|speakers = 100 million L1 speakers (300 million L2 speakers)
|date = fT 7E0<sub>dd</sub>
|date = fT 1670<sub>dd</sub> (2676)
|familycolor=PfK
|familycolor=PfK
|fam1= [[Proto-Quihum|Quihum]]
|fam1= [[Proto-Quihum|Quihum]]
|fam2= [[Talmic languages|Talmic]]
|fam2= [[Talmic languages|Talmic]]
|fam3= Thensaric
|fam3= Thensaric
|fam4= Tìogallic
|fam4= Old Eevo
|iso3=qtg
|iso3=qtg
|notice=IPA
|notice=IPA
}}
}}
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' ({{PAGENAME}}: ''an Tìogall'' /ə ˈtiːɡəʟ/ or ''an ŋgàth dTìogall'' /ə ŋa:θ ˈdiːɡəʟ/ 'the {{PAGENAME}} language'; English: /ˈtiːgəl/ "teagle") is a [[Talmic languages|Talmic language]] inspired by Irish and German. Tìogall is a pluricentric language with a high degree of dialect diversity (namely, it is an official language in two countries, the peninsular [[Verse:Duìnidhe|Duìnidhe]] with more dialect diversity and the larger [[Verse:Neoibhir|Neoibhir]] with less dialect diversity). With 125 million speakers it's the largest Talmic language in terms of number of speakers. {{PAGENAME}} began as a thought experiment posing the question "What would Irish look like with umlaut instead of palatalization?". Like most modern Talmic languages, {{PAGENAME}} is a descendant of [[Thensarian]]. It is spoken on the west coast of the continent of Cuadhlabh on Hussmauch.
{{Infobox language
|image =
|imagesize =
|setting = Tíogallverse
|name = {{SUBPAGENAME}}
|nativename = ''an Tíogall''
|pronunciation= [ə ˈtiːɡ̊ɤᵝˤ]
|region = Talma
|speakers = 100 million L1 speakers (300 million L2 speakers)
|date = fT 1670<sub>dd</sub> (2676)
|familycolor=PfK
|fam1= [[Proto-Quihum|Quihum]]
|fam2= [[Talmic languages|Talmic]]
|fam3= Thensaric
|fam4= Old Eevo
|iso3=qtg
|notice=IPA
}}
'''{{SUBPAGENAME}}''' ({{SUBPAGENAME}}: ''an Tíogall'' /ə ˈtiːɡəʟ/ or ''an gháth Thíogall'' /ə ɣa:θ ˈθiːɡəʟ/ 'the {{SUBPAGENAME}} language'; English: /ˈtiːgəl/ "teagle") is a [[Talmic languages|Talmic language]] inspired by Irish, German and English. {{SUBPAGENAME}} began as a thought experiment posing the question "What would Irish look like with umlaut instead of palatalization?".
Tíogall is a pluricentric language - it is an official language in three countries, the peninsular Sceola with more dialect diversity, the larger Anbhair with less dialect diversity, and in Phormatin in addition to [[Phormatolidin]]. It is the largest Talmic language in terms of number of speakers. Like most modern Talmic languages, {{SUBPAGENAME}} is a descendant of [[Thensarian]]. It is spoken on the northwest coast of the continent of Etalocin (called ''Éatha'' in Tíogall) on the planet of Clotricin.
Modern Standard Tíogall arose as a literary koiné from disparate earlier Tíogallic dialects descended from [[Old Eevo]] from around fT 1160dd (1968). Thanks in large part to the printing press, Tíogall rapidly gained prominence over a larger area in Northern Talma and came to serve as a lingua franca for northern mainland Talma. Today, Tíogall still enjoys status as a "cultured" language and is one of the most widely taught foreign languages.
The name ''Tíogall'' is thought to be a [[Clofabic languages|Clofabic]] formation (before Modern Tíogall): ''Tiga'' (Tíogall ''Tíoga'') was a river in the northwestern Talma area where Tíogall originated, and to that was added the Clofabic attributive ''-l''.
==Todo==
==Todo==
*''càdlàg''
*Should have had more dh's
*Thermodynamics vocabulary:
*Single vs. double negatives: use both, do something weird
*When unstressed, ''-adh'' is devoiced to /əθ/ or /ət/.
*The ending ''-aigh/-igh'' is pronounced /ɨ/.
===Note on the Anglicization of {{SUBPAGENAME}}===
The {{SUBPAGENAME}} liquids ''r'' and ''l'' are consistently mapped to /r/ and /l/. (This is in fact a legitimate pronunciation in {{SUBPAGENAME}} provided you always velarize the /l/ as in American English.)
For {{SUBPAGENAME}} post-tonic /ð/, the pronunciation /ð/ is recommended, but /d/ is also allowed for ease of pronunciation.
For onset clusters that are disallowed in English, such as /tn/, we allow the addition of an epenthetic /ə/.
For syllable-initial /ŋ/ or /sŋ/, we recommend adding an epenthetic unstressed /ə/ or /ɪ/ before the /ŋ/. /ŋ/ after a tense vowel can be replaced with /n/.
The reduced vowels /ə/ and /ɨ/ should map to /ə/ and /ɪ/. If you have the weak-vowel merger, you can merge these two vowels.
==Orthography==
==Orthography==
[[File:Talmic cursive script.png|thumbnail|Talmic script, used for writing {{PAGENAME}}|750px]]
{{SUBPAGENAME}} is written in the Talmic script, which is written from left to right. The letters ''ħ'' /h/, ''j'' /j/ and ''v'' /v/ are used in [[Netagin]] and other loanwords. The letter ''h'' is used for lenition as in Irish. So the {{SUBPAGENAME}} alphabet is usually considered to have 23 letters (''r d z i a ħ f l m g c h b s v o j ŋ t n p e u'') (disregarding digraphs and length diacritics).
The native orthography is extremely conservative and in part reflects Old Eevo pronunciation. The romanization used in this article reflects the native spelling.
{{PAGENAME}} is written in the Talmic cursive script, which is written from left to right. The letters ''j'' /j/ and ''v'' /v/ are not used except in [[Netagin]] and other loanwords. The letter ''h'' is used for lenition as in Irish. So the {{PAGENAME}} alphabet is usually considered to have 20 letters (''r d z i a f m g t h b s o ŋ p l n e u c'') (digraphs and length diacritics are not counted).
===Numerals===
Written {{SUBPAGENAME}} uses a base-12 positional numeral system.
The native orthography is extremely conservative and in part reflects Old {{PAGENAME}} pronunciation. The native spelling also uses {{angbr|''ll, nn, ŋŋ, rr''}}.
*Fricativization of aspirates complete; /c ɟ cʰ ɟʰ/ have become /tʃ dʒ ʃ j/
*Fricativization of aspirates complete; /c ɟ cʰ ɟʰ/ have become /tʃ dʒ ʃ j/
*a lot of z's from Netagin loans by this time; s eclipses to z and z lenites to /Ø/, by analogy
*a lot of z's from Netagin loans by this time; s eclipses to z and z lenites to /Ø/, by analogy
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*voiceless stops gain aspiration except after /s/
*voiceless stops gain aspiration except after /s/
*/ʍ/ > /w/; /ɣ/ > /ː/ when not word-initial
*/ʍ/ > /w/; /ɣ/ > /ː/ when not word-initial
*/oː uː/ front to /ɵː ʉː/ except before /l/
*/oː uː/ front to /ɵː ʉː/ except before /l/ and possibly /r/
*/l/ > /ʀ~ʟ/; /r/ > /ɾ~l/
*/l/ > /ʀ~ʟ/; /r/ > /ɾ~l/
*Some dialects: /s/ > /ʃ/ before /p t k m n ŋ ʟ ɾ/
*Some dialects: /s/ > /ʃ/ before /p t k m n ŋ ʟ ɾ/
==Phonology==
==Phonology==
''ètaoin'' (Standard) Tìogall is defined by a set of grammar rules, rather than by an accent (as long as it is intelligible to the majority of Tìogall speakers). Certain defined phonemes and phonetic processes can be observed within Standard Tìogall which in turn display diaphonemic variation based on the accent region.
''Étaoin'' (Standard) Tíogall is defined by a set of grammar rules, rather than by an accent (as long as it is intelligible to the majority of Tíogall speakers). Certain defined phonemes and phonetic processes can be observed within Standard Tíogall which in turn display diaphonemic variation based on the accent region.
The following describes Tìogall as spoken in ''Smeola'', the capital of Duìnidhe which is often called the "Duìnidhe accent".
The following describes Tíogall as spoken in ''Smeola'', the capital of Duínidhe which is often called the "Duínidhe accent".
===Stress===
===Stress===
Primary stress usually falls on the first syllable, except for some inflected prepositions.
In native words, primary stress usually falls on the first syllable, except for some inflected prepositions. In loans, stress may not be initial; in that case, vowels before the stressed syllable are ''not'' reduced.
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
{{PAGENAME}} has a relatively average consonant inventory of around 25 consonants. The phonology is unusual for having two liquids that do not distinguish "rhoticity".
{{PAGENAME}} has a relatively average consonant inventory of around 25 consonants. The phonology is unusual for having two liquids that do not distinguish "rhoticity".
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|
|
| /ɾ~ɺ~l/ || ||
| /ɾ~ɺ~l/ || ||
| /ʁ~ʟ/ ||
| /ʟ/ ||
|-
|-
!colspan="2"| Approximant
!colspan="2"| Approximant
| /w/ ||
| ||
| /j/ ||
| /j/ ||
| ||
| ||
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;Notes
;Notes
*An initial /ʔ/ can be added to null initials (but is not mandatory).
*An initial /ʔ/ can be added to null initials (but is not mandatory).
*Voiceless stops are aspirated syllable-initially; voiced stops devoice after voiceless sounds.
*Smeola {{PAGENAME}} has a form of Auslautverhärtung: voicing is neutralized for word-final stops but not word-final fricatives.
*Smeola {{PAGENAME}} has a form of Auslautverhärtung: voicing is neutralized for word-final stops but not word-final fricatives.
*/w/ is a labiovelar approximant [ɰʷ] with the vocalic quality of [u].
*/n, t, d, θ, ð/ are usually dental [n̪, t̪, d̪, θ, ð].
*/n, t, d, θ, ð/ are usually dental [n̪, t̪, d̪, θ, ð].
*/s, z/ are laminal alveolar [s, z].
*/s, z/ are laminal alveolar [s, z].
*The coronal liquid has 3 allophones broadly:
*The coronal liquid /ɺ/ has 3 allophones broadly:
**After a consonant, it is a postalveolar [ɾ̞].
**After a consonant, it is a postalveolar [ɾ̞].
**Word-initially or intervocalically, it is a postalveolar [ɾ], [l̠̆] or [l̆].
**Word-initially or intervocalically, it is a postalveolar [ɾ], [l̠̆] or [l̆].
**Before a consonant or word-finally, it is a prevelar approximant [j̠] or a postalveolar [l̠] with varying resonances (though never velarized) depending on speaker.
**Before a consonant or word-finally, it is a prevelar approximant [j̠] or a postalveolar [l̠] with varying resonances (though never velarized) depending on speaker.
*/ŋ, k, g/ are usually velar [ŋ, k, g], but are often labialized pharyngealized uvular [qʷ, qʷˁ, ɢʷˁ] next to /ʀ~ʟ/. /kʀ/ becomes an affricate or a trilled affricate [qχ].
*/ŋ, k, g/ are usually velar [ŋ, k, g], but are often labialized pharyngealized uvular [qʷ, qʷˁ, ɢʷˁ] next to /ʀ~ʟ/. /kʟ/ becomes an affricate or a trilled affricate [qχ].
*/ŋ, k, g, x, ɣ/ are prevelar before front vowels.
*/ŋ, k, g, x, ɣ/ are prevelar before front vowels.
*The uvular liquid /ɢ̆~ʟ/:
*The uvular liquid, transcribed as /ʟ/ for convenience' sake, has the following allophones:
**The allophone occuring before vowels is a pharyngealized uvular flap [ɢ̆ᵝˤ] in careful speech which devoices to [χᵝˤ] after an aspirate or another fricative. In casual speech it tends to become an approximant [ʁᵝ] or velar [ɰᵝ].
**The allophone occuring before vowels is a pharyngealized uvular flap [ɢ̆ᵝˤ] or trill [ʀᵝˤ] in careful speech which devoices to [χᵝˤ] after an aspirate or another fricative. In casual speech it tends to become an approximant [ʁᵝ] or velar [ɰᵝ].
**The allophone occuring before consonants is phonetically a pharyngealized uvular approximant with compressed rounding [ʁ̞ᵝˤ~ʁ̠̞ᵝ]; the vocalic quality resembles [ɤ]. It is similar to the Philadelphia English vocalized L. This allophone will be transcribed as /ʟ/ for convenience.
**The allophone occuring before consonants is phonetically a pharyngealized uvular approximant with compressed rounding [ʁ̞ᵝˤ~ʁ̠̞ᵝ]; the vocalic quality resembles [ɤ]. It is similar to the Philadelphia English vocalized L.
**In classical singing and drama, [ɫ] is used in all positions.
**In classical singing and drama, [ɫ] is used in all positions.
*After a vowel, /ɣ/ disappears with compensatory lengthening of the vowel if the vowel is short. (Unless the /ɣ/ begins a stressed syllable.)
*After a vowel, /ɣ/ colloquially disappears with compensatory lengthening of the vowel if the vowel is short (unless the /ɣ/ begins a stressed syllable.)
====Fortis and lenis resonants====
====Fortis and lenis resonants====
Certain accents and dialects preserve to varying degrees the Old {{PAGENAME}} distinction between fortis and lenis resonants: /l L n N r R/. In fact, the Tumacaimh dialect has:
Certain conservative accents and dialects preserve to varying degrees the Old Eevo distinction between fortis and lenis resonants: /l L n N r R/. In fact, the Tumacaimh dialect has:
<sup>*</sup>The clusters ''sp'', ''st'', ''sc'' do not mutate.
<sup>*</sup>The clusters written ''sp'', ''st'', ''sc'' do not mutate.
===Vowels===
===Vowels===
{{PAGENAME}} has a vowel system with a complexity comparable to that of German, with 7 basic vowel qualities, vowel length, and the effects of L-vocalization.
{{PAGENAME}} has a vowel system with a complexity comparable to that of German, with 7 basic vowel qualities with a tense-lax distinction, and the effects of L-vocalization.
A hiatus between a root vowel and a schwa is written '''h''' in this article's orthography (Note /h/ is not allowed word-medially).
The vowels /ə/ and /ɨ/ occur only in unstressed syllables; they merge before ''l''.
====''L''-colored vowels====
====''L''-colored vowels====
L-colored vowels and diphthongs result from combinations of any vowels or diphthongs with the back liquid /ʟ/ (phonetic values are as in Smeola Tìogall):
L-colored vowels and diphthongs result from combinations of any vowels or diphthongs with the back liquid /ʟ/ (phonetic values are as in Smeola Tíogall):
* /iː/, /iə/ + /ʟ/ > /iʟ/ [iɤˁ]
* /iː/, /iə/ + /ʟ/ > /iʟ/ [iɤˁ]
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* /ɐ/, /aː/ + /ʟ/ > /ɑʟ/ /ɒˁː~ɑɤˁ/
* /ɐ/, /aː/ + /ʟ/ > /ɑʟ/ /ɒˁː~ɑɤˁ/
Accents that are ''lambdic'' may realize the /ʟ/ in one of several ways (pharyngealization, nasalization, [ɴ], [ʀ]). ''Non-lambdic'' accents are those in which vocalization of ''l'' after vowels is complete; the L-colored vowels display no secondary articulation.
Accents that are ''lambdic'' may realize the /ʟ/ in one of several ways (pharyngealization, nasalization, [ɴ], [ʀ]). ''Non-lambdic'' accents are those in which vocalization of ''l'' after vowels is complete; the L-coloring is purely a difference in vowel quality and displays no secondary articulation.
====Notes====
====Notes====
=====Close vowels=====
=====Close vowels=====
*/iː/ is close front unrounded [iː] ([[Media:Tigall_ì.ogg|listen]]).
*/iː/ is close front unrounded [iː] ([[Media:Tigall_í.ogg|listen]]).
*/iə/ is phonetically [iə] ([[Media:Tigall_è.ogg|listen]]).
*/iə/ is phonetically [iə] ([[Media:Tigall_é.ogg|listen]]).
*/iʟ/ is phonetically [iːɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_ìl.ogg|listen]]).
*/iʟ/ is phonetically [iːɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_íl.ogg|listen]]).
*/yː/ is usually close near-front rounded [y̠ː] ([[Media:Tigall_ùi.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is compressed.
*/yː/ is usually close near-front rounded [y̠ː] ([[Media:Tigall_úi.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is compressed.
*/yə/ is phonetically [yə], [y̠ə] or [ʏə] ([[Media:Tigall_òi.ogg|listen]]).
*/yə/ is phonetically [yə], [y̠ə] or [ʏə] ([[Media:Tigall_ói.ogg|listen]]).
*/yʟ/ is phonetically [y̠ːɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_ùil.ogg|listen]]).
*/yʟ/ is phonetically [y̠ːɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_úil.ogg|listen]]).
*/ʉː/ is somewhat retracted close central rounded [ʉ̠ː] ([[Media:Tigall_ù.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is protruded.
*/ʉː/ is somewhat retracted close central rounded [ʉ̠ː] ([[Media:Tigall_ú.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is protruded.
*/uə/ is phonetically [uə] or [ʊə] ([[Media:Tigall_ò.ogg|listen]]). It is a monophthong [uː] for some speakers.
*/uə/ is phonetically [uə] or [ʊə] ([[Media:Tigall_ó.ogg|listen]]). It is a monophthong [uː] for some speakers.
*/ʊʟ/ is near-close back rounded [ʊ̠ˁː] ([[Media:Tigall_ul.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is compressed.
*/ʊʟ/ is near-close back rounded [ʊ̠ˁː] ([[Media:Tigall_ul.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is compressed.
**In careful speech, this is a diphthong [ʊ̠ɤˁ].
**In careful speech, this is a diphthong [ʊ̠ɤˁ].
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=====Mid vowels=====
=====Mid vowels=====
*/eː/ is close-mid front unrounded [eː] ([[Media:Tigall_aè.ogg|listen]]).
*/eː/ is close-mid front unrounded [eː] ([[Media:Tigall_aé.ogg|listen]]).
*/eʟ/ is phonetically [eːɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_aèl.ogg|listen]]).
*/eʟ/ is phonetically [eːɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_aél.ogg|listen]]).
*/øː/ is close-mid near-front rounded [ø̠ː] or mid front rounded [ø̞ː] ([[Media:Tigall_aòi.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is compressed.
*/øː/ is close-mid near-front rounded [ø̠ː] or mid front rounded [ø̞ː] ([[Media:Tigall_aói.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is compressed.
*/øʟ/ is phonetically [ø̠ːɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_aòil.ogg|listen]]).
*/øʟ/ is phonetically [ø̠ːɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_aóil.ogg|listen]]).
*/ɵː/ is somewhat retracted close-mid central rounded [ө̠ː] ([[Media:Tigall_aò.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is protruded.
*/ɵː/ is somewhat retracted close-mid central rounded [ө̠ː] ([[Media:Tigall_aó.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is protruded.
*/ɔʟ/ is open-mid near-back rounded [ɔˁː] ([[Media:Tigall_aol.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is compressed.
*/ɔʟ/ is open-mid near-back rounded [ɔˁː] ([[Media:Tigall_aol.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is compressed.
**In careful speech, this is a diphthong [oɤˁ] or [ɔɤˁ].
**In careful speech, this is a diphthong [oɤˁ] or [ɔɤˁ].
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*/œʟ/ is phonetically [œɤˁ] or [ɞɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_oil.ogg|listen]]).
*/œʟ/ is phonetically [œɤˁ] or [ɞɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_oil.ogg|listen]]).
*[ə] is mid central unrounded [ə]. It is often fronted [ə̟] in pausa.
*[ə] is mid central unrounded [ə]. It is often fronted [ə̟] in pausa.
**If a sonorant /m, n, ŋ, l/ follows in the syllable coda, the schwa often disappears so that the sonorant becomes syllabic.
*[ɤˁ] is close-mid compressed pharyngealized [ɤᵝˁ].
*[ɤˁ] is close-mid compressed pharyngealized [ɤᵝˁ].
*/ɔ/ is open-mid back rounded [ɔ] or mid back rounded [o̞] ([[Media:Tigall_o.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is protruded.
*/ɔ/ is open-mid back rounded [ɔ] or mid back rounded [o̞] ([[Media:Tigall_o.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is protruded.
=====Open vowels=====
=====Open vowels=====
*/aː/ is central unrounded [äː] ([[Media:Tigall_à.ogg|listen]]).
*/aː/ is central unrounded [äː] ([[Media:Tigall_á.ogg|listen]]); historically, upper-class accents used [ɑː].
*/ɐ/ is near-open central unrounded [ɐ] ([[Media:Tigall_a.ogg|listen]]).
*/a/ is near-open central unrounded [ɐ] ([[Media:Tigall_a.ogg|listen]]).
*/ɑʟ/ is most often phonetically a diphthong [ɑɤˁ] or [äɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_àl.ogg|listen]]).
*/ɑʟ/ is most often phonetically a diphthong [ɑɤˁ] or [äɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_ál.ogg|listen]]).
====Umlaut====
====Umlaut====
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===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
Allowed initial clusters in roots:
Allowed initial clusters in roots (in native words):
*''bl br cl cn cr dl dr fl fr gl gn gr ml mn mr ŋl ŋr (pl) (pr) sc scl scr (sp) st sl sm sn sŋ sr tn tl tr''
*''bl br cl cn cr dl dr fl fr gl gn gr ml mn mr ŋl ŋr (pl) (pr) sc scl scr (sp) sl sm sn sŋ sr st tn tl tr''
===Some phonological rules===
===Some phonological rules===
*unstressed /əwə/ > ''-ù-'' /ʉː/
*unstressed /əwə/ > ''-ú-'' /ʉː/
*/ʏw/, /yəw/, /yːw/ > /ʉː/
*/ʏw/, /yəw/, /yːw/ > /ʉː/
===Prosody===
{{SUBPAGENAME}} has a distinctive intonation paradigm. Within said paradigm, some accents (e.g. Smeola) can sound like a stereotypical Cork accent, while some accents (e.g. Óc Eo) sound more like Valspeak.
*In declarative sentences, the stressed syllable of the focus word (if there is no focused constituent, the last word) has a lower pitch than the immediately preceding syllable. ("...mid ꜜ LOW mid...") This originates from discursive uptalk in older forms of {{SUBPAGENAME}}, which has since generalized to all declarative sentences. A few accents, such as Tumacan accents, do not use this pattern.
*In interrogative sentences, the stressed syllable of the focus word has a higher pitch than the syllable immediately before. ("... mid ꜛ HIGH mid ... ?")
*In exclamations, the pattern is "... mid ꜜ LOW-HIGH mid ... !", possibly with a gradual drop to low pitch in the end. Angry or indignant questions also use an exclamatory intonation.
==Dialectology==
==Dialectology==
Tìogall is subject to a fair amount of accentual and dialectal variation due to the number of speakers.
{{SUBPAGENAME}} is subject to a fair amount of accentual and dialectal variation due to the number of speakers.
===Smeola accent===
Described in the "Phonology" section.
===Scàdar accent===
/ʉː, ɵː/ retain fully back allophones before /ɾ~l/ in some accents, especially in Duínidhean accents.
This dialect is most prominent in and around the òc Eo (/ɵːk ɵː/ 'white rock', English: /ˈoʊkoʊ/) metropolitan area in Neoibhir.
===Scádar accent===
This dialect is most prominent in and around the Óc Eo (/ɵːk ɵː/ 'white rock', English: /ˈoʊk.oʊ/ "oak-oh") metropolitan area in Anbhair.
*''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, [ɴ̆] initial/intervocalic
*''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, [ɴ̆] initial/intervocalic
*/Vʟ/ = [Vɴ] before a consonant
*/Vʟ/ = [Vɴ] before a consonant
*''r'' = [l̆] before a vowel, [l] before a consonant or word-finally
*''r'' = [l] in all positions
*/θ, ð/ = [ts, dz] when not before a plosive
*/θ, ð/ = [ts, dz] when not before a plosive
*No Auslautverhärtung at all (except ''-ig'' and ''-igh'')
*No Auslautverhärtung at all (except ''-ig'' and ''-igh'')
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Line 467:
*/ɛ, œ, ɔ/ > [ɪ, ʏ, ʊ] before nasals
*/ɛ, œ, ɔ/ > [ɪ, ʏ, ʊ] before nasals
*/ɛj/ > [aj]
*/ɛj/ > [aj]
*/a/ = [æ] before coronals
*/aː/ is backed to [ɑː~ɒː]
===Cnòlta accent===
===Cnólta accent===
Spoken in the largely rural areas of Cnòlta (/ˈknɔːˁtə/, English: /kəˈnɔːltə/ or /kəˈnoʊltə/) in southeastern Duìnidhe.
Spoken in the largely rural areas of Cnólta (/ˈknɔːˁtə/, English: /kəˈnɔːltə/ or /kəˈnoʊltə/). Stereotypically associated with backwardness and boorishness.
Stereotypically associated with backwardness and boorishness.
*''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, [ɴ̆] initial/intervocalic
*''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, [ɴ̆] initial/intervocalic
**/Vʟ/ = [Ṽ~Vɰ̃]
**/Vʟ/ = [Ṽ~Vɰ̃]
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*''r'' is pronounced as a bunched [ɹ], which retracts preceding front vowels /ɪ, ɛ/ to /ɨ, ɜ/.
*''r'' is pronounced as a bunched [ɹ], which retracts preceding front vowels /ɪ, ɛ/ to /ɨ, ɜ/.
Còdha (/ˈkɵːðə/, English: /ˈkoʊðə/) is a Duìnidhe accent. It is non-lambdic.
Códha (/ˈkɵːðə/, English: /ˈkoʊðə/) is a Duínidhe accent. It is non-lambdic.
*''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, just realized as a difference in vowel quality otherwise:
*''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, just realized as a difference in vowel quality otherwise:
**/iʟ, ɪʟ/ = [joː]
**/iʟ, ɪʟ/ = [joː]
**/yʟ, ʏʟ/ = [ɥoː~woː]
**/yʟ, ʏʟ/ = [ɥoː~woː]
**/ʊʟ/ = [uː]
**/ʊʟ/ = [ʊː]
**/eʟ/ = [eːɔ]
**/eʟ/ = [eːɔ]
**/ɛʟ/ = [ɛɔ]
**/ɛʟ/ = [ɛɔ]
**/øʟ/ = [øːɔ]
**/øʟ/ = [øːɔ]
**/œʟ/ = [œɔ]
**/œʟ/ = [œɔ]
**/ɔʟ/ = [oː]
**/ɔʟ/ = [uː]
**/aʟ/ = [ɒː]
**/aʟ/ = [ɒː]
*''r'' = [l] in all positions
*''r'' = [ɾ] before a vowel, [l] before a consonant or word-finally
*/ʉː, ɵː/ = [uː, oː] before /ɾ/
*(other features)
*(other features)
===Tumaca accent===
===Tumaca accent===
Spoken in the mountainous regions of Tumaca /tʊməkə/ in Duìnidhe. (Influenced by "hyper-Old Tìogall")
A conservative accent used in the mountainous regions of Tumaca /tʊməkə/ in Duínidhe; continuous with [[Tumacan]].
*/b d dʒ g/ are devoiced to [p t c k] in all positions.
*/b d dʒ g/ are devoiced to (unaspirated) [p t c k] in all positions.
*/tʃ, dʒ, ʃ/ = [c, ɟ, ç]
*/tʃ, dʒ, ʃ/ = [c, ɟ, ç]
*/n, ʟ, ɾ/ distinguish between "fortis" or unlenited [n̪, ɫ, r] and "lenis" or lenited [ð̞̃, ʀ, ɻ].
*/n, ʟ, ɾ/ distinguish between "fortis" or unlenited [n̪, ɫ, r] and "lenis" or lenited [ð̞̃, ʀ, z].
*''th, dh'' are [ħ, z] word-initially and become [h, z] word-finally.
*''th, dh'' are [ħ, z] word-initially and become [h, z] word-finally.
*/ʉ, ɵ/ are fully back [uː, oː].
*/ʉ, ɵ/ are always fully back [uː, oː].
===Teacadh an bhFuŋŋ accent===
===Tecadh an bhFuŋŋ accent===
non-lambdic, L-colored vowels similar to Còdha
non-lambdic, L-colored vowels similar to Códha
*''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, just realized as a difference in vowel quality otherwise:
*''r'' = [l] in all positions
**/iʟ, ɪʟ/ = [joː]
**/yʟ, ʏʟ/ = [ɥoː~woː]
**/ʊʟ/ = [uː]
**/eʟ/ = [eːɔ]
**/ɛʟ/ = [ɛɔ]
**/øʟ/ = [øːɔ]
**/œʟ/ = [œɔ]
**/ɔʟ/ = [oː]
**/aʟ/ = [ɑə~ɔ]
*/a/ = [æ]
*/aː/ = [ɑː]
===èise accent===
===Éise accent===
èise (/ˈiːsə/) - Neoibhir
This accent is primarily used in the Éise (/ˈiːsə/) province (including the famous city Flian).
Vowel length is mainly realized as tenseness:
Vowel length is mainly realized as tenseness:
*/ɪ i ʏ y ʉ ʊ/
*/ɪ i ʏ y ʉ ʊ/
*/ɛ e œ ø ə ɵ ɔ/
*/ɛ e œ ø ə ɵ ɔ/
*/ɐ a/
*/ɐ ɑ/
*/iə yə uə aw æj œj ej øj/
*/iə yə uə aw æj œj ej øj/
*/Vʟ/ = [Ṽ~Vɰ̃] (nasalization)
*/Vʟ/ = [Ṽ~Vɰ̃] (nasalization)
*''r'' = [l] in all positions
*ú ó backed before r
*In ''sp st sc'', the s is weakened so that these are voiceless unaspirated [p t k/tS] initially and preaspirated [hp ht hk/htS] medially. These are distinguished from ''b d g'' by having a higher pitch.
*Reduced ''ai'' = [ʊ], reduced ''i'' = [ʏ]
===Phormatin accent===
The majority accent of {{SUBPAGENAME}} native speakers in Phormatin is a lot like Éise, except most notably the short vowels /ɛ œ ɔ/ raise to /ɪ ʏ ʊ/ before nasals and /ʟ/. Lax vowels are also slightly laxer than in Éise; Éise speakers often hear Phormatian lax vowels as schwas. <!--inspiration: Canada, New Zealand 'fush and chups' -->
==="Stage {{SUBPAGENAME}}"===
So-called "Stage {{SUBPAGENAME}}" is a semi-artificial standard developed for use in classical singing and other elevated stage performances.
*/ʟ/ is always pronounced [ɫ]
*/ɾ/ may be trilled [r]
*Short vowels before single C + V - the C is allophonically geminated
*Non-lambdic vowels are close to their Smeola counterparts, except /aː/ is pronounced [ɑː~ɒː] (close to its Classical Netagin counterpart)
*/ɨ/ is pronounced [ɪ]
===Early Modern {{SUBPAGENAME}}===
*''ae/ái, aoi, ao'' were pronounced /ɛː, œː, ɔː/ as opposed to ''é, ói, ó'' /eː, øː, oː/; these two sets have merged to /eː, øː, ɵː/ in most modern dialects.
*/ɨ/ was pronounced [ɪ].
==Morphology==
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
Nouns are classed into two genders, masculine (''reist ŋullàn'' /ˈɾɪst ˈŋʊʟaːn/) and feminine (''reist dhèàn'' /ˈɾɪst ˈðeːaːn/); they are aksi inflected in two numbers (singular and plural) and three states (indefinite, definite, construct).
Nouns are classed into two genders, masculine (''reist ŋullán'' /ˈɾɪst ˈŋʊʟaːn/) and feminine (''reist dhéán'' /ˈɾɪst ˈðeːaːn/); they are also inflected in two numbers (singular and plural) and three states (indefinite, definite, construct). There are some trends in gender assignment of nouns: for example, substances tend to be masculine, and abstract concepts and processes tend to be feminine. The construct suffix is usually ''-adh/-edh'' for singular nouns and ''-ann/-enn'' for plural nouns; however, for Netagin loans no suffix is used for the singular construct.
There are no possessive suffixes, unlike in [[Thensarian]] or other Talmic languages. If the possessor is a pronoun, the disjunctive form of the pronoun is used with the construct state: e.g. ''suaradh scainedh ná'' 'my friend's house'.
{{SUBPAGENAME}} adjectives have three principal parts: the predicative (the unmarked form), the masculine absolute plural form and the feminine absolute plural form.
The predicative determines:
*the indefinite and definite singular, which are the same as the predicative (modulo mutations for gender and definiteness).
*the construct singular: specifically, if the adjective ends in a ''-th'' or a ''-dh'', the suffix ''-adh'' is not added in the construct singular.
The comparative form of adjectives is formed with the suffix ''-anna'' /-ənə/. The comparandum is marked with the particle ''rà'' /ɾaː/ 'than'.
The comparative form of adjectives is formed with the suffix ''-ta/-te'' /-tə/ which becomes ''-ata/-eata'' /-ətə/ after ''t, d, th, dh'' and ''-tha/-the'' /θə/ after ''b, p, g, c''. The comparandum is marked with the particle ''rá'' /ɾaː/ 'than'.
The superlative is formed with the suffix ''-as'' /-əs/.
The superlative is formed with the suffix ''-acht'' /-əxt/.
====Forming adverbs====
Adverbs are formed by adding ''go'' 'with' before the predicative form of the adjective.
The disjunctive ''iar'' is often shortened to '' 'r'' in informal speech.
To emphasize a pronoun or an inflected preposition, ''-na''/''-ne'' is added to the pronoun.
To emphasize a pronoun or an inflected preposition, ''-na''/''-ne'' is added to the pronoun.
====Other====
====Politeness====
*''tà'' = what?
In archaic usage, ''séid'' is used as an honorific pronoun when speaking to a person of high social standing. In modern {{SUBPAGENAME}}, this usage is restricted to e.g.:
*''tuabh'' = who?
* books, movies, games, ... when depicting the past or past-like settings (such as historical fiction or fantasy)
* when addressing a deity or a king
* in BDSM contexts when a "slave" refers to their "master".
In modern {{SUBPAGENAME}}, ''fiar'' and ''séid'' are used for family members, friends, children or teens, animals, people on the Internet, or to address people of lower social position, and ''dTlá'' is used to an addressee of higher position and for strangers; for example, it is considered acceptable for a professor to address his students, or for a boss his employees, using familiar pronouns.
====Correlatives====
*''mé'' = this
*''cé'' = that
*''tá'' = what?
*''tua'' = who?
*''tach'' = where?
*''tach'' = where?
*''tuín, tiann'' = why?
*''tér'' = how?
*''tís'' = when?
===Prepositions===
===Prepositions===
Prepositions are inflected, as in the ancestor [[Thensarian]].
Prepositions are inflected, as in the ancestral Thensarian. The pronoun ''dTlá'' is not fused with the preposition, however.
''mo<sup>L</sup>, m''' comes from a word meaning "next to". It is also the direct object marker for definite persons (like Romanian ''pe'').
''ebh'' = 'after', ''ebhta'' = near/next to
The sequence ''le'' + ''an'' contracts to ''lean'' /ʟən/.
''Dli'' can be used to indicate obligation, as in Irish and Hebrew:
''Ar'' 'on' can be used to indicate obligation, similarly to Irish and Hebrew:
:'''''Dlien k:chèseredh a k:chèsen.'''''
:'''''Aran an cáin le descach.'''''
:[ˈdɾiən ˈçeːsəʀəθ ə ˈçeːsn̩]
:on-1SG DEF.SG.M food to eat-VN
:on-1SG eat-VN-CONST MO DEF.SG.M food
:''I have to eat the food.''
:''I have to eat the food.''
===Verbs===
===Verbs===
[[Old {{PAGENAME}}]] had a verb system with complex alternations, almost comparable to that of Old Irish.<!-- for example:
[[Old Eevo]] had a verb system with complex alternations, almost comparable to that of Old Irish. Modern {{SUBPAGENAME}} simplified this system substantially, leaving behind a mixture of synthetic forms (used without a subject pronoun) and analytic forms (used with a subject noun or pronoun), similar to the Modern Irish system. However, many basic verbs are irregular, with many "principal parts"; some common verbs even retain the Old Eevo allomorphy between independent and dependent forms.
*Thn. ''molynis'' 'I thank' > OTig ''molain'' (prototonic); Thn. ''tir molyn'' 'I do not thank' > OTig ''tì·mlu'' (deuterotonic)
*Cf. Thn. ''armolynis'' 'I pursue' > '' ar·mluin'' (deuterotonic); Thn. ''tir armolyn'' 'I do not pursue' > OTig ''tìr·mol'' (prototonic)
*Thn. ''duptymis'' 'he builds' > OTig ''duchdaimh'' Thn. ''tir duptym'' 'he does not build' > OTig ''tý·dchtumh'' (The negative particle undergoes u-umlaut here!)
--> Modern {{PAGENAME}} simplified this system substantially, leaving behind a mixture of synthetic forms (used without a subject pronoun) and analytic forms (used with a subject noun or pronoun), similar to the Modern Irish system. Due to their different origins - namely, synthetic forms come from Thensarian conjugated verbs while analytic forms come from Thensarian participles or verbal nouns - they often morphologically behave differently.
====Addition of the b-prefix====
Certain verb forms undergo the morphophonological process of ''b-prefixation'', which stems from the [[Thensarian]] 3rd person singular object prefix ''bi-''. The b-prefix is ''not'' added to analytic forms (since those come from participles), impersonal forms, or imperatives.
For unprefixed verbs, the b-prefix is added by lenition of the stem's initial consonant. If the result of lenition begins with a vowel, then ''b'-'' is added.
For prefixed verbs, the addition of the b-prefix works as follows:
*For prefixes ending in a resonant, the first consonant of the root undergoes eclipsis.
*For other prefixes, the mutation that would otherwise be induced by the prefix is blocked.
The present tense is conjugated as follows. For some verbs, umlaut occurs with certain affixes. The participle affix ''-adh'' is deleted after verb stems ending in ''-th'' or ''-dh'': ''mìodh hù'' < {{recon|''mìodadh hù''}} 'he gives'.
The present tense is conjugated as follows. For some verbs, umlaut occurs with certain affixes. For verb stems ending in ''-gh'' or ''-igh'', the ''-gh'' or ''-igh'' is deleted: ''tnáigh hú'' < {{recon|''tnáighigh hú''}} 'he believes'.
<sup>1</sup> The buffer ''-e-'' is added when the previous consonant is a coronal.
<sup>1</sup> The buffer ''-e-'' is added when the previous consonant is a cluster, r or l.
The ''-igh'' ending in analytic forms must be deleted when a preverbal particle such as ''ní'' 'not', ''ri'' 'REL', ''bhfá'' 'COMP': ''molaigh hú'' 'he thanks', but ''ní mhol hú'' 'he does not thank'. For verbs that have a separate stem for imperatives, the imperative stem is used with a preverbal particle. The ''-igh'' may also be deleted or added in poetry. This is a remnant of Middle {{SUBPAGENAME}} where there was a distinction between ''molamh hú'' 'he thanks (once)' (dependent ''mola hú'' or ''mol hú'') and ''molaigh hú'' 'he thanks (regularly)'.
====Present progressive====
''Laidh ná de dhescach'' = I'm eating
''Níl ná de dhescach'' = I'm not eating
====Imperfect tense====
====Imperfect tense====
To form the imperfect tense, the particle {{abbtip|[qʷˁeː]|''grè''}} is used before the verb, ''-e'' is added to the stem, and the verb undergoes eclipsis.
To form the imperfect tense, the particle ''go'' is used before the verb, and the verb undergoes lenition.
*''grè more nà'' 'I used to thank'
*''go mhola ná'' 'I used to thank'
*''grè :ngide hì'' 'she used to lie'
*''go h-airde hí'' 'she used to lie'
====Preterite tense====
====Preterite tense====
The preterite is considered archaic in Standard {{PAGENAME}}. It may be found in remote or isolated dialects.
====Perfect tense====
The suffix ''-ín'' is added to the preterite stem to form the past participle. The subject is preceded by an ergative marker ''lu''. For the impersonal the subject is simply omitted. This is the standard way of forming the preterite in ''Étaoin'' {{SUBPAGENAME}}.
The suffix ''<sup>i</sup>-ìn'' is added to the stem to form the past participle. The subject is preceded by an ergative marker ''lu''. For the impersonal the subject is simply omitted. This is the standard way of forming the preterite in ètaoin {{PAGENAME}}.
:'''''Kèsìn ruk lýn.'''''
:'''''Déicín luc rúin.'''''
:''I ate/have eaten a fruit.''
:''I ate/have eaten a fruit.''
====Pluperfect tense====
====Pluperfect tense====
''grò'' + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite.
''g'lao'' + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite.
*''grò mørìn nà'' 'I had thanked'
*''g'lao moilín ná'' 'I had thanked'
*''grò idìn hì'' 'she had lain'
*''g'lao fairdín hí'' 'she had lain'
====Future tense====
====Future tense====
{{col-begin}}
The future tense is formed by suffixing the future marker ''t'' and conjugating the result like a present tense verb, except that the analytic form is invariably ''-ta/-te''.
!colspan="3" | Future tense of the verb {{abbtip|[ˈʔɪd̥əθ]|''idedh''}} 'lie in a place'
|-
!|
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
| ''idetedh nà''<br/>''b'ideten'' (''poetic'')
| ''b'idetù''
|-
!|1.in
| ''-''
| ''idetedh gèid''<br/>''b'ideted'' (''poetic'')
|-
!|2
| ''b'idetel''
| ''idetedh zèid''<br/>''b'idetesk'' (''poetic'')
|-
!|3.m
| ''idetedh ngù''<br/>''idetedh hì''
| ''idetedh hàl''
|-
!|Impersonal
|colspan="2"|''idelt''
|}
{{col-end}}
The future marker ''t'' is lenited to ''th'' after ''c'' and ''p''.
The future marker ''-t-'' becomes ''-at-/-et-'' after ''t, d, th, dh'' or any time when a resulting cluster does not consist of two obstruents and would violate the sonority hierarchy (voiced C between two voiceless C's) and ''-th-'' after ''b, p, g, c''.
====Future perfect tense====
====Future perfect tense====
''fàcht'' + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite.
''fácht'' + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite.
====Jussive====
The jussive is mainly used for third-person imperatives and sometimes to specify a wish or a requirement.
Modern {{SUBPAGENAME}} just uses ''molúr'' in every person: ''molúr ná'', ''mólúr fiar'', etc. The passive form is ''molrúr''.
This form uses ''dá''-L for the negative, not ''tir''-L.
!colspan="3" | Imperative of the verb {{abbtip|idadh|''idedh''}} 'lie in a place'
!colspan="3" | Imperative of the verb ''id'' 'lie in a place'
|-
|-
!|
!|
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!|1.in
!|1.in
| ''-''
| ''-''
| {{abbtip|idad!|''ided!''}}
| ''airded!''
|-
|-
!|2
!|2
| {{abbtip|id!|''id!''}}
| ''aird!''
| {{abbtip|idasg!|''idesk!''}}
| ''airdes!''
|-
|-
!|3.m
!|3.m
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|}
|}
{{col-end}}
{{col-end}}
The polite 2nd person equivalents are ''molúr dTlá'' and ''airdúr dTlá''.
The imperative stem is used in a Hebrew-style "infinitive absolute" construction: ''deasc déctha hú ú'' = 'he will indeed eat it'
====Verbal noun====
====Verbal noun====
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Some markers for verbal nouns:
Some markers for verbal nouns:
*''-ill''
*''-as/-is''?
*''-ach/-ech''
*''-ach/-ich''
*''-as/-es''
*''-ta/-te''?
*''-t/-ta/-te''
*ablaut
*ablaut
*bare stem
*bare stem
*''-a/-e''
*''-ú''
*umlaut/''-e''
*umlaut/''-e''
====Emphatic forms====
To emphasize the subject the clitic ''-nna'' is added to:
*the verb if the verb is in a synthetic form;
*the subject if the verb is in an analytic form.
===Numbers===
===Numbers===
*0: ''ħaŋíts'' /ha'ŋi:ts/
*1: ''ciamh'' /tʃiəw/
*1: ''ciamh'' /tʃiəw/
*2: ''tioth'' /tiθ/
*2: ''tioth'' /tɪθ/
*3: ''nàidh'' /neːð/
*3: ''náidh'' /neːð/
*4: ''daoibh'' /døːv/
*4: ''daoibh'' /døːv/
*5: ''soil'' /sœʟ/
*5: ''soil'' /sœʟ/
*6: ''stàmh'' /staːw/
*6: ''stámh'' /staːw/
*7: ''ruai'' /ɾyə/
*7: ''ruai'' /ɾyə/
*8: ''lòidh'' /ʀøːð/
*8: ''lóidh'' /ʀøːð/
*9: ''bairbh'' /bɛlv/
*9: ''bairbh'' /bɛlv/
*10: ''heor'' /hɵːl/
*10: ''uar'' /uəl/
*11: ''eàichimh'' /eːʃəw/
*11: ''eáichemh'' /eːʃəw/
*12: ''cnae'' /kneː/
*12: ''cnae'' /kneː/
Numbers must be used with singular nouns. The numbers ''kiew'' and ''stàw'' come after the noun, while other numbers come before it.
Numbers must be used with singular nouns. The numbers ''ciamh'' comes after the noun, while other numbers come before it.
The suffix ''-ar/-er'' is used for 'nth', and ''-tar/-ter'' is used for 'n times'.
1/n = n-bhedh = "n-part" (half = ''drá'')
===Derivational morphology===
===Derivational morphology===
Below are some common {{PAGENAME}} derivational affixes:
Below are some common {{SUBPAGENAME}} derivational affixes. In addition to derivational affixes, {{SUBPAGENAME}} uses compound nouns like German; also, some productive prefixes has been re-analyzed into existence from Old Eevo prefix combinations. This allowed {{SUBPAGENAME}} to coin new native words instead of using loanwords.
*''-ach/-each'': verbal noun (the most common suffix)
! rowspan="2" colspan="2"|
*''-àn/-eàn, -àin/-eàin'': adjectivizer
! colspan="4"|From...
*''-all/-eall'': adjectivizer
|-
*''-ill'' (m.): nominalizer
! Noun
! Verb
! Adjective<br>or Determiner
! Adverb
|-
! rowspan="4"|To...
! Noun
|
|
|
|
|-
! Verb
|
|
|
|
|-
! Adjective<br>or Determiner
|
|
|
|
|-
! Adverb
|
|
|
| -
|}
*''-a/e'' (f): nominalizer of verbs and adjectives
*''-ach/-ech, -achar/-echar'' (f): verbal noun (the most common suffix)
*''-acht/-echt'' = forms adjectives from verbs
*''-ám, -áma'' (m/f): augmentative (from Netagin)
*''-án/-eán, -áin/-eáin'': adjectivizer
*''-ar, -ara'': augmentative (Talmic)
*''-(a)im, -(a)imer'' = female suffix
**''-óiŋ'' > ''-óiŋim''
*''-ú'' (f.): abstract nouns; -hood
*''-ín, -íne'' = used to form adjectives in Netagin loans; also used with native words sometimes
*''-ín, -íní'' = patient, passive participle
*''-aí/-í''/''-aíche/-íche'' = diminutive
*''-gán, -gáin'' = -able
*''é-'' = co-, con-, together
*''for-'' = causative
*''má-L'': un-
*''mí-L'': mis-
*''ní-L'' (hyphenated): non-
*''-óiŋ, -óiŋe'' (m) = agent suffix
*''sin-L'': "well"
*Nouns can often be verbed
==Syntax==
==Syntax==
:''Main article: [[Tìogall/Syntax]]''
:''Main article: [[{{SUBPAGENAME}}/Syntax]]''
==Vocabulary==
{{SUBPAGENAME}} is relatively purist; most {{SUBPAGENAME}} vocabulary is of Talmic origin. However, a non-trivial fraction of the vocabulary is loaned from Netagin (either [[Classical Netagin]] or [[Koine Netagin]]) and, to a lesser extent, Clofabic. Most recently, [[Clofabosin]] words are entering the language, mostly in the domains of information technology and culture.
===Colors===
===Calendar and time===
===Kinship terms===
*''annar, annta'' = father
*''iamh, iamhar'' = mother
*''có, cótha'' = son
==Phrasebook==
==Phrasebook==
*{{abbtip|/ə ˈsɛxtə ʟɪs/|''An Saichte leis!''}} (to one person)/{{abbtip|/ə ˈsɛxtə ʟɛk/|''An Saichte leac!''}} (to ≥2 people) = Hello! (lit. "the gods [give blessing] to you")
*{{abbtip|/ə ˈsɛxtə ʟɪs/|''An Saichte leis!''}} (to one person)/{{abbtip|/ə ˈsɛxtə ʟɛk/|''An Saichte lec!''}} (to ≥2 people) = Hello! (lit. "the spirit-complex [give blessing] to you")
*{{abbtip|/ˈbɪθəl ˈhyŋaːn ʟɪn/|''Bithir huiŋeàn lion.''}} = Nice to meet you.
*{{abbtip|/ˈɪθəl ˈhyŋaːn ʟɪn/|''Ither huiŋeán lion.''}} = Nice to meet you.
*{{abbtip|/ˈbeːʟən iəl/|''B'aeillin iar.''}} = I love you.
*''Aeilligh ná iar.'' / ''Aeilligh ná 'r.'' = I love you.
*''Ní thnáighin leis!'' = I don't believe you!
*''Brós na dellar iar guirenta.'' = Lower your standards. ("Put your eyes lower.")
*''Suinmigh hú'' = it makes sense ("it tunes")
*[repeat verb] = Yes, X does [verb]. (reply to ''Is '' [verb] ''... ?'')
*[repeat adjective] = Yes, X is [adjective]. (reply to ''Is '' [adjective] '' ... ?'')
*[inflected form of ''de''] = Yes, X is Y.
*''Ní'' + lenition + [verb/adjective/inflected form of ''de''] = No.
*''Níl.'' = No. (reply to ''Is laidh ... ?'')
==Sample texts==
==Sample texts==
===E pur si muove!===
''Sóibh argann argannaigh hú!''
<!--
===The North Wind and the Sun===
===The North Wind and the Sun===
====Phonetic version====
====Phonetic version====
'''''An b:vuołkołn al an :ngùd'''''
'''''An b:vuołkołn al an :ngúd'''''
''Kiewlàch grè an b:vuołkołn al an :ngùd d'uskech go nale dli nì, t:thuov girel èdhene, àn nyødhìn zothlǿng de lèhe d'z:ýl go :hespeł f:wùn dlù. Ieliedhìn tytheln nì, ngamew èdhene zufìn ho rè ngù an b:vàn li k:grynteteth sù hǿn, s'an z:othlǿng ho là, an :hespeł lizu ho d:dhelvech. Anøs ngolìn an b:vuołkołn go t:thàn li grè conlethu, ach go ngolech al grè ngole ngù, òn al-sngýchtìn an :hespeł lizu lu an z:othlǿng dli ngùłdhu. Di hèl an t:dànev, sìł-wàrìn an b:vuołkołn gił an snǿseł. Anøs sàsefìn fýne lu an :ngùd, al k:chèhest delvìn an :hespeł lizu lu an z:othlǿng. Al anàst fàchìn frènìn an b:vuołkołn ho g:gholgiespech, nì an :ngùd hì an b:vàn :hèdhene.''
''Kiewlách gré an b:vuołkołn al an :ngúd d'uskech go nale dli ní, t:thuov girel édhene, án nyødhín zothlǿng de léhe d'z:ýl go :hespeł f:wún dlú. Ieliedhín tytheln ní, ngamew édhene zufín ho ré ngú an b:ván li k:grynteteth sú hǿn, s'an z:othlǿng ho lá, an :hespeł lizu ho d:dhelvech. Anøs ngolín an b:vuołkołn go t:thán li gré conlethu, ach go ngolech al gré ngole ngú, ón al-sngýchtín an :hespeł lizu lu an z:othlǿng dli ngúłdhu. Di hél an t:dánev, síł-wárín an b:vuołkołn gił an snǿseł. Anøs sásefín fýne lu an :ngúd, al k:chéhest delvín an :hespeł lizu lu an z:othlǿng. Al anást fáchín frénín an b:vuołkołn ho g:gholgiespech, ní an :ngúd hí an b:ván :hédhene.''
====Orthographic version====
====Orthographic version====
'''''A bhòlcoln ar an ŋ-ùd'''''
'''''A bhólcoln ar an ŋ-úd'''''
''Ciamhràch g'laì an bhòlcoln ar an ŋ-ùd d'usgach go nar dri nì thòbh gilar aèdhanna, àn nuaidhìn zothròiŋ de reìa d'zhìor go h-eisbel bhfùnn drù. èrèidhìn tiotharann nì ŋamamh aèdhanna zufìn sho laì ŋù an bhànn ri gcluintetadh sù heìon, s'an zhothròiŋ sho reà, an h-eisbel rizu sho dhearbhach. Anois ŋorrìn an bhòlcoln go thàn ri g'laì conrathu, ach go ŋorrach ar g'laì ŋorra ŋù, aòn ar-sŋùichdìn an h-eisbel rizu ru an zhothròiŋ dri ŋlùdhu. Di fhaìr an dtànabh, sìl-bhfàilìn an bhòlcoln gil an snòisel. Anois sàsaìn fùinne ru an ŋ-ùd, ar cheìesd dearbhìn an h-eisbel rizu ru an zhothròiŋ. Ar anàsd fàchìn flèinìn an bhòlcoln sho ghorgèach, nì an ŋ-ùd hì an bhànn h-aèdhanna.''
''Ciamhrách g'laí an bhólcoln ar an ŋ-úd d'usgach go nar dri ní thóbh gilar aédhanna, án nuaidhín zothróiŋ de reía d'zhíor go h-eisbel bhfúnn drú. éréidhín tiotharann ní ŋamamh aédhanna zufín sho laí ŋú an bhánn ri gcluintetadh sú heíon, s'an zhothróiŋ sho reá, an h-eisbel rizu sho dhearbhach. Anois ŋorrín an bhólcoln go thán ri g'laí conrathu, ach go ŋorrach ar g'laí ŋorra ŋú, aón ar-sŋúichdín an h-eisbel rizu ru an zhothróiŋ dri ŋlúdhu. Di fhaír an dtánabh, síl-bhfáilín an bhólcoln gil an snóisel. Anois sásaín fúinne ru an ŋ-úd, ar cheíesd dearbhín an h-eisbel rizu ru an zhothróiŋ. Ar anásd fáchín fléinín an bhólcoln sho ghorgéach, ní an ŋ-úd hí an bhánn h-aédhanna.''
====Gloss====
====Gloss====
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
|phrase = Kiewlàch grè a b:vuołkołn al a :ngùd d'uskech go nale dli nì t:thuov girel èdhene, àn nyødhìn zothlǿng de lèhe d'z:ýl go :hespeł f:wùn dlù.
|phrase = Kiewlách gré a b:vuołkołn al a :ngúd d'uskech go nale dli ní t:thuov girel édhene, án nyødhín zothlǿng de léhe d'z:ýl go :hespeł f:wún dlú.
| gloss = one_time IPF DEF.M.SG north-wind and DEF.F.SG sun COMIT each_other on COMP who from-3PL strong-CMPV, when easily-PST.PART travel-AGT LOC come-VN LOC way COMIT cloak INDEF.M.SG.warm on-3SG
| gloss = one_time IPF DEF.M.SG north-wind and DEF.F.SG sun COMIT each_other on COMP who from-3PL strong-CMPV, when easily-PST.PART travel-AGT LOC come-VN LOC way COMIT cloak INDEF.M.SG.warm on-3SG
| translation = Once the north wind and the sun were arguing with each other about which one was stronger, when a traveler appeared in the way with a warm cloak on him.
| translation = Once the north wind and the sun were arguing with each other about which one was stronger, when a traveler appeared in the way with a warm cloak on him.
Line 949:
Line 1,170:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
|phrase = Ieliedhìn tythlen nì ngamew èdhene zuspìn ho rè ngù a b:vàn li k:gryntetedh sù hǿn, s'an z:othlǿng ho là, a :hespeł lizu ho d:dhelvech.
|phrase = Ieliedhín tythlen ní ngamew édhene zuspín ho ré ngú a b:ván li k:gryntetedh sú hǿn, s'an z:othlǿng ho lá, a :hespeł lizu ho d:dhelvech.
| gloss = together-come-PST.PART two-DEF.M.PL COMP must strong-CMPV TEL-count_as-PST.PART TO_INFINITIVE be.VN 3SG.M.INDEP DEF-M one REL succeed-FUT-PART to-3SG.M first to DEF.M.SG traveller TO_INFINITIVE make.VN DEF.M.SG cloak POSS-3SG.M TO_INFINITIVE take_off-VN
| gloss = together-come-PST.PART two-DEF.M.PL COMP must strong-CMPV TEL-count_as-PST.PART TO_INFINITIVE be.VN 3SG.M.INDEP DEF-M one REL succeed-FUT-PART to-3SG.M first to DEF.M.SG traveller TO_INFINITIVE make.VN DEF.M.SG cloak POSS-3SG.M TO_INFINITIVE take_off-VN
| translation = The two agreed that he was to be considered stronger who would first succeed in making the traveler take off his cloak.
| translation = The two agreed that he was to be considered stronger who would first succeed in making the traveler take off his cloak.
Line 959:
Line 1,180:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
|phrase = ùle ngolìn a b:vuołkołn go t:thàn li grè conlethu, ach go ngolech al grè ngole ngù, òn al-sngýchtìn a :hespeł lizu lu an z:othlǿng dli ngùłdhu.
|phrase = úle ngolín a b:vuołkołn go t:thán li gré conlethu, ach go ngolech al gré ngole ngú, ón al-sngýchtín a :hespeł lizu lu an z:othlǿng dli ngúłdhu.
| morphemes = ùle ngol-ìn a buołkłn go-L tàn li-N grè conleth-u ach go-L ngol-ech al grè ngol-e ngù òn al-sngýcht-ìn a-L espeł liz-u lu an zothlǿng dli ngùłdh-u
| morphemes = úle ngol-ín a buołkłn go-L tán li-N gré conleth-u ach go-L ngol-ech al gré ngol-e ngú ón al-sngýcht-ín a-L espeł liz-u lu an zothlǿng dli ngúłdh-u
| gloss = now blow-PST.PART DEF.M.SG north_wind COMI all DEF IPFV might-3SG.M, but COMI blow-VN and IPFV blow-IPFV 3SG.M.INDEP more fasten-PST.PART DEF.M.SG cloak POSS-3SG.M ERG DEF.M.SG traveller on body-3SG.M
| gloss = now blow-PST.PART DEF.M.SG north_wind COMI all DEF IPFV might-3SG.M, but COMI blow-VN and IPFV blow-IPFV 3SG.M.INDEP more fasten-PST.PART DEF.M.SG cloak POSS-3SG.M ERG DEF.M.SG traveller on body-3SG.M
| translation = Now the north wind blew with all his might, but the more he blew, the more did the traveler fasten the cloak around him.
| translation = Now the north wind blew with all his might, but the more he blew, the more did the traveler fasten the cloak around him.
Line 969:
Line 1,190:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
|phrase = De f:hèl a t:dànev, sìł-wàrìn a b:vuołkołn gił a snǿseł.
|phrase = De f:hél a t:dánev, síł-wárín a b:vuołkołn gił a snǿseł.
51 (51: an Tíogall /ə ˈtiːɡəʟ/ or an gháth Thíogall /ə ɣa:θ ˈθiːɡəʟ/ 'the 51 language'; English: /ˈtiːgəl/ "teagle") is a Talmic language inspired by Irish, German and English. 51 began as a thought experiment posing the question "What would Irish look like with umlaut instead of palatalization?".
Tíogall is a pluricentric language - it is an official language in three countries, the peninsular Sceola with more dialect diversity, the larger Anbhair with less dialect diversity, and in Phormatin in addition to Phormatolidin. It is the largest Talmic language in terms of number of speakers. Like most modern Talmic languages, 51 is a descendant of Thensarian. It is spoken on the northwest coast of the continent of Etalocin (called Éatha in Tíogall) on the planet of Clotricin.
Modern Standard Tíogall arose as a literary koiné from disparate earlier Tíogallic dialects descended from Old Eevo from around fT 1160dd (1968). Thanks in large part to the printing press, Tíogall rapidly gained prominence over a larger area in Northern Talma and came to serve as a lingua franca for northern mainland Talma. Today, Tíogall still enjoys status as a "cultured" language and is one of the most widely taught foreign languages.
The name Tíogall is thought to be a Clofabic formation (before Modern Tíogall): Tiga (Tíogall Tíoga) was a river in the northwestern Talma area where Tíogall originated, and to that was added the Clofabic attributive -l.
When unstressed, -adh is devoiced to /əθ/ or /ət/.
The ending -aigh/-igh is pronounced /ɨ/.
Note on the Anglicization of 51
The 51 liquids r and l are consistently mapped to /r/ and /l/. (This is in fact a legitimate pronunciation in 51 provided you always velarize the /l/ as in American English.)
For 51 post-tonic /ð/, the pronunciation /ð/ is recommended, but /d/ is also allowed for ease of pronunciation.
For onset clusters that are disallowed in English, such as /tn/, we allow the addition of an epenthetic /ə/.
For syllable-initial /ŋ/ or /sŋ/, we recommend adding an epenthetic unstressed /ə/ or /ɪ/ before the /ŋ/. /ŋ/ after a tense vowel can be replaced with /n/.
The reduced vowels /ə/ and /ɨ/ should map to /ə/ and /ɪ/. If you have the weak-vowel merger, you can merge these two vowels.
51 is written in the Talmic script, which is written from left to right. The letters ħ /h/, j /j/ and v /v/ are used in Netagin and other loanwords. The letter h is used for lenition as in Irish. So the 51 alphabet is usually considered to have 23 letters (r d z i a ħ f l m g c h b s v o j ŋ t n p e u) (disregarding digraphs and length diacritics).
The native orthography is extremely conservative and in part reflects Old Eevo pronunciation. The romanization used in this article reflects the native spelling.
Numerals
Written 51 uses a base-12 positional numeral system.
Thn. a e i o u y ā ē ī ō ū ȳ ae ao ui ia iā iō iū > OBh a e i o u a á é í ó ú uí ae ao oí ea eá eó iú
In stressed syllables: a e i o u á é í ó ú ae ao eá eó iú oí uí >
before a syllable with no e/ē/i/ī: a e io o u á é ío ó ú ae ao eá eó iú oío uío
before a syllable with e/ē/i/ī: ai ei i oi ui ái éi í ói úi aei aoi eái eói iúi oí uí
Unstressed vowels reduce to a
Harmonization: a > e (when final) or i after i in the previous syllable
Sometimes:
éa, ó, ói > ia, ua, uai
Old Eevo to Modern 51
aspirated stops start to become fricatives: /mʰ pʰ bʰ tʰ dʰ kʰ gʰ fʰ sʰ/ > /ʍ f v θ ð x ɣ h h/
prenasalized stops coalesce
/k g x ɣ/ > [c ɟ cʰ ɟʰ] allophonically before front vowels
Vowel simplifications:
i(o) > /ɪ/; í(o) oí(o) uí(o) > /iː/
eá(i) eó(i) iú(i) merge into á(i) ó(i) ú(i), preventing further palatalization; /c ɟ cʰ ɟʰ/ become phonemic.
Further monophthongization
ae ao > /eː oː/
ai ái ei éi oi ói ui úi aei aoi uai > /ɛ eː ɪ iː œ øː ʏ yː eː øː yə/
Fricativization of aspirates complete; /c ɟ cʰ ɟʰ/ have become /tʃ dʒ ʃ j/
a lot of z's from Netagin loans by this time; s eclipses to z and z lenites to /Ø/, by analogy
unstressed vowels reduce to /ə/
voiceless stops gain aspiration except after /s/
/ʍ/ > /w/; /ɣ/ > /ː/ when not word-initial
/oː uː/ front to /ɵː ʉː/ except before /l/ and possibly /r/
/l/ > /ʀ~ʟ/; /r/ > /ɾ~l/
Some dialects: /s/ > /ʃ/ before /p t k m n ŋ ʟ ɾ/
Phonology
Étaoin (Standard) Tíogall is defined by a set of grammar rules, rather than by an accent (as long as it is intelligible to the majority of Tíogall speakers). Certain defined phonemes and phonetic processes can be observed within Standard Tíogall which in turn display diaphonemic variation based on the accent region.
The following describes Tíogall as spoken in Smeola, the capital of Duínidhe which is often called the "Duínidhe accent".
Stress
In native words, primary stress usually falls on the first syllable, except for some inflected prepositions. In loans, stress may not be initial; in that case, vowels before the stressed syllable are not reduced.
Consonants
IlL/Spare pages 1/51 has a relatively average consonant inventory of around 25 consonants. The phonology is unusual for having two liquids that do not distinguish "rhoticity".
IlL/Spare pages 1/51 consonants
Labial
Dental/Alveolar
Palatal
Velar
Uvular
Glottal
Nasal
/m/
/n/
/ŋ/
Stop
fortis
/p/
/t/
/k/
(ʔ)
lenis
/b/
/d/
/g/
Affricate
fortis
/ts/
/tʃ/
lenis
/dz/
/dʒ/
Spirant
unvoiced
/f/
/θ/
/x/
voiced
/v/
/ð/
/ɣ/
Sibilant
unvoiced
/s/
/ʃ/
/h/
voiced
/z/
Liquid
/ɾ~ɺ~l/
/ʟ/
Approximant
/j/
Notes
An initial /ʔ/ can be added to null initials (but is not mandatory).
Voiceless stops are aspirated syllable-initially; voiced stops devoice after voiceless sounds.
Smeola IlL/Spare pages 1/51 has a form of Auslautverhärtung: voicing is neutralized for word-final stops but not word-final fricatives.
/n, t, d, θ, ð/ are usually dental [n̪, t̪, d̪, θ, ð].
/s, z/ are laminal alveolar [s, z].
The coronal liquid /ɺ/ has 3 allophones broadly:
After a consonant, it is a postalveolar [ɾ̞].
Word-initially or intervocalically, it is a postalveolar [ɾ], [l̠̆] or [l̆].
Before a consonant or word-finally, it is a prevelar approximant [j̠] or a postalveolar [l̠] with varying resonances (though never velarized) depending on speaker.
/ŋ, k, g/ are usually velar [ŋ, k, g], but are often labialized pharyngealized uvular [qʷ, qʷˁ, ɢʷˁ] next to /ʀ~ʟ/. /kʟ/ becomes an affricate or a trilled affricate [qχ].
/ŋ, k, g, x, ɣ/ are prevelar before front vowels.
The uvular liquid, transcribed as /ʟ/ for convenience' sake, has the following allophones:
The allophone occuring before vowels is a pharyngealized uvular flap [ɢ̆ᵝˤ] or trill [ʀᵝˤ] in careful speech which devoices to [χᵝˤ] after an aspirate or another fricative. In casual speech it tends to become an approximant [ʁᵝ] or velar [ɰᵝ].
The allophone occuring before consonants is phonetically a pharyngealized uvular approximant with compressed rounding [ʁ̞ᵝˤ~ʁ̠̞ᵝ]; the vocalic quality resembles [ɤ]. It is similar to the Philadelphia English vocalized L.
In classical singing and drama, [ɫ] is used in all positions.
After a vowel, /ɣ/ colloquially disappears with compensatory lengthening of the vowel if the vowel is short (unless the /ɣ/ begins a stressed syllable.)
Fortis and lenis resonants
Certain conservative accents and dialects preserve to varying degrees the Old Eevo distinction between fortis and lenis resonants: /l L n N r R/. In fact, the Tumacaimh dialect has:
/l/ > /ʁᵝˤ/
/L/ > /l̪ˠ/
/n/ > /ð̞̃/
/N/ > /n/
/r/ > /ɹ/
/R/ > /ɾ/
Mutations
Consonant mutations
Grapheme
m
p
b
f
n
t
d
s*
z
r
ŋ
c
g
l
ħ
0
IPA
/m/
/p/
/b/
/f/
/n/
/t/
/d/
/s/
/z/
/ɺ~l/
/ŋ/
/k/, /tʃ/
/g/, /dʒ/
/ʟ/
/h/
/ʔ/
Lenited
mh
ph
bh
fh
-
th
dh
sh
zh
-
-
ch
gh
-
-
h-
IPA
/v/
/f/
/v/
/h/
-
/θ/
/ð/
/h/
silent
-
-
/x/, /ʃ/
/ɣ/, /j/
-
-
/h/
Eclipsed
-
bp
mb
bhf
-
dt
nd
zs
-
-
-
gc
ŋg
-
-
n-
IPA
-
/b/
/m/
/v/
-
/d/
/n/
/z/
-
-
-
/g/, /dʒ/
/ŋ/
-
-
/n/
*The clusters written sp, st, sc do not mutate.
Vowels
IlL/Spare pages 1/51 has a vowel system with a complexity comparable to that of German, with 7 basic vowel qualities with a tense-lax distinction, and the effects of L-vocalization.
IlL/Spare pages 1/51 vowels
Front
Central
Back
unrounded
rounded
unrounded
rounded
unrounded
rounded
short
long
short
long
short
long
short
short
long
Close
/ɪ/
/iː/
/ʏ/
/yː/
/ɨ/
/ʉː/
/ʊ/
[uː]1
Mid
/ɛ/
/eː/
/œ/
/øː/
/ə/
/ɵː/
[ɤˁ]
/ɔ/
[oː]1
Open
/a/
/aː/
1 /ʉː, ɵː/ retain fully back allophones [uː, oː] before /ɾ~l/ in some accents, especially in Sceola Tíogall.
The vowels /ə/ and /ɨ/ occur only in unstressed syllables; they merge before l.
L-colored vowels
L-colored vowels and diphthongs result from combinations of any vowels or diphthongs with the back liquid /ʟ/ (phonetic values are as in Smeola Tíogall):
/iː/, /iə/ + /ʟ/ > /iʟ/ [iɤˁ]
/ɪ/ + /ʟ/ > /ɪʟ/ [ɪɤˁ]
/yː/, /yə/ + /ʟ/ > /yʟ/ /yɤˁ/
/ʏ/ + /ʟ/ > /ʏʟ/ [ʏɤˁ]
/ʊ/, /ʉː/, /uə/ + /ʟ/ > /ʊʟ/ [ʊˁː~ʊɤˁ]
/eː/ + /ʟ/ > /eʟ/ [eɤˁ]
/ɛ/ + /ʟ/ > /ɛʟ/ [ɛɤˁ]
/øː/ + /ʟ/ > /øʟ/ [øɤˁ]
/œ/ + /ʟ/ > /œʟ/ [œɤˁ]
/ɔ/, /ɵː/ + /ʟ/ > /ɔʟ/ [ɔˁː~ɔɤˁ]
/ɐ/, /aː/ + /ʟ/ > /ɑʟ/ /ɒˁː~ɑɤˁ/
Accents that are lambdic may realize the /ʟ/ in one of several ways (pharyngealization, nasalization, [ɴ], [ʀ]). Non-lambdic accents are those in which vocalization of l after vowels is complete; the L-coloring is purely a difference in vowel quality and displays no secondary articulation.
/ɑʟ/ is most often phonetically a diphthong [ɑɤˁ] or [äɤˁ] (listen).
Umlaut
Vowels in the first syllable of roots may undergo i-mutation or umlaut or under the addition of some affixes.
Phonotactics
Allowed initial clusters in roots (in native words):
bl br cl cn cr dl dr fl fr gl gn gr ml mn mr ŋl ŋr (pl) (pr) sc scl scr (sp) sl sm sn sŋ sr st tn tl tr
Some phonological rules
unstressed /əwə/ > -ú- /ʉː/
/ʏw/, /yəw/, /yːw/ > /ʉː/
Prosody
51 has a distinctive intonation paradigm. Within said paradigm, some accents (e.g. Smeola) can sound like a stereotypical Cork accent, while some accents (e.g. Óc Eo) sound more like Valspeak.
In declarative sentences, the stressed syllable of the focus word (if there is no focused constituent, the last word) has a lower pitch than the immediately preceding syllable. ("...mid ꜜ LOW mid...") This originates from discursive uptalk in older forms of 51, which has since generalized to all declarative sentences. A few accents, such as Tumacan accents, do not use this pattern.
In interrogative sentences, the stressed syllable of the focus word has a higher pitch than the syllable immediately before. ("... mid ꜛ HIGH mid ... ?")
In exclamations, the pattern is "... mid ꜜ LOW-HIGH mid ... !", possibly with a gradual drop to low pitch in the end. Angry or indignant questions also use an exclamatory intonation.
Dialectology
51 is subject to a fair amount of accentual and dialectal variation due to the number of speakers.
/ʉː, ɵː/ retain fully back allophones before /ɾ~l/ in some accents, especially in Duínidhean accents.
Scádar accent
This dialect is most prominent in and around the Óc Eo (/ɵːk ɵː/ 'white rock', English: /ˈoʊk.oʊ/ "oak-oh") metropolitan area in Anbhair.
l = [ʁ] after a consonant, [ɴ̆] initial/intervocalic
/Vʟ/ = [Vɴ] before a consonant
r = [l] in all positions
/θ, ð/ = [ts, dz] when not before a plosive
No Auslautverhärtung at all (except -ig and -igh)
Word-final -ig and -igh pronounced as [-ɪç].
/ɛ, œ, ɔ/ > [ɪ, ʏ, ʊ] before nasals
/ɛj/ > [aj]
/a/ = [æ] before coronals
/aː/ is backed to [ɑː~ɒː]
Cnólta accent
Spoken in the largely rural areas of Cnólta (/ˈknɔːˁtə/, English: /kəˈnɔːltə/ or /kəˈnoʊltə/). Stereotypically associated with backwardness and boorishness.
l = [ʁ] after a consonant, [ɴ̆] initial/intervocalic
/Vʟ/ = [Ṽ~Vɰ̃]
/tʃ, dʒ/ = [ts~tɕ, dz~dʑ]
/eː, øː/ = [eə, øə]
/eːj, øːj, ɛj, œj/ = [eː, øː, ɛː, œː]
r is pronounced as a bunched [ɹ], which retracts preceding front vowels /ɪ, ɛ/ to /ɨ, ɜ/.
Códha (/ˈkɵːðə/, English: /ˈkoʊðə/) is a Duínidhe accent. It is non-lambdic.
l = [ʁ] after a consonant, just realized as a difference in vowel quality otherwise:
/iʟ, ɪʟ/ = [joː]
/yʟ, ʏʟ/ = [ɥoː~woː]
/ʊʟ/ = [ʊː]
/eʟ/ = [eːɔ]
/ɛʟ/ = [ɛɔ]
/øʟ/ = [øːɔ]
/œʟ/ = [œɔ]
/ɔʟ/ = [uː]
/aʟ/ = [ɒː]
r = [ɾ] before a vowel, [l] before a consonant or word-finally
/ʉː, ɵː/ = [uː, oː] before /ɾ/
(other features)
Tumaca accent
A conservative accent used in the mountainous regions of Tumaca /tʊməkə/ in Duínidhe; continuous with Tumacan.
/b d dʒ g/ are devoiced to (unaspirated) [p t c k] in all positions.
/tʃ, dʒ, ʃ/ = [c, ɟ, ç]
/n, ʟ, ɾ/ distinguish between "fortis" or unlenited [n̪, ɫ, r] and "lenis" or lenited [ð̞̃, ʀ, z].
th, dh are [ħ, z] word-initially and become [h, z] word-finally.
/ʉ, ɵ/ are always fully back [uː, oː].
Tecadh an bhFuŋŋ accent
non-lambdic, L-colored vowels similar to Códha
l = [ʁ] after a consonant, just realized as a difference in vowel quality otherwise:
r = [l] in all positions
/iʟ, ɪʟ/ = [joː]
/yʟ, ʏʟ/ = [ɥoː~woː]
/ʊʟ/ = [uː]
/eʟ/ = [eːɔ]
/ɛʟ/ = [ɛɔ]
/øʟ/ = [øːɔ]
/œʟ/ = [œɔ]
/ɔʟ/ = [oː]
/aʟ/ = [ɑə~ɔ]
/a/ = [æ]
/aː/ = [ɑː]
Éise accent
This accent is primarily used in the Éise (/ˈiːsə/) province (including the famous city Flian).
Vowel length is mainly realized as tenseness:
/ɪ i ʏ y ʉ ʊ/
/ɛ e œ ø ə ɵ ɔ/
/ɐ ɑ/
/iə yə uə aw æj œj ej øj/
/Vʟ/ = [Ṽ~Vɰ̃] (nasalization)
r = [l] in all positions
ú ó backed before r
In sp st sc, the s is weakened so that these are voiceless unaspirated [p t k/tS] initially and preaspirated [hp ht hk/htS] medially. These are distinguished from b d g by having a higher pitch.
Reduced ai = [ʊ], reduced i = [ʏ]
Phormatin accent
The majority accent of 51 native speakers in Phormatin is a lot like Éise, except most notably the short vowels /ɛ œ ɔ/ raise to /ɪ ʏ ʊ/ before nasals and /ʟ/. Lax vowels are also slightly laxer than in Éise; Éise speakers often hear Phormatian lax vowels as schwas.
"Stage 51"
So-called "Stage 51" is a semi-artificial standard developed for use in classical singing and other elevated stage performances.
/ʟ/ is always pronounced [ɫ]
/ɾ/ may be trilled [r]
Short vowels before single C + V - the C is allophonically geminated
Non-lambdic vowels are close to their Smeola counterparts, except /aː/ is pronounced [ɑː~ɒː] (close to its Classical Netagin counterpart)
/ɨ/ is pronounced [ɪ]
Early Modern 51
ae/ái, aoi, ao were pronounced /ɛː, œː, ɔː/ as opposed to é, ói, ó /eː, øː, oː/; these two sets have merged to /eː, øː, ɵː/ in most modern dialects.
/ɨ/ was pronounced [ɪ].
Morphology
Nouns
Nouns are classed into two genders, masculine (reist ŋullán /ˈɾɪst ˈŋʊʟaːn/) and feminine (reist dhéán /ˈɾɪst ˈðeːaːn/); they are also inflected in two numbers (singular and plural) and three states (indefinite, definite, construct). There are some trends in gender assignment of nouns: for example, substances tend to be masculine, and abstract concepts and processes tend to be feminine. The construct suffix is usually -adh/-edh for singular nouns and -ann/-enn for plural nouns; however, for Netagin loans no suffix is used for the singular construct.
There are no possessive suffixes, unlike in Thensarian or other Talmic languages. If the possessor is a pronoun, the disjunctive form of the pronoun is used with the construct state: e.g. suaradh scainedh ná 'my friend's house'.
már 'tree' (masculine, declension 1)
Number→ State↓
Singular
Plural
Indefinite
már
máir
Definite
an már
na máir
Construct
máradh
máirenn
búta 'cave' (masculine, declension 1)
Number→ State↓
Singular
Plural
Indefinite
búta
bútaí
Definite
an búta
na bútaí
Construct
bútadh
bútaíonn
scain 'friend' (masculine, declension 2)
Number→ State↓
Singular
Plural
Indefinite
scain
scaine
Definite
an scain
na scaine
Construct
scainedh
scainenn
sert 'pole' (feminine, declension 3)
Number→ State↓
Singular
Plural
Indefinite
sert
sertar
Definite
an zsert
na sertar
Construct
sertadh
sertann
Adjectives
51 adjectives have three principal parts: the predicative (the unmarked form), the masculine absolute plural form and the feminine absolute plural form.
The predicative determines:
the indefinite and definite singular, which are the same as the predicative (modulo mutations for gender and definiteness).
the construct singular: specifically, if the adjective ends in a -th or a -dh, the suffix -adh is not added in the construct singular.
The feminine absolute plural determines:
the construct plural
árd 'big'
Number→ State↓
Singular
Plural
Predicative
árd
Indefinite
árd (m.) h-árd (f.)
áird (m.) árdar (f.)
Definite
árd (m.) n-árd (f.)
Construct
árdadh
árdann
caraimh 'human'
Number→ State↓
Singular
Plural
Predicative
caraimh
Indefinite
caraimh (m.) charaimh (f.)
carú (m.) carúr (f.)
Definite
caraimh (m.) gcaraimh (f.)
Construct
carúdh
carúnn
Degree
The comparative form of adjectives is formed with the suffix -ta/-te /-tə/ which becomes -ata/-eata /-ətə/ after t, d, th, dh and -tha/-the /θə/ after b, p, g, c. The comparandum is marked with the particle rá /ɾaː/ 'than'.
The superlative is formed with the suffix -as /-əs/.
Forming adverbs
Adverbs are formed by adding go 'with' before the predicative form of the adjective.
Pronouns
Personal
51 personal pronouns
1sg
2sg
2pol
3sg.m
3sg.f
1pl.ex
1pl.in
2pl
3pl
Conjunctive
ná
fiar
dTlá
hú
hí
cámh
céid
séid
hár
Disjunctive
ná
iar
dTlá
ú
í
ámh
chéid
héid
ár
The disjunctive iar is often shortened to 'r in informal speech.
To emphasize a pronoun or an inflected preposition, -na/-ne is added to the pronoun.
Politeness
In archaic usage, séid is used as an honorific pronoun when speaking to a person of high social standing. In modern 51, this usage is restricted to e.g.:
books, movies, games, ... when depicting the past or past-like settings (such as historical fiction or fantasy)
when addressing a deity or a king
in BDSM contexts when a "slave" refers to their "master".
In modern 51, fiar and séid are used for family members, friends, children or teens, animals, people on the Internet, or to address people of lower social position, and dTlá is used to an addressee of higher position and for strangers; for example, it is considered acceptable for a professor to address his students, or for a boss his employees, using familiar pronouns.
Correlatives
mé = this
cé = that
tá = what?
tua = who?
tach = where?
tuín, tiann = why?
tér = how?
tís = when?
Prepositions
Prepositions are inflected, as in the ancestral Thensarian. The pronoun dTlá is not fused with the preposition, however.
The sequences le + an and de + an contract to len /ʟɛn/ and den /dɛn/.
The 1sg and 2sg forms of prepositions are stressed on the last syllable; all other forms have initial stress.
Inflection of prepositions
1sg
2sg.m
3sg.m
3sg.f
1pl.ex
1pl.in
2pl
3pl
de-L, d'- 'in, at'
dian
dias
diú
dí
diam
diad
diac
diar
ar 'on'
aran
aras
or
ari
aram
arad
arac
arar
geil 'from'
geilan
geilas
gela
geili
geilem
geiled
geilec
geiler
go 'with'
guan
góis
gú
gúi
guam
guad
guac
guar
le-L 'to'
lion
leis
leo
léi
liom
liod
lioc
lior
nae 'with (instrumental)'
naen
naes
nae
naí
naem
naed
naec
naer
ŋal 'before'
chaoin
chaois
chao
chaoi
chaoim
chaoid
chaoic
chaoir
ro (ergative)
rún
rús
rú
rúi
rúm
rúd
rúc
rúr
Ar 'on' can be used to indicate obligation, similarly to Irish and Hebrew:
Aran an cáin le descach.
on-1SG DEF.SG.M food to eat-VN
I have to eat the food.
Verbs
Old Eevo had a verb system with complex alternations, almost comparable to that of Old Irish. Modern 51 simplified this system substantially, leaving behind a mixture of synthetic forms (used without a subject pronoun) and analytic forms (used with a subject noun or pronoun), similar to the Modern Irish system. However, many basic verbs are irregular, with many "principal parts"; some common verbs even retain the Old Eevo allomorphy between independent and dependent forms.
Ex:
cáigh ná 'I eat'; cáir 'you eat'
ní dhesc ná 'I don't eat'; ní dhescar 'you don't eat'
Present tense
The present tense is conjugated as follows. For some verbs, umlaut occurs with certain affixes. For verb stems ending in -gh or -igh, the -gh or -igh is deleted: tnáigh hú < *tnáighigh hú 'he believes'.
Present tense
Singular
Plural
1.ex
STEM-((a)igh) ná STEM-an/en
STEM-ú
1.in
-
STEM-((a)igh) céid STEM-ad/ed (poetic)
2
STEM-(e)ar
STEM-((a)igh) séid STEM-as/es (poetic)
3.m
STEM-((a)igh) hú/hí
STEM-((a)igh) hár
Impersonal
STEM-a1ra/-e1ra
Present tense of the verb molaigh 'thank'
Singular
Plural
1.ex
mol(aigh) ná molan
molú
1.in
-
mol(aigh) géid molad (poetic)
2
molar
mol(aigh) séid molas (poetic)
3.m
mol(aigh) hú mol(aigh) hí
mol(aigh) hár
Impersonal
molara
Present tense of the verb idigh 'lie in a place'
Singular
Plural
1.ex
id(igh) ná iden
idú
1.in
-
id(igh) céid ided (poetic)
2
idear
id(igh) zéid ides (poetic)
3.m
id(igh) hú/hí
id(igh) hár
Impersonal
idre
1 The buffer -e- is added when the previous consonant is a cluster, r or l.
The -igh ending in analytic forms must be deleted when a preverbal particle such as ní 'not', ri 'REL', bhfá 'COMP': molaigh hú 'he thanks', but ní mhol hú 'he does not thank'. For verbs that have a separate stem for imperatives, the imperative stem is used with a preverbal particle. The -igh may also be deleted or added in poetry. This is a remnant of Middle 51 where there was a distinction between molamh hú 'he thanks (once)' (dependent mola hú or mol hú) and molaigh hú 'he thanks (regularly)'.
Present progressive
Laidh ná de dhescach = I'm eating
Níl ná de dhescach = I'm not eating
Imperfect tense
To form the imperfect tense, the particle go is used before the verb, and the verb undergoes lenition.
go mhola ná 'I used to thank'
go h-airde hí 'she used to lie'
Preterite tense
The suffix -ín is added to the preterite stem to form the past participle. The subject is preceded by an ergative marker lu. For the impersonal the subject is simply omitted. This is the standard way of forming the preterite in Étaoin 51.
Déicín luc rúin.
I ate/have eaten a fruit.
Pluperfect tense
g'lao + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite.
g'lao moilín ná 'I had thanked'
g'lao fairdín hí 'she had lain'
Future tense
The future tense is formed by suffixing the future marker t and conjugating the result like a present tense verb, except that the analytic form is invariably -ta/-te.
The future marker -t- becomes -at-/-et- after t, d, th, dh or any time when a resulting cluster does not consist of two obstruents and would violate the sonority hierarchy (voiced C between two voiceless C's) and -th- after b, p, g, c.
Future perfect tense
fácht + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite.
Jussive
The jussive is mainly used for third-person imperatives and sometimes to specify a wish or a requirement.
Modern 51 just uses molúr in every person: molúr ná, mólúr fiar, etc. The passive form is molrúr.
This form uses dá-L for the negative, not tir-L.
Geilan bhfá ŋgríciúr hí guan.
I want her to stay with me.
Conditional
Imperative
Imperative
Singular
Plural
1.ex
-
-
1.in
-
STEM-ad!
2
STEM!
STEM-as!
3.m
-
-
Impersonal
-
Imperative of the verb mol 'thank'
Singular
Plural
1.ex
-
-
1.in
-
molad!
2
mol!
molas!
3.m
-
-
Impersonal
-
Imperative of the verb id 'lie in a place'
Singular
Plural
1.ex
-
-
1.in
-
airded!
2
aird!
airdes!
3.m
-
-
Impersonal
-
The polite 2nd person equivalents are molúr dTlá and airdúr dTlá.
The imperative stem is used in a Hebrew-style "infinitive absolute" construction: deasc déctha hú ú = 'he will indeed eat it'
Verbal noun
The verbal noun serves many important syntactic functions.
Some markers for verbal nouns:
-ach/-ech
-as/-es
-t/-ta/-te
ablaut
bare stem
-a/-e
-ú
umlaut/-e
Emphatic forms
To emphasize the subject the clitic -nna is added to:
the verb if the verb is in a synthetic form;
the subject if the verb is in an analytic form.
Numbers
0: ħaŋíts /ha'ŋi:ts/
1: ciamh /tʃiəw/
2: tioth /tɪθ/
3: náidh /neːð/
4: daoibh /døːv/
5: soil /sœʟ/
6: stámh /staːw/
7: ruai /ɾyə/
8: lóidh /ʀøːð/
9: bairbh /bɛlv/
10: uar /uəl/
11: eáichemh /eːʃəw/
12: cnae /kneː/
Numbers must be used with singular nouns. The numbers ciamh comes after the noun, while other numbers come before it.
The suffix -ar/-er is used for 'nth', and -tar/-ter is used for 'n times'.
1/n = n-bhedh = "n-part" (half = drá)
Derivational morphology
Below are some common 51 derivational affixes. In addition to derivational affixes, 51 uses compound nouns like German; also, some productive prefixes has been re-analyzed into existence from Old Eevo prefix combinations. This allowed 51 to coin new native words instead of using loanwords.
From...
Noun
Verb
Adjective or Determiner
Adverb
To...
Noun
Verb
Adjective or Determiner
Adverb
-
-a/e (f): nominalizer of verbs and adjectives
-ach/-ech, -achar/-echar (f): verbal noun (the most common suffix)
-acht/-echt = forms adjectives from verbs
-ám, -áma (m/f): augmentative (from Netagin)
-án/-eán, -áin/-eáin: adjectivizer
-ar, -ara: augmentative (Talmic)
-(a)im, -(a)imer = female suffix
-óiŋ > -óiŋim
-ú (f.): abstract nouns; -hood
-ín, -íne = used to form adjectives in Netagin loans; also used with native words sometimes
51 is relatively purist; most 51 vocabulary is of Talmic origin. However, a non-trivial fraction of the vocabulary is loaned from Netagin (either Classical Netagin or Koine Netagin) and, to a lesser extent, Clofabic. Most recently, Clofabosin words are entering the language, mostly in the domains of information technology and culture.
Colors
Calendar and time
Kinship terms
annar, annta = father
iamh, iamhar = mother
có, cótha = son
Phrasebook
An Saichte leis! (to one person)/An Saichte lec! (to ≥2 people) = Hello! (lit. "the spirit-complex [give blessing] to you")
Moile! = Thank you!
Le h-éganta! = Goodbye! (lit. "to meeting")
Arbára ná [NAME]. = My name is [NAME].
Stánsa boire leis! = Happy Stannsa!
Sŋaoichré bhoire leis! = Happy birthday!
Ither huiŋeán lion. = Nice to meet you.
Aeilligh ná iar. / Aeilligh ná 'r. = I love you.
Ní thnáighin leis! = I don't believe you!
Brós na dellar iar guirenta. = Lower your standards. ("Put your eyes lower.")
Suinmigh hú = it makes sense ("it tunes")
[repeat verb] = Yes, X does [verb]. (reply to Is [verb] ... ?)
[repeat adjective] = Yes, X is [adjective]. (reply to Is [adjective] ... ?)
[inflected form of de] = Yes, X is Y.
Ní + lenition + [verb/adjective/inflected form of de] = No.
