Middle Ru - Revision history

Jotadiego at 03:15, 25 April 2020

2020-04-25T03:15:23Z

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	<th>Coronal, not labialiazed</th>		<th>Coronal, not labialiazed</th>
	<th rowspan="2">Alveolar</th>		<th rowspan="2">Alveolar</th>
	<td><b><em>nosʷ</em></b><br>~~thrist~~</em></b><br></td>		<td><b><em>nosʷ</em></b><br>thirst</em></b><br></td>
	<td><b><em>nes</em></b><br>thirst</em></b><br></td>		<td><b><em>nes</em></b><br>thirst</em></b><br></td>
	<td><b><em>tuɬ</em></b><br>husband</em></b><br></td>		<td><b><em>tuɬ</em></b><br>husband</em></b><br></td>

Jotadiego at 00:47, 14 April 2020

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	<p>Being functionally identical to verbs, Middle Ru adjectives can take any affix that could apply to verbs. For instance, the causative prefix <em>ižy-</em> may be used to form the verb <em>ižyaxan-</em>, meaning 'to cause [something or somebody] to grow old, to age'.</p>		<p>Being functionally identical to verbs, Middle Ru adjectives can take any affix that could apply to verbs. For instance, the causative prefix <em>ižy-</em> may be used to form the verb <em>ižyaxan-</em>, meaning 'to cause [something or somebody] to grow old, to age'.</p>

	<p>Comparatives (and superlatives) are expressed through the prefix <em>ñir-</em> or <em>ñwr-</em>, meaning 'to surpass', which may also be applied to any other verb in order to express than an action has been conducted to a higher degree than some reference level. This prefix is not to be confused with a voice mark as it does <b>not</b> modify the valency of the verb. Thus, <em>ñiraxan</em> is not to be understood as transitive 'to be older than [someone]' but as a still-intransitive 'to be older', without making ~~splicit~~ who the person or object is older than, which is left out to context. Examples include:</p>		<p>Comparatives (and superlatives) are expressed through the prefix <em>ñir-</em> or <em>ñwr-</em>, meaning 'to surpass', which may also be applied to any other verb in order to express than an action has been conducted to a higher degree than some reference level. This prefix is not to be confused with a voice mark as it does <b>not</b> modify the valency of the verb. Thus, <em>ñiraxan</em> is not to be understood as transitive 'to be older than [someone]' but as a still-intransitive 'to be older', without making explicit who the person or object is older than, which is left out to context. Examples include:</p>

	<p><em><b>Ñiraxanarlys mimýaħ.</b></em></p>		<p><em><b>Ñiraxanarlys mimýaħ.</b></em></p>
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	<p><em><b>Axanarlys xek'aħ, ñiraxanarly mimýaħ.</b></em></p>		<p><em><b>Axanarlys xek'aħ, ñiraxanarly mimýaħ.</b></em></p>
	<p><em>The man was older ~~/ the~~ man was the ~~oldest~~.</em></p>		<p><em>The woman was old, the man was older ~ The man was older than the woman.</em></p>

	<p><em><b>Zeviħals mimýaħ añiraxána.</b></em></p>		<p><em><b>Zeviħals mimýaħ añiraxána.</b></em></p>
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	<p>The number 'one' is always expressed as <em>ýla</em>, although in combining forms it may also appear as <em>ylárra</em> (literally 'and one', although shifting the stress to the second syllable unlike the more general usage of the affix <em>-rra</em>). The form <em>ylárra</em> is most commonly found after 'round' numbers such as <em>jat</em> (twenty); in a sense <em>ylárra</em> indicates that the value is one more than a number that would be more likely to be expected. The forms <em>játel</em> and <em>c'étel</em> alternate with <em>jat</em> and <em>c'et</em> (respectively) when not followed by any further numerals.</p>		<p>The number 'one' is always expressed as <em>ýla</em>, although in combining forms it may also appear as <em>ylárra</em> (literally 'and one', although shifting the stress to the second syllable unlike the more general usage of the affix <em>-rra</em>). The form <em>ylárra</em> is most commonly found after 'round' numbers such as <em>jat</em> (twenty); in a sense <em>ylárra</em> indicates that the value is one more than a number that would be more likely to be expected. The forms <em>játel</em> and <em>c'étel</em> alternate with <em>jat</em> and <em>c'et</em> (respectively) when not followed by any further numerals.</p>

	<p>Unlike English, Middle Ru numerals ~~alwayss~~ follow the noun to which they apply: <em>emimy jat</em> for '20 men'.</p>		<p>Unlike English, Middle Ru numerals always follow the noun to which they apply: <em>emimy jat</em> for '20 men'.</p>

	<p>Ordinals are formed in a relatively unusual way. The first element is described as <em>ac'ála</em>, the participle of <em>c'al</em>, 'to come first'. Other ordinals are formed by using the particle <em>swr</em> and the number of elements that come <em>before</em>, followed by the suffix <em>-(a)rra / -(å)rrå</em>. Thus, 'the second man' becomes <em>mimy swr ýlarra</em> (~ man preceded by one other); 'the tenth mountain' becomes <em>ħóxol swr sótårrå</em> (~ mountain preceded by nine others) and so on.</p>		<p>Ordinals are formed in a relatively unusual way. The first element is described as <em>ac'ála</em>, the participle of <em>c'al</em>, 'to come first'. Other ordinals are formed by using the particle <em>swr</em> and the number of elements that come <em>before</em>, followed by the suffix <em>-(a)rra / -(å)rrå</em>. Thus, 'the second man' becomes <em>mimy swr ýlarra</em> (~ man preceded by one other); 'the tenth mountain' becomes <em>ħóxol swr sótårrå</em> (~ mountain preceded by nine others) and so on.</p>
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	<h1>The Middle Ru script</h1>		<h1>The Middle Ru script</h1>

	<p>The Middle Ru ~~sscript~~, the native writing system for the language, is an abugida where each consonant is represented by a letter while vowels other than /a/ are marked through diacritics above the consonant. Much as in the Brahmic scripts from India, a <em>virama</em> mark is used to supress the inherent /a/ in a consonant in order to mark codae. Thus, the word <em>xek'aħ</em> (absolutive singular form of <em>xek'a</em>, 'woman') would be written with the consonant letter for <em>X</em> plus the <em>E</em> diacritic, the consonant letter for <em>K'</em> (which, on its own is read as <em>k'a</em>), the consonant letter for <em>Ħ</em> with the <em>virama</em> diacritic to indicate that it is to be read as a word-final <em>-ħ</em> rather than as the sequence <em>ħa</em>. The abugida is supposed to be a descendant from the Ancient Hulamic script used for Proto Ru-Hulam.</p>		<p>The Middle Ru script, the native writing system for the language, is an abugida where each consonant is represented by a letter while vowels other than /a/ are marked through diacritics above the consonant. Much as in the Brahmic scripts from India, a <em>virama</em> mark is used to supress the inherent /a/ in a consonant in order to mark codae. Thus, the word <em>xek'aħ</em> (absolutive singular form of <em>xek'a</em>, 'woman') would be written with the consonant letter for <em>X</em> plus the <em>E</em> diacritic, the consonant letter for <em>K'</em> (which, on its own is read as <em>k'a</em>), the consonant letter for <em>Ħ</em> with the <em>virama</em> diacritic to indicate that it is to be read as a word-final <em>-ħ</em> rather than as the sequence <em>ħa</em>. The abugida is supposed to be a descendant from the Ancient Hulamic script used for Proto Ru-Hulam.</p>

	<p>The glyphs used for Middle Ru consonants have a characteristic shape based on a slightly curved slanted lined over which further strokes are drawn (except for the glottal stop, marked by the slanted line alone). The characters are partially featural. For instance, the glyphs ejectives are clearly derived from the corresponding plain plosives.</p>		<p>The glyphs used for Middle Ru consonants have a characteristic shape based on a slightly curved slanted lined over which further strokes are drawn (except for the glottal stop, marked by the slanted line alone). The characters are partially featural. For instance, the glyphs ejectives are clearly derived from the corresponding plain plosives.</p>

Jotadiego at 22:36, 13 April 2020

2020-04-13T22:36:52Z

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	<h3>The copula verbs</h4>		<h3>The copula verbs</h4>

	<p>In English, the copula verb <em>'to be'</em> fulfills a ~~nubmer~~ of functions, including noun-noun copula (describing one thing as being another, as in "John is a man"), adjective-noun copula (indicating that an adjective apples to a given noun or noun phrase as in "John is tall") and ~~and~~ existential usage (indicating that something exists, often in relation to a location as in "John is in the city"). In Middle Ru, those ~~structures~~ are handled in different ways.</p>		<p>In English, the copula verb <em>'to be'</em> fulfills a number of functions, including noun-noun copula (describing one thing as being another, as in "John is a man"), adjective-noun copula (indicating that an adjective apples to a given noun or noun phrase as in "John is tall") and an existential usage (indicating that something exists, often in relation to a location as in "John is in the city"). In Middle Ru, those constructions are handled in different ways.</p>

	<p>Noun-noun copula, be it indicating identity ("John is my father", here the two arguments are identified as being the same individual) or membership to a given class ("John is a man"), may be expressed with the copula verb <em>mi</em>, which could be considered to be the closest Middle Ru counterpart to English 'to be'. This kind of expressions, however, are often handled <b>without any verbs</b> (what is known as zero-copula, a common tactic cross-linguistically), simply putting the two phrases one next to the other. The first element in this type of copula must be expressed in the absolutive case, while the second one is used in its base, suffix-less form, as shown in the following examples:</p>		<p>Noun-noun copula, be it indicating identity ("John is my father", here the two arguments are identified as being the same individual) or membership to a given class ("John is a man"), may be expressed with the copula verb <em>mi</em>, which could be considered to be the closest Middle Ru counterpart to English 'to be'. This kind of expressions, however, are often handled <b>without any verbs</b> (what is known as zero-copula, a common tactic cross-linguistically), simply putting the two phrases one next to the other. The first element in this type of copula must be expressed in the absolutive case, while the second one is used in its base, suffix-less form, as shown in the following examples:</p>
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	<p><em>I am your father.</em></p>		<p><em>I am your father.</em></p>

	<p>As it is often the case for copula verbs, Middle Ru <em>mi</em> is massively irregular. Fortunately, the number of forms to be memorized is somewhat limited as the verb may only be marked for a single person (instead of featuring polypersonal agreement). It's conjugation takes contrasts aspect (perfective or imperfective; <em>mi</em> cannot be marked for the inchoative/cessative aspect), tense, person for one of its arguments and polarity (~~affirmativs~~ vs negative), as shown in the following table:</p>		<p>As it is often the case for copula verbs, Middle Ru <em>mi</em> is massively irregular. Fortunately, the number of forms to be memorized is somewhat limited as the verb may only be marked for a single person (instead of featuring polypersonal agreement). It's conjugation takes contrasts aspect (perfective or imperfective; <em>mi</em> cannot be marked for the inchoative/cessative aspect), tense, person for one of its arguments and polarity (affirmative vs negative; the interrogative prefix is also accepted), as shown in the following table:</p>

	<table>		<table>
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	<p><b>Adjectives</b> behave like verbs in Middle Ru and thus adjective-noun copula does not require an equivalent of the verb 'to be'. For instance, the equivalent to the English adjective 'tall' is <em>ğwn</em> which may also be translated as 'to be tall'. This subject will be covered in more depth in the following section.</p>		<p><b>Adjectives</b> behave like verbs in Middle Ru and thus adjective-noun copula does not require an equivalent of the verb 'to be'. For instance, the equivalent to the English adjective 'tall' is <em>ğwn</em> which may also be translated as 'to be tall'. This subject will be covered in more depth in the following section.</p>

	<p>Finally, Middle Ru uses the verb <em>se</em> (conjugated regularly in the Cadarmeni standard, although irregular forms such as <em>*sar-</em> for <em>sear-</em> are attested for other dialects) for existential copula. This often corresponds to English 'there is' or 'there are', indicating the presence of an ~~objecct~~ or person.</p>		<p>Finally, Middle Ru uses the verb <em>se</em> (conjugated regularly in the Cadarmeni standard, although irregular forms such as <em>*sar-</em> for <em>sear-</em> are attested for other dialects) for existential copula. This often corresponds to English 'there is' or 'there are', indicating the presence of an object or person.</p>

	<p><em><b>Searmis emimýaħ ñy.</b></em></p>		<p><em><b>Searmis emimýaħ ñy.</b></em></p>

Jotadiego at 20:39, 13 April 2020

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	<p>Participles follow a drastically different structure than finite (or 'conjugated') Middle Ru verbs, being only marked by voice. The most basic form of participle, corresponding to the default unmarked voice, is constructed by a circumfix: <em>a-</em>(stem)<em>-a</em> for clear-harmony verbs (as in the previously mentioned example <em>azéva</em>, 'seen', from <em>zev</em>, 'to see') or <em>å-</em>(stem)<em>-o</em> (as in <em>åcẃño</em>, 'built', from <em>cuñ</em>, 'to build') for dark-harmony verbs. Unlike other verb forms, participles are stressed on the verb stem itself.</p>		<p>Participles follow a drastically different structure than finite (or 'conjugated') Middle Ru verbs, being only marked by voice. The most basic form of participle, corresponding to the default unmarked voice, is constructed by a circumfix: <em>a-</em>(stem)<em>-a</em> for clear-harmony verbs (as in the previously mentioned example <em>azéva</em>, 'seen', from <em>zev</em>, 'to see') or <em>å-</em>(stem)<em>-o</em> (as in <em>åcẃño</em>, 'built', from <em>cuñ</em>, 'to build') for dark-harmony verbs. Unlike other verb forms, participles are stressed on the verb stem itself.</p>

	<p>A basic Middle Ru participle corresponds to its O-role, the argument that would be put in absolutive case when following the verb: the subject for intransitive verbs (thus <em>ac'áza</em>, from <em>c'az</em>, 'to march', could be translated as 'marching'), the object for regular transitive verbs (<em>azéva</em> meaning 'seen' rather than 'seeing') and the indirect object for ditransitive verbs (<em>åʎúo</em> meaning 'having received', from <em>ʎu</em>, 'to give'). Participles for other roles can be constructed by replacing the initial <em>a-</em> or <em>å-</em> with a voice prefix. This allows for participles related to a transitive subject using the antipassive voice mark as in <em>rravzéva</em> ('seeing', 'that sees/saw'), reflexive participles such as <em>myzéva</em> ('that sees themself') , causative ~~reflexives~~ such as <em>ižyzéva</em> ('that makes/made someone to see', also used as a noun meaning "prophet, guru"), type-I aplicatives for benefactive participles such as <em>kezéva</em> ('that had someone see something for its benefit') and type-II applicatives for ditransitive direct objects: <em>~~ojʎuo~~</em> ('that was given [to someone]').</p>		<p>A basic Middle Ru participle corresponds to its O-role, the argument that would be put in absolutive case when following the verb: the subject for intransitive verbs (thus <em>ac'áza</em>, from <em>c'az</em>, 'to march', could be translated as 'marching'), the object for regular transitive verbs (<em>azéva</em> meaning 'seen' rather than 'seeing') and the indirect object for ditransitive verbs (<em>åʎúo</em> meaning 'having received', from <em>ʎu</em>, 'to give'). Participles for other roles can be constructed by replacing the initial <em>a-</em> or <em>å-</em> with a voice prefix. This allows for participles related to a transitive subject using the antipassive voice mark as in <em>rravzéva</em> ('seeing', 'that sees/saw'), reflexive participles such as <em>myzéva</em> ('that sees themself') , causative participles such as <em>ižyzéva</em> ('that makes/made someone to see', also used as a noun meaning "prophet, guru"), type-I aplicatives for benefactive participles such as <em>kezéva</em> ('that had someone see something for its benefit') and type-II applicatives for ditransitive direct objects: <em>ojʎúo</em> ('that was given [to someone]').</p>

	<p>Negative participles are preceded by the particle <em>žwm</em> which is also used a noun meaning 'nobody'. Thus <em>žwm azéva</em> transaltes as 'not seen'.</p>		<p>Negative participles are preceded by the particle <em>žwm</em> which is also used a noun meaning 'nobody'. Thus <em>žwm azéva</em> transaltes as 'not seen'.</p>

	<p>Participles are often used in place where a relative clause would be used in English. For instance, the phrase "the man who marched forward" is expressed in Middle Ru as <em>mimy ac'áza</em>~~, 'man ANTP-see-PTC'~~. The participle itself may be followed by arguments (other than it's O-role) as if it was a primary verb: <em>k'et åcẃño mimy</em> (house PTC-build-PTC man) for 'the house built by the man'.</p>		<p>Participles are often used in place where a relative clause would be used in English. For instance, the phrase "the man who marched forward" is expressed in Middle Ru as <em>mimy ac'áza</em>. The participle itself may be followed by arguments (other than it's O-role) as if it was a primary verb: <em>k'et åcẃño mimy</em> (house PTC-build-PTC man) for 'the house built by the man'.</p>

	<p>A different structure is required for relative clauses where the described noun phrase occupies a role other than the participle verb's O-role (and thus requires a voice mark like antipassive <em>rrav-/rråv-</em>) with the original O-role being included as part of the relative clause. This is the case in the phrase 'the man that saw the mountain', where the described noun ('the man', <em>mimy</em>) takes the A-role (ergative, subject of transitive <em>zev</em>, 'to see') and the relative predicate includes the original O-role (the object, <em>ħox</em>). This requires a structure where the described noun is followed by the particle <em>a</em> (regardless of the vowel harmony class of any neighbouring words), the original O-role and then the participle with the appropriate participles:</p>		<p>A different structure is required for relative clauses where the described noun phrase occupies a role other than the participle verb's O-role (and thus requires a voice mark like antipassive <em>rrav-/rråv-</em>) with the original O-role being included as part of the relative clause. This is the case in the phrase 'the man that saw the mountain', where the described noun ('the man', <em>mimy</em>) takes the A-role (ergative, subject of transitive <em>zev</em>, 'to see') and the relative predicate includes the original O-role (the object, <em>ħox</em>). This requires a structure where the described noun is followed by the particle <em>a</em> (regardless of the vowel harmony class of any neighbouring words), the original O-role and then the participle with the appropriate participles:</p>

Jotadiego at 00:51, 13 April 2020

2020-04-13T00:51:59Z

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	<h3>The verb stem</h3>		<h3>The verb stem</h3>

	<p>The stem is the main morpheme that decides the meaning of the verb. A MIddle Ru verbal stem will always ~~occurr~~ with at least one suffix although they will be listed on their most basic form in the dictionary. It should be noted that a bare stem might violate the phonotactics of the language. For instance, <em>qyt'</em> (to harvest) would not contitute a valid Middle Ru word as the phonotactics forbid a word-final ejective. This is not an issue since all forms of the verb have vowel immediately following the ejective <em>t'</em>, as in <em>qyt'imak</em> (I havested them).</p>		<p>The stem is the main morpheme that decides the meaning of the verb. A MIddle Ru verbal stem will always occur with at least one suffix although they will be listed on their most basic form in the dictionary..</p>

	<p>Verb stems whose romanized forms seem to end in a vowel, such as <em>da</em> (to remember) actually have a glottal coda (unwritten between vowels): /da.ʔ/, as seen in the conjugated form <em>daiħaŋ</em> (I remembered it): /da.ʔiˈχaŋ/. This is still the case when the vowel in the suffix coincides with the last vowel in the stem, as in <em>daarxes</em> (you remember me): /da.ʔaɹˈʃøs/, although a relatively small number of speakers might have contracted these sequences to a bare vowel (yielding /daɹˈʃøs/ for <em>da[a]rxes</em>). It should be noted that contracting /V.ʔV/ to /V/ is a nearly universal phenomenon for nouns (for instance, the ergative form of <em>c'áza</em> is <em>c'azat</em> rather than <em>*c'azaat</em>). The absence of contractions in verbs might be a result of Middle Ru speakers considering the glottal stop as being part of the verb root itself rather than an artifact of the language's phonology as in nominal affixes.</p>		<p>Verb stems whose romanized forms seem to end in a vowel, such as <em>da</em> (to remember) actually have a glottal coda (unwritten between vowels): /da.ʔ/, as seen in the conjugated form <em>daiħaŋ</em> (I remembered it): /da.ʔiˈχaŋ/. This is still the case when the vowel in the suffix coincides with the last vowel in the stem, as in <em>daarxes</em> (you remember me): /da.ʔaɹˈʃøs/, although a relatively small number of speakers might have contracted these sequences to a bare vowel (yielding /daɹˈʃøs/ for <em>da[a]rxes</em>). It should be noted that contracting /V.ʔV/ to /V/ is a nearly universal phenomenon for nouns (for instance, the ergative form of <em>c'áza</em> is <em>c'azat</em> rather than <em>*c'azaat</em>). The absence of contractions in verbs might be a result of Middle Ru speakers considering the glottal stop as being part of the verb root itself rather than an artifact of the language's phonology as in nominal affixes.</p>
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	<p>In order to incorporate a noun into a verb, the base form of the noun (with no number nor case affixes) is added after the verb stem. A connecting affix <em>-ö-</em> (<em>-e-</em> or <em>-o-</em> depending on the vowel harmony class <b>of the incorporated noun</b>) is used except for vowel-initial nouns. For instance, incorporating the vowel-initial noun <em>áɣa</em> (land, dirt) to the verb <em>myjt</em> (to cover) results in forms such as <em>myjt<b>aɣa</b>iħárga</em> (I covered it with dirt ~ I buried it) while incorporating <em>qana</em> (family) to <em>hwn</em> (to rule) yields forms such as <em>hwn<b>eqana</b>armat</em> (you belong to the ruling dynasty, literally 'you family-rule them'), with an extra <em>e</em> connecting the two words. It should be noted that incorporated nouns <b>might belong to the opposite vowel harmony class</b> as in the latter example (<em>hwn</em> being a dark-class verb while <em>qana</em> is a clear-class noun). In these cases, all suffixes occurring after the noun belong to the same harmony class as the <em>noun</em>. Because of this, we find the clear-harmony affixes <em>-armat</em> in <em>hwneqanaarmat</em> but their dark-harmony counterparts <em>-årmåt</em> when no noun is incorporated to the verb: <em>hwnårmåt</em> (you rule over them).</p>		<p>In order to incorporate a noun into a verb, the base form of the noun (with no number nor case affixes) is added after the verb stem. A connecting affix <em>-ö-</em> (<em>-e-</em> or <em>-o-</em> depending on the vowel harmony class <b>of the incorporated noun</b>) is used except for vowel-initial nouns. For instance, incorporating the vowel-initial noun <em>áɣa</em> (land, dirt) to the verb <em>myjt</em> (to cover) results in forms such as <em>myjt<b>aɣa</b>iħárga</em> (I covered it with dirt ~ I buried it) while incorporating <em>qana</em> (family) to <em>hwn</em> (to rule) yields forms such as <em>hwn<b>eqana</b>armat</em> (you belong to the ruling dynasty, literally 'you family-rule them'), with an extra <em>e</em> connecting the two words. It should be noted that incorporated nouns <b>might belong to the opposite vowel harmony class</b> as in the latter example (<em>hwn</em> being a dark-class verb while <em>qana</em> is a clear-class noun). In these cases, all suffixes occurring after the noun belong to the same harmony class as the <em>noun</em>. Because of this, we find the clear-harmony affixes <em>-armat</em> in <em>hwneqanaarmat</em> but their dark-harmony counterparts <em>-årmåt</em> when no noun is incorporated to the verb: <em>hwnårmåt</em> (you rule over them).</p>

	<p>Incorporated nouns most commonly indicate an instrument or material used to perform an action. For instance, 'the city was built with stone' could be translated as <em>~~cwñepañeiħañ~~ ɣen</em>, literally 'they stone-built the city', incorporating <em>~~páñe~~</em> (stone) into the verb <em>cwñ</em> (to build). This kind of sentences, however, might also be expressed with the instrumental case as in <em>cwñwħåñ ɣen ~~syrpáñe~~</em> (literally 'they built the city with-stone') and the latter usage seems to have been favoured in official Cadarmeni documents. Incorporated nouns might also be used to indicate generic direct objects as in <em>qyt'ek'et'aiħañ</em> for 'they harvested rice' (incorporating <em>k'ét'a</em>, 'rice', into the verb <em>qyt'</em>, 'to harvested') although this seems to have been limited to a few idiomatic examples.</p>		<p>Incorporated nouns most commonly indicate an instrument or material used to perform an action. For instance, 'the city was built with stone' could be translated as <em>cwñep'añeiħañ ɣen</em>, literally 'they stone-built the city', incorporating <em>p'áñe</em> (stone) into the verb <em>cwñ</em> (to build). This kind of sentences, however, might also be expressed with the instrumental case as in <em>cwñwħåñ ɣen syrp'áñe</em> (literally 'they built the city with-stone') and the latter usage seems to have been favoured in official Cadarmeni documents. Incorporated nouns might also be used to indicate generic direct objects as in <em>qyt'ek'et'aiħañ</em> for 'they harvested rice' (incorporating <em>k'ét'a</em>, 'rice', into the verb <em>qyt'</em>, 'to harvested') although this seems to have been limited to a few idiomatic examples.</p>

	<p>Additionally, noun incorporation would occasionally yield phrases with an <em>a priori</em> unexpected idiomatic usage. As seen before, <em>hwn</em> (to rule) plus <em>qana</em> (family) yielded a verb that meant ' to belong to the ruling family'. A more systematic example is the usage of <em>qurt</em> (hands) to indicate that an action is done by oneself. For instance <em>cavdoqurtwħåñ sek mimy</em>, literally 'the man hand-cut the trees' will typically imply that the man cut all the trees 'by himself' rather than doing it 'by hand'. <em>Qurt</em> can be incorporated into a verb with a more literal meaning, however: <em>dåfoqurtårmås</em> (incorporating <em>qurt</em> to <em>dåf</em>, 'to eat') would be more likely to be understood as meaning 'I was eating them using my hands (not cutlery)' than 'I was eating them on my own'.</p>		<p>Additionally, noun incorporation would occasionally yield phrases with an <em>a priori</em> unexpected idiomatic usage. As seen before, <em>hwn</em> (to rule) plus <em>qana</em> (family) yielded a verb that meant ' to belong to the ruling family'. A more systematic example is the usage of <em>qurt</em> (hands) to indicate that an action is done by oneself. For instance <em>cavdoqurtwħåñ sek mimy</em>, literally 'the man hand-cut the trees' will typically imply that the man cut all the trees 'by himself' rather than doing it 'by hand'. <em>Qurt</em> can be incorporated into a verb with a more literal meaning, however: <em>dåfoqurtårmås</em> (incorporating <em>qurt</em> to <em>dåf</em>, 'to eat') would be more likely to be understood as meaning 'I was eating them using my hands (not cutlery)' than 'I was eating them on my own'.</p>

Jotadiego at 00:07, 13 April 2020

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	<p>The man (subject, <em>mimy</em>) gave the stone (direct object, <em>p'áñel</em>) to the woman (indirect object, <em>xek'a</em>).</p>		<p>The man (subject, <em>mimy</em>) gave the stone (direct object, <em>p'áñel</em>) to the woman (indirect object, <em>xek'a</em>).</p>

	<p>As it has been mentioned before, this phrase on its own ~~takess~~ the indirect object (the woman) as its primary argument. This allows a speaker to construct a sentence when only this argument is specified (arguments in brackets are optional):</p>		<p>As it has been mentioned before, this phrase on its own takes the indirect object (the woman) as its primary argument. This allows a speaker to construct a sentence when only this argument is specified (arguments in brackets are optional):</p>

	<p><em>Λuwħåls xek'aħ [ga] [p'áñelt].</em></p>		<p><em>Λuwħåls xek'aħ [ga] [p'áñelt].</em></p>

Jotadiego at 21:21, 12 April 2020

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	<p>does not imply that the soldiers forced or even ordered the man to cut the trees but rather implies that the man did it on his own in order to ease their march. This contrasts with the causative form <em>ižycavdimax swroħúrwm sek mimýaħ </em> (the soldiers made the man cut the trees) where it could be assumed that the soldiers played an active role in having the man cut the tree.</p>		<p>does not imply that the soldiers forced or even ordered the man to cut the trees but rather implies that the man did it on his own in order to ease their march. This contrasts with the causative form <em>ižycavdimax swroħúrwm sek mimýaħ </em> (the soldiers made the man cut the trees) where it could be assumed that the soldiers played an active role in having the man cut the tree.</p>

	<p>In a type-I ~~causative~~, the benefited argument takes the absolutive case, while the argument that hold that position before (the object in a transitive verb or the subject in an intransitive verb) takes the secundative case instead, as seen in <em>séket</em>, the secundative form of <em>sek</em> (trees). The secundative argument may be dropped as in the following example:</p>		<p>In a type-I applicative, the benefited argument takes the absolutive case, while the argument that hold that position before (the object in a transitive verb or the subject in an intransitive verb) takes the secundative case instead, as seen in <em>séket</em>, the secundative form of <em>sek</em> (trees). The secundative argument may be dropped as in the following example:</p>

	<p><em>Kocwñimax oħúrwmaħ mimy. </em></p>		<p><em>Kocwñimax oħúrwmaħ mimy. </em></p>

Jotadiego at 02:22, 12 April 2020

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	<p>Is the man sleeping?</p>		<p>Is the man sleeping?</p>

	<p>These kind of questions may be ~~answers~~ by using a positive or negative of the main verb (<em>myfarğaryls</em>, 'is sleeping', for 'yes' or <em>myfarğarylsíma</em>, 'isn't sleeping' for 'no') or, more commonly, by using the positive or negative forms of the verb 'to be', in this case <em>sils</em> (is) for 'yes' and <em>ixýma</em> (is not) for 'no'. In Late Middle Ru, the adverb <em>zw</em> (thus, that way) also became a popular alternative for 'yes'.</p>		<p>These kind of questions may be answered by using a positive or negative of the main verb (<em>myfarğaryls</em>, 'is sleeping', for 'yes' or <em>myfarğarylsíma</em>, 'isn't sleeping' for 'no') or, more commonly, by using the positive or negative forms of the verb 'to be', in this case <em>sils</em> (is) for 'yes' and <em>ixýma</em> (is not) for 'no'. In Late Middle Ru, the adverb <em>zw</em> (thus, that way) also became a popular alternative for 'yes'.</p>

	<h3>Voice prefixes and valency operations</h3>		<h3>Voice prefixes and valency operations</h3>

Jotadiego at 20:30, 11 April 2020

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	<p>On its own, the locative case (expressed with the prefixes <em>by-</em> or </em>bw-</em>) is restricted to static location in or at a place. Other kinds of locative phrases will use an auxiliary word before the basic locative form of the noun. These preposition-like auxiliary nouns are often locative-case nouns themselves. For instance, 'below' uses the preposition <em>bycym</em>, the locative form of <em>cym</em> 'feet'; 'below the tree' becomes <em>bycym byselk</em>, literally 'at the foot of the tree'.</p>		<p>On its own, the locative case (expressed with the prefixes <em>by-</em> or </em>bw-</em>) is restricted to static location in or at a place. Other kinds of locative phrases will use an auxiliary word before the basic locative form of the noun. These preposition-like auxiliary nouns are often locative-case nouns themselves. For instance, 'below' uses the preposition <em>bycym</em>, the locative form of <em>cym</em> 'feet'; 'below the tree' becomes <em>bycym byselk</em>, literally 'at the foot of the tree'.</p>

	<p>Locatives that apply to a complete sentence may be found either right after the verb or at the very end of the sentence. Locatives that describe the location of a noun follow the noun phrase they modify. This means that <em>Myfarğaryls mimýaħ ~~bycyn~~ byselk</em> may translate either as "the man is sleeping below the tree" or as "the man below the tree is sleeping". The alternative form <em>Myfarğaryls ~~bycyn~~ byselk mimýaħ</em> would unambiguously translate as 'the man is sleeping below the tree'.</p>		<p>Locatives that apply to a complete sentence may be found either right after the verb or at the very end of the sentence. Locatives that describe the location of a noun follow the noun phrase they modify. This means that <em>Myfarğaryls mimýaħ bycym byselk</em> may translate either as "the man is sleeping below the tree" or as "the man below the tree is sleeping". The alternative form <em>Myfarğaryls bycym byselk mimýaħ</em> would unambiguously translate as 'the man is sleeping below the tree'.</p>

	<h4>Other cases</h4>		<h4>Other cases</h4>

Jotadiego at 05:48, 11 April 2020

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	<p>Voiced fricatives (aside from /ɮ/, which shall be discussed later) are also an innovation in Middle Ru. They may arise sporadically from their voiceless counterparts (uvular /χ/ in the case of pharyngeal /ʕ/) in the vecinity of other voiced consonants (as in PRH <em>bʷuh</em>, 'to stir', to MR <em>buʕ</em>, 'to mix') or in the same contexts that cause plosives to become ejective (PRH <em>xʷoʕn</em>, 'town', to MR <em>ɣen</em>, both meaning 'town'; PRH <em>ʔaʔxa</em> to MR <em>áɣa</em>, both meaning 'land'). Any instances which could result in a voiced /f/ yield an approximant <em>v</em> /w/ instead: PRH <em>muʕf</em> 'to breathe', MR <em>myv</em>, 'to live'. Evidence indicates that in early Middle Ru (and possibly later in some dialectal pronunciations) these instances of Middle Ru <em>v</em> might have been realized as [v], contrasting with the phoneme /w/ as inherited from other sources (such as Proto Ru-Hulam /w/). The two sounds, however, had been fully merged in the Cadarmeni standard.</p>		<p>Voiced fricatives (aside from /ɮ/, which shall be discussed later) are also an innovation in Middle Ru. They may arise sporadically from their voiceless counterparts (uvular /χ/ in the case of pharyngeal /ʕ/) in the vecinity of other voiced consonants (as in PRH <em>bʷuh</em>, 'to stir', to MR <em>buʕ</em>, 'to mix') or in the same contexts that cause plosives to become ejective (PRH <em>xʷoʕn</em>, 'town', to MR <em>ɣen</em>, both meaning 'town'; PRH <em>ʔaʔxa</em> to MR <em>áɣa</em>, both meaning 'land'). Any instances which could result in a voiced /f/ yield an approximant <em>v</em> /w/ instead: PRH <em>muʕf</em> 'to breathe', MR <em>myv</em>, 'to live'. Evidence indicates that in early Middle Ru (and possibly later in some dialectal pronunciations) these instances of Middle Ru <em>v</em> might have been realized as [v], contrasting with the phoneme /w/ as inherited from other sources (such as Proto Ru-Hulam /w/). The two sounds, however, had been fully merged in the Cadarmeni standard.</p>

	<p>Unlike Middle Ru, Proto Ru-Hulam featured two lateral fricatives: voiceless /ɬ/ and ~~voiceless~~ /ɮ/ (the latter often transcribed as a non-ligated <em>lʒ</em> for the sake of convenience) in addition to the lateral approximant /l/. Voiceless <em><b>ɬ</b></em> commonly merged into /l/, especially in coda-position, but could also yield palatal /ʎ/ near front vowels. For instance, the verb 'to give', <em>ʎu</em> (with an earlier variant <em>ʎi</em>),comes from PRH <em>ɬi</em>.On the other hand, the voiced lateral fricative <em><b>lʒ</b></em> would most commonly evolve into <em>z</em> /z/ (PRH <em>kaʔlʒ</em>, 'to slide', to MR <em>c'az</em>, 'to move forward') or <em>ž</em> /ʒ/ if in the vecinity of a front vowel: PRH <em>ʔilʒ</em>, 'to summon', yields the causative prefix <em>ižy-</em> (harmonized to <em>užw-</em> in dark-harmony words). Proto Ru-Hulam laterals did not contrast labialization, atlhough vowels in the vecinity of PRH /l/ will often evolve as if next to a labialized consonant: PRH <em>lam</em> yields MR <em>låm</em> (both meaning silver</em>, with a back rounded <em>å</em>).</p>		<p>Unlike Middle Ru, Proto Ru-Hulam featured two lateral fricatives: voiceless /ɬ/ and voiced /ɮ/ (the latter often transcribed as a non-ligated <em>lʒ</em> for the sake of convenience) in addition to the lateral approximant /l/. Voiceless <em><b>ɬ</b></em> commonly merged into /l/, especially in coda-position, but could also yield palatal /ʎ/ near front vowels. For instance, the verb 'to give', <em>ʎu</em> (with an earlier variant <em>ʎi</em>), comes from PRH <em>ɬi</em>.On the other hand, the voiced lateral fricative <em><b>lʒ</b></em> would most commonly evolve into <em>z</em> /z/ (PRH <em>kaʔlʒ</em>, 'to slide', to MR <em>c'az</em>, 'to move forward') or <em>ž</em> /ʒ/ if in the vecinity of a front vowel: PRH <em>ʔilʒ</em>, 'to summon', yields the causative prefix <em>ižy-</em> (harmonized to <em>užw-</em> in dark-harmony words). Proto Ru-Hulam laterals did not contrast labialization, atlhough vowels in the vecinity of PRH /l/ will often evolve as if next to a labialized consonant: PRH <em>lam</em> yields MR <em>låm</em> (both meaning silver</em>, with a back rounded <em>å</em>).</p>

	<p>Middle Ru's three non-lateral approximants <em>r</em> /ɹ/, <em>j</em> /j/ and <em>v</em> /w/ correspond to Proto Ru-Hulam's approximants <em>r</em> (and <em>rʷ</em>; probably flaps /ɾ/ and /ɾʷ/), <em>y</em> /j/ and <em>w</em> /w/, except for instance of Middle Ru <em>v</em> which evolved as a voiced counterpart to <em>f</em>. Proto Ru-Hulam rhotic approximants contrasted labialization while <em>y</em> and <em>w</em> did not.</p>		<p>Middle Ru's three non-lateral approximants <em>r</em> /ɹ/, <em>j</em> /j/ and <em>v</em> /w/ correspond to Proto Ru-Hulam's approximants <em>r</em> (and <em>rʷ</em>; probably flaps /ɾ/ and /ɾʷ/), <em>y</em> /j/ and <em>w</em> /w/, except for instance of Middle Ru <em>v</em> which evolved as a voiced counterpart to <em>f</em>. Proto Ru-Hulam rhotic approximants contrasted labialization while <em>y</em> and <em>w</em> did not.</p>