ant'') used:<br />
''S’éteuf à bouil.'' – She walked home.<br />
<br />
''S’éteuvant à bouil.'' – They walked home.<br />
*the disjunctive forms are used following a preposition and when stressed, while the accusative forms are used only as the direct object of a verb<br />
*reduced forms occur before a vowel<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Determiner<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
|des<br />
|desse<br />
|-<br />
!plural<br />
|colspan="2" | dêtre<br />
|}<br />
*There is no distinction between “this”, “that” or “it”, with all three of these concepts being covered by ‘dé/des/desse’. See the following sentences:<br />
''Dé regné.'' [de.ʁəɲe] – It is raining.<br />
<br />
''Desse quienne est grau.'' [dɛs.kjɛn.e.ɢʁo] – That woman is tall.<br />
<br />
''D’est mine meure.'' [de.min.møʁ] – This/that/it is my mother.<br />
<br />
===Articles===<br />
Bresserian has two articles, indefinite and definite, with both agreeing with gender, as well as the definite article with plurality.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Articles<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"|<br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | singular<br />
! indefinite<br />
|en<br />
|enne<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|de (d')<br />
|da (d')<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2"|plural<br />
!indefinite<br />
|colspan="2" |(somme)<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|colspan="2" |der<br />
|}<br />
*''somme'' translates directly to 'some' and is used as a [[w:Article_(grammar)#Partitive_article|partitive article]] for plural or uncountable nouns.<br />
*''de/da'' reduces to d' before vowels<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Numerals<br />
|-<br />
! Bresserian<br />
! English<br />
! German<br />
! Dutch<br />
! French<br />
|-<br />
|en/enne<br />
|one<br />
|ein/eine<br />
|één<br />
|un/une<br />
|-<br />
|tié<br />
|two<br />
|zwei<br />
|twee<br />
|deux<br />
|-<br />
|dri<br />
|three<br />
|drei<br />
|drie<br />
|trois<br />
|-<br />
|fèvre<br />
|four<br />
|vier<br />
|vier<br />
|quatre<br />
|-<br />
|fenf<br />
|five<br />
|fünf<br />
|vijf<br />
|cinq<br />
|-<br />
|seis<br />
|six<br />
|sechs<br />
|zes<br />
|six<br />
|-<br />
|sief<br />
|seven<br />
|sieben<br />
|zeven<br />
|sept<br />
|-<br />
|aite<br />
|eight<br />
|acht<br />
|acht<br />
|huit<br />
|-<br />
|nion<br />
|nine<br />
|neun<br />
|negen<br />
|neuf<br />
|-<br />
|tion<br />
|ten<br />
|zehn<br />
|tien<br />
|dix<br />
|-<br />
|enneuf<br />
|eleven<br />
|elf<br />
|elf<br />
|onze<br />
|-<br />
|tauf<br />
|twelve<br />
|zwölf<br />
|twaalf<br />
|douze<br />
|-<br />
|tentif<br />
|twenty<br />
|zwanzig<br />
|twintig<br />
|vingt<br />
|-<br />
|ondre<br />
|hundred<br />
|hundert<br />
|honderd<br />
|cent<br />
|-<br />
|dusont<br />
|thousand<br />
|tausend<br />
|duizend<br />
|mille<br />
|}<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=469847Bresserian2025-09-03T04:04:16Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' ([[w:Help:IPA/English|/brəˈsiːriɪn/]]; ''broisseureis'' or ''broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[w:Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[w:voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[w:voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x~χ)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
*[œ] is the realisation of /ø/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables<br />
*[ɔ] is the realisation of /o/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables.<br />
*/ə/ could be described as the unstressed allophone of [ɛ]<br />
*Some speakers are undergoing a vowel shift in long vowels in which /iː/ > [ɛi], /yː/ > [œy], /uː/ > [ɔu], /ɛː/ > [ɪə], /ɔː/ > [ʊə], /ɑː/ > [ɒː]<br />
*/g/ is pronounced as [x] or [χ] word initially before back vowels<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[w:Latin_alphabet|Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[w:Diacritic|diacritics]] and two [[w:orthography|orthographic]] [[w:typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but as [χ] before other vowels when word initial, and as [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs, Trigraphs and Diacritics===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures. Diacritics are also widely used.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Â || a mé reuf || {{IPA|/a me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɑː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ain || a mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/a me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ç || cé mé cédille || {{IPA|/se me sedij/}} ||pronounced as [s]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| É || e mé acute || {{IPA|/ə me akyt/}} ||pronounced as [e]<br />
|-<br />
| È || e mé grave || {{IPA|/ə me gʁav/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ê || e mé reuf || {{IPA|/ə me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɛː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| Ein || e mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɐ̃j]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| Î || i mé reuf || {{IPA|/i me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [iː]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Ô || o mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɔː]<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| Oin || o mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/o me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [wɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Oû || o mé u mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [uː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ph || pé mé ache || {{IPA|/pe me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [f]; only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| Û || u mé reuf || {{IPA|/y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [yː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
Bresserian is a moderately inflected language and is generally considered a [[w:Fusional_language|Fusional]] language, though it does have strong [[w:Analytic_language|Analytic]] tendencies much like neighboring languages such as French and German. Bresserian also shares many similar developments grammatically to neighboring languages, such as:<br />
*Development of indefinite and definite articles (‘a’ and ‘the’)<br />
*Loss of the neuter gender<br />
*Loss of case marking in nouns<br />
*SVO word order<br />
===Nouns===<br />
All Bresserian nouns are either masculine or feminine. Generally, although with notable exceptions, feminine nouns will end with an ''-e'', while masculine nouns do not. While the gender of a majority of nouns is arbitrary, those referring to people and living things often correspond to the perceived gender of the referent. For example, a male teacher is ''en tiègar'' while a female teacher is ''enne tiègâtre''. When referring to multiple teachers of varying gender, the masculine plural ''tiègars'' would be used. Terms for common animals, primarily domesticated ones, also have distinct gendered forms. Some are simple, such as male ''chat'' and female ''chatte'' meaning “cat”, while others use different words, such as ''ceu'' "cow" and ''bou'' "bull" referring to a female and male bovine respectively. The default form for animals is most often the feminine form, which is used when referring to an animal generally or a mixed-gender group. A notable exception is ''besse'' "dog" which, despite being a feminine noun, is used to refer to both male and female dogs.<br />
<br />
Due to sound changes, a majority of nouns’ singular and plural forms are pronounced identically. For example, ‘tiègar’ and the plural ‘tiègars’ are both pronounced [tjɛʒaʁ], with the final ''-s'' being a historical spelling much like the silent letters in English words such as ''knee'' and ''night''. As many plural nouns are pronounced identically to their singular forms, the distinction between singular and plural is distinguished by the article ''de/da'', which becomes ''der'' in the plural. For example, “the man” is ''de gom'' [də χɔ̃ˑ], while "the men" is ''der goms'' [dɛʁ χɔ̃ˑ]<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives precede the noun and agree with gender and plurality. See the differences between:<br />
*''d’écourt gom'' [d.ekuʁ χɔ̃ˑ] – “the short man” <br />
*''d’écourte quienne'' [d.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short woman”<br />
*''der écourts goms'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁ χɔ̃ˑ] – “the short men”<br />
*''der écourtes quiennes'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short women”<br />
While the plural marker of nouns is always silent, the plural forms of adjectives may occasionally be pronounced in a phenomenon known as ''bendenge'' (aka. ''liaison'' in French) which occurs when preceding a noun beginning with a vowel. In this context, the final (usually mute) consonants of masculine adjectives may also be pronounced:<br />
*''en meille éterre'' [ɑ̃ˑ mɛj etɛʁ] – “a big star”<br />
*''meilles éterres'' [mɛjz‿etɛʁ] – “big stars”<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Bresserian verbs are arguably the most challenging aspect of the language’s grammar, being highly irregular due to extensive sound changes to both strong and weak verbs. Verbs conjugation for person, plurality, tense, imperative mood and present and past participles. Like English and other Germanic languages, verbs are divided into two main categories, “strong” and “weak”, with strong verbs conjugating in more irregular and unpredictable ways, while weak verbs have the ''-de'' suffix in the past tense and are as a whole more predictable and regular. Below will be example conjugation tables for the strong verb ‘écrive’ (“to write”) and the weak verb ‘bleue’ (“to bleed”).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Strong verb ''écrive'' ("to write")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|écrive<br />
|écroif<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
| écriver<br />
| écroives<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
| écrivé<br />
| écroif<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivé<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Weak verb ''bleue'' ("to bleed")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|bleue<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
|bleuer<br />
|bloudes<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
|bleué<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns and Determiners===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Pronouns (reduced forms in brackets)<br />
|-<br />
!Number<br />
!Person<br />
!Gender<br />
!Nominative<br />
!Accusative<br />
!Disjunctive<br />
!Genitive<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="5" | singular<br />
! 1st<br />
! –<br />
|y (y')<br />
|me (m')<br />
|moi<br />
|min/mine<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|du (d')<br />
|de (d')<br />
|doi<br />
|din/dine<br />
|- <br />
! rowspan="3" | 3rd <br />
!masculine<br />
|ir (r')<br />
|colspan="2" | emme<br />
|jes<br />
|-<br />
!feminine<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|-<br />
!inanimate<br />
|dé (d')<br />
|dé<br />
|dé<br />
|(ve dé)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3"| plural<br />
!1st<br />
!–<br />
|voi (v')<br />
|colspan="2" | us<br />
|ure<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|joi (j')<br />
|colspan="2" | jus<br />
|jure<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
!–<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|}<br />
*The third person plural is the same as the third person feminine singular, with the only distinction being the verb conjugation (ending in ''-ant'') used:<br />
''S’éteuf à bouil.'' – She walked home.<br />
<br />
''S’éteuvant à bouil.'' – They walked home.<br />
*the disjunctive forms are used following a preposition and when stressed, while the accusative forms are used only as the direct object of a verb<br />
*reduced forms occur before a vowel<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Determiner<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
|des<br />
|desse<br />
|-<br />
!plural<br />
|colspan="2" | dêtre<br />
|}<br />
*There is no distinction between “this”, “that” or “it”, with all three of these concepts being covered by ‘dé/des/desse’. See the following sentences:<br />
''Dé regné.'' [de.ʁəɲe] – It is raining.<br />
<br />
''Desse quienne est grau.'' [dɛs.kjɛn.e.ɢʁo] – That woman is tall.<br />
<br />
''D’est mine meure.'' [de.min.møʁ] – This/that/it is my mother.<br />
<br />
===Articles===<br />
Bresserian has two articles, indefinite and definite, with both agreeing with gender, as well as the definite article with plurality.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Articles<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"|<br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | singular<br />
! indefinite<br />
|en<br />
|enne<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|de (d')<br />
|da (d')<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2"|plural<br />
!indefinite<br />
|colspan="2" |(somme)<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|colspan="2" |der<br />
|}<br />
*''somme'' translates directly to 'some' and is used as a [[w:Article_(grammar)#Partitive_article|partitive article]] for plural or uncountable nouns.<br />
*''de/da'' reduces to d' before vowels<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Numerals<br />
|-<br />
! Bresserian<br />
! English<br />
! German<br />
! Dutch<br />
! French<br />
|-<br />
|en/enne<br />
|one<br />
|ein/eine<br />
|één<br />
|un/une<br />
|-<br />
|tié<br />
|two<br />
|zwei<br />
|twee<br />
|deux<br />
|-<br />
|dri<br />
|three<br />
|drei<br />
|drie<br />
|trois<br />
|-<br />
|fèvre<br />
|four<br />
|vier<br />
|vier<br />
|quatre<br />
|-<br />
|fenf<br />
|five<br />
|fünf<br />
|vijf<br />
|cinq<br />
|-<br />
|seis<br />
|six<br />
|sechs<br />
|zes<br />
|six<br />
|-<br />
|sief<br />
|seven<br />
|sieben<br />
|zeven<br />
|sept<br />
|-<br />
|aite<br />
|eight<br />
|acht<br />
|acht<br />
|huit<br />
|-<br />
|nion<br />
|nine<br />
|neun<br />
|negen<br />
|neuf<br />
|-<br />
|tion<br />
|ten<br />
|zehn<br />
|tien<br />
|dix<br />
|-<br />
|enneuf<br />
|eleven<br />
|elf<br />
|elf<br />
|onze<br />
|-<br />
|tauf<br />
|twelve<br />
|zwölf<br />
|twaalf<br />
|douze<br />
|-<br />
|tentif<br />
|twenty<br />
|zwanzig<br />
|twintig<br />
|vingt<br />
|-<br />
|ondre<br />
|hundred<br />
|hundert<br />
|honderd<br />
|cent<br />
|-<br />
|dusont<br />
|thousand<br />
|tausend<br />
|duizend<br />
|mille<br />
|}<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=468646Bresserian2025-08-27T07:18:34Z<p>SJ: /* Nouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' ([[w:Help:IPA/English|/brəˈsiːriɪn/]]; ''broisseureis'' or ''broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[w:Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[w:voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[w:voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x~χ)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
*[œ] is the realisation of /ø/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables<br />
*[ɔ] is the realisation of /o/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables.<br />
*/ə/ could be described as the unstressed allophone of [ɛ]<br />
*Some speakers are undergoing a vowel shift in long vowels in which /iː/ > [ɛi], /yː/ > [œy], /uː/ > [ɔu], /ɛː/ > [ɪə], /ɔː/ > [ʊə], /ɑː/ > [ɒː]<br />
*/g/ is pronounced as [x] or [χ] word initially before back vowels<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[w:Latin_alphabet|Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[w:Diacritic|diacritics]] and two [[w:orthography|orthographic]] [[w:typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but as [χ] before other vowels when word initial, and as [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs, Trigraphs and Diacritics===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures. Diacritics are also widely used.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Â || a mé reuf || {{IPA|/a me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɑː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ain || a mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/a me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ç || cé mé cédille || {{IPA|/se me sedij/}} ||pronounced as [s]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| É || e mé acute || {{IPA|/ə me akyt/}} ||pronounced as [e]<br />
|-<br />
| È || e mé grave || {{IPA|/ə me gʁav/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ê || e mé reuf || {{IPA|/ə me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɛː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| Ein || e mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɐ̃j]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| Î || i mé reuf || {{IPA|/i me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [iː]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Ô || o mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɔː]<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| Oin || o mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/o me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [wɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Oû || o mé u mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [uː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ph || pé mé ache || {{IPA|/pe me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [f]; only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| Û || u mé reuf || {{IPA|/y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [yː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
Bresserian is a moderately inflected language and is generally considered a [[w:Fusional_language|Fusional]] language, though it does have strong [[w:Analytic_language|Analytic]] tendencies much like neighboring languages such as French and German. Bresserian also shares many similar developments grammatically to neighboring languages, such as:<br />
*Development of indefinite and definite articles (‘a’ and ‘the’)<br />
*Loss of the neuter gender<br />
*Loss of case marking in nouns<br />
*SVO word order<br />
===Nouns===<br />
All Bresserian nouns are either masculine or feminine. Generally, although with notable exceptions, feminine nouns will end with an ''-e'', while masculine nouns do not. While the gender of a majority of nouns is arbitrary, those referring to people and living things often correspond to the perceived gender of the referent. For example, a male teacher is ''en tiègar'' while a female teacher is ''enne tiègâtre''. When referring to multiple teachers of varying gender, the masculine plural ''tiègars'' would be used. Terms for common animals, primarily domesticated ones, also have distinct gendered forms. Some are simple, such as male ''chat'' and female ''chatte'' meaning “cat”, while others use different words, such as ''ceu'' "cow" and ''bou'' "bull" referring to a female and male bovine respectively. The default form for animals is most often the feminine form, which is used when referring to an animal generally or a mixed-gender group. A notable exception is ''besse'' "dog" which, despite being a feminine noun, is used to refer to both male and female dogs.<br />
<br />
Due to sound changes, a majority of nouns’ singular and plural forms are pronounced identically. For example, ‘tiègar’ and the plural ‘tiègars’ are both pronounced [tjɛʒaʁ], with the final ''-s'' being a historical spelling much like the silent letters in English words such as ''knee'' and ''night''. As many plural nouns are pronounced identically to their singular forms, the distinction between singular and plural is distinguished by the article ''de/da'', which becomes ''der'' in the plural. For example, “the man” is ''de gom'' [də χɔ̃ˑ], while "the men" is ''der goms'' [dɛʁ χɔ̃ˑ]<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives precede the noun and agree with gender and plurality. See the differences between:<br />
*''d’écourt gom'' [d.ekuʁ χɔ̃ˑ] – “the short man” <br />
*''d’écourte quienne'' [d.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short woman”<br />
*''der écourts goms'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁ χɔ̃ˑ] – “the short men”<br />
*''der écourtes quiennes'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short women”<br />
While the plural marker of nouns is always silent, the plural forms of adjectives may occasionally be pronounced in a phenomenon known as ''bendenge'' (aka. ''liaison'' in French) which occurs when preceding a noun beginning with a vowel. In this context, the final (usually mute) consonants of masculine adjectives may also be pronounced:<br />
*''en meille éterre'' [ɑ̃ˑ mɛj etɛʁ] – “a big star”<br />
*''meilles éterres'' [mɛjz‿etɛʁ] – “big stars”<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Bresserian verbs are arguably the most challenging aspect of the language’s grammar, being highly irregular due to extensive sound changes to both strong and weak verbs. Verbs conjugation for person, plurality, tense, imperative mood and present and past participles. Like English and other Germanic languages, verbs are divided into two main categories, “strong” and “weak”, with strong verbs conjugating in more irregular and unpredictable ways, while weak verbs have the ''-de'' suffix in the past tense and are as a whole more predictable and regular. Below will be example conjugation tables for the strong verb ‘écrive’ (“to write”) and the weak verb ‘bleue’ (“to bleed”).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Strong verb ''écrive'' ("to write")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|écrive<br />
|écroif<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
| écriver<br />
| écroives<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
| écrivé<br />
| écroif<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivé<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Weak verb ''bleue'' ("to bleed")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|bleue<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
|bleuer<br />
|bloudes<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
|bleué<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns and Determiners===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Pronouns (reduced forms in brackets)<br />
|-<br />
!Number<br />
!Person<br />
!Gender<br />
!Nominative<br />
!Accusative<br />
!Disjunctive<br />
!Genitive<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="5" | singular<br />
! 1st<br />
! –<br />
|y (y')<br />
|me (m')<br />
|moi<br />
|min/mine<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|du (d')<br />
|de (d')<br />
|doi<br />
|din/dine<br />
|- <br />
! rowspan="3" | 3rd <br />
!masculine<br />
|ir (r')<br />
|colspan="2" | emme<br />
|jes<br />
|-<br />
!feminine<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|-<br />
!inanimate<br />
|je (j')<br />
|je (j')<br />
|jenne<br />
|(ve je)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3"| plural<br />
!1st<br />
!–<br />
|voi (v')<br />
|colspan="2" | us<br />
|ure<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|joi (j')<br />
|colspan="2" | jus<br />
|jure<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
!–<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|}<br />
*The third person plural is the same as the third person feminine singular, with the only distinction being the verb conjugation (ending in ''-ant'') used:<br />
''S’éteuf à bouil.'' – She walked home.<br />
<br />
''S’éteuvant à bouil.'' – They walked home.<br />
*the disjunctive forms are used following a preposition and when stressed, while the accusative forms are used only as the direct object of a verb<br />
*reduced forms occur before a vowel<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Determiner<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
|je(n)<br />
|jenne<br />
|-<br />
!plural<br />
|colspan="2" | jenner<br />
|}<br />
*There is no distinction between “this”, “that” or “it”, with all three of these concepts being covered by ‘je/jenne’. See the following sentences:<br />
''Je regné.'' [ʒə.ʁəɲe] – It is raining.<br />
<br />
''Jenne quienne est grau.'' [ʒɛn.kjɛn.e.ɢʁo] – That woman is tall.<br />
<br />
''J’est mine meure.'' [ʒe.min.møʁ] – This/that/it is my mother.<br />
<br />
===Articles===<br />
Bresserian has two articles, indefinite and definite, with both agreeing with gender, as well as the definite article with plurality.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Articles<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"|<br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | singular<br />
! indefinite<br />
|en<br />
|enne<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|de (d')<br />
|da (d')<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2"|plural<br />
!indefinite<br />
|colspan="2" |(somme)<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|colspan="2" |der<br />
|}<br />
*''somme'' translates directly to 'some' and is used as a [[w:Article_(grammar)#Partitive_article|partitive article]] for plural or uncountable nouns.<br />
*''de/da'' reduces to d' before vowels<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Numerals<br />
|-<br />
! Bresserian<br />
! English<br />
! German<br />
! Dutch<br />
! French<br />
|-<br />
|en/enne<br />
|one<br />
|ein/eine<br />
|één<br />
|un/une<br />
|-<br />
|tié<br />
|two<br />
|zwei<br />
|twee<br />
|deux<br />
|-<br />
|dri<br />
|three<br />
|drei<br />
|drie<br />
|trois<br />
|-<br />
|fèvre<br />
|four<br />
|vier<br />
|vier<br />
|quatre<br />
|-<br />
|fenf<br />
|five<br />
|fünf<br />
|vijf<br />
|cinq<br />
|-<br />
|seis<br />
|six<br />
|sechs<br />
|zes<br />
|six<br />
|-<br />
|sief<br />
|seven<br />
|sieben<br />
|zeven<br />
|sept<br />
|-<br />
|aite<br />
|eight<br />
|acht<br />
|acht<br />
|huit<br />
|-<br />
|nion<br />
|nine<br />
|neun<br />
|negen<br />
|neuf<br />
|-<br />
|tion<br />
|ten<br />
|zehn<br />
|tien<br />
|dix<br />
|-<br />
|enneuf<br />
|eleven<br />
|elf<br />
|elf<br />
|onze<br />
|-<br />
|tauf<br />
|twelve<br />
|zwölf<br />
|twaalf<br />
|douze<br />
|-<br />
|tentif<br />
|twenty<br />
|zwanzig<br />
|twintig<br />
|vingt<br />
|-<br />
|ondre<br />
|hundred<br />
|hundert<br />
|honderd<br />
|cent<br />
|-<br />
|dusont<br />
|thousand<br />
|tausend<br />
|duizend<br />
|mille<br />
|}<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Erjie&diff=468645Erjie2025-08-27T07:10:05Z<p>SJ: /* Nouns and Case Marking */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Erjie<br />
|nativename = erjie kelu<br />
|altname = 迩捷語 (ěrjiéyǔ)<br />
|pronunciation = ɚˈʑjɛ ˈkʰəlʊ<br />
|pronunciation_key = help:IPA<br />
|states = [[w:China|China]]<br />
|region = [[w:Qinghai|Qinghai]]<br />
|speakers = 2000<br />
|date = 2023<br />
|created = 2024<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|Tocharian B]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:China|China]]<br />
*[[w:Sunan Yugur Autonomous County|Sunan Yugur Autonomous County]]<br />
*[[w:Menyuan Hui Autonomous County|Menyuan Hui Autonomous County]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Erjie<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Erjie is classified as Vulnerable}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Erjie''' is an [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] language spoken by the Erjie people, who mainly live in the provinces of [[w:Qinghai|Qinghai]] and [[w:Gansu|Gansu]] in Northwestern [[w:China|China]]. It is the sole extant member of the [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]] branch of [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]]. The Erjie number about 3200 people, about 2000 (2023) speak the Erjie language; around 800 are primarily monolingual, while many speak Mandarin and/or Amdo Tibetan to a degree of fluency. While a pinyin-based writing system has been devised, Erjie is not often written by speakers and primarily exists as a spoken language.<br />
<br />
According to Erjie tradition, the Erjie are the descendants of the [[w:Tocharians|Tocharian speaking tribes]] of the [[w:Tarim Basin|Tarim Basin]]. During periods of the [[w:Uyghur Khaganate|Uyghur Khaganate]] and [[w:Tang Dynasty|Tang dynasty]], these tribesmen migrated from the Tarim Basin and dwelt within China's borders and since then have lived within the Qinghai-Gansu border region. Erjie has considerable influence, both grammatical and lexical, from [[w:Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]] and [[w:Amdo Tibetan|Amdo Tibetan]]. It is also a part of the broader [[w:Qinghai–Gansu_sprachbund|Qinghai-Gansu/Amdo sprachbund]], characterized by many features that differ greatly from surrounding languages, such as [[w:Subject–object–verb_word_order|SOV word order]], [[w:Grammatical_case|case marking]] and a lack of [[w:w:Tone_(linguistics)|lexical tone]].<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
!<br />
![[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
![[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
![[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
|i {{angle bracket|i}}<br />
|<br />
|u {{angle bracket|u}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]<br />
|<br />
|ə {{angle bracket|e}}<br />
|ɔ {{angle bracket|o}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|a {{angle bracket|a}}<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Phoneme/Sound<br />
!Allophones<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/i/<br />
|ɨ<br />
|when following alveolar sibilants or affricates<br />
|-<br />
|ɪ<br />
|when following labial and alveolar plosives or approximants<br />
|-<br />
|ɨ˞<br />
|when following a retroflex consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/ə/<br />
|ə<br />
|in stressed syllables without onset clusters or coda consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|in a syllable with a palatal onset or palatal coda<br />
|-<br />
|ɘ<br />
|in a syllable with a nasal coda consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/a/<br />
|ɑ<br />
|when following a uvular consonant<br />
|-<br />
|æ<br />
|when a syllable is closed by an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|when following a palatal onset consonant, and preceding an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|/ɔ/<br />
|ɵ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" |/u/<br />
|ʊ<br />
|when following alveolar and velar consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ʉ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |<br />
! [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
! [[w:Denti-alveolar_consonant|Denti-alveolar]]<br />
! [[w:Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]<br />
! [[w:Alveolo-palatal consonant|Palatal]]<br />
! [[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]<br />
! [[w:Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Stop consonant|Stops]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_bilabial_plosive|/p/]] {{angle bracket|b}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_dental_and_alveolar_plosives|/t̪/]] {{angle bracket|d}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_velar_plosive|/k/]] {{angle bracket|g}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_uvular_plosive|/q/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/pʰ/]] {{angle bracket|p}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/t̪ʰ/]] {{angle bracket|t}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/kʰ/]] {{angle bracket|k}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/qʰ/]] {{angle bracket|kh}}<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricates]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_affricate|/t͡s/]] {{angle bracket|z}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_affricate|/ʈ͡ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|zh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate|/t͡ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|j}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/t͡sʰ/]] {{angle bracket|c}}<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/ʈ͡ʂʰ/]] {{angle bracket|ch}}<br />
| [[w:IPAslink|/t͡ɕʰ/]] {{angle bracket|q}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricatives]]<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_labiodental_fricative|''(f)'']] {{angle bracket|''f''}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_fricative|/s/]] {{angle bracket|s}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_fricative|/ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|sh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative|/ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|x}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiceless_velar_fricative|/x/]] ~ [[w:Voiceless_uvular_fricative|/χ/]] {{angle bracket|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Voice_(phonetics)|voiced]]</small><br />
| <br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_fricative|''(z)'']] {{angle bracket|''z''}}<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative|''(ʑ)'']] {{angle bracket|''j''}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiced_velar_fricative|/ɣ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_uvular_fricative|/ʁ/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasals]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_bilabial_nasal|/m/]] {{angle bracket|m}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_nasal|/n/]] {{angle bracket|n}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_velar_nasal|/ŋ/]] {{angle bracket|ng}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Approximant|Approximants]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_labial–velar_approximant|/w/]] {{angle bracket|w}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_dental,_alveolar_and_postalveolar_lateral_approximants|/l̪/]] {{angle bracket|l}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_retroflex_approximant|/ɻ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_retroflex_fricative|/ʐ/]] {{angle bracket|r}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_palatal_approximant|/j/]] {{angle bracket|y}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
*/z/ and /ʑ/ are intervocalic allophones of plain affricates /t͡s/ and /t͡ɕ/ respectively.<br />
*all plain plosives are phonetically voiced in intervocalic positions, however /q/ weakens to /ʁ/ rather than expected /ɢ/<br />
*/x/ and /ɣ/ are uvular /χ/ and /ʁ/ before /a/, /ɔ/ and /u/.<br />
*/f/ is only found in Chinese borrowings, alternatively substituted with /pʰ/.<br />
*/j/ and /w/ can have spirantized allophones [ʝ] and [βˠ] typically in stressed, initial syllables.<br />
<br />
== Writing System ==<br />
Erjie does not have on official script and mainly exists as a spoken language. However, young Erjie speakers have increasingly started to use a writing system based on Mandarin pinyin. It is primarily used among Erjie for writing their language on the internet and in digital environments.<br />
=== Pinyin-based Latin Script ===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Pinyin || [[help:IPA|IPA]] || Notes<br />
|-<br />
|| ''b'' || /p/ || Unaspirated ''p'', like in English s<u>p</u>a.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''p'' || /pʰ/ || Strongly aspirated ''p'', like in English <u>p</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''m'' || /m/ || Like the ''m'' in English <u>m</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''f'' || /f/ || Like the ''f'' in English <u>f</u>air.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''d'' || /t̪/ || Unaspirated dental ''t'', similar to English s<u>t</u>op.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''t'' || /t̪ʰ/ || Strongly aspirated dental ''t'', similar to English <u>t</u>ake.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''n'' || /n/ || Like the ''n'' in English <u>n</u>ay.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''l'' || /l̪/ || Dental ''l'', similar to English <u>l</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''g'' || /k/ || Unaspirated ''k'', like in English s<u>k</u>ill.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''k'' || /kʰ/ || Strongly aspirated ''k'', like in English <u>k</u>iss.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''gh'' || /q~ʁ~ɣ/ || No English equivalent. Occurs as [q] in onset and when voiceless but as [ɣ~ʁ] intervocalically.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''kh'' || /qʰ/ || No English equivalent. Often strongly spirantized to [qχ(ʰ)] and even [χ(ʰ)]<br />
|- <br />
|| ''h'' || /x~χ/ || Like the ''ch'' in Scottish English lo<u>ch</u>.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''j'' || /tɕ~(d)ʑ/ || Alveolo-palatal, unaspirated. No direct equivalent in English. Occurs as [tɕ] in onset and when voiceless but as [dʑ~ʑ] intervocalically.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''q'' || /tɕʰ/ || Alveolo-palatal, aspirated. No direct equivalent in English, but similar to the ''ch'' in English pun<u>ch</u>y.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''x'' || /ɕ/ || Alveolo-palatal, unaspirated. No direct equivalent in English, but similar to the ''sh'' in English pu<u>sh</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''zh'' || /ʈʂ/ || Retroflex, unaspirated. Similar to ''j'' in English <u>j</u>ack.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ch'' || /ʈʂʰ/ || Retroflex, aspirated. Similar to the ''ch'' in English chur<u>ch</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''sh'' || /ʂ/ || Retroflex, unaspirated. Similar to ''sh'' in <u>sh</u>irt.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''r'' || /ɻ~ʐ/ || Retroflex. No direct equivalent in English, but somewhat similar to the ''r'' in English <u>r</u>educe.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''z'' || /ts~(d)z/ || Unaspirated. Like the ''zz'' in English pi<u>zz</u>a. Occurs as [ts] in onset and when voiceless but as [dz~z] intervocalically<br />
|- <br />
|| ''c'' || /tsʰ/ || Aspirated. Like the ''ts'' in English ba<u>ts</u>.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''s'' || /s/ || Like the ''s'' in English <u>s</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''w'' || /w~β/ ||Like the ''w'' in English <u>w</u>ater. Occasionally pronounced [β], like a ''v'' but using both lips.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''y''|| /j~ʝ/ || Like the ''y'' in English <u>y</u>es.<br />
|-<br />
|''yu'' ||/ɥ/ ||Like the ''hu'' in French <u>hu</u>it.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''a''|| /a~ɑ~æ/ || Like the ''a'' in English b<u>a</u>ck.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''i''|| /i~ɪ~ɨ/ || Like the ''ee'' in English f<u>ee</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''u''|| /u~ʊ~ʉ/ || Like the ''oo'' in English g<u>oo</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''o''|| /ɔ~ɵ/ || Like the ''o'' in English f<u>o</u>g.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''e''|| /ə~ɛ/ || Varies between the ''o'' in English lem<u>o</u>n and the ''e'' in b<u>e</u>t.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ai''|| /aj/ || Like the ''y'' in English fl<u>y</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''au''|| /aw/ || Similar to the ''ou'' in some dialects of English l<u>ou</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ei''|| /ej/ || Like the ''ay'' in English m<u>ay</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ou''|| /ow/ || No exact English equivalent, but similar to the ''oa'' in c<u>oa</u>t.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ie''|| /jɛ/ || No English equivalent. Like the ''ie'' in Spanish t<u>ie</u>mpo.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''uo''|| /wɔ/ || No English equivalent.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Grammar ==<br />
===Morphology===<br />
Erjie is [[w:Agglutination|agglutinative]] and mainly [[w:Suffix|suffixing]], although there are a small number of [[w:Prefix|prefixes]]. Erjie has lost a significant portion of its [[w:Inflection|inflectional morphology]] which was present in the [[w:Tocharian_languages|Tocharian languages]], likely due to contact-induced [[w:Morphological leveling|leveling]]. For example, verbs no longer conjugate for [[w:Grammatical_person|person]] or the [[w:Subjunctive_mood|subjunctive]], [[w:Grammatical_gender|gender]] in nouns has been lost, and thus adjectives no longer inflect for [[w:Grammatical_gender|gender]] or even [[w:Grammatical_case|case]]. That being said, Erjie has innovated certain morphological features, such as a future tense suffix and verbal negative suffix which were not present in Tocharian. [[w:Stress_(linguistics)|Lexical stress]] is phonemic, although it is in the process of being replaced by a [[w:Pitch-accent_language|pitch-accent]] system, especially among younger speakers.<br />
===Nouns and Case Marking===<br />
Erjie has seven cases: [[w:nominative_case|nominative]] (unmarked), [[w:Genitive_case|genitive]]-[[w:accusative_case|accusative]], [[w:dative_case|dative]]-[[w:locative_case|locative]], [[w:ablative_case|ablative]], [[w:comitative_case|comitative]], [[w:allative_case|allative]] and [[w:perlative_case|perlative]]-[[w:instrumental_case|instrumental]]. [[w:Object_(grammar)|Direct objects]] are typically marked in the genitive-accusative if they are [[w:Definiteness|definite]], while if they are [[w:Definiteness|indefinite]] they are marked in the nominative combined with the [[w:Article_(grammar)|indefinite article]] ''she''. In addition to case, numerous postpositions exist which may govern any number of cases. There are also limited prepositions which typically exclusively govern the nominative.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|+Erjie noun cases<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! Suffix !! English preposition <br />
!Example !! Translation<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:nominative_case|nominative]] || – || – <br />
| ''yeghu'' || horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Genitive_case|genitive]]-[[w:accusative_case|accusative]] || -ze || (direct object); of<br />
| ''yeghuze'' || the horse (as direct object); of (the) horse/(the) horse's <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:dative_case|dative]]-[[w:locative_case|locative]] || -ne || at, in, on, to<br />
| ''yeghune'' || on/in (the) horse; to (the) horse (as a recipient/indirect object) <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:ablative_case|ablative]] || -men || from<br />
| ''yeghumen'' || from (the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:comitative_case|comitative]] || -ba || with <br />
| ''yeghuba'' || with (e.g. alongside the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:allative_case|allative]] || -xi || to, toward, into, onto<br />
| ''yeghuxi'' || toward/onto (the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:perlative_case|perlative]]-[[w:instrumental_case|instrumental]] || -za || through, with, via, using, by, over<br />
| ''yeghuza'' || with (e.g. by means of the) horse; by horse<br />
|}<br />
<br />
======Nominative case======<br />
The nominative generally marks the subject of a verb and the predicate of a copular construction. It is also used to mark the direct object of a sentence if that object is indirect. The nominative is unmarked in Erjie.<br />
<br />
======Genitive-Accusative case======<br />
This case governs two main uses: marking the definite direct object of a verb and indicating possession. As a genitive, it is generally only used to indicate the possession of animate possessors such as people and animals, although certain self-actuating celestial bodies and geological features such as rivers and oceans may also apply (especially in a religious or spiritual sense). In the accusative sense, words in this case tend to like to occur directly before the verb, as if it were to precede a noun phrase it may be confused for its genitive function.<br />
<br />
======Dative-Locative case======<br />
The dative-locative is used to indicate a location such as ''in'', ''on'', ''at'' or ''by'', as well as to indicate the recipient or indirect object of a verb. Another important use of this case is what is typically called the possessive dative, in which it marks what would typically be, in English, the subject of a transitive verb, e.g. ''Toughane xuer xameixgela lie'' – literally "(there) are four kids to/at/by Tougha", this construction is typically found with a copula and translates as "Tougha has four kids".<br />
<br />
======Plurals======<br />
Plurals are typically marked by way of the suffix -la which occurs after the root and before any case markers. While -la is the most common plural suffix, there are numerous irregular plurals which may be unpredictable, and there are some nouns that do not mark plurality at all. With that said, plural marking is not mandatory especially if it is obvious by context. It is also common for plurality not to be marked after numerals. Younger speakers are increasingly trending towards less use of the plural as a whole, and its usage is much more pervasive in older speakers and may be a social marker for age and authority. Reduplication has also been seen among younger speakers as a trendy way to produce plurals, although it is typically used to represent a particularly large quantity, e.g. ''keli keli tegha ba!'' – "There was tons of bread!".<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Personal Pronouns<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative !! Genitive-Accusative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan ="2" | 1st person<br />
! singular<br />
| yix<br />
| yi<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| wer<br />
| weji<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan ="2" | 2nd person<br />
! singular<br />
| qi<br />
| qen<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| yer<br />
| yeji<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan ="4" | 3rd person<br />
! singular masculine<br />
| qao<br />
| qui<br />
|-<br />
! singular feminine<br />
| tou<br />
| tei<br />
|-<br />
! singular inanimate<br />
| tu<br />
| tuze<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| qim<br />
| qimze<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+<br />
!Numeral<br />
!'''Erjie'''<br />
!'''IPA'''<br />
!'''Tocharian A'''<br />
!'''Tocharian B'''<br />
!'''Proto-Indo-European'''<br />
|-<br />
|1<br />
|she<br />
|[ʂə]<br />
|sas<br />
|ṣe<br />
|*sem-<br />
|-<br />
|2<br />
|wi<br />
|[wɪ]<br />
|wu<br />
|wi<br />
|*dwóh₁<br />
|-<br />
|3<br />
|chei<br />
|[ʈʂʰej]<br />
|tre<br />
|trai<br />
|*tréyes<br />
|-<br />
|4<br />
|xuer<br />
|[ɕɥɚ]<br />
|śtwar<br />
|śtwer<br />
|*kʷetwṓr<br />
|-<br />
|5<br />
|pix<br />
|[pʰɪɕ]<br />
|päñ<br />
|piś<br />
|*pénkʷe<br />
|-<br />
|6<br />
|shges<br />
|[ʂkəs]<br />
|ṣäk<br />
|ṣkas<br />
|*swéḱs<br />
|-<br />
|7<br />
|shuk<br />
|[ʂʉk̚]<br />
|ṣpät<br />
|ṣukt <br />
|*septḿ̥<br />
|-<br />
|8<br />
|wuk<br />
|[βuk̚]<br />
|okät<br />
|okt<br />
|*h₁oḱtṓ(w)<br />
|-<br />
|9<br />
|yuk<br />
|[ʝyk̚]<br />
|ñu<br />
|ñu<br />
|*(h₁)néwn̥<br />
|-<br />
|10<br />
|xek<br />
|[ɕɛk̚]<br />
|śäk<br />
|śak<br />
|*déḱm̥t <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
Erjie has a primarily [[w:Subject–object–verb_word_order|SOV]] word order, although it is relatively flexible and may be modified to add emphasis or topic focus.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Erjie]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=468644Bresserian2025-08-27T07:08:00Z<p>SJ: /* Pronouns and Determiners */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' ([[w:Help:IPA/English|/brəˈsiːriɪn/]]; ''broisseureis'' or ''broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[w:Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[w:voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[w:voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x~χ)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
*[œ] is the realisation of /ø/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables<br />
*[ɔ] is the realisation of /o/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables.<br />
*/ə/ could be described as the unstressed allophone of [ɛ]<br />
*Some speakers are undergoing a vowel shift in long vowels in which /iː/ > [ɛi], /yː/ > [œy], /uː/ > [ɔu], /ɛː/ > [ɪə], /ɔː/ > [ʊə], /ɑː/ > [ɒː]<br />
*/g/ is pronounced as [x] or [χ] word initially before back vowels<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[w:Latin_alphabet|Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[w:Diacritic|diacritics]] and two [[w:orthography|orthographic]] [[w:typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but as [χ] before other vowels when word initial, and as [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs, Trigraphs and Diacritics===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures. Diacritics are also widely used.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Â || a mé reuf || {{IPA|/a me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɑː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ain || a mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/a me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ç || cé mé cédille || {{IPA|/se me sedij/}} ||pronounced as [s]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| É || e mé acute || {{IPA|/ə me akyt/}} ||pronounced as [e]<br />
|-<br />
| È || e mé grave || {{IPA|/ə me gʁav/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ê || e mé reuf || {{IPA|/ə me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɛː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| Ein || e mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɐ̃j]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| Î || i mé reuf || {{IPA|/i me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [iː]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Ô || o mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɔː]<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| Oin || o mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/o me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [wɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Oû || o mé u mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [uː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ph || pé mé ache || {{IPA|/pe me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [f]; only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| Û || u mé reuf || {{IPA|/y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [yː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
Bresserian is a moderately inflected language and is generally considered a [[w:Fusional_language|Fusional]] language, though it does have strong [[w:Analytic_language|Analytic]] tendencies much like neighboring languages such as French and German. Bresserian also shares many similar developments grammatically to neighboring languages, such as:<br />
*Development of indefinite and definite articles (‘a’ and ‘the’)<br />
*Loss of the neuter gender<br />
*Loss of case marking in nouns<br />
*SVO word order<br />
===Nouns===<br />
All Bresserian nouns are either masculine or feminine. Generally, although with notable exceptions, feminine nouns will end with an ''-e'', while masculine nouns do not. While the gender of a majority of nouns is arbitrary, those referring to people and living things often correspond to the perceived gender of the referent. For example, a male teacher is ''en tiègar'' while a female teacher is ''enne tiègâtre''. When referring to multiple teachers of varying gender, the masculine plural ''tiègars'' would be used. Terms for common animals, primarily domesticated ones, also have distinct gendered forms. Some are simple, such as male ''chat'' and female ''chatte'' meaning “cat”, while others use different words, such as ''ceu'' "cow" and ''bou'' "bull" referring to a female and male bovine respectively. The default form for animals is most often the feminine form, which is used when referring to an animal generally or a mixed-gender group. A notable exception is ''besse'' "dog" which, despite being a feminine noun, is used to refer to both male and female dogs.<br />
<br />
Due to sound changes, a majority of nouns’ singular and plural forms are pronounced identically. For example, ‘tiègar’ and the plural ‘tiègars’ are both pronounced [tjɛʒaʁ], with the final ''-s'' being a historical spelling much like the silent letters in English words such as ''knee'' and ''night''. As many plural nouns are pronounced identically to their singular forms, the distinction between singular and plural is distinguished by the article ''de/da'', which becomes ''der'' in the plural. For example, “the man” is ''de gom'' [də gɔ̃ˑ], while "the men" is ''der goms'' [dɛʁ gɔ̃ˑ]<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives precede the noun and agree with gender and plurality. See the differences between:<br />
*''d’écourt gom'' [d.ekuʁ χɔ̃ˑ] – “the short man” <br />
*''d’écourte quienne'' [d.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short woman”<br />
*''der écourts goms'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁ χɔ̃ˑ] – “the short men”<br />
*''der écourtes quiennes'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short women”<br />
While the plural marker of nouns is always silent, the plural forms of adjectives may occasionally be pronounced in a phenomenon known as ''bendenge'' (aka. ''liaison'' in French) which occurs when preceding a noun beginning with a vowel. In this context, the final (usually mute) consonants of masculine adjectives may also be pronounced:<br />
*''en meille éterre'' [ɑ̃ˑ mɛj etɛʁ] – “a big star”<br />
*''meilles éterres'' [mɛjz‿etɛʁ] – “big stars”<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Bresserian verbs are arguably the most challenging aspect of the language’s grammar, being highly irregular due to extensive sound changes to both strong and weak verbs. Verbs conjugation for person, plurality, tense, imperative mood and present and past participles. Like English and other Germanic languages, verbs are divided into two main categories, “strong” and “weak”, with strong verbs conjugating in more irregular and unpredictable ways, while weak verbs have the ''-de'' suffix in the past tense and are as a whole more predictable and regular. Below will be example conjugation tables for the strong verb ‘écrive’ (“to write”) and the weak verb ‘bleue’ (“to bleed”).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Strong verb ''écrive'' ("to write")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|écrive<br />
|écroif<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
| écriver<br />
| écroives<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
| écrivé<br />
| écroif<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivé<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Weak verb ''bleue'' ("to bleed")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|bleue<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
|bleuer<br />
|bloudes<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
|bleué<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns and Determiners===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Pronouns (reduced forms in brackets)<br />
|-<br />
!Number<br />
!Person<br />
!Gender<br />
!Nominative<br />
!Accusative<br />
!Disjunctive<br />
!Genitive<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="5" | singular<br />
! 1st<br />
! –<br />
|y (y')<br />
|me (m')<br />
|moi<br />
|min/mine<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|du (d')<br />
|de (d')<br />
|doi<br />
|din/dine<br />
|- <br />
! rowspan="3" | 3rd <br />
!masculine<br />
|ir (r')<br />
|colspan="2" | emme<br />
|jes<br />
|-<br />
!feminine<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|-<br />
!inanimate<br />
|je (j')<br />
|je (j')<br />
|jenne<br />
|(ve je)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3"| plural<br />
!1st<br />
!–<br />
|voi (v')<br />
|colspan="2" | us<br />
|ure<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|joi (j')<br />
|colspan="2" | jus<br />
|jure<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
!–<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|}<br />
*The third person plural is the same as the third person feminine singular, with the only distinction being the verb conjugation (ending in ''-ant'') used:<br />
''S’éteuf à bouil.'' – She walked home.<br />
<br />
''S’éteuvant à bouil.'' – They walked home.<br />
*the disjunctive forms are used following a preposition and when stressed, while the accusative forms are used only as the direct object of a verb<br />
*reduced forms occur before a vowel<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Determiner<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
|je(n)<br />
|jenne<br />
|-<br />
!plural<br />
|colspan="2" | jenner<br />
|}<br />
*There is no distinction between “this”, “that” or “it”, with all three of these concepts being covered by ‘je/jenne’. See the following sentences:<br />
''Je regné.'' [ʒə.ʁəɲe] – It is raining.<br />
<br />
''Jenne quienne est grau.'' [ʒɛn.kjɛn.e.ɢʁo] – That woman is tall.<br />
<br />
''J’est mine meure.'' [ʒe.min.møʁ] – This/that/it is my mother.<br />
<br />
===Articles===<br />
Bresserian has two articles, indefinite and definite, with both agreeing with gender, as well as the definite article with plurality.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Articles<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"|<br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | singular<br />
! indefinite<br />
|en<br />
|enne<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|de (d')<br />
|da (d')<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2"|plural<br />
!indefinite<br />
|colspan="2" |(somme)<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|colspan="2" |der<br />
|}<br />
*''somme'' translates directly to 'some' and is used as a [[w:Article_(grammar)#Partitive_article|partitive article]] for plural or uncountable nouns.<br />
*''de/da'' reduces to d' before vowels<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Numerals<br />
|-<br />
! Bresserian<br />
! English<br />
! German<br />
! Dutch<br />
! French<br />
|-<br />
|en/enne<br />
|one<br />
|ein/eine<br />
|één<br />
|un/une<br />
|-<br />
|tié<br />
|two<br />
|zwei<br />
|twee<br />
|deux<br />
|-<br />
|dri<br />
|three<br />
|drei<br />
|drie<br />
|trois<br />
|-<br />
|fèvre<br />
|four<br />
|vier<br />
|vier<br />
|quatre<br />
|-<br />
|fenf<br />
|five<br />
|fünf<br />
|vijf<br />
|cinq<br />
|-<br />
|seis<br />
|six<br />
|sechs<br />
|zes<br />
|six<br />
|-<br />
|sief<br />
|seven<br />
|sieben<br />
|zeven<br />
|sept<br />
|-<br />
|aite<br />
|eight<br />
|acht<br />
|acht<br />
|huit<br />
|-<br />
|nion<br />
|nine<br />
|neun<br />
|negen<br />
|neuf<br />
|-<br />
|tion<br />
|ten<br />
|zehn<br />
|tien<br />
|dix<br />
|-<br />
|enneuf<br />
|eleven<br />
|elf<br />
|elf<br />
|onze<br />
|-<br />
|tauf<br />
|twelve<br />
|zwölf<br />
|twaalf<br />
|douze<br />
|-<br />
|tentif<br />
|twenty<br />
|zwanzig<br />
|twintig<br />
|vingt<br />
|-<br />
|ondre<br />
|hundred<br />
|hundert<br />
|honderd<br />
|cent<br />
|-<br />
|dusont<br />
|thousand<br />
|tausend<br />
|duizend<br />
|mille<br />
|}<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=468643Bresserian2025-08-27T07:06:33Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' ([[w:Help:IPA/English|/brəˈsiːriɪn/]]; ''broisseureis'' or ''broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[w:Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[w:voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[w:voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x~χ)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
*[œ] is the realisation of /ø/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables<br />
*[ɔ] is the realisation of /o/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables.<br />
*/ə/ could be described as the unstressed allophone of [ɛ]<br />
*Some speakers are undergoing a vowel shift in long vowels in which /iː/ > [ɛi], /yː/ > [œy], /uː/ > [ɔu], /ɛː/ > [ɪə], /ɔː/ > [ʊə], /ɑː/ > [ɒː]<br />
*/g/ is pronounced as [x] or [χ] word initially before back vowels<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[w:Latin_alphabet|Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[w:Diacritic|diacritics]] and two [[w:orthography|orthographic]] [[w:typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but as [χ] before other vowels when word initial, and as [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs, Trigraphs and Diacritics===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures. Diacritics are also widely used.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Â || a mé reuf || {{IPA|/a me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɑː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ain || a mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/a me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ç || cé mé cédille || {{IPA|/se me sedij/}} ||pronounced as [s]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| É || e mé acute || {{IPA|/ə me akyt/}} ||pronounced as [e]<br />
|-<br />
| È || e mé grave || {{IPA|/ə me gʁav/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ê || e mé reuf || {{IPA|/ə me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɛː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| Ein || e mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɐ̃j]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| Î || i mé reuf || {{IPA|/i me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [iː]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Ô || o mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɔː]<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| Oin || o mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/o me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [wɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Oû || o mé u mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [uː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ph || pé mé ache || {{IPA|/pe me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [f]; only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| Û || u mé reuf || {{IPA|/y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [yː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
Bresserian is a moderately inflected language and is generally considered a [[w:Fusional_language|Fusional]] language, though it does have strong [[w:Analytic_language|Analytic]] tendencies much like neighboring languages such as French and German. Bresserian also shares many similar developments grammatically to neighboring languages, such as:<br />
*Development of indefinite and definite articles (‘a’ and ‘the’)<br />
*Loss of the neuter gender<br />
*Loss of case marking in nouns<br />
*SVO word order<br />
===Nouns===<br />
All Bresserian nouns are either masculine or feminine. Generally, although with notable exceptions, feminine nouns will end with an ''-e'', while masculine nouns do not. While the gender of a majority of nouns is arbitrary, those referring to people and living things often correspond to the perceived gender of the referent. For example, a male teacher is ''en tiègar'' while a female teacher is ''enne tiègâtre''. When referring to multiple teachers of varying gender, the masculine plural ''tiègars'' would be used. Terms for common animals, primarily domesticated ones, also have distinct gendered forms. Some are simple, such as male ''chat'' and female ''chatte'' meaning “cat”, while others use different words, such as ''ceu'' "cow" and ''bou'' "bull" referring to a female and male bovine respectively. The default form for animals is most often the feminine form, which is used when referring to an animal generally or a mixed-gender group. A notable exception is ''besse'' "dog" which, despite being a feminine noun, is used to refer to both male and female dogs.<br />
<br />
Due to sound changes, a majority of nouns’ singular and plural forms are pronounced identically. For example, ‘tiègar’ and the plural ‘tiègars’ are both pronounced [tjɛʒaʁ], with the final ''-s'' being a historical spelling much like the silent letters in English words such as ''knee'' and ''night''. As many plural nouns are pronounced identically to their singular forms, the distinction between singular and plural is distinguished by the article ''de/da'', which becomes ''der'' in the plural. For example, “the man” is ''de gom'' [də gɔ̃ˑ], while "the men" is ''der goms'' [dɛʁ gɔ̃ˑ]<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives precede the noun and agree with gender and plurality. See the differences between:<br />
*''d’écourt gom'' [d.ekuʁ χɔ̃ˑ] – “the short man” <br />
*''d’écourte quienne'' [d.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short woman”<br />
*''der écourts goms'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁ χɔ̃ˑ] – “the short men”<br />
*''der écourtes quiennes'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short women”<br />
While the plural marker of nouns is always silent, the plural forms of adjectives may occasionally be pronounced in a phenomenon known as ''bendenge'' (aka. ''liaison'' in French) which occurs when preceding a noun beginning with a vowel. In this context, the final (usually mute) consonants of masculine adjectives may also be pronounced:<br />
*''en meille éterre'' [ɑ̃ˑ mɛj etɛʁ] – “a big star”<br />
*''meilles éterres'' [mɛjz‿etɛʁ] – “big stars”<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Bresserian verbs are arguably the most challenging aspect of the language’s grammar, being highly irregular due to extensive sound changes to both strong and weak verbs. Verbs conjugation for person, plurality, tense, imperative mood and present and past participles. Like English and other Germanic languages, verbs are divided into two main categories, “strong” and “weak”, with strong verbs conjugating in more irregular and unpredictable ways, while weak verbs have the ''-de'' suffix in the past tense and are as a whole more predictable and regular. Below will be example conjugation tables for the strong verb ‘écrive’ (“to write”) and the weak verb ‘bleue’ (“to bleed”).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Strong verb ''écrive'' ("to write")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|écrive<br />
|écroif<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
| écriver<br />
| écroives<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
| écrivé<br />
| écroif<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivé<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Weak verb ''bleue'' ("to bleed")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|bleue<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
|bleuer<br />
|bloudes<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
|bleué<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns and Determiners===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Pronouns (reduced forms in brackets)<br />
|-<br />
!Number<br />
!Person<br />
!Gender<br />
!Nominative<br />
!Accusative<br />
!Disjunctive<br />
!Genitive<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="5" | singular<br />
! 1st<br />
! –<br />
|y (y')<br />
|me (m')<br />
|moi<br />
|min/mine<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|du (d')<br />
|de (d')<br />
|doi<br />
|din/dine<br />
|- <br />
! rowspan="3" | 3rd <br />
!masculine<br />
|ir (r')<br />
|colspan="2" | emme<br />
|jes<br />
|-<br />
!feminine<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|-<br />
!inanimate<br />
|je (j')<br />
|je (j')<br />
|jenne<br />
|(ve je)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3"| plural<br />
!1st<br />
!–<br />
|voi (v')<br />
|colspan="2" | us<br />
|ure<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|joi (j')<br />
|colspan="2" | ju (j')<br />
|jure<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
!–<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|}<br />
*The third person plural is the same as the third person feminine singular, with the only distinction being the verb conjugation (ending in ''-ant'') used:<br />
''S’éteuf à bouil.'' – She walked home.<br />
<br />
''S’éteuvant à bouil.'' – They walked home.<br />
*the disjunctive forms are used following a preposition and when stressed, while the accusative forms are used only as the direct object of a verb<br />
*reduced forms occur before a vowel<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Determiner<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
|je(n)<br />
|jenne<br />
|-<br />
!plural<br />
|colspan="2" | jenner<br />
|}<br />
*There is no distinction between “this”, “that” or “it”, with all three of these concepts being covered by ‘je/jenne’. See the following sentences:<br />
''Je regné.'' [ʒə.ʁəɲe] – It is raining.<br />
<br />
''Jenne quienne est grau.'' [ʒɛn.kjɛn.e.ɢʁo] – That woman is tall.<br />
<br />
''J’est mine meure.'' [ʒe.min.møʁ] – This/that/it is my mother.<br />
<br />
===Articles===<br />
Bresserian has two articles, indefinite and definite, with both agreeing with gender, as well as the definite article with plurality.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Articles<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"|<br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | singular<br />
! indefinite<br />
|en<br />
|enne<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|de (d')<br />
|da (d')<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2"|plural<br />
!indefinite<br />
|colspan="2" |(somme)<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|colspan="2" |der<br />
|}<br />
*''somme'' translates directly to 'some' and is used as a [[w:Article_(grammar)#Partitive_article|partitive article]] for plural or uncountable nouns.<br />
*''de/da'' reduces to d' before vowels<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Numerals<br />
|-<br />
! Bresserian<br />
! English<br />
! German<br />
! Dutch<br />
! French<br />
|-<br />
|en/enne<br />
|one<br />
|ein/eine<br />
|één<br />
|un/une<br />
|-<br />
|tié<br />
|two<br />
|zwei<br />
|twee<br />
|deux<br />
|-<br />
|dri<br />
|three<br />
|drei<br />
|drie<br />
|trois<br />
|-<br />
|fèvre<br />
|four<br />
|vier<br />
|vier<br />
|quatre<br />
|-<br />
|fenf<br />
|five<br />
|fünf<br />
|vijf<br />
|cinq<br />
|-<br />
|seis<br />
|six<br />
|sechs<br />
|zes<br />
|six<br />
|-<br />
|sief<br />
|seven<br />
|sieben<br />
|zeven<br />
|sept<br />
|-<br />
|aite<br />
|eight<br />
|acht<br />
|acht<br />
|huit<br />
|-<br />
|nion<br />
|nine<br />
|neun<br />
|negen<br />
|neuf<br />
|-<br />
|tion<br />
|ten<br />
|zehn<br />
|tien<br />
|dix<br />
|-<br />
|enneuf<br />
|eleven<br />
|elf<br />
|elf<br />
|onze<br />
|-<br />
|tauf<br />
|twelve<br />
|zwölf<br />
|twaalf<br />
|douze<br />
|-<br />
|tentif<br />
|twenty<br />
|zwanzig<br />
|twintig<br />
|vingt<br />
|-<br />
|ondre<br />
|hundred<br />
|hundert<br />
|honderd<br />
|cent<br />
|-<br />
|dusont<br />
|thousand<br />
|tausend<br />
|duizend<br />
|mille<br />
|}<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=468642Bresserian2025-08-27T07:04:14Z<p>SJ: /* Writing System */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' ([[w:Help:IPA/English|/brəˈsiːriɪn/]]; ''broisseureis'' or ''broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[w:Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[w:voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[w:voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
*[œ] is the realisation of /ø/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables<br />
*[ɔ] is the realisation of /o/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables.<br />
*/ə/ could be described as the unstressed allophone of [ɛ]<br />
*Some speakers are undergoing a vowel shift in long vowels in which /iː/ > [ɛi], /yː/ > [œy], /uː/ > [ɔu], /ɛː/ > [ɪə], /ɔː/ > [ʊə], /ɑː/ > [ɒː]<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[w:Latin_alphabet|Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[w:Diacritic|diacritics]] and two [[w:orthography|orthographic]] [[w:typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but as [χ] before other vowels when word initial, and as [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs, Trigraphs and Diacritics===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures. Diacritics are also widely used.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Â || a mé reuf || {{IPA|/a me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɑː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ain || a mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/a me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ç || cé mé cédille || {{IPA|/se me sedij/}} ||pronounced as [s]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| É || e mé acute || {{IPA|/ə me akyt/}} ||pronounced as [e]<br />
|-<br />
| È || e mé grave || {{IPA|/ə me gʁav/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ê || e mé reuf || {{IPA|/ə me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɛː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| Ein || e mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɐ̃j]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| Î || i mé reuf || {{IPA|/i me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [iː]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Ô || o mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɔː]<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| Oin || o mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/o me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [wɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Oû || o mé u mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [uː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ph || pé mé ache || {{IPA|/pe me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [f]; only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| Û || u mé reuf || {{IPA|/y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [yː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
Bresserian is a moderately inflected language and is generally considered a [[w:Fusional_language|Fusional]] language, though it does have strong [[w:Analytic_language|Analytic]] tendencies much like neighboring languages such as French and German. Bresserian also shares many similar developments grammatically to neighboring languages, such as:<br />
*Development of indefinite and definite articles (‘a’ and ‘the’)<br />
*Loss of the neuter gender<br />
*Loss of case marking in nouns<br />
*SVO word order<br />
===Nouns===<br />
All Bresserian nouns are either masculine or feminine. Generally, although with notable exceptions, feminine nouns will end with an ''-e'', while masculine nouns do not. While the gender of a majority of nouns is arbitrary, those referring to people and living things often correspond to the perceived gender of the referent. For example, a male teacher is ''en tiègar'' while a female teacher is ''enne tiègâtre''. When referring to multiple teachers of varying gender, the masculine plural ''tiègars'' would be used. Terms for common animals, primarily domesticated ones, also have distinct gendered forms. Some are simple, such as male ''chat'' and female ''chatte'' meaning “cat”, while others use different words, such as ''ceu'' "cow" and ''bou'' "bull" referring to a female and male bovine respectively. The default form for animals is most often the feminine form, which is used when referring to an animal generally or a mixed-gender group. A notable exception is ''besse'' "dog" which, despite being a feminine noun, is used to refer to both male and female dogs.<br />
<br />
Due to sound changes, a majority of nouns’ singular and plural forms are pronounced identically. For example, ‘tiègar’ and the plural ‘tiègars’ are both pronounced [tjɛʒaʁ], with the final ''-s'' being a historical spelling much like the silent letters in English words such as ''knee'' and ''night''. As many plural nouns are pronounced identically to their singular forms, the distinction between singular and plural is distinguished by the article ''de/da'', which becomes ''der'' in the plural. For example, “the man” is ''de gom'' [də gɔ̃ˑ], while "the men" is ''der goms'' [dɛʁ gɔ̃ˑ]<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives precede the noun and agree with gender and plurality. See the differences between:<br />
*''d’écourt gom'' [d.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short man” <br />
*''d’écourte quienne'' [d.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short woman”<br />
*''der écourts goms'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short men”<br />
*''der écourtes quiennes'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short women”<br />
While the plural marker of nouns is always silent, the plural forms of adjectives may occasionally be pronounced in a phenomenon known as ''bendenge'' (aka. ''liaison'' in French) which occurs when preceding a noun beginning with a vowel. In this context, the final (usually mute) consonants of masculine adjectives may also be pronounced:<br />
*''en meille éterre'' [ɑ̃ˑ mɛj etɛʁ] – “a big star”<br />
*''meilles éterres'' [mɛjz‿etɛʁ] – “big stars”<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Bresserian verbs are arguably the most challenging aspect of the language’s grammar, being highly irregular due to extensive sound changes to both strong and weak verbs. Verbs conjugation for person, plurality, tense, imperative mood and present and past participles. Like English and other Germanic languages, verbs are divided into two main categories, “strong” and “weak”, with strong verbs conjugating in more irregular and unpredictable ways, while weak verbs have the ''-de'' suffix in the past tense and are as a whole more predictable and regular. Below will be example conjugation tables for the strong verb ‘écrive’ (“to write”) and the weak verb ‘bleue’ (“to bleed”).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Strong verb ''écrive'' ("to write")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|écrive<br />
|écroif<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
| écriver<br />
| écroives<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
| écrivé<br />
| écroif<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivé<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Weak verb ''bleue'' ("to bleed")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|bleue<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
|bleuer<br />
|bloudes<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
|bleué<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns and Determiners===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Pronouns (reduced forms in brackets)<br />
|-<br />
!Number<br />
!Person<br />
!Gender<br />
!Nominative<br />
!Accusative<br />
!Disjunctive<br />
!Genitive<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="5" | singular<br />
! 1st<br />
! –<br />
|y (y')<br />
|me (m')<br />
|moi<br />
|min/mine<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|du (d')<br />
|de (d')<br />
|doi<br />
|din/dine<br />
|- <br />
! rowspan="3" | 3rd <br />
!masculine<br />
|ir (r')<br />
|colspan="2" | emme<br />
|jes<br />
|-<br />
!feminine<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|-<br />
!inanimate<br />
|je (j')<br />
|je (j')<br />
|jenne<br />
|(ve je)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3"| plural<br />
!1st<br />
!–<br />
|voi (v')<br />
|colspan="2" | us<br />
|ure<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|joi (j')<br />
|colspan="2" | ju (j')<br />
|jure<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
!–<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|}<br />
*The third person plural is the same as the third person feminine singular, with the only distinction being the verb conjugation (ending in ''-ant'') used:<br />
''S’éteuf à bouil.'' – She walked home.<br />
<br />
''S’éteuvant à bouil.'' – They walked home.<br />
*the disjunctive forms are used following a preposition and when stressed, while the accusative forms are used only as the direct object of a verb<br />
*reduced forms occur before a vowel<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Determiner<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
|je(n)<br />
|jenne<br />
|-<br />
!plural<br />
|colspan="2" | jenner<br />
|}<br />
*There is no distinction between “this”, “that” or “it”, with all three of these concepts being covered by ‘je/jenne’. See the following sentences:<br />
''Je regné.'' [ʒə.ʁəɲe] – It is raining.<br />
<br />
''Jenne quienne est grau.'' [ʒɛn.kjɛn.e.gʁo] – That woman is tall.<br />
<br />
''J’est mine meure.'' [ʒe.min.møʁ] – This/that/it is my mother.<br />
<br />
===Articles===<br />
Bresserian has two articles, indefinite and definite, with both agreeing with gender, as well as the definite article with plurality.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Articles<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"|<br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | singular<br />
! indefinite<br />
|en<br />
|enne<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|de (d')<br />
|da (d')<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2"|plural<br />
!indefinite<br />
|colspan="2" |(somme)<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|colspan="2" |der<br />
|}<br />
*''somme'' translates directly to 'some' and is used as a [[w:Article_(grammar)#Partitive_article|partitive article]] for plural or uncountable nouns.<br />
*''de/da'' reduces to d' before vowels<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Numerals<br />
|-<br />
! Bresserian<br />
! English<br />
! German<br />
! Dutch<br />
! French<br />
|-<br />
|en/enne<br />
|one<br />
|ein/eine<br />
|één<br />
|un/une<br />
|-<br />
|tié<br />
|two<br />
|zwei<br />
|twee<br />
|deux<br />
|-<br />
|dri<br />
|three<br />
|drei<br />
|drie<br />
|trois<br />
|-<br />
|fèvre<br />
|four<br />
|vier<br />
|vier<br />
|quatre<br />
|-<br />
|fenf<br />
|five<br />
|fünf<br />
|vijf<br />
|cinq<br />
|-<br />
|seis<br />
|six<br />
|sechs<br />
|zes<br />
|six<br />
|-<br />
|sief<br />
|seven<br />
|sieben<br />
|zeven<br />
|sept<br />
|-<br />
|aite<br />
|eight<br />
|acht<br />
|acht<br />
|huit<br />
|-<br />
|nion<br />
|nine<br />
|neun<br />
|negen<br />
|neuf<br />
|-<br />
|tion<br />
|ten<br />
|zehn<br />
|tien<br />
|dix<br />
|-<br />
|enneuf<br />
|eleven<br />
|elf<br />
|elf<br />
|onze<br />
|-<br />
|tauf<br />
|twelve<br />
|zwölf<br />
|twaalf<br />
|douze<br />
|-<br />
|tentif<br />
|twenty<br />
|zwanzig<br />
|twintig<br />
|vingt<br />
|-<br />
|ondre<br />
|hundred<br />
|hundert<br />
|honderd<br />
|cent<br />
|-<br />
|dusont<br />
|thousand<br />
|tausend<br />
|duizend<br />
|mille<br />
|}<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=465870Bresserian2025-08-10T07:41:17Z<p>SJ: /* Phonology */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' ([[w:Help:IPA/English|/brəˈsiːriɪn/]]; ''broisseureis'' or ''broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[w:Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[w:voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[w:voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[w:Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
*[œ] is the realisation of /ø/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables<br />
*[ɔ] is the realisation of /o/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables.<br />
*/ə/ could be described as the unstressed allophone of [ɛ]<br />
*Some speakers are undergoing a vowel shift in long vowels in which /iː/ > [ɛi], /yː/ > [œy], /uː/ > [ɔu], /ɛː/ > [ɪə], /ɔː/ > [ʊə], /ɑː/ > [ɒː]<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[w:Latin_alphabet|Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[w:Diacritic|diacritics]] and two [[w:orthography|orthographic]] [[w:typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs, Trigraphs and Diacritics===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures. Diacritics are also widely used.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Â || a mé reuf || {{IPA|/a me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɑː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ain || a mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/a me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ç || cé mé cédille || {{IPA|/se me sedij/}} ||pronounced as [s]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| É || e mé acute || {{IPA|/ə me akyt/}} ||pronounced as [e]<br />
|-<br />
| È || e mé grave || {{IPA|/ə me gʁav/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ê || e mé reuf || {{IPA|/ə me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɛː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| Ein || e mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɐ̃j]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| Î || i mé reuf || {{IPA|/i me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [iː]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Ô || o mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɔː]<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| Oin || o mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/o me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [wɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Oû || o mé u mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [uː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ph || pé mé ache || {{IPA|/pe me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [f]; only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| Û || u mé reuf || {{IPA|/y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [yː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
==Grammar==<br />
Bresserian is a moderately inflected language and is generally considered a [[w:Fusional_language|Fusional]] language, though it does have strong [[w:Analytic_language|Analytic]] tendencies much like neighboring languages such as French and German. Bresserian also shares many similar developments grammatically to neighboring languages, such as:<br />
*Development of indefinite and definite articles (‘a’ and ‘the’)<br />
*Loss of the neuter gender<br />
*Loss of case marking in nouns<br />
*SVO word order<br />
===Nouns===<br />
All Bresserian nouns are either masculine or feminine. Generally, although with notable exceptions, feminine nouns will end with an ''-e'', while masculine nouns do not. While the gender of a majority of nouns is arbitrary, those referring to people and living things often correspond to the perceived gender of the referent. For example, a male teacher is ''en tiègar'' while a female teacher is ''enne tiègâtre''. When referring to multiple teachers of varying gender, the masculine plural ''tiègars'' would be used. Terms for common animals, primarily domesticated ones, also have distinct gendered forms. Some are simple, such as male ''chat'' and female ''chatte'' meaning “cat”, while others use different words, such as ''ceu'' "cow" and ''bou'' "bull" referring to a female and male bovine respectively. The default form for animals is most often the feminine form, which is used when referring to an animal generally or a mixed-gender group. A notable exception is ''besse'' "dog" which, despite being a feminine noun, is used to refer to both male and female dogs.<br />
<br />
Due to sound changes, a majority of nouns’ singular and plural forms are pronounced identically. For example, ‘tiègar’ and the plural ‘tiègars’ are both pronounced [tjɛʒaʁ], with the final ''-s'' being a historical spelling much like the silent letters in English words such as ''knee'' and ''night''. As many plural nouns are pronounced identically to their singular forms, the distinction between singular and plural is distinguished by the article ''de/da'', which becomes ''der'' in the plural. For example, “the man” is ''de gom'' [də gɔ̃ˑ], while "the men" is ''der goms'' [dɛʁ gɔ̃ˑ]<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives precede the noun and agree with gender and plurality. See the differences between:<br />
*''d’écourt gom'' [d.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short man” <br />
*''d’écourte quienne'' [d.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short woman”<br />
*''der écourts goms'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short men”<br />
*''der écourtes quiennes'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short women”<br />
While the plural marker of nouns is always silent, the plural forms of adjectives may occasionally be pronounced in a phenomenon known as ''bendenge'' (aka. ''liaison'' in French) which occurs when preceding a noun beginning with a vowel. In this context, the final (usually mute) consonants of masculine adjectives may also be pronounced:<br />
*''en meille éterre'' [ɑ̃ˑ mɛj etɛʁ] – “a big star”<br />
*''meilles éterres'' [mɛjz‿etɛʁ] – “big stars”<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Bresserian verbs are arguably the most challenging aspect of the language’s grammar, being highly irregular due to extensive sound changes to both strong and weak verbs. Verbs conjugation for person, plurality, tense, imperative mood and present and past participles. Like English and other Germanic languages, verbs are divided into two main categories, “strong” and “weak”, with strong verbs conjugating in more irregular and unpredictable ways, while weak verbs have the ''-de'' suffix in the past tense and are as a whole more predictable and regular. Below will be example conjugation tables for the strong verb ‘écrive’ (“to write”) and the weak verb ‘bleue’ (“to bleed”).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Strong verb ''écrive'' ("to write")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|écrive<br />
|écroif<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
| écriver<br />
| écroives<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
| écrivé<br />
| écroif<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivé<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Weak verb ''bleue'' ("to bleed")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|bleue<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
|bleuer<br />
|bloudes<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
|bleué<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns and Determiners===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Pronouns (reduced forms in brackets)<br />
|-<br />
!Number<br />
!Person<br />
!Gender<br />
!Nominative<br />
!Accusative<br />
!Disjunctive<br />
!Genitive<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="5" | singular<br />
! 1st<br />
! –<br />
|y (y')<br />
|me (m')<br />
|moi<br />
|min/mine<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|du (d')<br />
|de (d')<br />
|doi<br />
|din/dine<br />
|- <br />
! rowspan="3" | 3rd <br />
!masculine<br />
|ir (r')<br />
|colspan="2" | emme<br />
|jes<br />
|-<br />
!feminine<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|-<br />
!inanimate<br />
|je (j')<br />
|je (j')<br />
|jenne<br />
|(ve je)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3"| plural<br />
!1st<br />
!–<br />
|voi (v')<br />
|colspan="2" | us<br />
|ure<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|joi (j')<br />
|colspan="2" | ju (j')<br />
|jure<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
!–<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|}<br />
*The third person plural is the same as the third person feminine singular, with the only distinction being the verb conjugation (ending in ''-ant'') used:<br />
''S’éteuf à bouil.'' – She walked home.<br />
<br />
''S’éteuvant à bouil.'' – They walked home.<br />
*the disjunctive forms are used following a preposition and when stressed, while the accusative forms are used only as the direct object of a verb<br />
*reduced forms occur before a vowel<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Determiner<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
|je(n)<br />
|jenne<br />
|-<br />
!plural<br />
|colspan="2" | jenner<br />
|}<br />
*There is no distinction between “this”, “that” or “it”, with all three of these concepts being covered by ‘je/jenne’. See the following sentences:<br />
''Je regné.'' [ʒə.ʁəɲe] – It is raining.<br />
<br />
''Jenne quienne est grau.'' [ʒɛn.kjɛn.e.gʁo] – That woman is tall.<br />
<br />
''J’est mine meure.'' [ʒe.min.møʁ] – This/that/it is my mother.<br />
<br />
===Articles===<br />
Bresserian has two articles, indefinite and definite, with both agreeing with gender, as well as the definite article with plurality.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Articles<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"|<br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | singular<br />
! indefinite<br />
|en<br />
|enne<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|de (d')<br />
|da (d')<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2"|plural<br />
!indefinite<br />
|colspan="2" |(somme)<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|colspan="2" |der<br />
|}<br />
*''somme'' translates directly to 'some' and is used as a [[w:Article_(grammar)#Partitive_article|partitive article]] for plural or uncountable nouns.<br />
*''de/da'' reduces to d' before vowels<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Numerals<br />
|-<br />
! Bresserian<br />
! English<br />
! German<br />
! Dutch<br />
! French<br />
|-<br />
|en/enne<br />
|one<br />
|ein/eine<br />
|één<br />
|un/une<br />
|-<br />
|tié<br />
|two<br />
|zwei<br />
|twee<br />
|deux<br />
|-<br />
|dri<br />
|three<br />
|drei<br />
|drie<br />
|trois<br />
|-<br />
|fèvre<br />
|four<br />
|vier<br />
|vier<br />
|quatre<br />
|-<br />
|fenf<br />
|five<br />
|fünf<br />
|vijf<br />
|cinq<br />
|-<br />
|seis<br />
|six<br />
|sechs<br />
|zes<br />
|six<br />
|-<br />
|sief<br />
|seven<br />
|sieben<br />
|zeven<br />
|sept<br />
|-<br />
|aite<br />
|eight<br />
|acht<br />
|acht<br />
|huit<br />
|-<br />
|nion<br />
|nine<br />
|neun<br />
|negen<br />
|neuf<br />
|-<br />
|tion<br />
|ten<br />
|zehn<br />
|tien<br />
|dix<br />
|-<br />
|enneuf<br />
|eleven<br />
|elf<br />
|elf<br />
|onze<br />
|-<br />
|tauf<br />
|twelve<br />
|zwölf<br />
|twaalf<br />
|douze<br />
|-<br />
|tentif<br />
|twenty<br />
|zwanzig<br />
|twintig<br />
|vingt<br />
|-<br />
|ondre<br />
|hundred<br />
|hundert<br />
|honderd<br />
|cent<br />
|-<br />
|dusont<br />
|thousand<br />
|tausend<br />
|duizend<br />
|mille<br />
|}<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=465337Bresserian2025-08-07T10:45:27Z<p>SJ: /* Numerals */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' ([[w:Help:IPA/English|/brəˈsiːriɪn/]]; ''broisseureis'' or ''broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
*[œ] is the realisation of /ø/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables<br />
*[ɔ] is the realisation of /o/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables.<br />
*/ə/ could be described as the unstressed allophone of [ɛ]<br />
*Some speakers are undergoing a vowel shift in long vowels in which /iː/ > [ɛi], /yː/ > [œy], /uː/ > [ɔu], /ɛː/ > [ɪə], /ɔː/ > [ʊə], /ɑː/ > [ɒː]<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[w:Latin_alphabet|Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[w:Diacritic|diacritics]] and two [[w:orthography|orthographic]] [[w:typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs, Trigraphs and Diacritics===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures. Diacritics are also widely used.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Â || a mé reuf || {{IPA|/a me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɑː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ain || a mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/a me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ç || cé mé cédille || {{IPA|/se me sedij/}} ||pronounced as [s]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| É || e mé acute || {{IPA|/ə me akyt/}} ||pronounced as [e]<br />
|-<br />
| È || e mé grave || {{IPA|/ə me gʁav/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ê || e mé reuf || {{IPA|/ə me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɛː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| Ein || e mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɐ̃j]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| Î || i mé reuf || {{IPA|/i me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [iː]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Ô || o mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɔː]<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| Oin || o mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/o me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [wɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Oû || o mé u mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [uː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ph || pé mé ache || {{IPA|/pe me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [f]; only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| Û || u mé reuf || {{IPA|/y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [yː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
==Grammar==<br />
Bresserian is a moderately inflected language and is generally considered a [[w:Fusional_language|Fusional]] language, though it does have strong [[w:Analytic_language|Analytic]] tendencies much like neighboring languages such as French and German. Bresserian also shares many similar developments grammatically to neighboring languages, such as:<br />
*Development of indefinite and definite articles (‘a’ and ‘the’)<br />
*Loss of the neuter gender<br />
*Loss of case marking in nouns<br />
*SVO word order<br />
===Nouns===<br />
All Bresserian nouns are either masculine or feminine. Generally, although with notable exceptions, feminine nouns will end with an ''-e'', while masculine nouns do not. While the gender of a majority of nouns is arbitrary, those referring to people and living things often correspond to the perceived gender of the referent. For example, a male teacher is ''en tiègar'' while a female teacher is ''enne tiègâtre''. When referring to multiple teachers of varying gender, the masculine plural ''tiègars'' would be used. Terms for common animals, primarily domesticated ones, also have distinct gendered forms. Some are simple, such as male ''chat'' and female ''chatte'' meaning “cat”, while others use different words, such as ''ceu'' "cow" and ''bou'' "bull" referring to a female and male bovine respectively. The default form for animals is most often the feminine form, which is used when referring to an animal generally or a mixed-gender group. A notable exception is ''besse'' "dog" which, despite being a feminine noun, is used to refer to both male and female dogs.<br />
<br />
Due to sound changes, a majority of nouns’ singular and plural forms are pronounced identically. For example, ‘tiègar’ and the plural ‘tiègars’ are both pronounced [tjɛʒaʁ], with the final ''-s'' being a historical spelling much like the silent letters in English words such as ''knee'' and ''night''. As many plural nouns are pronounced identically to their singular forms, the distinction between singular and plural is distinguished by the article ''de/da'', which becomes ''der'' in the plural. For example, “the man” is ''de gom'' [də gɔ̃ˑ], while "the men" is ''der goms'' [dɛʁ gɔ̃ˑ]<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives precede the noun and agree with gender and plurality. See the differences between:<br />
*''d’écourt gom'' [d.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short man” <br />
*''d’écourte quienne'' [d.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short woman”<br />
*''der écourts goms'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short men”<br />
*''der écourtes quiennes'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short women”<br />
While the plural marker of nouns is always silent, the plural forms of adjectives may occasionally be pronounced in a phenomenon known as ''bendenge'' (aka. ''liaison'' in French) which occurs when preceding a noun beginning with a vowel. In this context, the final (usually mute) consonants of masculine adjectives may also be pronounced:<br />
*''en meille éterre'' [ɑ̃ˑ mɛj etɛʁ] – “a big star”<br />
*''meilles éterres'' [mɛjz‿etɛʁ] – “big stars”<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Bresserian verbs are arguably the most challenging aspect of the language’s grammar, being highly irregular due to extensive sound changes to both strong and weak verbs. Verbs conjugation for person, plurality, tense, imperative mood and present and past participles. Like English and other Germanic languages, verbs are divided into two main categories, “strong” and “weak”, with strong verbs conjugating in more irregular and unpredictable ways, while weak verbs have the ''-de'' suffix in the past tense and are as a whole more predictable and regular. Below will be example conjugation tables for the strong verb ‘écrive’ (“to write”) and the weak verb ‘bleue’ (“to bleed”).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Strong verb ''écrive'' ("to write")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|écrive<br />
|écroif<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
| écriver<br />
| écroives<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
| écrivé<br />
| écroif<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivé<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Weak verb ''bleue'' ("to bleed")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|bleue<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
|bleuer<br />
|bloudes<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
|bleué<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns and Determiners===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Pronouns (reduced forms in brackets)<br />
|-<br />
!Number<br />
!Person<br />
!Gender<br />
!Nominative<br />
!Accusative<br />
!Disjunctive<br />
!Genitive<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="5" | singular<br />
! 1st<br />
! –<br />
|y (y')<br />
|me (m')<br />
|moi<br />
|min/mine<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|du (d')<br />
|de (d')<br />
|doi<br />
|din/dine<br />
|- <br />
! rowspan="3" | 3rd <br />
!masculine<br />
|ir (r')<br />
|colspan="2" | emme<br />
|jes<br />
|-<br />
!feminine<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|-<br />
!inanimate<br />
|je (j')<br />
|je (j')<br />
|jenne<br />
|(ve je)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3"| plural<br />
!1st<br />
!–<br />
|voi (v')<br />
|colspan="2" | us<br />
|ure<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|joi (j')<br />
|colspan="2" | ju (j')<br />
|jure<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
!–<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|}<br />
*The third person plural is the same as the third person feminine singular, with the only distinction being the verb conjugation (ending in ''-ant'') used:<br />
''S’éteuf à bouil.'' – She walked home.<br />
<br />
''S’éteuvant à bouil.'' – They walked home.<br />
*the disjunctive forms are used following a preposition and when stressed, while the accusative forms are used only as the direct object of a verb<br />
*reduced forms occur before a vowel<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Determiner<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
|je(n)<br />
|jenne<br />
|-<br />
!plural<br />
|colspan="2" | jenner<br />
|}<br />
*There is no distinction between “this”, “that” or “it”, with all three of these concepts being covered by ‘je/jenne’. See the following sentences:<br />
''Je regné.'' [ʒə.ʁəɲe] – It is raining.<br />
<br />
''Jenne quienne est grau.'' [ʒɛn.kjɛn.e.gʁo] – That woman is tall.<br />
<br />
''J’est mine meure.'' [ʒe.min.møʁ] – This/that/it is my mother.<br />
<br />
===Articles===<br />
Bresserian has two articles, indefinite and definite, with both agreeing with gender, as well as the definite article with plurality.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Articles<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"|<br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | singular<br />
! indefinite<br />
|en<br />
|enne<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|de (d')<br />
|da (d')<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2"|plural<br />
!indefinite<br />
|colspan="2" |(somme)<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|colspan="2" |der<br />
|}<br />
*''somme'' translates directly to 'some' and is used as a [[w:Article_(grammar)#Partitive_article|partitive article]] for plural or uncountable nouns.<br />
*''de/da'' reduces to d' before vowels<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Numerals<br />
|-<br />
! Bresserian<br />
! English<br />
! German<br />
! Dutch<br />
! French<br />
|-<br />
|en/enne<br />
|one<br />
|ein/eine<br />
|één<br />
|un/une<br />
|-<br />
|tié<br />
|two<br />
|zwei<br />
|twee<br />
|deux<br />
|-<br />
|dri<br />
|three<br />
|drei<br />
|drie<br />
|trois<br />
|-<br />
|fèvre<br />
|four<br />
|vier<br />
|vier<br />
|quatre<br />
|-<br />
|fenf<br />
|five<br />
|fünf<br />
|vijf<br />
|cinq<br />
|-<br />
|seis<br />
|six<br />
|sechs<br />
|zes<br />
|six<br />
|-<br />
|sief<br />
|seven<br />
|sieben<br />
|zeven<br />
|sept<br />
|-<br />
|aite<br />
|eight<br />
|acht<br />
|acht<br />
|huit<br />
|-<br />
|nion<br />
|nine<br />
|neun<br />
|negen<br />
|neuf<br />
|-<br />
|tion<br />
|ten<br />
|zehn<br />
|tien<br />
|dix<br />
|-<br />
|enneuf<br />
|eleven<br />
|elf<br />
|elf<br />
|onze<br />
|-<br />
|tauf<br />
|twelve<br />
|zwölf<br />
|twaalf<br />
|douze<br />
|-<br />
|tentif<br />
|twenty<br />
|zwanzig<br />
|twintig<br />
|vingt<br />
|-<br />
|ondre<br />
|hundred<br />
|hundert<br />
|honderd<br />
|cent<br />
|-<br />
|dusont<br />
|thousand<br />
|tausend<br />
|duizend<br />
|mille<br />
|}<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=465162Bresserian2025-08-05T12:24:09Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' ([[w:Help:IPA/English|/brəˈsiːriɪn/]]; ''broisseureis'' or ''broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
*[œ] is the realisation of /ø/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables<br />
*[ɔ] is the realisation of /o/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables.<br />
*/ə/ could be described as the unstressed allophone of [ɛ]<br />
*Some speakers are undergoing a vowel shift in long vowels in which /iː/ > [ɛi], /yː/ > [œy], /uː/ > [ɔu], /ɛː/ > [ɪə], /ɔː/ > [ʊə], /ɑː/ > [ɒː]<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[w:Latin_alphabet|Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[w:Diacritic|diacritics]] and two [[w:orthography|orthographic]] [[w:typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs, Trigraphs and Diacritics===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures. Diacritics are also widely used.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Â || a mé reuf || {{IPA|/a me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɑː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ain || a mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/a me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ç || cé mé cédille || {{IPA|/se me sedij/}} ||pronounced as [s]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| É || e mé acute || {{IPA|/ə me akyt/}} ||pronounced as [e]<br />
|-<br />
| È || e mé grave || {{IPA|/ə me gʁav/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ê || e mé reuf || {{IPA|/ə me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɛː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| Ein || e mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɐ̃j]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| Î || i mé reuf || {{IPA|/i me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [iː]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Ô || o mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɔː]<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| Oin || o mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/o me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [wɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Oû || o mé u mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [uː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ph || pé mé ache || {{IPA|/pe me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [f]; only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| Û || u mé reuf || {{IPA|/y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [yː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
==Grammar==<br />
Bresserian is a moderately inflected language and is generally considered a [[w:Fusional_language|Fusional]] language, though it does have strong [[w:Analytic_language|Analytic]] tendencies much like neighboring languages such as French and German. Bresserian also shares many similar developments grammatically to neighboring languages, such as:<br />
*Development of indefinite and definite articles (‘a’ and ‘the’)<br />
*Loss of the neuter gender<br />
*Loss of case marking in nouns<br />
*SVO word order<br />
===Nouns===<br />
All Bresserian nouns are either masculine or feminine. Generally, although with notable exceptions, feminine nouns will end with an ''-e'', while masculine nouns do not. While the gender of a majority of nouns is arbitrary, those referring to people and living things often correspond to the perceived gender of the referent. For example, a male teacher is ''en tiègar'' while a female teacher is ''enne tiègâtre''. When referring to multiple teachers of varying gender, the masculine plural ''tiègars'' would be used. Terms for common animals, primarily domesticated ones, also have distinct gendered forms. Some are simple, such as male ''chat'' and female ''chatte'' meaning “cat”, while others use different words, such as ''ceu'' "cow" and ''bou'' "bull" referring to a female and male bovine respectively. The default form for animals is most often the feminine form, which is used when referring to an animal generally or a mixed-gender group. A notable exception is ''besse'' "dog" which, despite being a feminine noun, is used to refer to both male and female dogs.<br />
<br />
Due to sound changes, a majority of nouns’ singular and plural forms are pronounced identically. For example, ‘tiègar’ and the plural ‘tiègars’ are both pronounced [tjɛʒaʁ], with the final ''-s'' being a historical spelling much like the silent letters in English words such as ''knee'' and ''night''. As many plural nouns are pronounced identically to their singular forms, the distinction between singular and plural is distinguished by the article ''de/da'', which becomes ''der'' in the plural. For example, “the man” is ''de gom'' [də gɔ̃ˑ], while "the men" is ''der goms'' [dɛʁ gɔ̃ˑ]<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives precede the noun and agree with gender and plurality. See the differences between:<br />
*''d’écourt gom'' [d.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short man” <br />
*''d’écourte quienne'' [d.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short woman”<br />
*''der écourts goms'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short men”<br />
*''der écourtes quiennes'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short women”<br />
While the plural marker of nouns is always silent, the plural forms of adjectives may occasionally be pronounced in a phenomenon known as ''bendenge'' (aka. ''liaison'' in French) which occurs when preceding a noun beginning with a vowel. In this context, the final (usually mute) consonants of masculine adjectives may also be pronounced:<br />
*''en meille éterre'' [ɑ̃ˑ mɛj etɛʁ] – “a big star”<br />
*''meilles éterres'' [mɛjz‿etɛʁ] – “big stars”<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Bresserian verbs are arguably the most challenging aspect of the language’s grammar, being highly irregular due to extensive sound changes to both strong and weak verbs. Verbs conjugation for person, plurality, tense, imperative mood and present and past participles. Like English and other Germanic languages, verbs are divided into two main categories, “strong” and “weak”, with strong verbs conjugating in more irregular and unpredictable ways, while weak verbs have the ''-de'' suffix in the past tense and are as a whole more predictable and regular. Below will be example conjugation tables for the strong verb ‘écrive’ (“to write”) and the weak verb ‘bleue’ (“to bleed”).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Strong verb ''écrive'' ("to write")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|écrive<br />
|écroif<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
| écriver<br />
| écroives<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
| écrivé<br />
| écroif<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivé<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Weak verb ''bleue'' ("to bleed")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|bleue<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
|bleuer<br />
|bloudes<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
|bleué<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns and Determiners===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Pronouns (reduced forms in brackets)<br />
|-<br />
!Number<br />
!Person<br />
!Gender<br />
!Nominative<br />
!Accusative<br />
!Disjunctive<br />
!Genitive<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="5" | singular<br />
! 1st<br />
! –<br />
|y (y')<br />
|me (m')<br />
|moi<br />
|min/mine<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|du (d')<br />
|de (d')<br />
|doi<br />
|din/dine<br />
|- <br />
! rowspan="3" | 3rd <br />
!masculine<br />
|ir (r')<br />
|colspan="2" | emme<br />
|jes<br />
|-<br />
!feminine<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|-<br />
!inanimate<br />
|je (j')<br />
|je (j')<br />
|jenne<br />
|(ve je)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3"| plural<br />
!1st<br />
!–<br />
|voi (v')<br />
|colspan="2" | us<br />
|ure<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|joi (j')<br />
|colspan="2" | ju (j')<br />
|jure<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
!–<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|}<br />
*The third person plural is the same as the third person feminine singular, with the only distinction being the verb conjugation (ending in ''-ant'') used:<br />
''S’éteuf à bouil.'' – She walked home.<br />
<br />
''S’éteuvant à bouil.'' – They walked home.<br />
*the disjunctive forms are used following a preposition and when stressed, while the accusative forms are used only as the direct object of a verb<br />
*reduced forms occur before a vowel<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Determiner<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
|je(n)<br />
|jenne<br />
|-<br />
!plural<br />
|colspan="2" | jenner<br />
|}<br />
*There is no distinction between “this”, “that” or “it”, with all three of these concepts being covered by ‘je/jenne’. See the following sentences:<br />
''Je regné.'' [ʒə.ʁəɲe] – It is raining.<br />
<br />
''Jenne quienne est grau.'' [ʒɛn.kjɛn.e.gʁo] – That woman is tall.<br />
<br />
''J’est mine meure.'' [ʒe.min.møʁ] – This/that/it is my mother.<br />
<br />
===Articles===<br />
Bresserian has two articles, indefinite and definite, with both agreeing with gender, as well as the definite article with plurality.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Articles<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"|<br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | singular<br />
! indefinite<br />
|en<br />
|enne<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|de (d')<br />
|da (d')<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2"|plural<br />
!indefinite<br />
|colspan="2" |(somme)<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|colspan="2" |der<br />
|}<br />
*''somme'' translates directly to 'some' and is used as a [[w:Article_(grammar)#Partitive_article|partitive article]] for plural or uncountable nouns.<br />
*''de/da'' reduces to d' before vowels<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Numerals<br />
|-<br />
! Bresserian<br />
! English<br />
! German<br />
! Dutch<br />
! French<br />
|-<br />
|en/enne<br />
|one<br />
|ein/eine<br />
|één<br />
|un/une<br />
|-<br />
|tié<br />
|two<br />
|zwei<br />
|twee<br />
|deux<br />
|-<br />
|dri<br />
|three<br />
|drei<br />
|drie<br />
|trois<br />
|-<br />
|fèvre<br />
|four<br />
|vier<br />
|vier<br />
|quatre<br />
|-<br />
|fenf<br />
|five<br />
|fünf<br />
|vijf<br />
|cinq<br />
|-<br />
|seis<br />
|six<br />
|sechs<br />
|zes<br />
|six<br />
|-<br />
|sief<br />
|seven<br />
|sieben<br />
|zeven<br />
|sept<br />
|-<br />
|aite<br />
|eight<br />
|acht<br />
|acht<br />
|huit<br />
|-<br />
|nion<br />
|nine<br />
|neun<br />
|negen<br />
|neuf<br />
|-<br />
|tion<br />
|ten<br />
|zehn<br />
|tien<br />
|dix<br />
|-<br />
|jeneuf<br />
|eleven<br />
|elf<br />
|elf<br />
|onze<br />
|-<br />
|tauf<br />
|twelve<br />
|zwölf<br />
|twaalf<br />
|douze<br />
|-<br />
|tentif<br />
|twenty<br />
|zwanzig<br />
|twintig<br />
|vingt<br />
|-<br />
|ondre<br />
|hundred<br />
|hundert<br />
|honderd<br />
|cent<br />
|-<br />
|dusont<br />
|thousand<br />
|tausend<br />
|duizend<br />
|mille<br />
|}<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=465061Bresserian2025-08-04T06:41:46Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' ([[w:Help:IPA/English|/brəˈsiːriɪn/]]; ''broisseureis'' or ''broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
*[œ] is the realisation of /ø/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables<br />
*[ɔ] is the realisation of /o/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables.<br />
*/ə/ could be described as the unstressed allophone of [ɛ]<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[w:Latin_alphabet|Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[w:Diacritic|diacritics]] and two [[w:orthography|orthographic]] [[w:typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs, Trigraphs and Diacritics===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures. Diacritics are also widely used.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Â || a mé reuf || {{IPA|/a me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɑː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ain || a mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/a me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ç || cé mé cédille || {{IPA|/se me sedij/}} ||pronounced as [s]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| É || e mé acute || {{IPA|/ə me akyt/}} ||pronounced as [e]<br />
|-<br />
| È || e mé grave || {{IPA|/ə me gʁav/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ê || e mé reuf || {{IPA|/ə me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɛː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| Ein || e mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɐ̃j]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| Î || i mé reuf || {{IPA|/i me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [iː]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Ô || o mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɔː]<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| Oin || o mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/o me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [wɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Oû || o mé u mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [uː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ph || pé mé ache || {{IPA|/pe me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [f]; only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| Û || u mé reuf || {{IPA|/y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [yː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
==Grammar==<br />
Bresserian is a moderately inflected language and is generally considered a [[w:Fusional_language|Fusional]] language, though it does have strong [[w:Analytic_language|Analytic]] tendencies much like neighboring languages such as French and German. Bresserian also shares many similar developments grammatically to neighboring languages, such as:<br />
*Development of indefinite and definite articles (‘a’ and ‘the’)<br />
*Loss of the neuter gender<br />
*Loss of case marking in nouns<br />
*SVO word order<br />
===Nouns===<br />
All Bresserian nouns are either masculine or feminine. Generally, although with notable exceptions, feminine nouns will end with an ''-e'', while masculine nouns do not. While the gender of a majority of nouns is arbitrary, those referring to people and living things often correspond to the perceived gender of the referent. For example, a male teacher is ''en tiègar'' while a female teacher is ''enne tiègâtre''. When referring to multiple teachers of varying gender, the masculine plural ''tiègars'' would be used. Terms for common animals, primarily domesticated ones, also have distinct gendered forms. Some are simple, such as male ''chat'' and female ''chatte'' meaning “cat”, while others use different words, such as ''ceu'' "cow" and ''bou'' "bull" referring to a female and male bovine respectively. The default form for animals is most often the feminine form, which is used when referring to an animal generally or a mixed-gender group. A notable exception is ''besse'' "dog" which, despite being a feminine noun, is used to refer to both male and female dogs.<br />
<br />
Due to sound changes, a majority of nouns’ singular and plural forms are pronounced identically. For example, ‘tiègar’ and the plural ‘tiègars’ are both pronounced [tjɛʒaʁ], with the final ''-s'' being a historical spelling much like the silent letters in English words such as ''knee'' and ''night''. As many plural nouns are pronounced identically to their singular forms, the distinction between singular and plural is distinguished by the article ''de/da'', which becomes ''der'' in the plural. For example, “the man” is ''de gom'' [də gɔ̃ˑ], while "the men" is ''der goms'' [dɛʁ gɔ̃ˑ]<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives precede the noun and agree with gender and plurality. See the differences between:<br />
*''d’écourt gom'' [d.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short man” <br />
*''d’écourte quienne'' [d.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short woman”<br />
*''der écourts goms'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short men”<br />
*''der écourtes quiennes'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short women”<br />
While the plural marker of nouns is always silent, the plural forms of adjectives may occasionally be pronounced in a phenomenon known as ''bendenge'' (aka. ''liaison'' in French) which occurs when preceding a noun beginning with a vowel. In this context, the final (usually mute) consonants of masculine adjectives may also be pronounced:<br />
*''en meille éterre'' [ɑ̃ˑ mɛj etɛʁ] – “a big star”<br />
*''meilles éterres'' [mɛjz‿etɛʁ] – “big stars”<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Bresserian verbs are arguably the most challenging aspect of the language’s grammar, being highly irregular due to extensive sound changes to both strong and weak verbs. Verbs conjugation for person, plurality, tense, imperative mood and present and past participles. Like English and other Germanic languages, verbs are divided into two main categories, “strong” and “weak”, with strong verbs conjugating in more irregular and unpredictable ways, while weak verbs have the ''-de'' suffix in the past tense and are as a whole more predictable and regular. Below will be example conjugation tables for the strong verb ‘écrive’ (“to write”) and the weak verb ‘bleue’ (“to bleed”).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Strong verb ''écrive'' ("to write")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|écrive<br />
|écroif<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
| écriver<br />
| écroives<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
| écrivé<br />
| écroif<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivé<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Weak verb ''bleue'' ("to bleed")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|bleue<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
|bleuer<br />
|bloudes<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
|bleué<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns and Determiners===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Pronouns (reduced forms in brackets)<br />
|-<br />
!Number<br />
!Person<br />
!Gender<br />
!Nominative<br />
!Accusative<br />
!Disjunctive<br />
!Genitive<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="5" | singular<br />
! 1st<br />
! –<br />
|y (y')<br />
|me (m')<br />
|moi<br />
|min/mine<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|du (d')<br />
|de (d')<br />
|doi<br />
|din/dine<br />
|- <br />
! rowspan="3" | 3rd <br />
!masculine<br />
|ir (r')<br />
|colspan="2" | emme<br />
|jes<br />
|-<br />
!feminine<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|-<br />
!inanimate<br />
|je (j')<br />
|je (j')<br />
|jenne<br />
|(ve je)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3"| plural<br />
!1st<br />
!–<br />
|voi (v')<br />
|colspan="2" | us<br />
|ure<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|joi (j')<br />
|colspan="2" | ju (j')<br />
|jure<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
!–<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|}<br />
*The third person plural is the same as the third person feminine singular, with the only distinction being the verb conjugation (ending in ''-ant'') used:<br />
''S’éteuf à bouil.'' – She walked home.<br />
<br />
''S’éteuvant à bouil.'' – They walked home.<br />
*the disjunctive forms are used following a preposition and when stressed, while the accusative forms are used only as the direct object of a verb<br />
*reduced forms occur before a vowel<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Determiner<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
|je(n)<br />
|jenne<br />
|-<br />
!plural<br />
|colspan="2" | jenner<br />
|}<br />
*There is no distinction between “this”, “that” or “it”, with all three of these concepts being covered by ‘je/jenne’. See the following sentences:<br />
''Je regné.'' [ʒə.ʁəɲe] – It is raining.<br />
<br />
''Jenne quienne est grau.'' [ʒɛn.kjɛn.e.gʁo] – That woman is tall.<br />
<br />
''J’est mine meure.'' [ʒe.min.møʁ] – This/that/it is my mother.<br />
<br />
===Articles===<br />
Bresserian has two articles, indefinite and definite, with both agreeing with gender, as well as the definite article with plurality.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Articles<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"|<br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | singular<br />
! indefinite<br />
|en<br />
|enne<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|de (d')<br />
|da (d')<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2"|plural<br />
!indefinite<br />
|colspan="2" |(somme)<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|colspan="2" |der<br />
|}<br />
*''somme'' translates directly to 'some' and is used as a [[w:Article_(grammar)#Partitive_article|partitive article]] for plural or uncountable nouns.<br />
*''de/da'' reduces to d' before vowels<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Numerals<br />
|-<br />
! Bresserian<br />
! English<br />
! German<br />
! Dutch<br />
! French<br />
|-<br />
|en/enne<br />
|one<br />
|ein/eine<br />
|één<br />
|un/une<br />
|-<br />
|tié<br />
|two<br />
|zwei<br />
|twee<br />
|deux<br />
|-<br />
|dri<br />
|three<br />
|drei<br />
|drie<br />
|trois<br />
|-<br />
|fèvre<br />
|four<br />
|vier<br />
|vier<br />
|quatre<br />
|-<br />
|fenf<br />
|five<br />
|fünf<br />
|vijf<br />
|cinq<br />
|-<br />
|seis<br />
|six<br />
|sechs<br />
|zes<br />
|six<br />
|-<br />
|sief<br />
|seven<br />
|sieben<br />
|zeven<br />
|sept<br />
|-<br />
|aite<br />
|eight<br />
|acht<br />
|acht<br />
|huit<br />
|-<br />
|nion<br />
|nine<br />
|neun<br />
|negen<br />
|neuf<br />
|-<br />
|tion<br />
|ten<br />
|zehn<br />
|tien<br />
|dix<br />
|-<br />
|jeneuf<br />
|eleven<br />
|elf<br />
|elf<br />
|onze<br />
|-<br />
|tauf<br />
|twelve<br />
|zwölf<br />
|twaalf<br />
|douze<br />
|-<br />
|tentif<br />
|twenty<br />
|zwanzig<br />
|twintig<br />
|vingt<br />
|-<br />
|ondre<br />
|hundred<br />
|hundert<br />
|honderd<br />
|cent<br />
|-<br />
|dusont<br />
|thousand<br />
|tausend<br />
|duizend<br />
|mille<br />
|}<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=465060Bresserian2025-08-04T06:40:01Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' ([[w:Help:IPA/English|/brəˈsiːrɪan/]]; ''broisseureis'' or ''broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
*[œ] is the realisation of /ø/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables<br />
*[ɔ] is the realisation of /o/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables.<br />
*/ə/ could be described as the unstressed allophone of [ɛ]<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[w:Latin_alphabet|Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[w:Diacritic|diacritics]] and two [[w:orthography|orthographic]] [[w:typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs, Trigraphs and Diacritics===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures. Diacritics are also widely used.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Â || a mé reuf || {{IPA|/a me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɑː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ain || a mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/a me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ç || cé mé cédille || {{IPA|/se me sedij/}} ||pronounced as [s]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| É || e mé acute || {{IPA|/ə me akyt/}} ||pronounced as [e]<br />
|-<br />
| È || e mé grave || {{IPA|/ə me gʁav/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ê || e mé reuf || {{IPA|/ə me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɛː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| Ein || e mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɐ̃j]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| Î || i mé reuf || {{IPA|/i me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [iː]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Ô || o mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɔː]<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| Oin || o mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/o me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [wɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Oû || o mé u mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [uː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ph || pé mé ache || {{IPA|/pe me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [f]; only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| Û || u mé reuf || {{IPA|/y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [yː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
==Grammar==<br />
Bresserian is a moderately inflected language and is generally considered a [[w:Fusional_language|Fusional]] language, though it does have strong [[w:Analytic_language|Analytic]] tendencies much like neighboring languages such as French and German. Bresserian also shares many similar developments grammatically to neighboring languages, such as:<br />
*Development of indefinite and definite articles (‘a’ and ‘the’)<br />
*Loss of the neuter gender<br />
*Loss of case marking in nouns<br />
*SVO word order<br />
===Nouns===<br />
All Bresserian nouns are either masculine or feminine. Generally, although with notable exceptions, feminine nouns will end with an ''-e'', while masculine nouns do not. While the gender of a majority of nouns is arbitrary, those referring to people and living things often correspond to the perceived gender of the referent. For example, a male teacher is ''en tiègar'' while a female teacher is ''enne tiègâtre''. When referring to multiple teachers of varying gender, the masculine plural ''tiègars'' would be used. Terms for common animals, primarily domesticated ones, also have distinct gendered forms. Some are simple, such as male ''chat'' and female ''chatte'' meaning “cat”, while others use different words, such as ''ceu'' "cow" and ''bou'' "bull" referring to a female and male bovine respectively. The default form for animals is most often the feminine form, which is used when referring to an animal generally or a mixed-gender group. A notable exception is ''besse'' "dog" which, despite being a feminine noun, is used to refer to both male and female dogs.<br />
<br />
Due to sound changes, a majority of nouns’ singular and plural forms are pronounced identically. For example, ‘tiègar’ and the plural ‘tiègars’ are both pronounced [tjɛʒaʁ], with the final ''-s'' being a historical spelling much like the silent letters in English words such as ''knee'' and ''night''. As many plural nouns are pronounced identically to their singular forms, the distinction between singular and plural is distinguished by the article ''de/da'', which becomes ''der'' in the plural. For example, “the man” is ''de gom'' [də gɔ̃ˑ], while "the men" is ''der goms'' [dɛʁ gɔ̃ˑ]<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives precede the noun and agree with gender and plurality. See the differences between:<br />
*''d’écourt gom'' [d.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short man” <br />
*''d’écourte quienne'' [d.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short woman”<br />
*''der écourts goms'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short men”<br />
*''der écourtes quiennes'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short women”<br />
While the plural marker of nouns is always silent, the plural forms of adjectives may occasionally be pronounced in a phenomenon known as ''bendenge'' (aka. ''liaison'' in French) which occurs when preceding a noun beginning with a vowel. In this context, the final (usually mute) consonants of masculine adjectives may also be pronounced:<br />
*''en meille éterre'' [ɑ̃ˑ mɛj etɛʁ] – “a big star”<br />
*''meilles éterres'' [mɛjz‿etɛʁ] – “big stars”<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Bresserian verbs are arguably the most challenging aspect of the language’s grammar, being highly irregular due to extensive sound changes to both strong and weak verbs. Verbs conjugation for person, plurality, tense, imperative mood and present and past participles. Like English and other Germanic languages, verbs are divided into two main categories, “strong” and “weak”, with strong verbs conjugating in more irregular and unpredictable ways, while weak verbs have the ''-de'' suffix in the past tense and are as a whole more predictable and regular. Below will be example conjugation tables for the strong verb ‘écrive’ (“to write”) and the weak verb ‘bleue’ (“to bleed”).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Strong verb ''écrive'' ("to write")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|écrive<br />
|écroif<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
| écriver<br />
| écroives<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
| écrivé<br />
| écroif<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivé<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Weak verb ''bleue'' ("to bleed")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|bleue<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
|bleuer<br />
|bloudes<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
|bleué<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns and Determiners===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Pronouns (reduced forms in brackets)<br />
|-<br />
!Number<br />
!Person<br />
!Gender<br />
!Nominative<br />
!Accusative<br />
!Disjunctive<br />
!Genitive<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="5" | singular<br />
! 1st<br />
! –<br />
|y (y')<br />
|me (m')<br />
|moi<br />
|min/mine<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|du (d')<br />
|de (d')<br />
|doi<br />
|din/dine<br />
|- <br />
! rowspan="3" | 3rd <br />
!masculine<br />
|ir (r')<br />
|colspan="2" | emme<br />
|jes<br />
|-<br />
!feminine<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|-<br />
!inanimate<br />
|je (j')<br />
|je (j')<br />
|jenne<br />
|(ve je)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3"| plural<br />
!1st<br />
!–<br />
|voi (v')<br />
|colspan="2" | us<br />
|ure<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|joi (j')<br />
|colspan="2" | ju (j')<br />
|jure<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
!–<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|}<br />
*The third person plural is the same as the third person feminine singular, with the only distinction being the verb conjugation (ending in ''-ant'') used:<br />
''S’éteuf à bouil.'' – She walked home.<br />
<br />
''S’éteuvant à bouil.'' – They walked home.<br />
*the disjunctive forms are used following a preposition and when stressed, while the accusative forms are used only as the direct object of a verb<br />
*reduced forms occur before a vowel<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Determiner<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
|je(n)<br />
|jenne<br />
|-<br />
!plural<br />
|colspan="2" | jenner<br />
|}<br />
*There is no distinction between “this”, “that” or “it”, with all three of these concepts being covered by ‘je/jenne’. See the following sentences:<br />
''Je regné.'' [ʒə.ʁəɲe] – It is raining.<br />
<br />
''Jenne quienne est grau.'' [ʒɛn.kjɛn.e.gʁo] – That woman is tall.<br />
<br />
''J’est mine meure.'' [ʒe.min.møʁ] – This/that/it is my mother.<br />
<br />
===Articles===<br />
Bresserian has two articles, indefinite and definite, with both agreeing with gender, as well as the definite article with plurality.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Articles<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"|<br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | singular<br />
! indefinite<br />
|en<br />
|enne<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|de (d')<br />
|da (d')<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2"|plural<br />
!indefinite<br />
|colspan="2" |(somme)<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|colspan="2" |der<br />
|}<br />
*''somme'' translates directly to 'some' and is used as a [[w:Article_(grammar)#Partitive_article|partitive article]] for plural or uncountable nouns.<br />
*''de/da'' reduces to d' before vowels<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Numerals<br />
|-<br />
! Bresserian<br />
! English<br />
! German<br />
! Dutch<br />
! French<br />
|-<br />
|en/enne<br />
|one<br />
|ein/eine<br />
|één<br />
|un/une<br />
|-<br />
|tié<br />
|two<br />
|zwei<br />
|twee<br />
|deux<br />
|-<br />
|dri<br />
|three<br />
|drei<br />
|drie<br />
|trois<br />
|-<br />
|fèvre<br />
|four<br />
|vier<br />
|vier<br />
|quatre<br />
|-<br />
|fenf<br />
|five<br />
|fünf<br />
|vijf<br />
|cinq<br />
|-<br />
|seis<br />
|six<br />
|sechs<br />
|zes<br />
|six<br />
|-<br />
|sief<br />
|seven<br />
|sieben<br />
|zeven<br />
|sept<br />
|-<br />
|aite<br />
|eight<br />
|acht<br />
|acht<br />
|huit<br />
|-<br />
|nion<br />
|nine<br />
|neun<br />
|negen<br />
|neuf<br />
|-<br />
|tion<br />
|ten<br />
|zehn<br />
|tien<br />
|dix<br />
|-<br />
|jeneuf<br />
|eleven<br />
|elf<br />
|elf<br />
|onze<br />
|-<br />
|tauf<br />
|twelve<br />
|zwölf<br />
|twaalf<br />
|douze<br />
|-<br />
|tentif<br />
|twenty<br />
|zwanzig<br />
|twintig<br />
|vingt<br />
|-<br />
|ondre<br />
|hundred<br />
|hundert<br />
|honderd<br />
|cent<br />
|-<br />
|dusont<br />
|thousand<br />
|tausend<br />
|duizend<br />
|mille<br />
|}<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=465059Bresserian2025-08-04T06:29:20Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' (''Broisseureis'' or ''Broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
*[œ] is the realisation of /ø/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables<br />
*[ɔ] is the realisation of /o/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables.<br />
*/ə/ could be described as the unstressed allophone of [ɛ]<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[w:Latin_alphabet|Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[w:Diacritic|diacritics]] and two [[w:orthography|orthographic]] [[w:typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs, Trigraphs and Diacritics===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures. Diacritics are also widely used.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Â || a mé reuf || {{IPA|/a me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɑː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ain || a mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/a me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ç || cé mé cédille || {{IPA|/se me sedij/}} ||pronounced as [s]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| É || e mé acute || {{IPA|/ə me akyt/}} ||pronounced as [e]<br />
|-<br />
| È || e mé grave || {{IPA|/ə me gʁav/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ê || e mé reuf || {{IPA|/ə me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɛː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| Ein || e mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɐ̃j]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| Î || i mé reuf || {{IPA|/i me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [iː]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Ô || o mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɔː]<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| Oin || o mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/o me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [wɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Oû || o mé u mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [uː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ph || pé mé ache || {{IPA|/pe me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [f]; only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| Û || u mé reuf || {{IPA|/y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [yː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
==Grammar==<br />
Bresserian is a moderately inflected language and is generally considered a [[w:Fusional_language|Fusional]] language, though it does have strong [[w:Analytic_language|Analytic]] tendencies much like neighboring languages such as French and German. Bresserian also shares many similar developments grammatically to neighboring languages, such as:<br />
*Development of indefinite and definite articles (‘a’ and ‘the’)<br />
*Loss of the neuter gender<br />
*Loss of case marking in nouns<br />
*SVO word order<br />
===Nouns===<br />
All Bresserian nouns are either masculine or feminine. Generally, although with notable exceptions, feminine nouns will end with an ''-e'', while masculine nouns do not. While the gender of a majority of nouns is arbitrary, those referring to people and living things often correspond to the perceived gender of the referent. For example, a male teacher is ''en tiègar'' while a female teacher is ''enne tiègâtre''. When referring to multiple teachers of varying gender, the masculine plural ''tiègars'' would be used. Terms for common animals, primarily domesticated ones, also have distinct gendered forms. Some are simple, such as male ''chat'' and female ''chatte'' meaning “cat”, while others use different words, such as ''ceu'' "cow" and ''bou'' "bull" referring to a female and male bovine respectively. The default form for animals is most often the feminine form, which is used when referring to an animal generally or a mixed-gender group. A notable exception is ''besse'' "dog" which, despite being a feminine noun, is used to refer to both male and female dogs.<br />
<br />
Due to sound changes, a majority of nouns’ singular and plural forms are pronounced identically. For example, ‘tiègar’ and the plural ‘tiègars’ are both pronounced [tjɛʒaʁ], with the final ''-s'' being a historical spelling much like the silent letters in English words such as ''knee'' and ''night''. As many plural nouns are pronounced identically to their singular forms, the distinction between singular and plural is distinguished by the article ''de/da'', which becomes ''der'' in the plural. For example, “the man” is ''de gom'' [də gɔ̃ˑ], while "the men" is ''der goms'' [dɛʁ gɔ̃ˑ]<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives precede the noun and agree with gender and plurality. See the differences between:<br />
*''d’écourt gom'' [d.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short man” <br />
*''d’écourte quienne'' [d.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short woman”<br />
*''der écourts goms'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short men”<br />
*''der écourtes quiennes'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short women”<br />
While the plural marker of nouns is always silent, the plural forms of adjectives may occasionally be pronounced in a phenomenon known as ''bendenge'' (aka. ''liaison'' in French) which occurs when preceding a noun beginning with a vowel. In this context, the final (usually mute) consonants of masculine adjectives may also be pronounced:<br />
*''en meille éterre'' [ɑ̃ˑ mɛj etɛʁ] – “a big star”<br />
*''meilles éterres'' [mɛjz‿etɛʁ] – “big stars”<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Bresserian verbs are arguably the most challenging aspect of the language’s grammar, being highly irregular due to extensive sound changes to both strong and weak verbs. Verbs conjugation for person, plurality, tense, imperative mood and present and past participles. Like English and other Germanic languages, verbs are divided into two main categories, “strong” and “weak”, with strong verbs conjugating in more irregular and unpredictable ways, while weak verbs have the ''-de'' suffix in the past tense and are as a whole more predictable and regular. Below will be example conjugation tables for the strong verb ‘écrive’ (“to write”) and the weak verb ‘bleue’ (“to bleed”).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Strong verb ''écrive'' ("to write")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|écrive<br />
|écroif<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
| écriver<br />
| écroives<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
| écrivé<br />
| écroif<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivé<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Weak verb ''bleue'' ("to bleed")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|bleue<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
|bleuer<br />
|bloudes<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
|bleué<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns and Determiners===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Pronouns (reduced forms in brackets)<br />
|-<br />
!Number<br />
!Person<br />
!Gender<br />
!Nominative<br />
!Accusative<br />
!Disjunctive<br />
!Genitive<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="5" | singular<br />
! 1st<br />
! –<br />
|y (y')<br />
|me (m')<br />
|moi<br />
|min/mine<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|du (d')<br />
|de (d')<br />
|doi<br />
|din/dine<br />
|- <br />
! rowspan="3" | 3rd <br />
!masculine<br />
|ir (r')<br />
|colspan="2" | emme<br />
|jes<br />
|-<br />
!feminine<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|-<br />
!inanimate<br />
|je (j')<br />
|je (j')<br />
|jenne<br />
|(ve je)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3"| plural<br />
!1st<br />
!–<br />
|voi (v')<br />
|colspan="2" | us<br />
|ure<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|joi (j')<br />
|colspan="2" | ju (j')<br />
|jure<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
!–<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|}<br />
*The third person plural is the same as the third person feminine singular, with the only distinction being the verb conjugation (ending in ''-ant'') used:<br />
''S’éteuf à bouil.'' – She walked home.<br />
<br />
''S’éteuvant à bouil.'' – They walked home.<br />
*the disjunctive forms are used following a preposition and when stressed, while the accusative forms are used only as the direct object of a verb<br />
*reduced forms occur before a vowel<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Determiner<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
|je(n)<br />
|jenne<br />
|-<br />
!plural<br />
|colspan="2" | jenner<br />
|}<br />
*There is no distinction between “this”, “that” or “it”, with all three of these concepts being covered by ‘je/jenne’. See the following sentences:<br />
''Je regné.'' [ʒə.ʁəɲe] – It is raining.<br />
<br />
''Jenne quienne est grau.'' [ʒɛn.kjɛn.e.gʁo] – That woman is tall.<br />
<br />
''J’est mine meure.'' [ʒe.min.møʁ] – This/that/it is my mother.<br />
<br />
===Articles===<br />
Bresserian has two articles, indefinite and definite, with both agreeing with gender, as well as the definite article with plurality.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Articles<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"|<br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | singular<br />
! indefinite<br />
|en<br />
|enne<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|de (d')<br />
|da (d')<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2"|plural<br />
!indefinite<br />
|colspan="2" |(somme)<br />
|-<br />
!definite<br />
|colspan="2" |der<br />
|}<br />
*''somme'' translates directly to 'some' and is used as a [[w:Article_(grammar)#Partitive_article|partitive article]] for plural or uncountable nouns.<br />
*''de/da'' reduces to d' before vowels<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Numerals<br />
|-<br />
! Bresserian<br />
! English<br />
! German<br />
! Dutch<br />
! French<br />
|-<br />
|en/enne<br />
|one<br />
|ein/eine<br />
|één<br />
|un/une<br />
|-<br />
|tié<br />
|two<br />
|zwei<br />
|twee<br />
|deux<br />
|-<br />
|dri<br />
|three<br />
|drei<br />
|drie<br />
|trois<br />
|-<br />
|fèvre<br />
|four<br />
|vier<br />
|vier<br />
|quatre<br />
|-<br />
|fenf<br />
|five<br />
|fünf<br />
|vijf<br />
|cinq<br />
|-<br />
|seis<br />
|six<br />
|sechs<br />
|zes<br />
|six<br />
|-<br />
|sief<br />
|seven<br />
|sieben<br />
|zeven<br />
|sept<br />
|-<br />
|aite<br />
|eight<br />
|acht<br />
|acht<br />
|huit<br />
|-<br />
|nion<br />
|nine<br />
|neun<br />
|negen<br />
|neuf<br />
|-<br />
|tion<br />
|ten<br />
|zehn<br />
|tien<br />
|dix<br />
|-<br />
|jeneuf<br />
|eleven<br />
|elf<br />
|elf<br />
|onze<br />
|-<br />
|tauf<br />
|twelve<br />
|zwölf<br />
|twaalf<br />
|douze<br />
|-<br />
|tentif<br />
|twenty<br />
|zwanzig<br />
|twintig<br />
|vingt<br />
|-<br />
|ondre<br />
|hundred<br />
|hundert<br />
|honderd<br />
|cent<br />
|-<br />
|dusont<br />
|thousand<br />
|tausend<br />
|duizend<br />
|mille<br />
|}<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Erjie&diff=465058Erjie2025-08-04T05:35:37Z<p>SJ: /* Pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Erjie<br />
|nativename = erjie kelu<br />
|altname = 迩捷語 (ěrjiéyǔ)<br />
|pronunciation = ɚˈʑjɛ ˈkʰəlʊ<br />
|pronunciation_key = help:IPA<br />
|states = [[w:China|China]]<br />
|region = [[w:Qinghai|Qinghai]]<br />
|speakers = 2000<br />
|date = 2023<br />
|created = 2024<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|Tocharian B]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:China|China]]<br />
*[[w:Sunan Yugur Autonomous County|Sunan Yugur Autonomous County]]<br />
*[[w:Menyuan Hui Autonomous County|Menyuan Hui Autonomous County]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Erjie<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Erjie is classified as Vulnerable}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Erjie''' is an [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] language spoken by the Erjie people, who mainly live in the provinces of [[w:Qinghai|Qinghai]] and [[w:Gansu|Gansu]] in Northwestern [[w:China|China]]. It is the sole extant member of the [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]] branch of [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]]. The Erjie number about 3200 people, about 2000 (2023) speak the Erjie language; around 800 are primarily monolingual, while many speak Mandarin and/or Amdo Tibetan to a degree of fluency. While a pinyin-based writing system has been devised, Erjie is not often written by speakers and primarily exists as a spoken language.<br />
<br />
According to Erjie tradition, the Erjie are the descendants of the [[w:Tocharians|Tocharian speaking tribes]] of the [[w:Tarim Basin|Tarim Basin]]. During periods of the [[w:Uyghur Khaganate|Uyghur Khaganate]] and [[w:Tang Dynasty|Tang dynasty]], these tribesmen migrated from the Tarim Basin and dwelt within China's borders and since then have lived within the Qinghai-Gansu border region. Erjie has considerable influence, both grammatical and lexical, from [[w:Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]] and [[w:Amdo Tibetan|Amdo Tibetan]]. It is also a part of the broader [[w:Qinghai–Gansu_sprachbund|Qinghai-Gansu/Amdo sprachbund]], characterized by many features that differ greatly from surrounding languages, such as [[w:Subject–object–verb_word_order|SOV word order]], [[w:Grammatical_case|case marking]] and a lack of [[w:w:Tone_(linguistics)|lexical tone]].<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
!<br />
![[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
![[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
![[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
|i {{angle bracket|i}}<br />
|<br />
|u {{angle bracket|u}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]<br />
|<br />
|ə {{angle bracket|e}}<br />
|ɔ {{angle bracket|o}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|a {{angle bracket|a}}<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Phoneme/Sound<br />
!Allophones<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/i/<br />
|ɨ<br />
|when following alveolar sibilants or affricates<br />
|-<br />
|ɪ<br />
|when following labial and alveolar plosives or approximants<br />
|-<br />
|ɨ˞<br />
|when following a retroflex consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/ə/<br />
|ə<br />
|in stressed syllables without onset clusters or coda consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|in a syllable with a palatal onset or palatal coda<br />
|-<br />
|ɘ<br />
|in a syllable with a nasal coda consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/a/<br />
|ɑ<br />
|when following a uvular consonant<br />
|-<br />
|æ<br />
|when a syllable is closed by an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|when following a palatal onset consonant, and preceding an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|/ɔ/<br />
|ɵ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" |/u/<br />
|ʊ<br />
|when following alveolar and velar consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ʉ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |<br />
! [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
! [[w:Denti-alveolar_consonant|Denti-alveolar]]<br />
! [[w:Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]<br />
! [[w:Alveolo-palatal consonant|Palatal]]<br />
! [[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]<br />
! [[w:Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Stop consonant|Stops]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_bilabial_plosive|/p/]] {{angle bracket|b}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_dental_and_alveolar_plosives|/t̪/]] {{angle bracket|d}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_velar_plosive|/k/]] {{angle bracket|g}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_uvular_plosive|/q/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/pʰ/]] {{angle bracket|p}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/t̪ʰ/]] {{angle bracket|t}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/kʰ/]] {{angle bracket|k}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/qʰ/]] {{angle bracket|kh}}<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricates]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_affricate|/t͡s/]] {{angle bracket|z}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_affricate|/ʈ͡ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|zh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate|/t͡ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|j}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/t͡sʰ/]] {{angle bracket|c}}<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/ʈ͡ʂʰ/]] {{angle bracket|ch}}<br />
| [[w:IPAslink|/t͡ɕʰ/]] {{angle bracket|q}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricatives]]<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_labiodental_fricative|''(f)'']] {{angle bracket|''f''}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_fricative|/s/]] {{angle bracket|s}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_fricative|/ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|sh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative|/ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|x}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiceless_velar_fricative|/x/]] ~ [[w:Voiceless_uvular_fricative|/χ/]] {{angle bracket|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Voice_(phonetics)|voiced]]</small><br />
| <br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_fricative|''(z)'']] {{angle bracket|''z''}}<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative|''(ʑ)'']] {{angle bracket|''j''}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiced_velar_fricative|/ɣ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_uvular_fricative|/ʁ/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasals]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_bilabial_nasal|/m/]] {{angle bracket|m}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_nasal|/n/]] {{angle bracket|n}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_velar_nasal|/ŋ/]] {{angle bracket|ng}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Approximant|Approximants]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_labial–velar_approximant|/w/]] {{angle bracket|w}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_dental,_alveolar_and_postalveolar_lateral_approximants|/l̪/]] {{angle bracket|l}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_retroflex_approximant|/ɻ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_retroflex_fricative|/ʐ/]] {{angle bracket|r}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_palatal_approximant|/j/]] {{angle bracket|y}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
*/z/ and /ʑ/ are intervocalic allophones of plain affricates /t͡s/ and /t͡ɕ/ respectively.<br />
*all plain plosives are phonetically voiced in intervocalic positions, however /q/ weakens to /ʁ/ rather than expected /ɢ/<br />
*/x/ and /ɣ/ are uvular /χ/ and /ʁ/ before /a/, /ɔ/ and /u/.<br />
*/f/ is only found in Chinese borrowings, alternatively substituted with /pʰ/.<br />
*/j/ and /w/ can have spirantized allophones [ʝ] and [βˠ] typically in stressed, initial syllables.<br />
<br />
== Writing System ==<br />
Erjie does not have on official script and mainly exists as a spoken language. However, young Erjie speakers have increasingly started to use a writing system based on Mandarin pinyin. It is primarily used among Erjie for writing their language on the internet and in digital environments.<br />
=== Pinyin-based Latin Script ===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Pinyin || [[help:IPA|IPA]] || Notes<br />
|-<br />
|| ''b'' || /p/ || Unaspirated ''p'', like in English s<u>p</u>a.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''p'' || /pʰ/ || Strongly aspirated ''p'', like in English <u>p</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''m'' || /m/ || Like the ''m'' in English <u>m</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''f'' || /f/ || Like the ''f'' in English <u>f</u>air.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''d'' || /t̪/ || Unaspirated dental ''t'', similar to English s<u>t</u>op.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''t'' || /t̪ʰ/ || Strongly aspirated dental ''t'', similar to English <u>t</u>ake.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''n'' || /n/ || Like the ''n'' in English <u>n</u>ay.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''l'' || /l̪/ || Dental ''l'', similar to English <u>l</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''g'' || /k/ || Unaspirated ''k'', like in English s<u>k</u>ill.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''k'' || /kʰ/ || Strongly aspirated ''k'', like in English <u>k</u>iss.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''gh'' || /q~ʁ~ɣ/ || No English equivalent. Occurs as [q] in onset and when voiceless but as [ɣ~ʁ] intervocalically.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''kh'' || /qʰ/ || No English equivalent. Often strongly spirantized to [qχ(ʰ)] and even [χ(ʰ)]<br />
|- <br />
|| ''h'' || /x~χ/ || Like the ''ch'' in Scottish English lo<u>ch</u>.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''j'' || /tɕ~(d)ʑ/ || Alveolo-palatal, unaspirated. No direct equivalent in English. Occurs as [tɕ] in onset and when voiceless but as [dʑ~ʑ] intervocalically.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''q'' || /tɕʰ/ || Alveolo-palatal, aspirated. No direct equivalent in English, but similar to the ''ch'' in English pun<u>ch</u>y.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''x'' || /ɕ/ || Alveolo-palatal, unaspirated. No direct equivalent in English, but similar to the ''sh'' in English pu<u>sh</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''zh'' || /ʈʂ/ || Retroflex, unaspirated. Similar to ''j'' in English <u>j</u>ack.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ch'' || /ʈʂʰ/ || Retroflex, aspirated. Similar to the ''ch'' in English chur<u>ch</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''sh'' || /ʂ/ || Retroflex, unaspirated. Similar to ''sh'' in <u>sh</u>irt.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''r'' || /ɻ~ʐ/ || Retroflex. No direct equivalent in English, but somewhat similar to the ''r'' in English <u>r</u>educe.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''z'' || /ts~(d)z/ || Unaspirated. Like the ''zz'' in English pi<u>zz</u>a. Occurs as [ts] in onset and when voiceless but as [dz~z] intervocalically<br />
|- <br />
|| ''c'' || /tsʰ/ || Aspirated. Like the ''ts'' in English ba<u>ts</u>.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''s'' || /s/ || Like the ''s'' in English <u>s</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''w'' || /w~β/ ||Like the ''w'' in English <u>w</u>ater. Occasionally pronounced [β], like a ''v'' but using both lips.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''y''|| /j~ʝ/ || Like the ''y'' in English <u>y</u>es.<br />
|-<br />
|''yu'' ||/ɥ/ ||Like the ''hu'' in French <u>hu</u>it.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''a''|| /a~ɑ~æ/ || Like the ''a'' in English b<u>a</u>ck.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''i''|| /i~ɪ~ɨ/ || Like the ''ee'' in English f<u>ee</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''u''|| /u~ʊ~ʉ/ || Like the ''oo'' in English g<u>oo</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''o''|| /ɔ~ɵ/ || Like the ''o'' in English f<u>o</u>g.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''e''|| /ə~ɛ/ || Varies between the ''o'' in English lem<u>o</u>n and the ''e'' in b<u>e</u>t.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ai''|| /aj/ || Like the ''y'' in English fl<u>y</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''au''|| /aw/ || Similar to the ''ou'' in some dialects of English l<u>ou</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ei''|| /ej/ || Like the ''ay'' in English m<u>ay</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ou''|| /ow/ || No exact English equivalent, but similar to the ''oa'' in c<u>oa</u>t.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ie''|| /jɛ/ || No English equivalent. Like the ''ie'' in Spanish t<u>ie</u>mpo.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''uo''|| /wɔ/ || No English equivalent.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Grammar ==<br />
===Morphology===<br />
Erjie is [[w:Agglutination|agglutinative]] and mainly [[w:Suffix|suffixing]], although there are a small number of [[w:Prefix|prefixes]]. Erjie has lost a significant portion of its [[w:Inflection|inflectional morphology]] which was present in the [[w:Tocharian_languages|Tocharian languages]], likely due to contact-induced [[w:Morphological leveling|leveling]]. For example, verbs no longer conjugate for [[w:Grammatical_person|person]] or the [[w:Subjunctive_mood|subjunctive]], [[w:Grammatical_gender|gender]] in nouns has been lost, and thus adjectives no longer inflect for [[w:Grammatical_gender|gender]] or even [[w:Grammatical_case|case]]. That being said, Erjie has innovated certain morphological features, such as a future tense suffix and verbal negative suffix which were not present in Tocharian. [[w:Stress_(linguistics)|Lexical stress]] is phonemic, although it is in the process of being replaced by a [[w:Pitch-accent_language|pitch-accent]] system, especially among younger speakers.<br />
===Nouns and Case Marking===<br />
Erjie has seven cases: [[w:nominative_case|nominative]] (unmarked), [[w:Genitive_case|genitive]]-[[w:accusative_case|accusative]], [[w:dative_case|dative]]-[[w:locative_case|locative]], [[w:ablative_case|ablative]], [[w:comitative_case|comitative]], [[w:allative_case|allative]] and [[w:perlative_case|perlative]]-[[w:instrumental_case|instrumental]]. [[w:Object_(grammar)|Direct objects]] are typically marked in the genitive-accusative if they are [[w:Definiteness|definite]], while if they are [[w:Definiteness|indefinite]] they are marked in the nominative combined with the [[w:Article_(grammar)|indefinite article]] ''she''. In addition to case, numerous postpositions exist which may govern any number of cases. There are also limited prepositions which typically exclusively govern the nominative.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|+Erjie noun cases<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! Suffix !! English preposition <br />
!Example !! Translation<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:nominative_case|nominative]] || – || – <br />
| yeghu || horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Genitive_case|genitive]]-[[w:accusative_case|accusative]] || -ze || (direct object); of<br />
| yeghuze || the horse (as direct object); of (the) horse/(the) horse's <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:dative_case|dative]]-[[w:locative_case|locative]] || -ne || at, in, on, to<br />
| yeghune || on/in (the) horse; to (the) horse (as a recipient/indirect object) <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:ablative_case|ablative]] || -men || from<br />
| yeghumen || from (the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:comitative_case|comitative]] || -ba || with <br />
| yeghuba || with (e.g. alongside the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:allative_case|allative]] || -xi || to, toward, into, onto<br />
| yeghuxi || toward/onto (the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:perlative_case|perlative]]-[[w:instrumental_case|instrumental]] || -za || through, with, via, using, by, over<br />
| yeghuza || with (e.g. by means of the) horse; by horse<br />
|}<br />
<br />
======Nominative case======<br />
The nominative generally marks the subject of a verb and the predicate of a copular construction. It is also used to mark the direct object of a sentence if that object is indirect. The nominative is unmarked in Erjie.<br />
<br />
======Genitive-Accusative case======<br />
This case governs two main uses: marking the definite direct object of a verb and indicating possession. As a genitive, it is generally only used to indicate the possession of animate possessors such as people and animals, although certain self-actuating celestial bodies and geological features such as rivers and oceans may also apply (especially in a religious or spiritual sense). In the accusative sense, words in this case tend to like to occur directly before the verb, as if it were to precede a noun phrase it may be confused for its genitive function.<br />
<br />
======Dative-Locative case======<br />
The dative-locative is used to indicate a location such as ''in'', ''on'', ''at'' or ''by'', as well as to indicate the recipient or indirect object of a verb. Another important use of this case is what is typically called the possessive dative, in which it marks what would typically be, in English, the subject of a transitive verb, e.g. ''Toughane xuer xameixgela lie'' – literally "(there) are four kids to/at/by Tougha", this construction is typically found with a copula and translates as "Tougha has four kids".<br />
<br />
======Plurals======<br />
Plurals are typically marked by way of the suffix -la which occurs after the root and before any case markers. While -la is the most common plural suffix, there are numerous irregular plurals which may be unpredictable, and there are some nouns that do not mark plurality at all. With that said, plural marking is not mandatory especially if it is obvious by context. It is also common for plurality not to be marked after numerals. Younger speakers are increasingly trending towards less use of the plural as a whole, and its usage is much more pervasive in older speakers and may be a social marker for age and authority. Reduplication has also been seen among younger speakers as a trendy way to produce plurals, although it is typically used to represent a particularly large quantity, e.g. ''keli keli tegha ba!'' – "There was tons of bread!".<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Personal Pronouns<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative !! Genitive-Accusative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan ="2" | 1st person<br />
! singular<br />
| yix<br />
| yi<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| wer<br />
| weji<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan ="2" | 2nd person<br />
! singular<br />
| qi<br />
| qen<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| yer<br />
| yeji<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan ="4" | 3rd person<br />
! singular masculine<br />
| qao<br />
| qui<br />
|-<br />
! singular feminine<br />
| tou<br />
| tei<br />
|-<br />
! singular inanimate<br />
| tu<br />
| tuze<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| qim<br />
| qimze<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+<br />
!Numeral<br />
!'''Erjie'''<br />
!'''IPA'''<br />
!'''Tocharian A'''<br />
!'''Tocharian B'''<br />
!'''Proto-Indo-European'''<br />
|-<br />
|1<br />
|she<br />
|[ʂə]<br />
|sas<br />
|ṣe<br />
|*sem-<br />
|-<br />
|2<br />
|wi<br />
|[wɪ]<br />
|wu<br />
|wi<br />
|*dwóh₁<br />
|-<br />
|3<br />
|chei<br />
|[ʈʂʰej]<br />
|tre<br />
|trai<br />
|*tréyes<br />
|-<br />
|4<br />
|xuer<br />
|[ɕɥɚ]<br />
|śtwar<br />
|śtwer<br />
|*kʷetwṓr<br />
|-<br />
|5<br />
|pix<br />
|[pʰɪɕ]<br />
|päñ<br />
|piś<br />
|*pénkʷe<br />
|-<br />
|6<br />
|shges<br />
|[ʂkəs]<br />
|ṣäk<br />
|ṣkas<br />
|*swéḱs<br />
|-<br />
|7<br />
|shuk<br />
|[ʂʉk̚]<br />
|ṣpät<br />
|ṣukt <br />
|*septḿ̥<br />
|-<br />
|8<br />
|wuk<br />
|[βuk̚]<br />
|okät<br />
|okt<br />
|*h₁oḱtṓ(w)<br />
|-<br />
|9<br />
|yuk<br />
|[ʝyk̚]<br />
|ñu<br />
|ñu<br />
|*(h₁)néwn̥<br />
|-<br />
|10<br />
|xek<br />
|[ɕɛk̚]<br />
|śäk<br />
|śak<br />
|*déḱm̥t <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
Erjie has a primarily [[w:Subject–object–verb_word_order|SOV]] word order, although it is relatively flexible and may be modified to add emphasis or topic focus.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Erjie]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=465016Bresserian2025-08-03T13:42:42Z<p>SJ: /* Alphabet */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' (''Broisseureis'' or ''Broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
*[œ] is the realisation of /ø/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables<br />
*[ɔ] is the realisation of /o/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables.<br />
*/ə/ could be described as the unstressed allophone of [ɛ]<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[w:Latin_alphabet|Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[w:Diacritic|diacritics]] and two [[w:orthography|orthographic]] [[w:typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs, Trigraphs and Diacritics===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures. Diacritics are also widely used.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Â || a mé reuf || {{IPA|/a me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɑː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ain || a mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/a me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ç || cé mé cédille || {{IPA|/se me sedij/}} ||pronounced as [s]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| É || e mé acute || {{IPA|/ə me akyt/}} ||pronounced as [e]<br />
|-<br />
| È || e mé grave || {{IPA|/ə me gʁav/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ê || e mé reuf || {{IPA|/ə me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɛː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| Ein || e mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɐ̃j]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| Î || i mé reuf || {{IPA|/i me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [iː]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Ô || o mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɔː]<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| Oin || o mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/o me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [wɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Oû || o mé u mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [uː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ph || pé mé ache || {{IPA|/pe me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [f]; only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| Û || u mé reuf || {{IPA|/y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [yː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
==Grammar==<br />
Bresserian is a moderately inflected language and is generally considered a [[w:Fusional_language|Fusional]] language, though it does have strong [[w:Analytic_language|Analytic]] tendencies much like neighboring languages such as French and German. Bresserian also shares many similar developments grammatically to neighboring languages, such as:<br />
*Development of indefinite and definite articles (‘a’ and ‘the’)<br />
*Loss of the neuter gender<br />
*Loss of case marking in nouns<br />
*SVO word order<br />
===Nouns===<br />
All Bresserian nouns are either masculine or feminine. Generally, although with notable exceptions, feminine nouns will end with an ''-e'', while masculine nouns do not. While the gender of a majority of nouns is arbitrary, those referring to people and living things often correspond to the perceived gender of the referent. For example, a male teacher is ''en tiègar'' while a female teacher is ''enne tiègâtre''. When referring to multiple teachers of varying gender, the masculine plural ''tiègars'' would be used. Terms for common animals, primarily domesticated ones, also have distinct gendered forms. Some are simple, such as male ''chat'' and female ''chatte'' meaning “cat”, while others use different words, such as ''ceu'' "cow" and ''bou'' "bull" referring to a female and male bovine respectively. The default form for animals is most often the feminine form, which is used when referring to an animal generally or a mixed-gender group. A notable exception is ''besse'' "dog" which, despite being a feminine noun, is used to refer to both male and female dogs.<br />
<br />
Due to sound changes, a majority of nouns’ singular and plural forms are pronounced identically. For example, ‘tiègar’ and the plural ‘tiègars’ are both pronounced [tjɛʒaʁ], with the final ''-s'' being a historical spelling much like the silent letters in English words such as ''knee'' and ''night''. As many plural nouns are pronounced identically to their singular forms, the distinction between singular and plural is distinguished by the article ''de/da'', which becomes ''der'' in the plural. For example, “the man” is ''de gom'' [də gɔ̃ˑ], while "the men" is ''der goms'' [dɛʁ gɔ̃ˑ]<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives precede the noun and agree with gender and plurality. See the differences between:<br />
*''d’écourt gom'' [d.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short man” <br />
*''d’écourte quienne'' [d.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short woman”<br />
*''der écourts goms'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short men”<br />
*''der écourtes quiennes'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short women”<br />
While the plural marker of nouns is always silent, the plural forms of adjectives may occasionally be pronounced in a phenomenon known as ''bendenge'' (aka. ''liaison'' in French) which occurs when preceding a noun beginning with a vowel. In this context, the final (usually mute) consonants of masculine adjectives may also be pronounced:<br />
*''en meille éterre'' [ɑ̃ˑ mɛj etɛʁ] – “a big star”<br />
*''meilles éterres'' [mɛjz‿etɛʁ] – “big stars”<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Bresserian verbs are arguably the most challenging aspect of the language’s grammar, being highly irregular due to extensive sound changes to both strong and weak verbs. Verbs conjugation for person, plurality, tense, imperative mood and present and past participles. Like English and other Germanic languages, verbs are divided into two main categories, “strong” and “weak”, with strong verbs conjugating in more irregular and unpredictable ways, while weak verbs have the ''-de'' suffix in the past tense and are as a whole more predictable and regular. Below will be example conjugation tables for the strong verb ‘écrive’ (“to write”) and the weak verb ‘bleue’ (“to bleed”).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Strong verb ''écrive'' ("to write")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|écrive<br />
|écroif<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
| écriver<br />
| écroives<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
| écrivé<br />
| écroif<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivé<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Weak verb ''bleue'' ("to bleed")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|bleue<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
|bleuer<br />
|bloudes<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
|bleué<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns and Determiners===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Pronouns (reduced forms in brackets)<br />
|-<br />
!Number<br />
!Person<br />
!Gender<br />
!Nominative<br />
!Accusative<br />
!Disjunctive<br />
!Genitive<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="5" | singular<br />
! 1st<br />
! –<br />
|y (y')<br />
|me (m')<br />
|moi<br />
|min/mine<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|du (d')<br />
|de (d')<br />
|doi<br />
|din/dine<br />
|- <br />
! rowspan="3" | 3rd <br />
!masculine<br />
|ir (r')<br />
|colspan="2" | emme<br />
|jes<br />
|-<br />
!feminine<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|-<br />
!inanimate<br />
|je (j')<br />
|je (j')<br />
|jenne<br />
|(ve je)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3"| plural<br />
!1st<br />
!–<br />
|voi (v')<br />
|colspan="2" | us<br />
|ure<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|joi (j')<br />
|colspan="2" | ju (j')<br />
|jure<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
!–<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|}<br />
*The third person plural is the same as the third person feminine singular, with the only distinction being the verb conjugation (ending in ''-ant'') used:<br />
''S’éteuf à bouil.'' – She walked home.<br />
<br />
''S’éteuvant à bouil.'' – They walked home.<br />
*the disjunctive forms are used following a preposition and when stressed, while the accusative forms are used only as the direct object of a verb<br />
*reduced forms occur before a vowel<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Determiner<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
|je(n)<br />
|jenne<br />
|-<br />
!plural<br />
|colspan="2" | jenner<br />
|}<br />
*There is no distinction between “this”, “that” or “it”, with all three of these concepts being covered by ‘je/jenne’. See the following sentences:<br />
''Je regné.'' [ʒə.ʁəɲe] – It is raining.<br />
<br />
''Jenne quienne est grau.'' [ʒɛn.kjɛn.e.gʁo] – That woman is tall.<br />
<br />
''J’est mine meure.'' [ʒe.min.møʁ] – This/that/it is my mother.<br />
<br />
===Articles===<br />
<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=465015Bresserian2025-08-03T12:19:33Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' (''Broisseureis'' or ''Broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
*[œ] is the realisation of /ø/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables<br />
*[ɔ] is the realisation of /o/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables.<br />
*/ə/ could be described as the unstressed allophone of [ɛ]<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[w:Latin_alphabet|Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[w:Diacritic|diacritics]] and two [[w:orthography|orthographic]] [[w:typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/(d)ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs, Trigraphs and Diacritics===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures. Diacritics are also widely used.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Â || a mé reuf || {{IPA|/a me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɑː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ain || a mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/a me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ç || cé mé cédille || {{IPA|/se me sedij/}} ||pronounced as [s]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| É || e mé acute || {{IPA|/ə me akyt/}} ||pronounced as [e]<br />
|-<br />
| È || e mé grave || {{IPA|/ə me gʁav/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ê || e mé reuf || {{IPA|/ə me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɛː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| Ein || e mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɐ̃j]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| Î || i mé reuf || {{IPA|/i me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [iː]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Ô || o mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɔː]<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| Oin || o mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/o me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [wɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Oû || o mé u mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [uː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ph || pé mé ache || {{IPA|/pe me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [f]; only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| Û || u mé reuf || {{IPA|/y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [yː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
==Grammar==<br />
Bresserian is a moderately inflected language and is generally considered a [[w:Fusional_language|Fusional]] language, though it does have strong [[w:Analytic_language|Analytic]] tendencies much like neighboring languages such as French and German. Bresserian also shares many similar developments grammatically to neighboring languages, such as:<br />
*Development of indefinite and definite articles (‘a’ and ‘the’)<br />
*Loss of the neuter gender<br />
*Loss of case marking in nouns<br />
*SVO word order<br />
===Nouns===<br />
All Bresserian nouns are either masculine or feminine. Generally, although with notable exceptions, feminine nouns will end with an ''-e'', while masculine nouns do not. While the gender of a majority of nouns is arbitrary, those referring to people and living things often correspond to the perceived gender of the referent. For example, a male teacher is ''en tiègar'' while a female teacher is ''enne tiègâtre''. When referring to multiple teachers of varying gender, the masculine plural ''tiègars'' would be used. Terms for common animals, primarily domesticated ones, also have distinct gendered forms. Some are simple, such as male ''chat'' and female ''chatte'' meaning “cat”, while others use different words, such as ''ceu'' "cow" and ''bou'' "bull" referring to a female and male bovine respectively. The default form for animals is most often the feminine form, which is used when referring to an animal generally or a mixed-gender group. A notable exception is ''besse'' "dog" which, despite being a feminine noun, is used to refer to both male and female dogs.<br />
<br />
Due to sound changes, a majority of nouns’ singular and plural forms are pronounced identically. For example, ‘tiègar’ and the plural ‘tiègars’ are both pronounced [tjɛʒaʁ], with the final ''-s'' being a historical spelling much like the silent letters in English words such as ''knee'' and ''night''. As many plural nouns are pronounced identically to their singular forms, the distinction between singular and plural is distinguished by the article ''de/da'', which becomes ''der'' in the plural. For example, “the man” is ''de gom'' [də gɔ̃ˑ], while "the men" is ''der goms'' [dɛʁ gɔ̃ˑ]<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives precede the noun and agree with gender and plurality. See the differences between:<br />
*''d’écourt gom'' [d.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short man” <br />
*''d’écourte quienne'' [d.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short woman”<br />
*''der écourts goms'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short men”<br />
*''der écourtes quiennes'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short women”<br />
While the plural marker of nouns is always silent, the plural forms of adjectives may occasionally be pronounced in a phenomenon known as ''bendenge'' (aka. ''liaison'' in French) which occurs when preceding a noun beginning with a vowel. In this context, the final (usually mute) consonants of masculine adjectives may also be pronounced:<br />
*''en meille éterre'' [ɑ̃ˑ mɛj etɛʁ] – “a big star”<br />
*''meilles éterres'' [mɛjz‿etɛʁ] – “big stars”<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Bresserian verbs are arguably the most challenging aspect of the language’s grammar, being highly irregular due to extensive sound changes to both strong and weak verbs. Verbs conjugation for person, plurality, tense, imperative mood and present and past participles. Like English and other Germanic languages, verbs are divided into two main categories, “strong” and “weak”, with strong verbs conjugating in more irregular and unpredictable ways, while weak verbs have the ''-de'' suffix in the past tense and are as a whole more predictable and regular. Below will be example conjugation tables for the strong verb ‘écrive’ (“to write”) and the weak verb ‘bleue’ (“to bleed”).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Strong verb ''écrive'' ("to write")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|écrive<br />
|écroif<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
| écriver<br />
| écroives<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
| écrivé<br />
| écroif<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivé<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Weak verb ''bleue'' ("to bleed")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|bleue<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
|bleuer<br />
|bloudes<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
|bleué<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns and Determiners===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Pronouns (reduced forms in brackets)<br />
|-<br />
!Number<br />
!Person<br />
!Gender<br />
!Nominative<br />
!Accusative<br />
!Disjunctive<br />
!Genitive<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="5" | singular<br />
! 1st<br />
! –<br />
|y (y')<br />
|me (m')<br />
|moi<br />
|min/mine<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|du (d')<br />
|de (d')<br />
|doi<br />
|din/dine<br />
|- <br />
! rowspan="3" | 3rd <br />
!masculine<br />
|ir (r')<br />
|colspan="2" | emme<br />
|jes<br />
|-<br />
!feminine<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|-<br />
!inanimate<br />
|je (j')<br />
|je (j')<br />
|jenne<br />
|(ve je)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3"| plural<br />
!1st<br />
!–<br />
|voi (v')<br />
|colspan="2" | us<br />
|ure<br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
!–<br />
|joi (j')<br />
|colspan="2" | ju (j')<br />
|jure<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
!–<br />
|si (s')<br />
|colspan="3" | jer<br />
|}<br />
*The third person plural is the same as the third person feminine singular, with the only distinction being the verb conjugation (ending in ''-ant'') used:<br />
''S’éteuf à bouil.'' – She walked home.<br />
<br />
''S’éteuvant à bouil.'' – They walked home.<br />
*the disjunctive forms are used following a preposition and when stressed, while the accusative forms are used only as the direct object of a verb<br />
*reduced forms occur before a vowel<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Determiner<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!masculine<br />
!feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
|je(n)<br />
|jenne<br />
|-<br />
!plural<br />
|colspan="2" | jenner<br />
|}<br />
*There is no distinction between “this”, “that” or “it”, with all three of these concepts being covered by ‘je/jenne’. See the following sentences:<br />
''Je regné.'' [ʒə.ʁəɲe] – It is raining.<br />
<br />
''Jenne quienne est grau.'' [ʒɛn.kjɛn.e.gʁo] – That woman is tall.<br />
<br />
''J’est mine meure.'' [ʒe.min.møʁ] – This/that/it is my mother.<br />
<br />
===Articles===<br />
<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=465005Bresserian2025-08-03T07:56:29Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' (''Broisseureis'' or ''Broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
*[œ] is the realisation of /ø/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables<br />
*[ɔ] is the realisation of /o/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables.<br />
*/ə/ could be described as the unstressed allophone of [ɛ]<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[w:Latin_alphabet|Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[w:Diacritic|diacritics]] and two [[w:orthography|orthographic]] [[w:typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/(d)ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs, Trigraphs and Diacritics===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures. Diacritics are also widely used.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Â || a mé reuf || {{IPA|/a me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɑː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ain || a mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/a me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ç || cé mé cédille || {{IPA|/se me sedij/}} ||pronounced as [s]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| É || e mé acute || {{IPA|/ə me akyt/}} ||pronounced as [e]<br />
|-<br />
| È || e mé grave || {{IPA|/ə me gʁav/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ê || e mé reuf || {{IPA|/ə me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɛː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| Ein || e mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɐ̃j]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| Î || i mé reuf || {{IPA|/i me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [iː]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Ô || o mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɔː]<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| Oin || o mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/o me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [wɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Oû || o mé u mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [uː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ph || pé mé ache || {{IPA|/pe me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [f]; only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| Û || u mé reuf || {{IPA|/y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [yː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
==Grammar==<br />
Bresserian is a moderately inflected language and is generally considered a [[w:Fusional_language|Fusional]] language, though it does have strong [[w:Analytic_language|Analytic]] tendencies much like neighboring languages such as French and German. Bresserian also shares many similar developments grammatically to neighboring languages, such as:<br />
*Development of indefinite and definite articles (‘a’ and ‘the’)<br />
*Loss of the neuter gender<br />
*Loss of case marking in nouns<br />
*SVO word order<br />
===Nouns===<br />
All Bresserian nouns are either masculine or feminine. Generally, although with notable exceptions, feminine nouns will end with an ''-e'', while masculine nouns do not. While the gender of a majority of nouns is arbitrary, those referring to people and living things often correspond to the perceived gender of the referent. For example, a male teacher is ''en tiègar'' while a female teacher is ''enne tiègâtre''. When referring to multiple teachers of varying gender, the masculine plural ''tiègars'' would be used. Terms for common animals, primarily domesticated ones, also have distinct gendered forms. Some are simple, such as male ''chat'' and female ''chatte'' meaning “cat”, while others use different words, such as ''ceu'' "cow" and ''bou'' "bull" referring to a female and male bovine respectively. The default form for animals is most often the feminine form, which is used when referring to an animal generally or a mixed-gender group. A notable exception is ''besse'' "dog" which, despite being a feminine noun, is used to refer to both male and female dogs.<br />
<br />
Due to sound changes, a majority of nouns’ singular and plural forms are pronounced identically. For example, ‘tiègar’ and the plural ‘tiègars’ are both pronounced [tjɛʒaʁ], with the final ''-s'' being a historical spelling much like the silent letters in English words such as ''knee'' and ''night''. As many plural nouns are pronounced identically to their singular forms, the distinction between singular and plural is distinguished by the article ''de/da'', which becomes ''der'' in the plural. For example, “the man” is ''de gom'' [də gɔ̃ˑ], while "the men" is ''der goms'' [dɛʁ gɔ̃ˑ]<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives precede the noun and agree with gender and plurality. See the differences between:<br />
*''d’écourt gom'' [d.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short man” <br />
*''d’écourte quienne'' [d.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short woman”<br />
*''der écourts goms'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁ gɔ̃ˑ] – “the short men”<br />
*''der écourtes quiennes'' [d(ə)ʁ.ekuʁt(ə) kjɛn] – “the short women”<br />
While the plural marker of nouns is always silent, the plural forms of adjectives may occasionally be pronounced in a phenomenon known as ''bendenge'' (aka. ''liaison'' in French) which occurs when preceding a noun beginning with a vowel. In this context, the final (usually mute) consonants of masculine adjectives may also be pronounced:<br />
*''en meille éterre'' [ɑ̃ˑ mɛj etɛʁ] – “a big star”<br />
*''meilles éterres'' [mɛjz‿etɛʁ] – “big stars”<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Bresserian verbs are arguably the most challenging aspect of the language’s grammar, being highly irregular due to extensive sound changes to both strong and weak verbs. Verbs conjugation for person, plurality, tense, imperative mood and present and past participles. Like English and other Germanic languages, verbs are divided into two main categories, “strong” and “weak”, with strong verbs conjugating in more irregular and unpredictable ways, while weak verbs have the ''-de'' suffix in the past tense and are as a whole more predictable and regular. Below will be example conjugation tables for the strong verb ‘écrive’ (“to write”) and the weak verb ‘bleue’ (“to bleed”).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Strong verb ''écrive'' ("to write")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|écrive<br />
|écroif<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
| écriver<br />
| écroives<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
| écrivé<br />
| écroif<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|écrivant<br />
|écroivé<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Weak verb ''bleue'' ("to bleed")<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!Present<br />
!Past<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person<br />
|bleue<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
|bleuer<br />
|bloudes<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person singular<br />
|bleué<br />
|bloude<br />
|-<br />
!3rd person plural<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudant<br />
|-<br />
!Participle<br />
|bleuant<br />
|bloudé<br />
|}<br />
===Pronouns and Determiners===<br />
===Articles===<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=464814Bresserian2025-08-02T14:30:21Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' (''Broisseureis'' or ''Broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
*[œ] is the realisation of /ø/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables<br />
*[ɔ] is the realisation of /o/ in closed and/or unstressed syllables.<br />
*/ə/ could be described as the unstressed allophone of [ɛ]<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[diacritic]]s and two [[orthography|orthographic]] [[typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/(d)ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs, Trigraphs and Diacritics===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures. Diacritics are also widely used.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Â || a mé reuf || {{IPA|/a me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɑː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ain || a mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/a me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ç || cé mé cédille || {{IPA|/se me sedij/}} ||pronounced as [s]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| É || e mé acute || {{IPA|/ə me akyt/}} ||pronounced as [e]<br />
|-<br />
| È || e mé grave || {{IPA|/ə me gʁav/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ê || e mé reuf || {{IPA|/ə me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɛː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| Ein || e mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɐ̃j]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| Î || i mé reuf || {{IPA|/i me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [iː]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Ô || o mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɔː]<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| Oin || o mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/o me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [wɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Oû || o mé u mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [uː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ph || pé mé ache || {{IPA|/pe me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [f]; only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| Û || u mé reuf || {{IPA|/y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [yː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=464813Bresserian2025-08-02T14:07:45Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' (''Broisseureis'' or ''Broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[diacritic]]s and two [[orthography|orthographic]] [[typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/(d)ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs, Trigraphs and Diacritics===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures. Diacritics are also widely used.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Â || a mé reuf || {{IPA|/a me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɑː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ain || a mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/a me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ç || cé mé cédille || {{IPA|/se me sedij/}} ||pronounced as [s]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| É || e mé acute || {{IPA|/ə me akyt/}} ||pronounced as [e]<br />
|-<br />
| È || e mé grave || {{IPA|/ə me gʁav/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ê || e mé reuf || {{IPA|/ə me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɛː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| Ein || e mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɐ̃j]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| Î || i mé reuf || {{IPA|/i me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [iː]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Ô || o mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [ɔː]<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| Oin || o mé i mé enne || {{IPA|/o me i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [wɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Oû || o mé u mé reuf || {{IPA|/o me y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [uː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ph || pé mé ache || {{IPA|/pe me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [f]; only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| Û || u mé reuf || {{IPA|/y me ʁøf/}} ||pronounced as [yː]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=464735Bresserian2025-08-02T12:11:23Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 11000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' (''Broisseureis'' or ''Broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| tʃ~ʃ<br />
| (x)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| dʒ~ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Writing System==<br />
Despite its status as a minority language, Bresserian has maintained a strong written tradition throughout its history. Due to this, and likely the influence of other conservative scripts such as French and English, Bresserian spelling tends to preserve the obsolete pronunciations of an older form of the language. It should be noted, however, that Bresserian spelling is largely more consistent and less irregular than that of French or English.<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
The Bresserian alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the [[Latin alphabet]], uppercase and lowercase, with five [[diacritic]]s and two [[orthography|orthographic]] [[typographic ligature|ligatures]].<br />
<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letter<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
ǃNotes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:A|A]] || a || {{IPA|/a/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:B|B]] || bé || {{IPA|/be/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:C|C]] || cé || {{IPA|/se/}} ||is pronounced as soft [s] before ''i'' and ''e'' but hard [k] otherwise – occurs as [x] at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:D|D]] || dé || {{IPA|/de/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:E|E]] || e || {{IPA|/ə/}} ||often becomes silent word-finally<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:F|F]] || effe || {{IPA|/ɛf/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:G|G]] || gé || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe/}} || is pronounced as soft [(d)ʒ] before ''i'', ''e'' and ''a'', but [g] otherwise<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:H|H]] || ache || {{IPA|/aʃ/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:I|I]] || i || {{IPA|/i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:J|J]] || ji || {{IPA|/(d)ʒi/}} || <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:K|K]] || ka || {{IPA|/ka/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:L|L]] || elle || {{IPA|/ɛl/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:M|M]] || emme || {{IPA|/ɛm/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:N|N]] || enne || {{IPA|/ɛn/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:O|O]] || o || {{IPA|/o/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:P|P]] || pé || {{IPA|/pe/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Q|Q]] || qu || {{IPA|/ky/}} ||often seen in the digraph ''qu'', although still pronounced as [k] (not [kw] as might be expected) – occurs as [k] at the end of words unlike ''c''<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:R|R]] || erre || {{IPA|/ɛʁ/}} ||unlike in French, is never silent<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:S|S]] || esse || {{IPA|/ɛs/}} ||is pronounced as [z] between two vowels or beside a voiced consonant<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:T|T]] || té || {{IPA|/te/}} ||silent at the end of words<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:U|U]] || u || {{IPA|/y/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:V|V]] || vé || {{IPA|/ve/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:W|W]] || tiévaut vé || {{IPA|/tjɛvo ve/}} || rare, only in loanwords<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:X|X]] || ixe || {{IPA|/iks/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Y|Y]] || croyeis i || {{IPA|/kʁwajaiz‿i/}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Z|Z]] || zède || {{IPA|/zɛd/}} ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ligatures, Digraphs and Trigraphs===<br />
Alongside the core letters, Bresserian makes extensive use of letter combinations and ligatures.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Letters<br />
!Name <br />
!Name ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br />
ǃNotes<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Æ|Æ]] || âche || {{IPA|/ɑːʃ/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ai || a mé i || {{IPA|/a me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ]<br />
|-<br />
| An || a mé enne || {{IPA|/a me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Au || a mé o || {{IPA|/a me o/}} ||pronounced as [o~ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ch || cé mé ache || {{IPA|/se me aʃ/}} ||pronounced as [(t)ʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| Ei || e mé i || {{IPA|/ə me i/}} ||pronounced as [aj]<br />
|-<br />
| En || e mé enne || {{IPA|/ə me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɑ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Eu || e mé u || {{IPA|/ə me y/}} ||pronounced as [ø~œ]<br />
|-<br />
| Eau || e mé a mé u || {{IPA|/ə me a me y/}} || pronounced as [o]<br />
|-<br />
| Gn || gé mé enne || {{IPA|/(d)ʒe me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɲ]<br />
|-<br />
| il(le) || i mé elle || {{IPA|/i me ɛl/}} ||found in words such as bouil [buj], étaille [etaj], meil [mɛj]. May still be pronounced as [ʝ] for some speakers (e.g. [buʝ], [etaʝ], [mɛʝ])<br />
|-<br />
| In || i mé enne || {{IPA|/i me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɛ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Œ || œil || {{IPA|/œj/}} ||pronounced the same as ''eu''; generally found with ''u'' as ''œu''<br />
|-<br />
| Oi || o mé i || {{IPA|/o me i/}} ||pronounced as [wa] or [wɛ] depending on speaker<br />
|-<br />
| On || o mé enne || {{IPA|/o me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [ɔ̃(ː)]<br />
|-<br />
| Ou || o mé u || {{IPA|/o me y/}} ||pronounced as [u]<br />
|-<br />
| Ui || u mé i || {{IPA|/y me i/}} ||pronounced as [ɥi]<br />
|-<br />
| Un || u mé enne || {{IPA|/y me ɛn/}} ||pronounced as [œ̃(ː)]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bresserian&diff=464643Bresserian2025-08-02T09:03:53Z<p>SJ: Created page with "{{Infobox language |name = Bresserian |nativename = broisseureis |pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z) |pronunciation_key = IPA |states = France |region = Normandy |speakers = 8000 |date = 2020 |created = 2022 |familycolor = Indo-European |fam2 = Germanic |fam3 = West Germanic |creator =..."</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Bresserian<br />
|nativename = broisseureis<br />
|pronunciation = bʁwasøʁaj(z)<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA<br />
|states = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|region = [[w:Normandy|Normandy]]<br />
|speakers = 8000<br />
|date = 2020<br />
|created = 2022<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|West Germanic]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:France|France]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Bresser<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bresserian is classified as Definitely Endangered}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
'''Bresserian''' (''Broisseureis'' or ''Broisseurêche togne'') is a [[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic language]] of the [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] family spoken by the Bresser people of Eastern Normandy.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
Bresserian phonology is largely similar to that of modern French, although retains certain archaic features.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
|+Consonant phonemes of Bresserian<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2|<br />
![[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
![[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
![[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]/<br>[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]<br />
![[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ɲ<br />
| (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| ɡ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| ʃ<br />
| (x)<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| ʒ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ʁ<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan=2|[[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
!{{small|plain}}<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
| j<br />
|-<br />
!{{small|[[w:Labialization|labial]]}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɥ<br />
| w<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- style="vertical-align: top;"<br />
|<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Oral<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| i iː<br />
| y yː<br />
|<br />
| u uː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| e<br />
| rowspan="2" | ø~œ<br />
| rowspan="2" | ə<br />
| rowspan="2" | o~ɔ ɔː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| a<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑː<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|+Nasal<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}<br />
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]<br />
| ɛ̃<br />
| œ̃<br />
| ɔ̃<br />
|- class="nounderlines"<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ɑ̃<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Bresserian]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Erjie&diff=464639Erjie2025-08-02T08:55:28Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Erjie<br />
|nativename = erjie kelu<br />
|altname = 迩捷語 (ěrjiéyǔ)<br />
|pronunciation = ɚˈʑjɛ ˈkʰəlʊ<br />
|pronunciation_key = help:IPA<br />
|states = [[w:China|China]]<br />
|region = [[w:Qinghai|Qinghai]]<br />
|speakers = 2000<br />
|date = 2023<br />
|created = 2024<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|Tocharian B]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:China|China]]<br />
*[[w:Sunan Yugur Autonomous County|Sunan Yugur Autonomous County]]<br />
*[[w:Menyuan Hui Autonomous County|Menyuan Hui Autonomous County]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Erjie<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Erjie is classified as Vulnerable}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Erjie''' is an [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] language spoken by the Erjie people, who mainly live in the provinces of [[w:Qinghai|Qinghai]] and [[w:Gansu|Gansu]] in Northwestern [[w:China|China]]. It is the sole extant member of the [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]] branch of [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]]. The Erjie number about 3200 people, about 2000 (2023) speak the Erjie language; around 800 are primarily monolingual, while many speak Mandarin and/or Amdo Tibetan to a degree of fluency. While a pinyin-based writing system has been devised, Erjie is not often written by speakers and primarily exists as a spoken language.<br />
<br />
According to Erjie tradition, the Erjie are the descendants of the [[w:Tocharians|Tocharian speaking tribes]] of the [[w:Tarim Basin|Tarim Basin]]. During periods of the [[w:Uyghur Khaganate|Uyghur Khaganate]] and [[w:Tang Dynasty|Tang dynasty]], these tribesmen migrated from the Tarim Basin and dwelt within China's borders and since then have lived within the Qinghai-Gansu border region. Erjie has considerable influence, both grammatical and lexical, from [[w:Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]] and [[w:Amdo Tibetan|Amdo Tibetan]]. It is also a part of the broader [[w:Qinghai–Gansu_sprachbund|Qinghai-Gansu/Amdo sprachbund]], characterized by many features that differ greatly from surrounding languages, such as [[w:Subject–object–verb_word_order|SOV word order]], [[w:Grammatical_case|case marking]] and a lack of [[w:w:Tone_(linguistics)|lexical tone]].<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
!<br />
![[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
![[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
![[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
|i {{angle bracket|i}}<br />
|<br />
|u {{angle bracket|u}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]<br />
|<br />
|ə {{angle bracket|e}}<br />
|ɔ {{angle bracket|o}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|a {{angle bracket|a}}<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Phoneme/Sound<br />
!Allophones<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/i/<br />
|ɨ<br />
|when following alveolar sibilants or affricates<br />
|-<br />
|ɪ<br />
|when following labial and alveolar plosives or approximants<br />
|-<br />
|ɨ˞<br />
|when following a retroflex consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/ə/<br />
|ə<br />
|in stressed syllables without onset clusters or coda consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|in a syllable with a palatal onset or palatal coda<br />
|-<br />
|ɘ<br />
|in a syllable with a nasal coda consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/a/<br />
|ɑ<br />
|when following a uvular consonant<br />
|-<br />
|æ<br />
|when a syllable is closed by an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|when following a palatal onset consonant, and preceding an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|/ɔ/<br />
|ɵ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" |/u/<br />
|ʊ<br />
|when following alveolar and velar consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ʉ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |<br />
! [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
! [[w:Denti-alveolar_consonant|Denti-alveolar]]<br />
! [[w:Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]<br />
! [[w:Alveolo-palatal consonant|Palatal]]<br />
! [[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]<br />
! [[w:Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Stop consonant|Stops]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_bilabial_plosive|/p/]] {{angle bracket|b}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_dental_and_alveolar_plosives|/t̪/]] {{angle bracket|d}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_velar_plosive|/k/]] {{angle bracket|g}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_uvular_plosive|/q/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/pʰ/]] {{angle bracket|p}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/t̪ʰ/]] {{angle bracket|t}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/kʰ/]] {{angle bracket|k}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/qʰ/]] {{angle bracket|kh}}<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricates]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_affricate|/t͡s/]] {{angle bracket|z}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_affricate|/ʈ͡ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|zh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate|/t͡ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|j}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/t͡sʰ/]] {{angle bracket|c}}<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/ʈ͡ʂʰ/]] {{angle bracket|ch}}<br />
| [[w:IPAslink|/t͡ɕʰ/]] {{angle bracket|q}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricatives]]<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_labiodental_fricative|''(f)'']] {{angle bracket|''f''}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_fricative|/s/]] {{angle bracket|s}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_fricative|/ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|sh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative|/ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|x}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiceless_velar_fricative|/x/]] ~ [[w:Voiceless_uvular_fricative|/χ/]] {{angle bracket|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Voice_(phonetics)|voiced]]</small><br />
| <br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_fricative|''(z)'']] {{angle bracket|''z''}}<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative|''(ʑ)'']] {{angle bracket|''j''}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiced_velar_fricative|/ɣ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_uvular_fricative|/ʁ/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasals]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_bilabial_nasal|/m/]] {{angle bracket|m}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_nasal|/n/]] {{angle bracket|n}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_velar_nasal|/ŋ/]] {{angle bracket|ng}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Approximant|Approximants]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_labial–velar_approximant|/w/]] {{angle bracket|w}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_dental,_alveolar_and_postalveolar_lateral_approximants|/l̪/]] {{angle bracket|l}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_retroflex_approximant|/ɻ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_retroflex_fricative|/ʐ/]] {{angle bracket|r}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_palatal_approximant|/j/]] {{angle bracket|y}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
*/z/ and /ʑ/ are intervocalic allophones of plain affricates /t͡s/ and /t͡ɕ/ respectively.<br />
*all plain plosives are phonetically voiced in intervocalic positions, however /q/ weakens to /ʁ/ rather than expected /ɢ/<br />
*/x/ and /ɣ/ are uvular /χ/ and /ʁ/ before /a/, /ɔ/ and /u/.<br />
*/f/ is only found in Chinese borrowings, alternatively substituted with /pʰ/.<br />
*/j/ and /w/ can have spirantized allophones [ʝ] and [βˠ] typically in stressed, initial syllables.<br />
<br />
== Writing System ==<br />
Erjie does not have on official script and mainly exists as a spoken language. However, young Erjie speakers have increasingly started to use a writing system based on Mandarin pinyin. It is primarily used among Erjie for writing their language on the internet and in digital environments.<br />
=== Pinyin-based Latin Script ===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Pinyin || [[help:IPA|IPA]] || Notes<br />
|-<br />
|| ''b'' || /p/ || Unaspirated ''p'', like in English s<u>p</u>a.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''p'' || /pʰ/ || Strongly aspirated ''p'', like in English <u>p</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''m'' || /m/ || Like the ''m'' in English <u>m</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''f'' || /f/ || Like the ''f'' in English <u>f</u>air.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''d'' || /t̪/ || Unaspirated dental ''t'', similar to English s<u>t</u>op.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''t'' || /t̪ʰ/ || Strongly aspirated dental ''t'', similar to English <u>t</u>ake.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''n'' || /n/ || Like the ''n'' in English <u>n</u>ay.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''l'' || /l̪/ || Dental ''l'', similar to English <u>l</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''g'' || /k/ || Unaspirated ''k'', like in English s<u>k</u>ill.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''k'' || /kʰ/ || Strongly aspirated ''k'', like in English <u>k</u>iss.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''gh'' || /q~ʁ~ɣ/ || No English equivalent. Occurs as [q] in onset and when voiceless but as [ɣ~ʁ] intervocalically.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''kh'' || /qʰ/ || No English equivalent. Often strongly spirantized to [qχ(ʰ)] and even [χ(ʰ)]<br />
|- <br />
|| ''h'' || /x~χ/ || Like the ''ch'' in Scottish English lo<u>ch</u>.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''j'' || /tɕ~(d)ʑ/ || Alveolo-palatal, unaspirated. No direct equivalent in English. Occurs as [tɕ] in onset and when voiceless but as [dʑ~ʑ] intervocalically.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''q'' || /tɕʰ/ || Alveolo-palatal, aspirated. No direct equivalent in English, but similar to the ''ch'' in English pun<u>ch</u>y.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''x'' || /ɕ/ || Alveolo-palatal, unaspirated. No direct equivalent in English, but similar to the ''sh'' in English pu<u>sh</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''zh'' || /ʈʂ/ || Retroflex, unaspirated. Similar to ''j'' in English <u>j</u>ack.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ch'' || /ʈʂʰ/ || Retroflex, aspirated. Similar to the ''ch'' in English chur<u>ch</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''sh'' || /ʂ/ || Retroflex, unaspirated. Similar to ''sh'' in <u>sh</u>irt.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''r'' || /ɻ~ʐ/ || Retroflex. No direct equivalent in English, but somewhat similar to the ''r'' in English <u>r</u>educe.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''z'' || /ts~(d)z/ || Unaspirated. Like the ''zz'' in English pi<u>zz</u>a. Occurs as [ts] in onset and when voiceless but as [dz~z] intervocalically<br />
|- <br />
|| ''c'' || /tsʰ/ || Aspirated. Like the ''ts'' in English ba<u>ts</u>.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''s'' || /s/ || Like the ''s'' in English <u>s</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''w'' || /w~β/ ||Like the ''w'' in English <u>w</u>ater. Occasionally pronounced [β], like a ''v'' but using both lips.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''y''|| /j~ʝ/ || Like the ''y'' in English <u>y</u>es.<br />
|-<br />
|''yu'' ||/ɥ/ ||Like the ''hu'' in French <u>hu</u>it.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''a''|| /a~ɑ~æ/ || Like the ''a'' in English b<u>a</u>ck.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''i''|| /i~ɪ~ɨ/ || Like the ''ee'' in English f<u>ee</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''u''|| /u~ʊ~ʉ/ || Like the ''oo'' in English g<u>oo</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''o''|| /ɔ~ɵ/ || Like the ''o'' in English f<u>o</u>g.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''e''|| /ə~ɛ/ || Varies between the ''o'' in English lem<u>o</u>n and the ''e'' in b<u>e</u>t.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ai''|| /aj/ || Like the ''y'' in English fl<u>y</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''au''|| /aw/ || Similar to the ''ou'' in some dialects of English l<u>ou</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ei''|| /ej/ || Like the ''ay'' in English m<u>ay</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ou''|| /ow/ || No exact English equivalent, but similar to the ''oa'' in c<u>oa</u>t.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ie''|| /jɛ/ || No English equivalent. Like the ''ie'' in Spanish t<u>ie</u>mpo.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''uo''|| /wɔ/ || No English equivalent.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Grammar ==<br />
===Morphology===<br />
Erjie is [[w:Agglutination|agglutinative]] and mainly [[w:Suffix|suffixing]], although there are a small number of [[w:Prefix|prefixes]]. Erjie has lost a significant portion of its [[w:Inflection|inflectional morphology]] which was present in the [[w:Tocharian_languages|Tocharian languages]], likely due to contact-induced [[w:Morphological leveling|leveling]]. For example, verbs no longer conjugate for [[w:Grammatical_person|person]] or the [[w:Subjunctive_mood|subjunctive]], [[w:Grammatical_gender|gender]] in nouns has been lost, and thus adjectives no longer inflect for [[w:Grammatical_gender|gender]] or even [[w:Grammatical_case|case]]. That being said, Erjie has innovated certain morphological features, such as a future tense suffix and verbal negative suffix which were not present in Tocharian. [[w:Stress_(linguistics)|Lexical stress]] is phonemic, although it is in the process of being replaced by a [[w:Pitch-accent_language|pitch-accent]] system, especially among younger speakers.<br />
===Nouns and Case Marking===<br />
Erjie has seven cases: [[w:nominative_case|nominative]] (unmarked), [[w:Genitive_case|genitive]]-[[w:accusative_case|accusative]], [[w:dative_case|dative]]-[[w:locative_case|locative]], [[w:ablative_case|ablative]], [[w:comitative_case|comitative]], [[w:allative_case|allative]] and [[w:perlative_case|perlative]]-[[w:instrumental_case|instrumental]]. [[w:Object_(grammar)|Direct objects]] are typically marked in the genitive-accusative if they are [[w:Definiteness|definite]], while if they are [[w:Definiteness|indefinite]] they are marked in the nominative combined with the [[w:Article_(grammar)|indefinite article]] ''she''. In addition to case, numerous postpositions exist which may govern any number of cases. There are also limited prepositions which typically exclusively govern the nominative.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|+Erjie noun cases<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! Suffix !! English preposition <br />
!Example !! Translation<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:nominative_case|nominative]] || – || – <br />
| yeghu || horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Genitive_case|genitive]]-[[w:accusative_case|accusative]] || -ze || (direct object); of<br />
| yeghuze || the horse (as direct object); of (the) horse/(the) horse's <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:dative_case|dative]]-[[w:locative_case|locative]] || -ne || at, in, on, to<br />
| yeghune || on/in (the) horse; to (the) horse (as a recipient/indirect object) <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:ablative_case|ablative]] || -men || from<br />
| yeghumen || from (the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:comitative_case|comitative]] || -ba || with <br />
| yeghuba || with (e.g. alongside the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:allative_case|allative]] || -xi || to, toward, into, onto<br />
| yeghuxi || toward/onto (the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:perlative_case|perlative]]-[[w:instrumental_case|instrumental]] || -za || through, with, via, using, by, over<br />
| yeghuza || with (e.g. by means of the) horse; by horse<br />
|}<br />
<br />
======Nominative case======<br />
The nominative generally marks the subject of a verb and the predicate of a copular construction. It is also used to mark the direct object of a sentence if that object is indirect. The nominative is unmarked in Erjie.<br />
<br />
======Genitive-Accusative case======<br />
This case governs two main uses: marking the definite direct object of a verb and indicating possession. As a genitive, it is generally only used to indicate the possession of animate possessors such as people and animals, although certain self-actuating celestial bodies and geological features such as rivers and oceans may also apply (especially in a religious or spiritual sense). In the accusative sense, words in this case tend to like to occur directly before the verb, as if it were to precede a noun phrase it may be confused for its genitive function.<br />
<br />
======Dative-Locative case======<br />
The dative-locative is used to indicate a location such as ''in'', ''on'', ''at'' or ''by'', as well as to indicate the recipient or indirect object of a verb. Another important use of this case is what is typically called the possessive dative, in which it marks what would typically be, in English, the subject of a transitive verb, e.g. ''Toughane xuer xameixgela lie'' – literally "(there) are four kids to/at/by Tougha", this construction is typically found with a copula and translates as "Tougha has four kids".<br />
<br />
======Plurals======<br />
Plurals are typically marked by way of the suffix -la which occurs after the root and before any case markers. While -la is the most common plural suffix, there are numerous irregular plurals which may be unpredictable, and there are some nouns that do not mark plurality at all. With that said, plural marking is not mandatory especially if it is obvious by context. It is also common for plurality not to be marked after numerals. Younger speakers are increasingly trending towards less use of the plural as a whole, and its usage is much more pervasive in older speakers and may be a social marker for age and authority. Reduplication has also been seen among younger speakers as a trendy way to produce plurals, although it is typically used to represent a particularly large quantity, e.g. ''keli keli tegha ba!'' – "There was tons of bread!".<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Personal Pronouns<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative !! Genitive-Accusative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan ="2" | 1st person<br />
! singular<br />
| yix<br />
| yi<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| wer<br />
| weji<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan ="2" | 2nd person<br />
! singular<br />
| qi<br />
| qen<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| yer<br />
| yeji<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan ="4" | 3rd person<br />
! singular masculine<br />
| qao<br />
| qiu<br />
|-<br />
! singular feminine<br />
| tou<br />
| tei<br />
|-<br />
! singular inanimate<br />
| tu<br />
| tuze<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| qim<br />
| qimze<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+<br />
!Numeral<br />
!'''Erjie'''<br />
!'''IPA'''<br />
!'''Tocharian A'''<br />
!'''Tocharian B'''<br />
!'''Proto-Indo-European'''<br />
|-<br />
|1<br />
|she<br />
|[ʂə]<br />
|sas<br />
|ṣe<br />
|*sem-<br />
|-<br />
|2<br />
|wi<br />
|[wɪ]<br />
|wu<br />
|wi<br />
|*dwóh₁<br />
|-<br />
|3<br />
|chei<br />
|[ʈʂʰej]<br />
|tre<br />
|trai<br />
|*tréyes<br />
|-<br />
|4<br />
|xuer<br />
|[ɕɥɚ]<br />
|śtwar<br />
|śtwer<br />
|*kʷetwṓr<br />
|-<br />
|5<br />
|pix<br />
|[pʰɪɕ]<br />
|päñ<br />
|piś<br />
|*pénkʷe<br />
|-<br />
|6<br />
|shges<br />
|[ʂkəs]<br />
|ṣäk<br />
|ṣkas<br />
|*swéḱs<br />
|-<br />
|7<br />
|shuk<br />
|[ʂʉk̚]<br />
|ṣpät<br />
|ṣukt <br />
|*septḿ̥<br />
|-<br />
|8<br />
|wuk<br />
|[βuk̚]<br />
|okät<br />
|okt<br />
|*h₁oḱtṓ(w)<br />
|-<br />
|9<br />
|yuk<br />
|[ʝyk̚]<br />
|ñu<br />
|ñu<br />
|*(h₁)néwn̥<br />
|-<br />
|10<br />
|xek<br />
|[ɕɛk̚]<br />
|śäk<br />
|śak<br />
|*déḱm̥t <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
Erjie has a primarily [[w:Subject–object–verb_word_order|SOV]] word order, although it is relatively flexible and may be modified to add emphasis or topic focus.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Erjie]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Erjie&diff=464627Erjie2025-08-02T08:10:03Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Erjie<br />
|nativename = erjie kelu<br />
|altname = 迩捷語 (ěrjiéyǔ)<br />
|pronunciation = ɚˈʑjɛ ˈkʰəlʊ<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA for Luthic<br />
|states = [[w:China|China]]<br />
|region = [[w: Qinghai|Qinghai]]<br />
|speakers = 2000<br />
|date = 2023<br />
|created = 2024<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|Tocharian B]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:China|China]]<br />
*[[w:Sunan Yugur Autonomous County|Sunan Yugur Autonomous County]]<br />
*[[w:Menyuan Hui Autonomous County|Menyuan Hui Autonomous County]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Erjie<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Erjie is classified as Vulnerable}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<!-- <br />
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{{privatelang}}<br />
<br />
This is a short reminder of the language format policy.<br />
<br />
I. Write a short piece stating your intents and purposes when creating the language (Design goal, inspiration, ideas, and so on).<br />
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'''Erjie''' is an [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] language spoken by the Erjie people, who mainly live in the provinces of [[w:Qinghai|Qinghai]] and [[w:Gansu|Gansu]] in Northwestern [[w:China|China]]. It is the sole extant member of the [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]] branch of [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]]. The Erjie number about 3200 people, about 2000 (2023) speak the Erjie language; around 800 are primarily monolingual, while many speak Mandarin and/or Amdo Tibetan to a degree of fluency. While a pinyin-based writing system has been devised, Erjie is not often written by speakers and primarily exists as a spoken language.<br />
<br />
According to Erjie tradition, the Erjie are the descendants of the [[w:Tocharians|Tocharian speaking tribes]] of the [[w:Tarim Basin|Tarim Basin]]. During periods of the [[w:Uyghur Khaganate|Uyghur Khaganate]] and [[w:Tang Dynasty|Tang dynasty]], these tribesmen migrated from the Tarim Basin and dwelt within China's borders and since then have lived within the Qinghai-Gansu border region. Erjie has considerable influence, both grammatical and lexical, from [[w:Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]] and [[w:Amdo Tibetan|Amdo Tibetan]]. It is also a part of the broader [[w:Qinghai–Gansu_sprachbund|Qinghai-Gansu/Amdo sprachbund]], characterized by many features that differ greatly from surrounding languages, such as [[w:Subject–object–verb_word_order|SOV word order]], [[w:Grammatical_case|case marking]] and a lack of [[w:w:Tone_(linguistics)|lexical tone]].<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
!<br />
![[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
![[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
![[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
|i {{angle bracket|i}}<br />
|<br />
|u {{angle bracket|u}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]<br />
|<br />
|ə {{angle bracket|e}}<br />
|ɔ {{angle bracket|o}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|a {{angle bracket|a}}<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Phoneme/Sound<br />
!Allophones<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/i/<br />
|ɨ<br />
|when following alveolar sibilants or affricates<br />
|-<br />
|ɪ<br />
|when following labial and alveolar plosives or approximants<br />
|-<br />
|ɨ˞<br />
|when following a retroflex consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/ə/<br />
|ə<br />
|in stressed syllables without onset clusters or coda consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|in a syllable with a palatal onset or palatal coda<br />
|-<br />
|ɘ<br />
|in a syllable with a nasal coda consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/a/<br />
|ɑ<br />
|when following a uvular consonant<br />
|-<br />
|æ<br />
|when a syllable is closed by an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|when following a palatal onset consonant, and preceding an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|/ɔ/<br />
|ɵ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" |/u/<br />
|ʊ<br />
|when following alveolar and velar consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ʉ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |<br />
! [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
! [[w:Denti-alveolar_consonant|Denti-alveolar]]<br />
! [[w:Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]<br />
! [[w:Alveolo-palatal consonant|Palatal]]<br />
! [[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]<br />
! [[w:Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Stop consonant|Stops]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_bilabial_plosive|/p/]] {{angle bracket|b}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_dental_and_alveolar_plosives|/t̪/]] {{angle bracket|d}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_velar_plosive|/k/]] {{angle bracket|g}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_uvular_plosive|/q/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/pʰ/]] {{angle bracket|p}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/t̪ʰ/]] {{angle bracket|t}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/kʰ/]] {{angle bracket|k}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/qʰ/]] {{angle bracket|kh}}<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricates]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_affricate|/t͡s/]] {{angle bracket|z}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_affricate|/ʈ͡ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|zh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate|/t͡ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|j}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/t͡sʰ/]] {{angle bracket|c}}<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/ʈ͡ʂʰ/]] {{angle bracket|ch}}<br />
| [[w:IPAslink|/t͡ɕʰ/]] {{angle bracket|q}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricatives]]<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_labiodental_fricative|''(f)'']] {{angle bracket|''f''}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_fricative|/s/]] {{angle bracket|s}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_fricative|/ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|sh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative|/ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|x}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiceless_velar_fricative|/x/]] ~ [[w:Voiceless_uvular_fricative|/χ/]] {{angle bracket|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Voice_(phonetics)|voiced]]</small><br />
| <br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_fricative|''(z)'']] {{angle bracket|''z''}}<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative|''(ʑ)'']] {{angle bracket|''j''}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiced_velar_fricative|/ɣ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_uvular_fricative|/ʁ/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasals]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_bilabial_nasal|/m/]] {{angle bracket|m}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_nasal|/n/]] {{angle bracket|n}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_velar_nasal|/ŋ/]] {{angle bracket|ng}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Approximant|Approximants]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_labial–velar_approximant|/w/]] {{angle bracket|w}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_dental,_alveolar_and_postalveolar_lateral_approximants|/l̪/]] {{angle bracket|l}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_retroflex_approximant|/ɻ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_retroflex_fricative|/ʐ/]] {{angle bracket|r}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_palatal_approximant|/j/]] {{angle bracket|y}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
*/z/ and /ʑ/ are intervocalic allophones of plain affricates /t͡s/ and /t͡ɕ/ respectively.<br />
*all plain plosives are phonetically voiced in intervocalic positions, however /q/ weakens to /ʁ/ rather than expected /ɢ/<br />
*/x/ and /ɣ/ are uvular /χ/ and /ʁ/ before /a/, /ɔ/ and /u/.<br />
*/f/ is only found in Chinese borrowings, alternatively substituted with /pʰ/.<br />
*/j/ and /w/ can have spirantized allophones [ʝ] and [βˠ] typically in stressed, initial syllables.<br />
<br />
== Writing System ==<br />
Erjie does not have on official script and mainly exists as a spoken language. However, young Erjie speakers have increasingly started to use a writing system based on Mandarin pinyin. It is primarily used among Erjie for writing their language on the internet and in digital environments.<br />
=== Pinyin-based Latin Script ===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Pinyin || [[help:IPA|IPA]] || Notes<br />
|-<br />
|| ''b'' || /p/ || Unaspirated ''p'', like in English s<u>p</u>a.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''p'' || /pʰ/ || Strongly aspirated ''p'', like in English <u>p</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''m'' || /m/ || Like the ''m'' in English <u>m</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''f'' || /f/ || Like the ''f'' in English <u>f</u>air.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''d'' || /t̪/ || Unaspirated dental ''t'', similar to English s<u>t</u>op.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''t'' || /t̪ʰ/ || Strongly aspirated dental ''t'', similar to English <u>t</u>ake.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''n'' || /n/ || Like the ''n'' in English <u>n</u>ay.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''l'' || /l̪/ || Dental ''l'', similar to English <u>l</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''g'' || /k/ || Unaspirated ''k'', like in English s<u>k</u>ill.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''k'' || /kʰ/ || Strongly aspirated ''k'', like in English <u>k</u>iss.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''gh'' || /q~ʁ~ɣ/ || No English equivalent. Occurs as [q] in onset and when voiceless but as [ɣ~ʁ] intervocalically.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''kh'' || /qʰ/ || No English equivalent. Often strongly spirantized to [qχ(ʰ)] and even [χ(ʰ)]<br />
|- <br />
|| ''h'' || /x~χ/ || Like the ''ch'' in Scottish English lo<u>ch</u>.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''j'' || /tɕ~(d)ʑ/ || Alveolo-palatal, unaspirated. No direct equivalent in English. Occurs as [tɕ] in onset and when voiceless but as [dʑ~ʑ] intervocalically.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''q'' || /tɕʰ/ || Alveolo-palatal, aspirated. No direct equivalent in English, but similar to the ''ch'' in English pun<u>ch</u>y.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''x'' || /ɕ/ || Alveolo-palatal, unaspirated. No direct equivalent in English, but similar to the ''sh'' in English pu<u>sh</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''zh'' || /ʈʂ/ || Retroflex, unaspirated. Similar to ''j'' in English <u>j</u>ack.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ch'' || /ʈʂʰ/ || Retroflex, aspirated. Similar to the ''ch'' in English chur<u>ch</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''sh'' || /ʂ/ || Retroflex, unaspirated. Similar to ''sh'' in <u>sh</u>irt.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''r'' || /ɻ~ʐ/ || Retroflex. No direct equivalent in English, but somewhat similar to the ''r'' in English <u>r</u>educe.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''z'' || /ts~(d)z/ || Unaspirated. Like the ''zz'' in English pi<u>zz</u>a. Occurs as [ts] in onset and when voiceless but as [dz~z] intervocalically<br />
|- <br />
|| ''c'' || /tsʰ/ || Aspirated. Like the ''ts'' in English ba<u>ts</u>.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''s'' || /s/ || Like the ''s'' in English <u>s</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''w'' || /w~β/ ||Like the ''w'' in English <u>w</u>ater. Occasionally pronounced [β], like a ''v'' but using both lips.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''y''|| /j~ʝ/ || Like the ''y'' in English <u>y</u>es.<br />
|-<br />
|''yu'' ||/ɥ/ ||Like the ''hu'' in French <u>hu</u>it.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''a''|| /a~ɑ~æ/ || Like the ''a'' in English b<u>a</u>ck.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''i''|| /i~ɪ~ɨ/ || Like the ''ee'' in English f<u>ee</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''u''|| /u~ʊ~ʉ/ || Like the ''oo'' in English g<u>oo</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''o''|| /ɔ~ɵ/ || Like the ''o'' in English f<u>o</u>g.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''e''|| /ə~ɛ/ || Varies between the ''o'' in English lem<u>o</u>n and the ''e'' in b<u>e</u>t.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ai''|| /aj/ || Like the ''y'' in English fl<u>y</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''au''|| /aw/ || Similar to the ''ou'' in some dialects of English l<u>ou</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ei''|| /ej/ || Like the ''ay'' in English m<u>ay</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ou''|| /ow/ || No exact English equivalent, but similar to the ''oa'' in c<u>oa</u>t.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ie''|| /jɛ/ || No English equivalent. Like the ''ie'' in Spanish t<u>ie</u>mpo.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''uo''|| /wɔ/ || No English equivalent.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Grammar ==<br />
===Morphology===<br />
Erjie is [[w:Agglutination|agglutinative]] and mainly [[w:Suffix|suffixing]], although there are a small number of [[w:Prefix|prefixes]]. Erjie has lost a significant portion of its [[w:Inflection|inflectional morphology]] which was present in the [[w:Tocharian_languages|Tocharian languages]], likely due to contact-induced [[w:Morphological leveling|leveling]]. For example, verbs no longer conjugate for [[w:Grammatical_person|person]] or the [[w:Subjunctive_mood|subjunctive]], [[w:Grammatical_gender|gender]] in nouns has been lost, and thus adjectives no longer inflect for [[w:Grammatical_gender|gender]] or even [[w:Grammatical_case|case]]. That being said, Erjie has innovated certain morphological features, such as a future tense suffix and verbal negative suffix which were not present in Tocharian. [[w:Stress_(linguistics)|Lexical stress]] is phonemic, although it is in the process of being replaced by a [[w:Pitch-accent_language|pitch-accent]] system, especially among younger speakers.<br />
===Nouns and Case Marking===<br />
Erjie has seven cases: [[w:nominative_case|nominative]] (unmarked), [[w:Genitive_case|genitive]]-[[w:accusative_case|accusative]], [[w:dative_case|dative]]-[[w:locative_case|locative]], [[w:ablative_case|ablative]], [[w:comitative_case|comitative]], [[w:allative_case|allative]] and [[w:perlative_case|perlative]]-[[w:instrumental_case|instrumental]]. [[w:Object_(grammar)|Direct objects]] are typically marked in the genitive-accusative if they are [[w:Definiteness|definite]], while if they are [[w:Definiteness|indefinite]] they are marked in the nominative combined with the [[w:Article_(grammar)|indefinite article]] ''she''. In addition to case, numerous postpositions exist which may govern any number of cases. There are also limited prepositions which typically exclusively govern the nominative.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|+Erjie noun cases<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! Suffix !! English preposition <br />
!Example !! Translation<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:nominative_case|nominative]] || – || – <br />
| yeghu || horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Genitive_case|genitive]]-[[w:accusative_case|accusative]] || -ze || (direct object); of<br />
| yeghuze || the horse (as direct object); of (the) horse/(the) horse's <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:dative_case|dative]]-[[w:locative_case|locative]] || -ne || at, in, on, to<br />
| yeghune || on/in (the) horse; to (the) horse (as a recipient/indirect object) <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:ablative_case|ablative]] || -men || from<br />
| yeghumen || from (the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:comitative_case|comitative]] || -ba || with <br />
| yeghuba || with (e.g. alongside the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:allative_case|allative]] || -xi || to, toward, into, onto<br />
| yeghuxi || toward/onto (the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:perlative_case|perlative]]-[[w:instrumental_case|instrumental]] || -za || through, with, via, using, by, over<br />
| yeghuza || with (e.g. by means of the) horse; by horse<br />
|}<br />
<br />
======Nominative case======<br />
The nominative generally marks the subject of a verb and the predicate of a copular construction. It is also used to mark the direct object of a sentence if that object is indirect. The nominative is unmarked in Erjie.<br />
<br />
======Genitive-Accusative case======<br />
This case governs two main uses: marking the definite direct object of a verb and indicating possession. As a genitive, it is generally only used to indicate the possession of animate possessors such as people and animals, although certain self-actuating celestial bodies and geological features such as rivers and oceans may also apply (especially in a religious or spiritual sense). In the accusative sense, words in this case tend to like to occur directly before the verb, as if it were to precede a noun phrase it may be confused for its genitive function.<br />
<br />
======Dative-Locative case======<br />
The dative-locative is used to indicate a location such as ''in'', ''on'', ''at'' or ''by'', as well as to indicate the recipient or indirect object of a verb. Another important use of this case is what is typically called the possessive dative, in which it marks what would typically be, in English, the subject of a transitive verb, e.g. ''Toughane xuer xameixgela lie'' – literally "(there) are four kids to/at/by Tougha", this construction is typically found with a copula and translates as "Tougha has four kids".<br />
<br />
======Plurals======<br />
Plurals are typically marked by way of the suffix -la which occurs after the root and before any case markers. While -la is the most common plural suffix, there are numerous irregular plurals which may be unpredictable, and there are some nouns that do not mark plurality at all. With that said, plural marking is not mandatory especially if it is obvious by context. It is also common for plurality not to be marked after numerals. Younger speakers are increasingly trending towards less use of the plural as a whole, and its usage is much more pervasive in older speakers and may be a social marker for age and authority. Reduplication has also been seen among younger speakers as a trendy way to produce plurals, although it is typically used to represent a particularly large quantity, e.g. ''keli keli tegha ba!'' – "There was tons of bread!".<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Personal Pronouns<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative !! Genitive-Accusative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan ="2" | 1st person<br />
! singular<br />
| yix<br />
| yi<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| wer<br />
| weji<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan ="2" | 2nd person<br />
! singular<br />
| qi<br />
| qen<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| yer<br />
| yeji<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan ="4" | 3rd person<br />
! singular masculine<br />
| qao<br />
| qiu<br />
|-<br />
! singular feminine<br />
| tou<br />
| tei<br />
|-<br />
! singular inanimate<br />
| tu<br />
| tuze<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| qim<br />
| qimze<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+<br />
!Numeral<br />
!'''Erjie'''<br />
!'''IPA'''<br />
!'''Tocharian A'''<br />
!'''Tocharian B'''<br />
!'''Proto-Indo-European'''<br />
|-<br />
|1<br />
|she<br />
|[ʂə]<br />
|sas<br />
|ṣe<br />
|*sem-<br />
|-<br />
|2<br />
|wi<br />
|[wɪ]<br />
|wu<br />
|wi<br />
|*dwóh₁<br />
|-<br />
|3<br />
|chei<br />
|[ʈʂʰej]<br />
|tre<br />
|trai<br />
|*tréyes<br />
|-<br />
|4<br />
|xuer<br />
|[ɕɥɚ]<br />
|śtwar<br />
|śtwer<br />
|*kʷetwṓr<br />
|-<br />
|5<br />
|pix<br />
|[pʰɪɕ]<br />
|päñ<br />
|piś<br />
|*pénkʷe<br />
|-<br />
|6<br />
|shges<br />
|[ʂkəs]<br />
|ṣäk<br />
|ṣkas<br />
|*swéḱs<br />
|-<br />
|7<br />
|shuk<br />
|[ʂʉk̚]<br />
|ṣpät<br />
|ṣukt <br />
|*septḿ̥<br />
|-<br />
|8<br />
|wuk<br />
|[βuk̚]<br />
|okät<br />
|okt<br />
|*h₁oḱtṓ(w)<br />
|-<br />
|9<br />
|yuk<br />
|[ʝyk̚]<br />
|ñu<br />
|ñu<br />
|*(h₁)néwn̥<br />
|-<br />
|10<br />
|xek<br />
|[ɕɛk̚]<br />
|śäk<br />
|śak<br />
|*déḱm̥t <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
Erjie has a primarily [[w:Subject–object–verb_word_order|SOV]] word order, although it is relatively flexible and may be modified to add emphasis or topic focus.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Erjie]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Erjie&diff=464234Erjie2025-08-01T13:05:17Z<p>SJ: grammar section and numerals</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Erjie<br />
|nativename = erjie kelu<br />
|altname = 迩捷語 (ěrjiéyǔ)<br />
|pronunciation = ɚˈʑjɛ ˈkʰəlʊ<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA for Luthic<br />
|states = [[w:China|China]]<br />
|region = [[w: Qinghai|Qinghai]]<br />
|speakers = 2000<br />
|date = 2023<br />
|created = 2024<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|Tocharian B]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:China|China]]<br />
*[[w:Sunan Yugur Autonomous County|Sunan Yugur Autonomous County]]<br />
*[[w:Menyuan Hui Autonomous County|Menyuan Hui Autonomous County]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Erjie<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Erjie is classified as Vulnerable}}}}<br />
}}<br />
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<br />
--><br />
'''Erjie''' is an [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] language spoken by the Erjie people, who mainly live in the provinces of [[w:Qinghai|Qinghai]] and [[w:Gansu|Gansu]] in Northwestern [[w:China|China]]. It is the sole extant member of the [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]] branch of [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]]. The Erjie number about 3200 people, about 2000 (2023) speak the Erjie language; around 800 are primarily monolingual, while many speak Mandarin and/or Amdo Tibetan to a degree of fluency. While a pinyin-based writing system has been devised, Erjie is not often written by speakers and primarily exists as a spoken language.<br />
<br />
According to Erjie tradition, the Erjie are the descendants of the [[w:Tocharians|Tocharian speaking tribes]] of the [[w:Tarim Basin|Tarim Basin]]. During periods of the [[w:Uyghur Khaganate|Uyghur Khaganate]] and [[w:Tang Dynasty|Tang dynasty]], these tribesmen migrated from the Tarim Basin and dwelt within China's borders and since then have lived within the Qinghai-Gansu border region. Erjie has considerable influence, both grammatical and lexical, from [[w:Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]] and [[w:Amdo Tibetan|Amdo Tibetan]]. It is also a part of the broader [[w:Qinghai–Gansu_sprachbund|Qinghai-Gansu/Amdo sprachbund]], characterized by many features that differ greatly from surrounding languages, such as [[w:Subject–object–verb_word_order|SOV word order]], [[w:Grammatical_case|case marking]] and a lack of [[w:w:Tone_(linguistics)|lexical tone]].<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
!<br />
![[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
![[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
![[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
|i {{angle bracket|i}}<br />
|<br />
|u {{angle bracket|u}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]<br />
|<br />
|ə {{angle bracket|e}}<br />
|ɔ {{angle bracket|o}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|a {{angle bracket|a}}<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Phoneme/Sound<br />
!Allophones<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/i/<br />
|ɨ<br />
|when following alveolar sibilants or affricates<br />
|-<br />
|ɪ<br />
|when following labial and alveolar plosives or approximants<br />
|-<br />
|ɨ˞<br />
|when following a retroflex consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/ə/<br />
|ə<br />
|in stressed syllables without onset clusters or coda consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|in a syllable with a palatal onset or palatal coda<br />
|-<br />
|ɘ<br />
|in a syllable with a nasal coda consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/a/<br />
|ɑ<br />
|when following a uvular consonant<br />
|-<br />
|æ<br />
|when a syllable is closed by an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|when following a palatal onset consonant, and preceding an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|/ɔ/<br />
|ɵ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" |/u/<br />
|ʊ<br />
|when following alveolar and velar consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ʉ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |<br />
! [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
! [[w:Denti-alveolar_consonant|Denti-alveolar]]<br />
! [[w:Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]<br />
! [[w:Alveolo-palatal consonant|Palatal]]<br />
! [[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]<br />
! [[w:Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Stop consonant|Stops]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_bilabial_plosive|/p/]] {{angle bracket|b}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_dental_and_alveolar_plosives|/t̪/]] {{angle bracket|d}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_velar_plosive|/k/]] {{angle bracket|g}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_uvular_plosive|/q/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/pʰ/]] {{angle bracket|p}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/t̪ʰ/]] {{angle bracket|t}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/kʰ/]] {{angle bracket|k}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/qʰ/]] {{angle bracket|kh}}<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricates]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_affricate|/t͡s/]] {{angle bracket|z}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_affricate|/ʈ͡ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|zh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate|/t͡ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|j}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/t͡sʰ/]] {{angle bracket|c}}<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/ʈ͡ʂʰ/]] {{angle bracket|ch}}<br />
| [[w:IPAslink|/t͡ɕʰ/]] {{angle bracket|q}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricatives]]<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_labiodental_fricative|''(f)'']] {{angle bracket|''f''}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_fricative|/s/]] {{angle bracket|s}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_fricative|/ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|sh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative|/ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|x}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiceless_velar_fricative|/x/]] ~ [[w:Voiceless_uvular_fricative|/χ/]] {{angle bracket|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Voice_(phonetics)|voiced]]</small><br />
| <br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_fricative|''(z)'']] {{angle bracket|''z''}}<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative|''(ʑ)'']] {{angle bracket|''j''}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiced_velar_fricative|/ɣ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_uvular_fricative|/ʁ/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasals]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_bilabial_nasal|/m/]] {{angle bracket|m}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_nasal|/n/]] {{angle bracket|n}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_velar_nasal|/ŋ/]] {{angle bracket|ng}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Approximant|Approximants]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_labial–velar_approximant|/w/]] {{angle bracket|w}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_dental,_alveolar_and_postalveolar_lateral_approximants|/l̪/]] {{angle bracket|l}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_retroflex_approximant|/ɻ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_retroflex_fricative|/ʐ/]] {{angle bracket|r}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_palatal_approximant|/j/]] {{angle bracket|y}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
*/z/ and /ʑ/ are intervocalic allophones of plain affricates /t͡s/ and /t͡ɕ/ respectively.<br />
*all plain plosives are phonetically voiced in intervocalic positions, however /q/ weakens to /ʁ/ rather than expected /ɢ/<br />
*/x/ and /ɣ/ are uvular /χ/ and /ʁ/ before /a/, /ɔ/ and /u/.<br />
*/f/ is only found in Chinese borrowings, alternatively substituted with /pʰ/.<br />
*/j/ and /w/ can have spirantized allophones [ʝ] and [βˠ] typically in stressed, initial syllables.<br />
<br />
== Writing System ==<br />
Erjie does not have on official script and mainly exists as a spoken language. However, young Erjie speakers have increasingly started to use a writing system based on Mandarin pinyin. It is primarily used among Erjie for writing their language on the internet and in digital environments.<br />
=== Pinyin-based Latin Script ===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Pinyin || [[help:IPA|IPA]] || Notes<br />
|-<br />
|| ''b'' || /p/ || Unaspirated ''p'', like in English s<u>p</u>a.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''p'' || /pʰ/ || Strongly aspirated ''p'', like in English <u>p</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''m'' || /m/ || Like the ''m'' in English <u>m</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''f'' || /f/ || Like the ''f'' in English <u>f</u>air.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''d'' || /t̪/ || Unaspirated dental ''t'', similar to English s<u>t</u>op.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''t'' || /t̪ʰ/ || Strongly aspirated dental ''t'', similar to English <u>t</u>ake.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''n'' || /n/ || Like the ''n'' in English <u>n</u>ay.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''l'' || /l̪/ || Dental ''l'', similar to English <u>l</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''g'' || /k/ || Unaspirated ''k'', like in English s<u>k</u>ill.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''k'' || /kʰ/ || Strongly aspirated ''k'', like in English <u>k</u>iss.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''gh'' || /q~ʁ~ɣ/ || No English equivalent. Occurs as [q] in onset and when voiceless but as [ɣ~ʁ] intervocalically.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''kh'' || /qʰ/ || No English equivalent. Often strongly spirantized to [qχ(ʰ)] and even [χ(ʰ)]<br />
|- <br />
|| ''h'' || /x~χ/ || Like the ''ch'' in Scottish English lo<u>ch</u>.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''j'' || /tɕ~(d)ʑ/ || Alveolo-palatal, unaspirated. No direct equivalent in English. Occurs as [tɕ] in onset and when voiceless but as [dʑ~ʑ] intervocalically.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''q'' || /tɕʰ/ || Alveolo-palatal, aspirated. No direct equivalent in English, but similar to the ''ch'' in English pun<u>ch</u>y.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''x'' || /ɕ/ || Alveolo-palatal, unaspirated. No direct equivalent in English, but similar to the ''sh'' in English pu<u>sh</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''zh'' || /ʈʂ/ || Retroflex, unaspirated. Similar to ''j'' in English <u>j</u>ack.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ch'' || /ʈʂʰ/ || Retroflex, aspirated. Similar to the ''ch'' in English chur<u>ch</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''sh'' || /ʂ/ || Retroflex, unaspirated. Similar to ''sh'' in <u>sh</u>irt.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''r'' || /ɻ~ʐ/ || Retroflex. No direct equivalent in English, but somewhat similar to the ''r'' in English <u>r</u>educe.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''z'' || /ts~(d)z/ || Unaspirated. Like the ''zz'' in English pi<u>zz</u>a. Occurs as [ts] in onset and when voiceless but as [dz~z] intervocalically<br />
|- <br />
|| ''c'' || /tsʰ/ || Aspirated. Like the ''ts'' in English ba<u>ts</u>.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''s'' || /s/ || Like the ''s'' in English <u>s</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''w'' || /w~β/ ||Like the ''w'' in English <u>w</u>ater. Occasionally pronounced [β], like a ''v'' but using both lips.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''y''|| /j~ʝ/ || Like the ''y'' in English <u>y</u>es.<br />
|-<br />
|''yu'' ||/ɥ/ ||Like the ''hu'' in French <u>hu</u>it.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''a''|| /a~ɑ~æ/ || Like the ''a'' in English b<u>a</u>ck.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''i''|| /i~ɪ~ɨ/ || Like the ''ee'' in English f<u>ee</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''u''|| /u~ʊ~ʉ/ || Like the ''oo'' in English g<u>oo</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''o''|| /ɔ~ɵ/ || Like the ''o'' in English f<u>o</u>g.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''e''|| /ə~ɛ/ || Varies between the ''o'' in English lem<u>o</u>n and the ''e'' in b<u>e</u>t.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ai''|| /aj/ || Like the ''y'' in English fl<u>y</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''au''|| /aw/ || Similar to the ''ou'' in some dialects of English l<u>ou</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ei''|| /ej/ || Like the ''ay'' in English m<u>ay</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ou''|| /ow/ || No exact English equivalent, but similar to the ''oa'' in c<u>oa</u>t.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ie''|| /jɛ/ || No English equivalent. Like the ''ie'' in Spanish t<u>ie</u>mpo.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''uo''|| /wɔ/ || No English equivalent.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Grammar ==<br />
===Morphology===<br />
Erjie is [[w:Agglutination|agglutinative]] and mainly [[w:Suffix|suffixing]], although there are a small number of [[w:Prefix|prefixes]]. Erjie has lost a significant portion of its [[w:Inflection|inflectional morphology]] which was present in the [[w:Tocharian_languages|Tocharian languages]], likely due to contact-induced [[w:Morphological leveling|leveling]]. For example, verbs no longer conjugate for [[w:Grammatical_person|person]] or the [[w:Subjunctive_mood|subjunctive]], [[w:Grammatical_gender|gender]] in nouns has been lost, and thus adjectives no longer inflect for [[w:Grammatical_gender|gender]] or even [[w:Grammatical_case|case]]. That being said, Erjie has innovated certain morphological features, such as a future tense suffix and verbal negative suffix which were not present in Tocharian. [[w:Stress_(linguistics)|Lexical stress]] is phonemic, although it is in the process of being replaced by a [[w:Pitch-accent_language|pitch-accent]] system, especially among younger speakers.<br />
===Nouns and Case Marking===<br />
Erjie has seven cases: [[w:nominative_case|nominative]] (unmarked), [[w:Genitive_case|genitive]]-[[w:accusative_case|accusative]], [[w:dative_case|dative]]-[[w:locative_case|locative]], [[w:ablative_case|ablative]], [[w:comitative_case|comitative]], [[w:allative_case|allative]] and [[w:perlative_case|perlative]]-[[w:instrumental_case|instrumental]]. [[w:Object_(grammar)|Direct objects]] are typically marked in the genitive-accusative if they are [[w:Definiteness|definite]], while if they are [[w:Definiteness|indefinite]] they are marked in the nominative combined with the [[w:Article_(grammar)|indefinite article]] ''she''. In addition to case, numerous postpositions exist which may govern any number of cases. There are also limited prepositions which typically exclusively govern the nominative.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|+Erjie noun cases<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! Suffix !! English preposition <br />
!Example !! Translation<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:nominative_case|nominative]] || – || – <br />
| yeghu || horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Genitive_case|genitive]]-[[w:accusative_case|accusative]] || -ze || (direct object); of<br />
| yeghuze || the horse (as direct object); of (the) horse/(the) horse's <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:dative_case|dative]]-[[w:locative_case|locative]] || -ne || at, in, on, to<br />
| yeghune || on/in (the) horse; to (the) horse (as a recipient/indirect object) <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:ablative_case|ablative]] || -men || from<br />
| yeghumen || from (the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:comitative_case|comitative]] || -ba || with <br />
| yeghuba || with (e.g. alongside the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:allative_case|allative]] || -xi || to, toward, into, onto<br />
| yeghuxi || toward/onto (the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:perlative_case|perlative]]-[[w:instrumental_case|instrumental]] || -za || through, with, via, using, by, over<br />
| yeghuza || with (e.g. by means of the) horse; by horse<br />
|}<br />
<br />
======Nominative case======<br />
The nominative generally marks the subject of a verb and the predicate of a copular construction. It is also used to mark the direct object of a sentence if that object is indirect. The nominative is unmarked in Erjie.<br />
<br />
======Genitive-Accusative case======<br />
This case governs two main uses: marking the definite direct object of a verb and indicating possession. As a genitive, it is generally only used to indicate the possession of animate possessors such as people and animals, although certain self-actuating celestial bodies and geological features such as rivers and oceans may also apply (especially in a religious or spiritual sense). In the accusative sense, words in this case tend to like to occur directly before the verb, as if it were to precede a noun phrase it may be confused for its genitive function.<br />
<br />
======Dative-Locative case======<br />
The dative-locative is used to indicate a location such as ''in'', ''on'', ''at'' or ''by'', as well as to indicate the recipient or indirect object of a verb. Another important use of this case is what is typically called the possessive dative, in which it marks what would typically be, in English, the subject of a transitive verb, e.g. ''Toughane xuer xameixgela lie'' – literally "(there) are four kids to/at/by Tougha", this construction is typically found with a copula and translates as "Tougha has four kids".<br />
<br />
======Plurals======<br />
Plurals are typically marked by way of the suffix -la which occurs after the root and before any case markers. While -la is the most common plural suffix, there are numerous irregular plurals which may be unpredictable, and there are some nouns that do not mark plurality at all. With that said, plural marking is not mandatory especially if it is obvious by context. It is also common for plurality not to be marked after numerals. Younger speakers are increasingly trending towards less use of the plural as a whole, and its usage is much more pervasive in older speakers and may be a social marker for age and authority. Reduplication has also been seen among younger speakers as a trendy way to produce plurals, although it is typically used to represent a particularly large quantity, e.g. ''keli keli tegha ba!'' – "There was tons of bread!".<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Personal Pronouns<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative !! Genitive-Accusative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan ="2" | 1st person<br />
! singular<br />
| yix<br />
| yi<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| wer<br />
| weji<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan ="2" | 2nd person<br />
! singular<br />
| qi<br />
| qen<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| yer<br />
| yeji<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan ="4" | 3rd person<br />
! singular masculine<br />
| qao<br />
| qiu<br />
|-<br />
! singular feminine<br />
| tou<br />
| tei<br />
|-<br />
! singular inanimate<br />
| tu<br />
| tuze<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| qim<br />
| qimze<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+<br />
!Numeral<br />
!'''Erjie'''<br />
!'''IPA'''<br />
!'''Tocharian A'''<br />
!'''Tocharian B'''<br />
!'''Proto-Indo-European'''<br />
|-<br />
|1<br />
|she<br />
|[ʂə]<br />
|sas<br />
|ṣe<br />
|*sem-<br />
|-<br />
|2<br />
|wi<br />
|[wɪ]<br />
|wu<br />
|wi<br />
|*dwóh₁<br />
|-<br />
|3<br />
|chei<br />
|[ʈʂʰej]<br />
|tre<br />
|trai<br />
|*tréyes<br />
|-<br />
|4<br />
|xuer<br />
|[ɕɥɚ]<br />
|śtwar<br />
|śtwer<br />
|*kʷetwṓr<br />
|-<br />
|5<br />
|pix<br />
|[pʰɪɕ]<br />
|päñ<br />
|piś<br />
|*pénkʷe<br />
|-<br />
|6<br />
|shges<br />
|[ʂkəs]<br />
|ṣäk<br />
|ṣkas<br />
|*swéḱs<br />
|-<br />
|7<br />
|shuk<br />
|[ʂʉk̚]<br />
|ṣpät<br />
|ṣukt <br />
|*septḿ̥<br />
|-<br />
|8<br />
|wuk<br />
|[βuk̚]<br />
|okät<br />
|okt<br />
|*h₁oḱtṓ(w)<br />
|-<br />
|9<br />
|yuk<br />
|[ʝyk̚]<br />
|ñu<br />
|ñu<br />
|*(h₁)néwn̥<br />
|-<br />
|10<br />
|xek<br />
|[ɕɛk̚]<br />
|śäk<br />
|śak<br />
|*déḱm̥t <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
Erjie has a primarily [[w:Subject–object–verb_word_order|SOV]] word order, although it is relatively flexible and may be modified to add emphasis or topic focus.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Erjie]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Erjie&diff=464182Erjie2025-08-01T07:24:27Z<p>SJ: added morphology section</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Erjie<br />
|nativename = erjie kelu<br />
|altname = 迩捷語 (ěrjiéyǔ)<br />
|pronunciation = ɚˈʑjɛ ˈkʰəlʊ<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA for Luthic<br />
|states = [[w:China|China]]<br />
|region = [[w: Qinghai|Qinghai]]<br />
|speakers = 2000<br />
|date = 2023<br />
|created = 2024<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|Tocharian B]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:China|China]]<br />
*[[w:Sunan Yugur Autonomous County|Sunan Yugur Autonomous County]]<br />
*[[w:Menyuan Hui Autonomous County|Menyuan Hui Autonomous County]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Erjie<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Erjie is classified as Vulnerable}}}}<br />
}}<br />
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<br />
--><br />
'''Erjie''' is an [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] language spoken by the Erjie people, who mainly live in the provinces of [[w:Qinghai|Qinghai]] and [[w:Gansu|Gansu]] in Northwestern [[w:China|China]]. It is the sole extant member of the [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]] branch of [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]]. The Erjie number about 3200 people, about 2000 (2023) speak the Erjie language; around 800 are primarily monolingual, while many speak Mandarin and/or Amdo Tibetan to a degree of fluency. While a pinyin-based writing system has been devised, Erjie is not often written by speakers and primarily exists as a spoken language.<br />
<br />
According to Erjie tradition, the Erjie are the descendants of the [[w:Tocharians|Tocharian speaking tribes]] of the [[w:Tarim Basin|Tarim Basin]]. During periods of the [[w:Uyghur Khaganate|Uyghur Khaganate]] and [[w:Tang Dynasty|Tang dynasty]], these tribesmen migrated from the Tarim Basin and dwelt within China's borders and since then have lived within the Qinghai-Gansu border region. Erjie has considerable influence, both grammatical and lexical, from [[w:Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]] and [[w:Amdo Tibetan|Amdo Tibetan]]. It is also a part of the broader [[w:Qinghai–Gansu_sprachbund|Qinghai-Gansu/Amdo sprachbund]], characterized by many features that differ greatly from surrounding languages, such as [[w:Subject–object–verb_word_order|SOV word order]], [[w:Grammatical_case|case marking]] and a lack of [[w:w:Tone_(linguistics)|lexical tone]].<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
!<br />
![[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
![[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
![[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
|i {{angle bracket|i}}<br />
|<br />
|u {{angle bracket|u}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]<br />
|<br />
|ə {{angle bracket|e}}<br />
|ɔ {{angle bracket|o}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|a {{angle bracket|a}}<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Phoneme/Sound<br />
!Allophones<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/i/<br />
|ɨ<br />
|when following alveolar sibilants or affricates<br />
|-<br />
|ɪ<br />
|when following labial and alveolar plosives or approximants<br />
|-<br />
|ɨ˞<br />
|when following a retroflex consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/ə/<br />
|ə<br />
|in stressed syllables without onset clusters or coda consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|in a syllable with a palatal onset or palatal coda<br />
|-<br />
|ɘ<br />
|in a syllable with a nasal coda consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/a/<br />
|ɑ<br />
|when following a uvular consonant<br />
|-<br />
|æ<br />
|when a syllable is closed by an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|when following a palatal onset consonant, and preceding an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|/ɔ/<br />
|ɵ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" |/u/<br />
|ʊ<br />
|when following alveolar and velar consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ʉ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |<br />
! [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
! [[w:Denti-alveolar_consonant|Denti-alveolar]]<br />
! [[w:Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]<br />
! [[w:Alveolo-palatal consonant|Palatal]]<br />
! [[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]<br />
! [[w:Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Stop consonant|Stops]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_bilabial_plosive|/p/]] {{angle bracket|b}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_dental_and_alveolar_plosives|/t̪/]] {{angle bracket|d}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_velar_plosive|/k/]] {{angle bracket|g}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_uvular_plosive|/q/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/pʰ/]] {{angle bracket|p}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/t̪ʰ/]] {{angle bracket|t}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/kʰ/]] {{angle bracket|k}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/qʰ/]] {{angle bracket|kh}}<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricates]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_affricate|/t͡s/]] {{angle bracket|z}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_affricate|/ʈ͡ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|zh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate|/t͡ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|j}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/t͡sʰ/]] {{angle bracket|c}}<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/ʈ͡ʂʰ/]] {{angle bracket|ch}}<br />
| [[w:IPAslink|/t͡ɕʰ/]] {{angle bracket|q}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricatives]]<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_labiodental_fricative|''(f)'']] {{angle bracket|''f''}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_fricative|/s/]] {{angle bracket|s}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_fricative|/ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|sh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative|/ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|x}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiceless_velar_fricative|/x/]] ~ [[w:Voiceless_uvular_fricative|/χ/]] {{angle bracket|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Voice_(phonetics)|voiced]]</small><br />
| <br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_fricative|''(z)'']] {{angle bracket|''z''}}<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative|''(ʑ)'']] {{angle bracket|''j''}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiced_velar_fricative|/ɣ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_uvular_fricative|/ʁ/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasals]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_bilabial_nasal|/m/]] {{angle bracket|m}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_nasal|/n/]] {{angle bracket|n}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_velar_nasal|/ŋ/]] {{angle bracket|ng}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Approximant|Approximants]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_labial–velar_approximant|/w/]] {{angle bracket|w}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_dental,_alveolar_and_postalveolar_lateral_approximants|/l̪/]] {{angle bracket|l}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_retroflex_approximant|/ɻ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_retroflex_fricative|/ʐ/]] {{angle bracket|r}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_palatal_approximant|/j/]] {{angle bracket|y}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
*/z/ and /ʑ/ are intervocalic allophones of plain affricates /t͡s/ and /t͡ɕ/ respectively.<br />
*all plain plosives are phonetically voiced in intervocalic positions, however /q/ weakens to /ʁ/ rather than expected /ɢ/<br />
*/x/ and /ɣ/ are uvular /χ/ and /ʁ/ before /a/, /ɔ/ and /u/.<br />
*/f/ is only found in Chinese borrowings, alternatively substituted with /pʰ/.<br />
*/j/ and /w/ can have spirantized allophones [ʝ] and [β] typically in stressed, initial syllables.<br />
<br />
== Writing System ==<br />
Erjie does not have on official script and mainly exists as a spoken language. However, young Erjie speakers have increasingly started to use a writing system based on Mandarin pinyin. It is primarily used among Erjie for writing their language on the internet and in digital environments.<br />
=== Pinyin-based Latin Script ===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Pinyin || [[help:IPA|IPA]] || Notes<br />
|-<br />
|| ''b'' || /p/ || Unaspirated ''p'', like in English s<u>p</u>a.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''p'' || /pʰ/ || Strongly aspirated ''p'', like in English <u>p</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''m'' || /m/ || Like the ''m'' in English <u>m</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''f'' || /f/ || Like the ''f'' in English <u>f</u>air.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''d'' || /t̪/ || Unaspirated dental ''t'', similar to English s<u>t</u>op.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''t'' || /t̪ʰ/ || Strongly aspirated dental ''t'', similar to English <u>t</u>ake.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''n'' || /n/ || Like the ''n'' in English <u>n</u>ay.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''l'' || /l̪/ || Dental ''l'', similar to English <u>l</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''g'' || /k/ || Unaspirated ''k'', like in English s<u>k</u>ill.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''k'' || /kʰ/ || Strongly aspirated ''k'', like in English <u>k</u>iss.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''gh'' || /q~ʁ~ɣ/ || No English equivalent. Occurs as [q] in onset and when voiceless but as [ɣ~ʁ] intervocalically.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''kh'' || /qʰ/ || No English equivalent. Often strongly spirantized to [qχ(ʰ)] and even [χ(ʰ)]<br />
|- <br />
|| ''h'' || /x~χ/ || Like the ''ch'' in Scottish English lo<u>ch</u>.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''j'' || /tɕ~(d)ʑ/ || Alveolo-palatal, unaspirated. No direct equivalent in English. Occurs as [tɕ] in onset and when voiceless but as [dʑ~ʑ] intervocalically.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''q'' || /tɕʰ/ || Alveolo-palatal, aspirated. No direct equivalent in English, but similar to the ''ch'' in English pun<u>ch</u>y.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''x'' || /ɕ/ || Alveolo-palatal, unaspirated. No direct equivalent in English, but similar to the ''sh'' in English pu<u>sh</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''zh'' || /ʈʂ/ || Retroflex, unaspirated. Similar to ''j'' in English <u>j</u>ack.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ch'' || /ʈʂʰ/ || Retroflex, aspirated. Similar to the ''ch'' in English chur<u>ch</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''sh'' || /ʂ/ || Retroflex, unaspirated. Similar to ''sh'' in <u>sh</u>irt.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''r'' || /ɻ~ʐ/ || Retroflex. No direct equivalent in English, but somewhat similar to the ''r'' in English <u>r</u>educe.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''z'' || /ts~(d)z/ || Unaspirated. Like the ''zz'' in English pi<u>zz</u>a. Occurs as [ts] in onset and when voiceless but as [dz~z] intervocalically<br />
|- <br />
|| ''c'' || /tsʰ/ || Aspirated. Like the ''ts'' in English ba<u>ts</u>.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''s'' || /s/ || Like the ''s'' in English <u>s</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''w'' || /w~β/ ||Like the ''w'' in English <u>w</u>ater. Occasionally pronounced [β], like a ''v'' but using both lips.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''y''|| /j~ʝ/ || Like the ''y'' in English <u>y</u>es.<br />
|-<br />
|''yu'' ||/ɥ/ ||Like the ''hu'' in French <u>hu</u>it.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''a''|| /a~ɑ~æ/ || Like the ''a'' in English b<u>a</u>ck.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''i''|| /i~ɪ~ɨ/ || Like the ''ee'' in English f<u>ee</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''u''|| /u~ʊ~ʉ/ || Like the ''oo'' in English g<u>oo</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''o''|| /ɔ~ɵ/ || Like the ''o'' in English f<u>o</u>g.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''e''|| /ə~ɛ/ || Varies between the ''o'' in English lem<u>o</u>n and the ''e'' in b<u>e</u>t.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ai''|| /aj/ || Like the ''y'' in English fl<u>y</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''au''|| /aw/ || Similar to the ''ou'' in some dialects of English l<u>ou</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ei''|| /ej/ || Like the ''ay'' in English m<u>ay</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ou''|| /ow/ || No exact English equivalent, but similar to the ''oa'' in c<u>oa</u>t.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ie''|| /jɛ/ || No English equivalent. Like the ''ie'' in Spanish t<u>ie</u>mpo.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''uo''|| /wɔ/ || No English equivalent.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Grammar ==<br />
===Morphology===<br />
Erjie is [[w:Agglutination|agglutinative]] and mainly [[w:Suffix|suffixing]], although there are a small number of [[w:Prefix|prefixes]]. Erjie has lost a significant portion of its [[w:Inflection|inflectional morphology]] which was present in the [[w:Tocharian_languages|Tocharian languages]], likely due to contact-induced [[w:Morphological leveling|leveling]]. For example, verbs no longer conjugate for [[w:Grammatical_person|person]] or the [[w:Subjunctive_mood|subjunctive]], [[w:Grammatical_gender|gender]] in nouns has been lost, and thus adjectives no longer inflect for [[w:Grammatical_gender|gender]] or even [[w:Grammatical_case|case]]. That being said, Erjie has innovated certain morphological features, such as a future tense suffix and verbal negative suffix which were not present in Tocharian. [[w:Stress_(linguistics)|Lexical stress]] is phonemic, although it is in the process of being replaced by a [[w:Pitch-accent_language|pitch-accent]] system, especially among younger speakers.<br />
===Nouns and Case Marking===<br />
Erjie has seven cases: [[w:nominative_case|nominative]] (unmarked), [[w:Genitive_case|genitive]]-[[w:accusative_case|accusative]], [[w:dative_case|dative]]-[[w:locative_case|locative]], [[w:ablative_case|ablative]], [[w:comitative_case|comitative]], [[w:allative_case|allative]] and [[w:perlative_case|perlative]]-[[w:instrumental_case|instrumental]]. [[w:Object_(grammar)|Direct objects]] are typically marked in the genitive-accusative if they are [[w:Definiteness|definite]], while if they are [[w:Definiteness|indefinite]] they are marked in the nominative combined with the [[w:Article_(grammar)|indefinite article]] ''she''. In addition to case, numerous postpositions exist which may govern any number of cases. There are also limited prepositions which typically exclusively govern the nominative.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|+Erjie noun cases<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! Suffix !! English preposition <br />
!Example !! Translation<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:nominative_case|nominative]] || – || – <br />
| yeghu || horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:Genitive_case|genitive]]-[[w:accusative_case|accusative]] || -ze || (direct object); of<br />
| yeghuze || the horse (as direct object); of (the) horse/(the) horse's <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:dative_case|dative]]-[[w:locative_case|locative]] || -ne || at, in, on, to<br />
| yeghune || on/in (the) horse; to (the) horse (as a recipient/indirect object) <br />
|-<br />
| [[w:ablative_case|ablative]] || -men || from<br />
| yeghumen || from (the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:comitative_case|comitative]] || -ba || with <br />
| yeghuba || with (e.g. alongside the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:allative_case|allative]] || -xi || to, toward, into, onto<br />
| yeghuxi || toward/onto (the) horse<br />
|-<br />
| [[w:perlative_case|perlative]]-[[w:instrumental_case|instrumental]] || -za || through, with, via, using, by, over<br />
| yeghuza || with (e.g. by means of the) horse; by horse<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
Erjie has a primarily [[w:Subject–object–verb_word_order|SOV]] word order, although it is relatively flexible and may be modified to add emphasis or topic focus.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Erjie]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Erjie&diff=464036Erjie2025-07-31T07:47:15Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Erjie<br />
|nativename = erjie kelu<br />
|altname = 迩捷語 (ěrjiéyǔ)<br />
|pronunciation = ɚˈʑjɛ ˈkʰəlʊ<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA for Luthic<br />
|states = [[w:China|China]]<br />
|region = [[w: Qinghai|Qinghai]]<br />
|speakers = 2000<br />
|date = 2023<br />
|created = 2024<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|Tocharian B]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:China|China]]<br />
*[[w:Sunan Yugur Autonomous County|Sunan Yugur Autonomous County]]<br />
*[[w:Menyuan Hui Autonomous County|Menyuan Hui Autonomous County]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Erjie<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Erjie is classified as Vulnerable}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<!-- <br />
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<br />
I. Write a short piece stating your intents and purposes when creating the language (Design goal, inspiration, ideas, and so on).<br />
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--><br />
'''Erjie''' is an [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] language spoken by the Erjie people, who mainly live in the provinces of [[w:Qinghai|Qinghai]] and [[w:Gansu|Gansu]] in Northwestern [[w:China|China]]. It is the sole extant member of the [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]] branch of [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]]. The Erjie number about 3200 people, about 2000 (2023) speak the Erjie language; around 800 are primarily monolingual, while many speak Mandarin and/or Amdo Tibetan to a degree of fluency. While a pinyin-based writing system has been devised, Erjie is not often written by speakers and primarily exists as a spoken language.<br />
<br />
According to Erjie tradition, the Erjie are the descendants of the [[w:Tocharians|Tocharian speaking tribes]] of the [[w:Tarim Basin|Tarim Basin]]. During periods of the [[w:Uyghur Khaganate|Uyghur Khaganate]] and [[w:Tang Dynasty|Tang dynasty]], these tribesmen migrated from the Tarim Basin and dwelt within China's borders and since then have lived within the Qinghai-Gansu border region. Erjie has considerable influence, both grammatical and lexical, from [[w:Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]] and [[w:Amdo Tibetan|Amdo Tibetan]]. <br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
!<br />
![[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
![[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
![[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
|i {{angle bracket|i}}<br />
|<br />
|u {{angle bracket|u}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]<br />
|<br />
|ə {{angle bracket|e}}<br />
|ɔ {{angle bracket|o}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|a {{angle bracket|a}}<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Phoneme/Sound<br />
!Allophones<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/i/<br />
|ɨ<br />
|when following alveolar sibilants or affricates<br />
|-<br />
|ɪ<br />
|when following labial and alveolar plosives or approximants<br />
|-<br />
|ɨ˞<br />
|when following a retroflex consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/ə/<br />
|ə<br />
|in stressed syllables without onset clusters or coda consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|in a syllable with a palatal onset or palatal coda<br />
|-<br />
|ɘ<br />
|in a syllable with a nasal coda consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/a/<br />
|ɑ<br />
|when following a uvular consonant<br />
|-<br />
|æ<br />
|when a syllable is closed by an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|when following a palatal onset consonant, and preceding an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|/ɔ/<br />
|ɵ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" |/u/<br />
|ʊ<br />
|when following alveolar and velar consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ʉ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |<br />
! [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
! [[w:Denti-alveolar_consonant|Denti-alveolar]]<br />
! [[w:Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]<br />
! [[w:Alveolo-palatal consonant|Palatal]]<br />
! [[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]<br />
! [[w:Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Stop consonant|Stops]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_bilabial_plosive|/p/]] {{angle bracket|b}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_dental_and_alveolar_plosives|/t̪/]] {{angle bracket|d}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_velar_plosive|/k/]] {{angle bracket|g}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_uvular_plosive|/q/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/pʰ/]] {{angle bracket|p}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/t̪ʰ/]] {{angle bracket|t}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/kʰ/]] {{angle bracket|k}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/qʰ/]] {{angle bracket|kh}}<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricates]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_affricate|/t͡s/]] {{angle bracket|z}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_affricate|/ʈ͡ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|zh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate|/t͡ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|j}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/t͡sʰ/]] {{angle bracket|c}}<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/ʈ͡ʂʰ/]] {{angle bracket|ch}}<br />
| [[w:IPAslink|/t͡ɕʰ/]] {{angle bracket|q}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricatives]]<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_labiodental_fricative|''(f)'']] {{angle bracket|''f''}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_fricative|/s/]] {{angle bracket|s}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_fricative|/ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|sh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative|/ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|x}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiceless_velar_fricative|/x/]] ~ [[w:Voiceless_uvular_fricative|/χ/]] {{angle bracket|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Voice_(phonetics)|voiced]]</small><br />
| <br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_fricative|''(z)'']] {{angle bracket|''z''}}<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative|''(ʑ)'']] {{angle bracket|''j''}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiced_velar_fricative|/ɣ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_uvular_fricative|/ʁ/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasals]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_bilabial_nasal|/m/]] {{angle bracket|m}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_nasal|/n/]] {{angle bracket|n}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_velar_nasal|/ŋ/]] {{angle bracket|ng}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Approximant|Approximants]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_labial–velar_approximant|/w/]] {{angle bracket|w}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_dental,_alveolar_and_postalveolar_lateral_approximants|/l̪/]] {{angle bracket|l}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_retroflex_approximant|/ɻ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_retroflex_fricative|/ʐ/]] {{angle bracket|r}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_palatal_approximant|/j/]] {{angle bracket|y}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
*/z/ and /ʑ/ are intervocalic allophones of plain affricates /t͡s/ and /t͡ɕ/ respectively.<br />
*all plain plosives are phonetically voiced in intervocalic positions, however /q/ weakens to /ʁ/ rather than expected /ɢ/<br />
*/x/ and /ɣ/ are uvular /χ/ and /ʁ/ before /a/, /ɔ/ and /u/.<br />
*/f/ is only found in Chinese borrowings, alternatively substituted with /pʰ/.<br />
*/j/ and /w/ can have spirantized allophones [ʝ] and [β] typically in stressed, initial syllables.<br />
<br />
== Writing System ==<br />
Erjie does not have on official script and mainly exists as a spoken language. However, young Erjie speakers have increasingly started to use a writing system based on Mandarin pinyin. It is primarily used among Erjie for writing their language on the internet and in digital environments.<br />
=== Pinyin-based Latin Script ===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Pinyin || [[help:IPA|IPA]] || Notes<br />
|-<br />
|| ''b'' || /p/ || Unaspirated ''p'', like in English s<u>p</u>a.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''p'' || /pʰ/ || Strongly aspirated ''p'', like in English <u>p</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''m'' || /m/ || Like the ''m'' in English <u>m</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''f'' || /f/ || Like the ''f'' in English <u>f</u>air.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''d'' || /t̪/ || Unaspirated dental ''t'', similar to English s<u>t</u>op.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''t'' || /t̪ʰ/ || Strongly aspirated dental ''t'', similar to English <u>t</u>ake.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''n'' || /n/ || Like the ''n'' in English <u>n</u>ay.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''l'' || /l̪/ || Dental ''l'', similar to English <u>l</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''g'' || /k/ || Unaspirated ''k'', like in English s<u>k</u>ill.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''k'' || /kʰ/ || Strongly aspirated ''k'', like in English <u>k</u>iss.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''gh'' || /q~ʁ~ɣ/ || No English equivalent. Occurs as [q] in onset and when voiceless but as [ɣ~ʁ] intervocalically.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''kh'' || /qʰ/ || No English equivalent. Often strongly spirantized to [qχ(ʰ)] and even [χ(ʰ)]<br />
|- <br />
|| ''h'' || /x~χ/ || Like the ''ch'' in Scottish English lo<u>ch</u>.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''j'' || /tɕ~(d)ʑ/ || Alveolo-palatal, unaspirated. No direct equivalent in English. Occurs as [tɕ] in onset and when voiceless but as [dʑ~ʑ] intervocalically.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''q'' || /tɕʰ/ || Alveolo-palatal, aspirated. No direct equivalent in English, but similar to the ''ch'' in English pun<u>ch</u>y.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''x'' || /ɕ/ || Alveolo-palatal, unaspirated. No direct equivalent in English, but similar to the ''sh'' in English pu<u>sh</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''zh'' || /ʈʂ/ || Retroflex, unaspirated. Similar to ''j'' in English <u>j</u>ack.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ch'' || /ʈʂʰ/ || Retroflex, aspirated. Similar to the ''ch'' in English chur<u>ch</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''sh'' || /ʂ/ || Retroflex, unaspirated. Similar to ''sh'' in <u>sh</u>irt.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''r'' || /ɻ~ʐ/ || Retroflex. No direct equivalent in English, but somewhat similar to the ''r'' in English <u>r</u>educe.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''z'' || /ts~(d)z/ || Unaspirated. Like the ''zz'' in English pi<u>zz</u>a. Occurs as [ts] in onset and when voiceless but as [dz~z] intervocalically<br />
|- <br />
|| ''c'' || /tsʰ/ || Aspirated. Like the ''ts'' in English ba<u>ts</u>.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''s'' || /s/ || Like the ''s'' in English <u>s</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''w'' || /w~β/ ||Like the ''w'' in English <u>w</u>ater. Occasionally pronounced [β], like a ''v'' but using both lips.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''y''|| /j~ʝ/ || Like the ''y'' in English <u>y</u>es.<br />
|-<br />
|''yu'' ||/ɥ/ ||Like the ''hu'' in French <u>hu</u>it.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''a''|| /a~ɑ~æ/ || Like the ''a'' in English b<u>a</u>ck.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''i''|| /i~ɪ~ɨ/ || Like the ''ee'' in English f<u>ee</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''u''|| /u~ʊ~ʉ/ || Like the ''oo'' in English g<u>oo</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''o''|| /ɔ~ɵ/ || Like the ''o'' in English f<u>o</u>g.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''e''|| /ə~ɛ/ || Varies between the ''o'' in English lem<u>o</u>n and the ''e'' in b<u>e</u>t.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ai''|| /aj/ || Like the ''y'' in English fl<u>y</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''au''|| /aw/ || Similar to the ''ou'' in some dialects of English l<u>ou</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ei''|| /ej/ || Like the ''ay'' in English m<u>ay</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ou''|| /ow/ || No exact English equivalent, but similar to the ''oa'' in c<u>oa</u>t.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ie''|| /jɛ/ || No English equivalent. Like the ''ie'' in Spanish t<u>ie</u>mpo.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''uo''|| /wɔ/ || No English equivalent.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Erjie]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Erjie&diff=464035Erjie2025-07-31T07:46:28Z<p>SJ: writing systems added</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Erjie<br />
|nativename = erjie kelu<br />
|altname = 迩捷語 (ěrjiéyǔ)<br />
|pronunciation = ɚˈʑjɛ ˈkʰəlʊ<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA for Luthic<br />
|states = [[w:China|China]]<br />
|region = [[w: Qinghai|Qinghai]]<br />
|speakers = 2000<br />
|date = 2023<br />
|created = 2024<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|Tocharian B]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:China|China]]<br />
*[[w:Sunan Yugur Autonomous County|Sunan Yugur Autonomous County]]<br />
*[[w:Menyuan Hui Autonomous County|Menyuan Hui Autonomous County]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Erjie<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Erjie is classified as Vulnerable}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<!-- <br />
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This is a short reminder of the language format policy.<br />
<br />
I. Write a short piece stating your intents and purposes when creating the language (Design goal, inspiration, ideas, and so on).<br />
II. Write a short introduction to your language. (Who speaks it? When was it created? By whom? or what? are some example questions that can be answered here)<br />
III. Once done, try making sure everything is properly spelt so as to avoid unnecessary reader fatigue.<br />
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--><br />
'''Erjie''' is an [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] language spoken by the Erjie people, who mainly live in the provinces of [[w:Qinghai|Qinghai]] and [[w:Gansu|Gansu]] in Northwestern [[w:China|China]]. It is the sole extant member of the [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]] branch of [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]]. The Erjie number about 3200 people, about 2000 (2023) speak the Erjie language; around 800 are primarily monolingual, while many speak Mandarin and/or Amdo Tibetan to a degree of fluency. While a pinyin-based writing system has been devised, Erjie is not often written by speakers and primarily exists as a spoken language.<br />
<br />
According to Erjie tradition, the Erjie are the descendants of the [[w:Tocharians|Tocharian speaking tribes]] of the [[w:Tarim Basin|Tarim Basin]]. During periods of the [[w:Uyghur Khaganate|Uyghur Khaganate]] and [[w:Tang Dynasty|Tang dynasty]], these tribesmen migrated from the Tarim Basin and dwelt within China's borders and since then have lived within the Qinghai-Gansu border region. Erjie has considerable influence, both grammatical and lexical, from [[w:Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]] and [[w:Amdo Tibetan|Amdo Tibetan]]. <br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
!<br />
![[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
![[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
![[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
|i {{angle bracket|i}}<br />
|<br />
|u {{angle bracket|u}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]<br />
|<br />
|ə {{angle bracket|e}}<br />
|ɔ {{angle bracket|o}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|a {{angle bracket|a}}<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Phoneme/Sound<br />
!Allophones<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/i/<br />
|ɨ<br />
|when following alveolar sibilants or affricates<br />
|-<br />
|ɪ<br />
|when following labial and alveolar plosives or approximants<br />
|-<br />
|ɨ˞<br />
|when following a retroflex consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/ə/<br />
|ə<br />
|in stressed syllables without onset clusters or coda consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|in a syllable with a palatal onset or palatal coda<br />
|-<br />
|ɘ<br />
|in a syllable with a nasal coda consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/a/<br />
|ɑ<br />
|when following a uvular consonant<br />
|-<br />
|æ<br />
|when a syllable is closed by an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|when following a palatal onset consonant, and preceding an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|/ɔ/<br />
|ɵ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" |/u/<br />
|ʊ<br />
|when following alveolar and velar consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ʉ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |<br />
! [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
! [[w:Denti-alveolar_consonant|Denti-alveolar]]<br />
! [[w:Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]<br />
! [[w:Alveolo-palatal consonant|Palatal]]<br />
! [[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]<br />
! [[w:Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Stop consonant|Stops]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_bilabial_plosive|/p/]] {{angle bracket|b}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_dental_and_alveolar_plosives|/t̪/]] {{angle bracket|d}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_velar_plosive|/k/]] {{angle bracket|g}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_uvular_plosive|/q/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/pʰ/]] {{angle bracket|p}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/t̪ʰ/]] {{angle bracket|t}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/kʰ/]] {{angle bracket|k}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/qʰ/]] {{angle bracket|kh}}<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricates]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_affricate|/t͡s/]] {{angle bracket|z}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_affricate|/ʈ͡ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|zh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate|/t͡ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|j}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/t͡sʰ/]] {{angle bracket|c}}<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/ʈ͡ʂʰ/]] {{angle bracket|ch}}<br />
| [[w:IPAslink|/t͡ɕʰ/]] {{angle bracket|q}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricatives]]<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_labiodental_fricative|''(f)'']] {{angle bracket|''f''}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_fricative|/s/]] {{angle bracket|s}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_fricative|/ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|sh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative|/ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|x}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiceless_velar_fricative|/x/]] ~ [[w:Voiceless_uvular_fricative|/χ/]] {{angle bracket|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Voice_(phonetics)|voiced]]</small><br />
| <br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_fricative|''(z)'']] {{angle bracket|''z''}}<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative|''(ʑ)'']] {{angle bracket|''j''}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiced_velar_fricative|/ɣ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_uvular_fricative|/ʁ/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasals]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_bilabial_nasal|/m/]] {{angle bracket|m}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_nasal|/n/]] {{angle bracket|n}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_velar_nasal|/ŋ/]] {{angle bracket|ng}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Approximant|Approximants]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_labial–velar_approximant|/w/]] {{angle bracket|w}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_dental,_alveolar_and_postalveolar_lateral_approximants|/l̪/]] {{angle bracket|l}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_retroflex_approximant|/ɻ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_retroflex_fricative|/ʐ/]] {{angle bracket|r}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_palatal_approximant|/j/]] {{angle bracket|y}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
*/z/ and /ʑ/ are intervocalic allophones of plain affricates /t͡s/ and /t͡ɕ/ respectively.<br />
*all plain plosives are phonetically voiced in intervocalic positions, however /q/ weakens to /ʁ/ rather than expected /ɢ/<br />
*/x/ and /ɣ/ are uvular /χ/ and /ʁ/ before /a/, /ɔ/ and /u/.<br />
*/f/ is only found in Chinese borrowings, alternatively substituted with /pʰ/.<br />
*/j/ and /w/ can have spirantized allophones [ʝ] and [β] typically in stressed, initial syllables.<br />
<br />
=== Writing System ===<br />
Erjie does not have on official script and mainly exists as a spoken language. However, young Erjie speakers have increasingly started to use a writing system based on Mandarin pinyin. It is primarily used among Erjie for writing their language on the internet and in digital environments.<br />
=== Pinyin-based Latin Script ===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Pinyin || [[help:IPA|IPA]] || Notes<br />
|-<br />
|| ''b'' || /p/ || Unaspirated ''p'', like in English s<u>p</u>a.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''p'' || /pʰ/ || Strongly aspirated ''p'', like in English <u>p</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''m'' || /m/ || Like the ''m'' in English <u>m</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''f'' || /f/ || Like the ''f'' in English <u>f</u>air.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''d'' || /t̪/ || Unaspirated dental ''t'', similar to English s<u>t</u>op.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''t'' || /t̪ʰ/ || Strongly aspirated dental ''t'', similar to English <u>t</u>ake.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''n'' || /n/ || Like the ''n'' in English <u>n</u>ay.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''l'' || /l̪/ || Dental ''l'', similar to English <u>l</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''g'' || /k/ || Unaspirated ''k'', like in English s<u>k</u>ill.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''k'' || /kʰ/ || Strongly aspirated ''k'', like in English <u>k</u>iss.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''gh'' || /q~ʁ~ɣ/ || No English equivalent. Occurs as [q] in onset and when voiceless but as [ɣ~ʁ] intervocalically.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''kh'' || /qʰ/ || No English equivalent. Often strongly spirantized to [qχ(ʰ)] and even [χ(ʰ)]<br />
|- <br />
|| ''h'' || /x~χ/ || Like the ''ch'' in Scottish English lo<u>ch</u>.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''j'' || /tɕ~(d)ʑ/ || Alveolo-palatal, unaspirated. No direct equivalent in English. Occurs as [tɕ] in onset and when voiceless but as [dʑ~ʑ] intervocalically.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''q'' || /tɕʰ/ || Alveolo-palatal, aspirated. No direct equivalent in English, but similar to the ''ch'' in English pun<u>ch</u>y.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''x'' || /ɕ/ || Alveolo-palatal, unaspirated. No direct equivalent in English, but similar to the ''sh'' in English pu<u>sh</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''zh'' || /ʈʂ/ || Retroflex, unaspirated. Similar to ''j'' in English <u>j</u>ack.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ch'' || /ʈʂʰ/ || Retroflex, aspirated. Similar to the ''ch'' in English chur<u>ch</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''sh'' || /ʂ/ || Retroflex, unaspirated. Similar to ''sh'' in <u>sh</u>irt.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''r'' || /ɻ~ʐ/ || Retroflex. No direct equivalent in English, but somewhat similar to the ''r'' in English <u>r</u>educe.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''z'' || /ts~(d)z/ || Unaspirated. Like the ''zz'' in English pi<u>zz</u>a. Occurs as [ts] in onset and when voiceless but as [dz~z] intervocalically<br />
|- <br />
|| ''c'' || /tsʰ/ || Aspirated. Like the ''ts'' in English ba<u>ts</u>.<br />
|- <br />
|| ''s'' || /s/ || Like the ''s'' in English <u>s</u>ay.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''w'' || /w~β/ ||Like the ''w'' in English <u>w</u>ater. Occasionally pronounced [β], like a ''v'' but using both lips.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''y''|| /j~ʝ/ || Like the ''y'' in English <u>y</u>es.<br />
|-<br />
|''yu'' ||/ɥ/ ||Like the ''hu'' in French <u>hu</u>it.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''a''|| /a~ɑ~æ/ || Like the ''a'' in English b<u>a</u>ck.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''i''|| /i~ɪ~ɨ/ || Like the ''ee'' in English f<u>ee</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''u''|| /u~ʊ~ʉ/ || Like the ''oo'' in English g<u>oo</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''o''|| /ɔ~ɵ/ || Like the ''o'' in English f<u>o</u>g.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''e''|| /ə~ɛ/ || Varies between the ''o'' in English lem<u>o</u>n and the ''e'' in b<u>e</u>t.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ai''|| /aj/ || Like the ''y'' in English fl<u>y</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''au''|| /aw/ || Similar to the ''ou'' in some dialects of English l<u>ou</u>d.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ei''|| /ej/ || Like the ''ay'' in English m<u>ay</u>.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ou''|| /ow/ || No exact English equivalent, but similar to the ''oa'' in c<u>oa</u>t.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''ie''|| /jɛ/ || No English equivalent. Like the ''ie'' in Spanish t<u>ie</u>mpo.<br />
|-<br />
|| ''uo''|| /wɔ/ || No English equivalent.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Erjie]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Contionary:kelu&diff=464002Contionary:kelu2025-07-31T02:52:21Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>===Etymology===<br />
From [[w:Tocharian_languages|Tocharian B]] [[wikt:kantwo|kantwo]], from [[w:Proto-Tocharian_language|Proto-Tocharian]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Tocharian/käntwo|*käntwo]], from a metathesis of [[w:Proto-Indo-European|Proto-Indo-European]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s|*dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s]].<br />
<br />
===Pronunciation===<br />
(''Erjie'') [[Guide:IPA|IPA]]: /ˈkʰəlu/ [ˈkʰəl̪ʊ]<br />
===Noun===<br />
'''kelu'''<br />
<br />
# tongue<br />
# language<br />
<br />
[[Category:Contionary]][[Category:Erjie words]][[Category:Erjie nouns]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Contionary:melghuer&diff=464001Contionary:melghuer2025-07-31T02:51:06Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>===Etymology===<br />
From [[w:Tocharian_languages|Tocharian B]] [[wikt:malkwer|malkwer]], from [[w:Proto-Indo-European|Proto-Indo-European]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂melǵ-|*h₂melǵ-]]. Compare [[w:English_Language|English]] [[wikt:milk|milk]]<br />
<br />
===Pronunciation===<br />
(''Erjie'') [[Guide:IPA|IPA]]: /ˈməlɣuər/ [ˈməl̪ʁwɚ]<br />
===Noun===<br />
'''melghuer'''<br />
<br />
# milk<br />
<br />
[[Category:Contionary]]<br />
[[Category:Erjie_lemmas]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Contionary:kelu&diff=464000Contionary:kelu2025-07-31T02:48:13Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>===Etymology===<br />
From [[w:Tocharian_languages|Tocharian B]] [[wikt:kantwo|kantwo]], from [[w:Proto-Tocharian_language|Proto-Tocharian]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Tocharian/käntwo|*käntwo]], from a metathesis of [[w:Proto-Indo-European|Proto-Indo-European]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s|*dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s]].<br />
<br />
===Pronunciation===<br />
(''Erjie'') [[Guide:IPA|IPA]]: /ˈkʰəlu/ [ˈkʰəl̪ʊ]<br />
===Noun===<br />
'''kelu'''<br />
<br />
# tongue<br />
# language<br />
<br />
[[Category:Contionary]]<br />
[[Category:Erjie_lemmas]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Contionary:melghuer&diff=463999Contionary:melghuer2025-07-31T02:46:10Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>===Etymology===<br />
From [[w:Tocharian_languages|Tocharian B]] [[wikt:malkwer|malkwer]], from [[w:Proto-Indo-European|Proto-Indo-European]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂melǵ-|*h₂melǵ-]]. Compare [[w:English_Language|English]] [[wikt:milk|milk]]<br />
<br />
===Pronunciation===<br />
(''Erjie'') [[Guide:IPA|IPA]]: /ˈməlɣuər/ [ˈməl̪ʁwɚ]<br />
===Noun===<br />
'''melghuer'''<br />
<br />
# milk<br />
<br />
[[Category:Erjie]]<br />
[[Category:Contionary]]<br />
[[Category:Erjie_lemmas]]<br />
[[Category:Erjie_nouns]]<br />
[[Category:Erjie nouns inherited from Tocharian B]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Contionary:kelu&diff=463998Contionary:kelu2025-07-31T02:44:17Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>===Etymology===<br />
From [[w:Tocharian_languages|Tocharian B]] [[wikt:kantwo|kantwo]], from [[w:Proto-Tocharian_language|Proto-Tocharian]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Tocharian/käntwo|*käntwo]], from a metathesis of [[w:Proto-Indo-European|Proto-Indo-European]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s|*dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s]].<br />
<br />
===Pronunciation===<br />
(''Erjie'') [[Guide:IPA|IPA]]: /ˈkʰəlu/ [ˈkʰəl̪ʊ]<br />
===Noun===<br />
'''kelu'''<br />
<br />
# tongue<br />
# language<br />
<br />
[[Category:Erjie]]<br />
[[Category:Contionary]]<br />
[[Category:Erjie_lemmas]]<br />
[[Category:Erjie_nouns]]<br />
[[Category:Erjie nouns inherited from Tocharian B]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Contionary:kelu&diff=463997Contionary:kelu2025-07-31T02:42:14Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>===Etymology===<br />
From [[w:Tocharian_languages|Tocharian B]] [[wikt:kantwo|kantwo]], from [[w:Proto-Tocharian_language|Proto-Tocharian]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Tocharian/käntwo|*käntwo]], from a metathesis of [[w:Proto-Indo-European|Proto-Indo-European]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s|*dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s]].<br />
<br />
===Pronunciation===<br />
(''Erjie'') [[Guide:IPA|IPA]]: /ˈkʰəlu/ [ˈkʰəl̪ʊ]<br />
===Noun===<br />
'''kelu'''<br />
<br />
# tongue<br />
# language<br />
<br />
[[Category:Erjie]]<br />
[[Category:Erjie lemmas]]<br />
[[Category:Erjie nouns]]<br />
[[Category:Erjie nouns inherited from Tocharian B]]</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Contionary:qieng&diff=463966Contionary:qieng2025-07-30T14:30:47Z<p>SJ: </p>
<hr />
<div>===Etymology===<br />
From [[w:Tocharian_languages|Tocharian B]] [[wikt:klenke|klenke]], possibly related to Latin [[wikt:clingō|clingō]] via putative [[w:Proto-Indo-European|Proto-Indo-European]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/klenk|*klenk-]]<br />
<br />
===Pronunciation===<br />
(''Erjie'') [[Guide:IPA|IPA]]: /ˈtɕʰjəŋ/ [ˈtɕʰ(j)ɛŋ]<br />
===Noun===<br />
'''qieng'''<br />
<br />
# a car, an automobile, a carriage, a cart<br />
#: {{ux|pth| Yue '''qiengze''' she kerna.|t=I bought a new '''car'''}}<br />
# ''(in general)'' a land vehicle</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Contionary:qieng&diff=463960Contionary:qieng2025-07-30T14:09:51Z<p>SJ: Created page with "===Etymology=== From Tocharian B klenke, possibly related to Latin clingō via putative Proto-Indo-European *klenk- ===Pronunciation=== (''Erjie'') IPA: /ˈtɕʰjəŋ/ [ˈtɕʰ(j)ɛŋ] ===Noun=== '''qieng''' # a car, an automobile, a carriage, a cart # ''(in general)'' a land vehicle"</p>
<hr />
<div>===Etymology===<br />
From [[w:Tocharian_languages|Tocharian B]] [[wikt:klenke|klenke]], possibly related to Latin [[wikt:clingō|clingō]] via putative [[w:Proto-Indo-European|Proto-Indo-European]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/klenk|*klenk-]]<br />
<br />
===Pronunciation===<br />
(''Erjie'') [[Guide:IPA|IPA]]: /ˈtɕʰjəŋ/ [ˈtɕʰ(j)ɛŋ]<br />
===Noun===<br />
'''qieng'''<br />
<br />
# a car, an automobile, a carriage, a cart<br />
# ''(in general)'' a land vehicle</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Contionary:melghuer&diff=463959Contionary:melghuer2025-07-30T13:57:31Z<p>SJ: Created page with "===Etymology=== From Tocharian B malkwer, from Proto-Indo-European *h₂melǵ-. Compare English milk ===Pronunciation=== (''Erjie'') IPA: /ˈməlɣuər/ [ˈməl̪ʁwɚ] ===Noun=== '''melghuer''' # milk"</p>
<hr />
<div>===Etymology===<br />
From [[w:Tocharian_languages|Tocharian B]] [[wikt:malkwer|malkwer]], from [[w:Proto-Indo-European|Proto-Indo-European]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂melǵ-|*h₂melǵ-]]. Compare [[w:English_Language|English]] [[wikt:milk|milk]]<br />
<br />
===Pronunciation===<br />
(''Erjie'') [[Guide:IPA|IPA]]: /ˈməlɣuər/ [ˈməl̪ʁwɚ]<br />
===Noun===<br />
'''melghuer'''<br />
<br />
# milk</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Contionary:kelu&diff=463958Contionary:kelu2025-07-30T13:44:07Z<p>SJ: Created page with "===Etymology=== From Tocharian B kantwo, from Proto-Tocharian *käntwo, from a metathesis of Proto-Indo-European *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s. ===Pronunciation=== (''Erjie'') IPA: /ˈkʰəlu/ [ˈkʰəl̪ʊ] ===Noun=== '''kelu''' # tongue # language"</p>
<hr />
<div>===Etymology===<br />
From [[w:Tocharian_languages|Tocharian B]] [[wikt:kantwo|kantwo]], from [[w:Proto-Tocharian_language|Proto-Tocharian]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Tocharian/käntwo|*käntwo]], from a metathesis of [[w:Proto-Indo-European|Proto-Indo-European]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s|*dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s]].<br />
<br />
===Pronunciation===<br />
(''Erjie'') [[Guide:IPA|IPA]]: /ˈkʰəlu/ [ˈkʰəl̪ʊ]<br />
===Noun===<br />
'''kelu'''<br />
<br />
# tongue<br />
# language</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:SJ&diff=463955User:SJ2025-07-30T13:06:52Z<p>SJ: Created page with "Studying linguistics in Australia"</p>
<hr />
<div>Studying linguistics in Australia</div>SJhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Erjie&diff=463953Erjie2025-07-30T13:02:52Z<p>SJ: Created page with "{{Infobox language |name = Erjie |nativename = erjie kelu |altname = 迩捷語 (ěrjiéyǔ) |pronunciation = ɚˈʑjɛ ˈkʰəlʊ |pronunciation_key = IPA for Luthic |states = China |region = Qinghai |speakers = 2000 |date = 2023 |created = 2024 |familycolor = Indo-European |fam2 = Tocharian |fam3 = w:Tochar..."</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Erjie<br />
|nativename = erjie kelu<br />
|altname = 迩捷語 (ěrjiéyǔ)<br />
|pronunciation = ɚˈʑjɛ ˈkʰəlʊ<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA for Luthic<br />
|states = [[w:China|China]]<br />
|region = [[w: Qinghai|Qinghai]]<br />
|speakers = 2000<br />
|date = 2023<br />
|created = 2024<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:Tocharian B|Tocharian B]]<br />
|creator = User:SJ<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|minority = [[w:China|China]]<br />
*[[w:Sunan Yugur Autonomous County|Sunan Yugur Autonomous County]]<br />
*[[w:Menyuan Hui Autonomous County|Menyuan Hui Autonomous County]]<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
|ethnicity = Erjie<br />
| map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg<br />
|mapsize = 340px<br />
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Erjie is classified as Vulnerable}}}}<br />
}}<br />
<!-- <br />
<br />
This is a short reminder of the language format policy.<br />
<br />
I. Write a short piece stating your intents and purposes when creating the language (Design goal, inspiration, ideas, and so on).<br />
II. Write a short introduction to your language. (Who speaks it? When was it created? By whom? or what? are some example questions that can be answered here)<br />
III. Once done, try making sure everything is properly spelt so as to avoid unnecessary reader fatigue.<br />
<br />
--><br />
'''Erjie''' is an [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]] language spoken by the Erjie people, who mainly live in the provinces of [[w:Qinghai|Qinghai]] and [[w:Gansu|Gansu]] in Northwestern [[w:China|China]]. It is the sole extant member of the [[w:Tocharian Languages|Tocharian]] branch of [[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]]. The Erjie number about 3200 people, about 2000 (2023) speak the Erjie language; around 800 are primarily monolingual, while many speak Mandarin and/or Amdo Tibetan to a degree of fluency. While a pinyin-based writing system has been devised, Erjie is not often written by speakers and primarily exists as a spoken language.<br />
<br />
According to Erjie tradition, the Erjie are the descendants of the [[w:Tocharians|Tocharian speaking tribes]] of the [[w:Tarim Basin|Tarim Basin]]. During periods of the [[w:Uyghur Khaganate|Uyghur Khaganate]] and [[w:Tang Dynasty|Tang dynasty]], these tribesmen migrated from the Tarim Basin and dwelt within China's borders and since then have lived within the Qinghai-Gansu border region. Erjie has considerable influence, both grammatical and lexical, from [[w:Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]] and [[w:Amdo Tibetan|Amdo Tibetan]]. <br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
!<br />
![[Front vowel|Front]]<br />
![[Central vowel|Central]]<br />
![[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
|i {{angle bracket|i}}<br />
|<br />
|u {{angle bracket|u}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]<br />
|<br />
|ə {{angle bracket|e}}<br />
|ɔ {{angle bracket|o}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
![[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|a {{angle bracket|a}}<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Phoneme/Sound<br />
!Allophones<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/i/<br />
|ɨ<br />
|when following alveolar sibilants or affricates<br />
|-<br />
|ɪ<br />
|when following labial and alveolar plosives or approximants<br />
|-<br />
|ɨ˞<br />
|when following a retroflex consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/ə/<br />
|ə<br />
|in stressed syllables without onset clusters or coda consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|in a syllable with a palatal onset or palatal coda<br />
|-<br />
|ɘ<br />
|in a syllable with a nasal coda consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |/a/<br />
|ɑ<br />
|when following a uvular consonant<br />
|-<br />
|æ<br />
|when a syllable is closed by an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|ɛ<br />
|when following a palatal onset consonant, and preceding an alveolar nasal /n/<br />
|-<br />
|/ɔ/<br />
|ɵ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" |/u/<br />
|ʊ<br />
|when following alveolar and velar consonants<br />
|-<br />
|ʉ<br />
|when following retroflex and palatal consonants<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |<br />
! [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
! [[w:Denti-alveolar_consonant|Denti-alveolar]]<br />
! [[w:Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]<br />
! [[w:Alveolo-palatal consonant|Palatal]]<br />
! [[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]<br />
! [[w:Uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Stop consonant|Stops]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_bilabial_plosive|/p/]] {{angle bracket|b}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_dental_and_alveolar_plosives|/t̪/]] {{angle bracket|d}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_velar_plosive|/k/]] {{angle bracket|g}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_uvular_plosive|/q/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/pʰ/]] {{angle bracket|p}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/t̪ʰ/]] {{angle bracket|t}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/kʰ/]] {{angle bracket|k}}<br />
| [[w:Aspirated_consonant|/qʰ/]] {{angle bracket|kh}}<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricates]]<br />
!<small>plain</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_affricate|/t͡s/]] {{angle bracket|z}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_affricate|/ʈ͡ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|zh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate|/t͡ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|j}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Aspirated_consonant|aspirated]]</small><br />
|<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/t͡sʰ/]] {{angle bracket|c}}<br />
| [[w:Aspiration|/ʈ͡ʂʰ/]] {{angle bracket|ch}}<br />
| [[w:IPAslink|/t͡ɕʰ/]] {{angle bracket|q}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricatives]]<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| [[w:Voiceless_labiodental_fricative|(f)]] {{angle bracket|f}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolar_fricative|/s/]] {{angle bracket|s}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_fricative|/ʂ/]] {{angle bracket|sh}}<br />
| [[w:Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative|/ɕ/]] {{angle bracket|x}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiceless_velar_fricative|/x/]] ~ [[w:Voiceless_uvular_fricative|/χ/]] {{angle bracket|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>[[w:Voice_(phonetics)|voiced]]</small><br />
| <br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_fricative|(z)]] {{angle bracket|z}}<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative|(ʑ)]] {{angle bracket|j}}<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Voiced_velar_fricative|/ɣ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_uvular_fricative|/ʁ/]] {{angle bracket|gh}}<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasals]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_bilabial_nasal|/m/]] {{angle bracket|m}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_alveolar_nasal|/n/]] {{angle bracket|n}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[w:Voiced_velar_nasal|/ŋ/]] {{angle bracket|ng}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Approximant|Approximants]]<br />
| [[w:Voiced_labial–velar_approximant|/w/]] {{angle bracket|w}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_dental,_alveolar_and_postalveolar_lateral_approximants|/l̪/]] {{angle bracket|l}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_retroflex_approximant|/ɻ/]] ~ [[w:Voiced_retroflex_fricative|/ʐ/]] {{angle bracket|r}}<br />
| [[w:Voiced_palatal_approximant|/j/]] {{angle bracket|y}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
*/z/ and /ʑ/ are intervocalic allophones of plain affricates /t͡s/ and /t͡ɕ/ respectively.<br />
*all plain plosives are phonetically voiced in intervocalic positions, however /q/ weakens to /ʁ/ rather than expected /ɢ/<br />
*/x/ and /ɣ/ are uvular /χ/ and /ʁ/ before /a/, /ɔ/ and /u/.<br />
*/f/ is only found in Chinese borrowings, alternatively substituted with /pʰ/.<br />
*/j/ and /w/ can have spirantized allophones [ʝ] and [β] typically in stressed, initial syllables.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Erjie]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>SJ