Verse:Mwail/Old Gloob: Difference between revisions

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{{construction}}
[[Themsaran/Themsaran|Themsárimai: '''Gávthā themsárimā''']]<br/>
[[Themsaran/he|'''ראו דף זה בעברית''']]


{{Infobox language
|image =
|imagesize =
|name = Themsaran
|nativename = ''themsárimā''
|pronunciation=  /θè̞msarꜜmaː/
|region = Tálsỳm
|extinct = 220 v.T.
|familycolor=#ddff00
|fam1= [[Zachydic languages|Zachydic]]
|fam2= [[Raxo-Talsmic languages|Raxo-Talsmic]]
|fam3= [[Talsmic languages|Talsmic]]
|script=Themsaran script, Raxic script
|iso3=qth
|notice=IPA
}}
{{ClassMeter
|Name      = {{PAGENAME}}
|NativeName = gávthā themsárimā
|Type      = fusional, agglutinative
|Alignment  = nominative-accusative, head-marking
|adjective = first
|adposition = first
|adverb= mixed
|article= first
|relativeclause = first
|nounclause = first
|order = VSO
|Tonal      = Yes
|Genders    = Masculine/feminine
|Declined  = Yes
|Conjugated = Yes
|Case  = no
|Number = Yes
|Definiteness = Yes
|Gender = Yes
|Voice  = Yes
|Mood  = Yes
|Person = Yes
|Number = Yes
|Tense  = Yes
|Aspect = Yes
|}}
Themsaran is my first constructed language, for my conworld of Hheergrem. It is intended to be a head-initial, head-marking language with a plausible development from an erstwhile dependent-/double-marking language. The grammar and syntax has been heavily influenced by Semitic and Celtic languages, with some drawing from Japanese, German and other languages, while the aesthetics draws on Germanic, Celtic, Finnish, Semitic, and [[w:Gyeongsang dialect|Gyeongsang Korean]]. The morphology is an experiment with grammatical non-concatenative morphology: as Celtic grammaticalizes initial consonant mutations, and Semitic vowel patterns, Themsaran does so with tone patterns. The grammar is also an experiment on using inflections and agreement to show grammatical relations without case, which explains the gender system (however minimalistic), switch-reference on verbs, and the borderline polysynthesis. So I guess it ends up a tad more like some Native American languages. Other purposes of my language include mixing in un-English verb syntax, such as the use of optatives  in subordinate clauses, and using principally non-finite subordinate clauses in the indicative.
==todo==
*How to implement coreferentiality minimizing ambiguity?
*Tabulate lists
*Examples for everything
*Improve aesthetics
*Expand explanation on infinitive and supine
*Ditch thematic vowels?
==Notes on notation==
===Glossary===
*<sup>CLF</sup>: classifier tone pattern (non-desinential or desinential)
*''H'': vowel hiatus with next syllable
*''N'': denotes a homorganic nasal
*''Z'': denotes ''r'' before a vowel or voiced C, ''s'' before a voiceless C, ''z'' before ''z''
*''~'': cognate to
==Background==
:''See also: [[Themsaran/Sound changes from Proto-Talsmic]].
The '''Themsaran''' (/ˈθɛmsɑɹən/) '''language''' (Themsaran: ''gávthā themsárimā'' [gáʊ̯fθàː θè̞msárimàː] "the Themsaran throat") was traditionally classified into an [[Talsmic languages|isolated subbranch]] of the [[Zachydic languages|Zachydic]] language family, along with other para-Themsaran languages which are/were natively spoken in the (relatively large) island of Tálsym off the northwestern coast of the Pattiya subcontinent. (Since then, Talsmic's [[Raxo-Talsmic languages|close ties]] to Ractamic languages, such as [[Raxic]], has gained widespread recognition.) The language remains clearly Zachydic (It is often said that Themsaran uses the same affixes with different meanings); however, due to its long period of isolation and substrate influence (the substrate is sometimes speculated to have been a head-initial polysynthetic language), Themsaran was a typological and lexical outlier in the larger Zachydic family, within which it was distinguished by its heavily head-marking inflection in both clauses and possessive NPs as well as its strongly head-initial syntax. The name of the Themsaran language comes from the Themsár region, from whose dialect arose the prestige language of the island. This elevated register/lect existed in a state of diglossia with the diverse and often mutually unintelligible vernacular "dialects". Noble Themsaran was used as a living language by the ruling class for a period spanning 600 years until its demise in the year ca. 220 v.c., and was continued to be used as an important literary, academic and religious language on the island and surrounding mainland areas.
Similarly to the greater Talsmic and Zachydic milieu Themsaran employs a mixed fusional and agglutinative inflectional morphology, notably doing so by using a combination of tone changes and affixes.
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
Noble Themsaran (''gávthā ħéntā'' 'the noble language') used 23 consonants (24 if /ʔ/ is analyzed as becoming silent V_V), a rather modest inventory for a Zachydic language.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
! colspan="9"|Consonants
|-
! colspan="2" |
!  |Labial
!  |Dental
!  |Alveolar
!  |Palatal
!  |Velar
!  |Radical
!  |Glottal
|-
! colspan="2" style="" |Nasal
| '''m''' /m/
|colspan="2"| '''n''' /n/
|
| '''n''' [ŋ]
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |Plosive
! |<small>voiceless</small>
| '''p''' /p/
|colspan="2"| '''t''' /t/
|
| '''c''' /k/
| '''q''' /ʡ/
| (ʔ)
|-
! |<small>voiced</small>
| '''b''' /b/
|colspan="2"| '''d''' /d/
|
| '''g''' /g/
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" style="" |Fricative
! |<small>voiceless</small>
| '''f''' /f/
| '''th''' /θ/
| '''s''' /s/
|
|rowspan="2"| '''ch''' /x~ɣ/
|rowspan="2" | '''ħ''' /ħ~ʜ~ʢ/
|rowspan="2" | '''h''' /h~ɦ/
|-
! |<small>voiced</small>
|
| '''ð''' /ð/
| '''z''' /z/
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Affricate
|
|colspan="3"| '''ŧ''' /t̪s̪~ts~tɕ~tʃ/
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
| '''v''' /ʋˠ/
|
|
| '''j''' /j/
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Trill
|
|colspan="2"| '''r''' /r/
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Lateral app.
|
|colspan="2"| '''l''' /l/
| '''ł''' /ʎ/
|
|
|
|}
/ʋˠ/ behaves both as an obstruent and as an approximant. [ʔ] may occur only in morpheme boundaries.
Geminate /x/ and /θ/ are represented respectively by ''cch'' and ''tth'' in the Romanization.
====Conditioned allophony====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 570px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 120px; "|Phoneme
! style="width: 120px; " |Allophone
! style="width: 120px; " |Condition(s)
|-
| rowspan="2"| /ħ/
| [ħ~ʜ]
| #_, C[+voiceless]_, V_V
|-
| [ʢ]
| C[+voiced]_
|-
| /h/
| [ɦ]
| V_V, C[+voiced]_
|-
| /n/
| [ŋ]
| _C[+velar]
|-
| C[+obstruent, ±voiced]
| C[+obstruent, ∓voiced]
| _C[+obstruent, -guttural, ∓voiced]
|}
===Vowels===
Themsaran has a six-vowel system, symmetrical to a fault, with a quantity distinction. Short vowels have one mora (except for epenthetic ''i/y'' which has zero morae), and long vowels have two morae. Short vowels in open syllables were pronounced approximately 1.5 times as long as short vowels in closed syllables; long vowels in closed syllables, 2.5 times as long; open long vowels, thrice as long.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
|-
! style="" |Close
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ī''' /iː/
| '''y''' /ʉ̜/
| '''ȳ''' /ʉ̜ː/
| '''u''' /u/
| '''ū''' /uː/
|-
! style="" |Mid
| '''e''' /e̞/
| '''ē''' /e̞ː/
|
|
| '''o''' /o̞/
| '''ō''' /o̞ː/
|-
! style="" |Open
|
|
| '''a''' /a/
| '''ā''' /aː/
|
|
|}
'''y ȳ''' is a close central half-rounded vowel.
The short high vowels and ''a'' are mid-centralized: '''a i u y''' are pronounced [ɐ ɪ ʊ ʏ̜̈].
====Diphthongs====
Closing diphthongs: '''ae ai ao au ei eu'''<br/>
Opening diphthongs: '''ea ie oa uo'''
===Tone===
Pitch accent, or tone, is phonemic in Themsaran. The following is the notation for tones:
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 90px; "|
! style="width: 90px; " |Short
! style="width: 90px; " |Long
! style="width: 90px; " |Diphthong
|-
! style="" |Unmarked
| '''a'''
| '''ā'''
| '''ai'''
|-
! style="" |Initial high/falling
| '''á'''
| '''ā́'''
| '''ái'''
|-
! style="" |Initial rising
| '''-'''
| '''ā̀'''
| '''ài'''
|-
! style="" |Non-initial tonic
| '''á'''
| '''ā́'''
| '''ái'''
|-
|}
The pitch accent of a word (of more than one mora) consists of two components: the lexical tone/downstep which may not exist, and the position of the downstep (the latter is confined to appear in the 3rd-to-last syllable or after). A low-tone word starts low and has the highest pitch at the tonic mora, which is immediately before the downstep, whereafter the pitch drops sharply. A high-tone word starts high, dips low and rises up to the point of the second downstep.
The following rules govern the marking of Themsaran pitch accent:
#The initial syllable is marked if it is the tonic syllable. If it is not, it is marked as "high".
#If the tonic syllable is non-initial, it is marked with an acute accent.
If the downstep occurred word-finally, the first syllable of a following high tone word would have slightly lower pitch. In [[w:Pausa|pausa]], a word final high short syllable is realized as a falling, short vowel.
Clitics, unmarked, phonologically behave as parts of the following word and inherit the tone of the following word. Preceding a word with high lexical tone, the clitic is marked as high.
===Stress===
The first syllable is very lightly stressed, and there are no secondary stress phenomena.
===Phonotactics===
The maximal syllable structure is CCCjVCC, where V is any vowel or diphthong, and the second consonant in the complex coda must be an obstruent. /h/ is disallowed to occur in coda; radicals are prohibited word-finally. Up to CCCj medial clusters are permitted.
Permitted initial CC- clusters:
*[any obstruent except ''v''] + {''l'', ''r'', ''n''}
*[non-labial obstruent] + {''v'', ''m''}
*''f'' + {''t'', ''ŧ'', ''c'', ''ch'', ''q'', ''ħ''}
*''s'' + {''p'', ''f'', ''t'', ''th'', ''ŧ'', ''c'', ''ch'', ''q'', ''ħ''}
*''ch'' + {''t'', ''ŧ''}
*''c'' + {''th'', ''s''}
*''m'' + {''l'', ''r'', ''n''}
Permitted CCC- clusters:
*s + {p, t, ŧ, c, q} + {l, r, n}
*f + {t, ŧ, c, ħ} + {l, r, n}
Permitted -CC clusters:
*Any geminate excepting ''vv'', ''jj'', ''qq'', ''ħħ'', ''hh''
*{m, n, l, r, v} + {any coronal obstruent}
*{n, l, r} + {any non-radical, non-labial obstruent}
*{m} + {p, b, f}
*{l, r} + {p, b, f}
*{f, s} + {t, ŧ, c}
*{p, f} + {s, t, th}
*s + {p, t, ŧ, c}
*ch + {t, ŧ}
*c + {th, s}
Permitted medial clusters are, roughly, those which begin like final clusters, may or may not have an "intersection" segment and end like initial clusters.
===Phonological rules===
*''*mʔ, *nʔ, *lʔ, *rʔ'' > ''mp, nt, lt, rt''
*''*mh, *nh, *lh, *rh'' > ''nf, nth, lth, rth''
*coronal obstruent + sibilant<sub>i</sub> > sibilant<sub>i</sub>sibilant<sub>i</sub>
*CC[+resonant]{C, #} > CyC[+resonant]{C, #}
**Cyj{C, #} > Ci{C, #}
*CC[-resonant]C > CiC[-resonant]C
*''jy[ː]'' > ''i[ː]''
*''z'' > ''r'' / V_C[-semivowel, +voiced, ~{/z/}]
*''h''  > [ː~] / _C[+fricative]
*''*ʔ'' > [ː~] / _C
*''c'' > ''ch'' / _{''d'', ''t'', ''ŧ''}
*''*tk'', ''*ck'' ''*tkʰ'' > ''cht'', ''chŧ'', ''cth''
*''q''
**> ''ħ'' / _{''t'', ''ŧ''}
**> ''v'' / _C[+voiced +obstruent]
*''nr'' > ''ndr'', ''lr'' > ''ldr''
*''e'' > ''a'' / ʔ_#
*''ds ts ths zs ŧs'' > ''ss''
*''dz ŧz thz tz zz'' > ''z''
===Post-classical readings===
The greatest variation is found in palatalization and the treatment of tone, radicals and interdentals.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align:center;"
|-
! Grapheme
! '''m'''
! '''p'''
! '''b'''
! '''f'''
! '''n'''
! '''t'''
! '''d'''
! '''th'''
! '''ð'''
! '''s'''
! '''z'''
! '''ŧ'''
! '''ł'''
! '''c'''
! '''g'''
! '''ch'''
! '''q'''
! '''ħ'''
! '''l'''
! '''r'''
! '''v'''
! '''j'''
! '''h'''
|-
! Classical 
| /m/ 
| /p/
| /b/
| /f/
| /n/
| /t/
| /d/
| /θ/
| /ð/
| /s/
| /z/
| /ts~tɕ~tʃ/
| /ʎ/
| /k/
| /g/
| /x/
| /ʡ/
| /ħ/
| /l/
| /r/
| /ʋˠ/
| /j/
| /h/
|-
![[Tizian]]
|/m/, /m̥/
| /p/, /pʰ/
| /b/, /bʱ/
| /f/, /pfʰ/
| /n/, /n̥/
| /t/, /tʰ/
| /d/, /dʱ/
| /t/, /tʰ/
| /d/, /dʱ/
| /s/, /sʰ/
| /z/, /zʱ/
| /tʃ/, /tʃʰ/
| /l/, /ɬ/
| /k/, /kʰ/
| /g/, /gʱ/
| /x/, /kxʰ/
| /ʡ/, /ʡʰ/
| /ʕ/, /ħ/
| /l/, /ɬ/
| /r/, /r̥/
| /w/, /ʍ/
| /j/, /ɧ/
| Ø, /h/
|-
!|[[Qelorian]]
| /m/
| /p/
| /b/
| /f/
| /n̪/
| /t̪/
| /d̪/
| /f/
| /v/
| /s/
| /z/
| /ʃ/
| /ʒ/
| /k/
| /ɴ/
| /χ/
| /ɴ/
| /χ/, /a/
| /l/
| /r/
| /v/
| /ʒ/
| Ø
|-
!|[[Snaħħian]]
| /m/
| /p/
| /b/
| /ɸ~β/
| /n̪/
| /t̪/, /tʃ/
| /d̪/, /dʒ/
| /ħ/
| /d̪/
| /s/, /ʃ/
| /z/, /ʒ/
| /tʃ/
| /l/
| /k/, /tʃ/
| /g/, /dʒ/
| /x/, /ʃ/
| /ʕ/
| /ħ/
| /l/
| /r/
| /f~v/
| /j/
| Ø
|}
==Orthography==
[[Image:ŧā́thimā́ script.jpg|right|thumb|Themsaran script in the ''ŧā́thimā́'' style.|240px]]
The standardized Themsaran alphabet, variants of which are used to write other Talsmic languages, is a native alphabetic script with 29 letters in addition to diacritics for vowel length and tones. In the earliest texts vowel length and tone were not recorded; diacritics for these were first devised for religious and official purposes and gradually came to be universally mandatory. In texts meant to be sung (e.g. poetry or hymns) the tone marks are substituted with various cantillation marks.
The alphabetical order is as follows:
R, D, Z, Ł, I, A, Ħ, F, M, L, G, C, H, B, S, V, O, J, Q, Ð, Y, CH, T, Ŧ, N, TH, P, E, U
==Parts of speech==
===Pronouns===
====Personal====
The independent personal pronouns are used in equational sentences, and for emphasis of what is already indexed on the heads, be it the subject, the direct object, or an oblique argument.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg  " style="width: 350px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="4"| '''Independent personal pronouns'''
|-
!style="width: 50px; "|
!style="width: 100px; "|Singular
!style="width: 100px; "|Dual
!style="width: 100px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|''ná''
|''trā́n''
|''chā́m''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''ħā́ð''
|''táqḗn''
|-
!|2.m
|''zéi''
|rowspan="2"|''rā́th''
|rowspan="2"|''slā́s''
|-
!|2.f
|''véi''
|-
!|3.m
|''vá''
|''vṓr''
|''vú''
|-
!|3.f
|''vī́''
|''vȳ́r''
|''vánn''
|}
Adding the ''ħe-'' (''ħè-'') prefix creates intensified pronouns ''ħená, ħezéi'' etc. that expresses even stronger emphasis.
====Demonstrative====
The demonstratives have identical endings to personal pronouns in the feminine singular, the dual and the plural. The adnominal demonstratives are ''mé'' (near speaker), ''ħé'' (near hearer), and ''ŧá'' (distal), and the pronominal demonstratives are ''imé'', ''ivá'', and ''iŧá''.
When a demonstrative modifies a noun phrase, the noun modified takes the definite form.
====Reciprocal====
The reciprocal pronoun, "each other", is ''nálnai''. It originated from an adverb that was later reanalyzed as a pronoun.
===Nouns===
Nouns (''véliach'') and adjectives (''artulvellách'') have a rich morphology, albeit less ornate than verbs. They inflect for number (''ðūré''), definiteness (''thrȳ́zamétīd'' 'rememberedness') and possessedness (''ránmolíħe'' 'attribution'), but not for case. Nouns have singular (''cḗminnáth''), dual (''líntáth'') and plural (''ūráth'') numbers, and masculine (''qulzáth'') and feminine (''deiáth'') genders. In third-person possessed forms, Themsaran makes a distinction, realized tonally, between the ''absolute'' possessed form, which indicates a noun possessed by a pronoun, and the ''conjunct'' possessed form, used to indicate a possessive relationship between two nouns and agreeing with the gender of the possessor.
Proper names are indeclinable, i.e. they are always definite, and cannot be possessed.
====Number====
Dual is used for body parts (e.g. ''timqā́r'' 'eyes') as well as opposing or complementary concepts (e.g. ''rȳ̌thrie'' which denotes the two sexes or grammatical genders, as opposed to plural ''rȳ̌thrir'' which refers to 'classes/categories' in general). The associative suffix ''-yng-'' may be combined with the dual to form the associative dual (e.g. ''rommyngár'' 'two sides/pages of a paper', ''vōligyngáir'' 'marriage').
====Definiteness====
Definiteness is used more often than the English counterpart 'the': they are often found in abstract senses (e.g. ''cullī́dī'' 'arrogance')  or collective senses (e.g. ''cárē'' 'the human being', i.e. 'man'). Definite forms are also used as the vocative (e.g. ''hā mā́rḗ'' 'O tree!').
It should be noted that noun forms with possessive suffixes are considered definite, as are proper nouns.
====Declension====
The reflexive possessed forms are used to refer to third person subjects.
=====Masculine consonant declension=====
:''See also [[Themsaran/Nominal subparadigms|tables for declension subparadigms]].''
Nouns underlyingly ending in -consonant-resonant insert an epenthetic ''y'' in the singular indefinite form.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 1000px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="24" |'''Masculine consonant declension'''
|-
!|State→<br/>Number↓
!|Indef.
!|Def.
!|1sg
!|2sg.m
!|2sg.f
!|3sg.m
!|3sg.f
!|refl.sg.m
!|refl.sg.f
!|1dl.ex
!|1dl.in
!|2dl
!|3dl.m
!|3dl.f
!|refl.dl.m
!|refl.dl.f
!|1pl.ex
!|1pl.in
!|2pl
!|3pl.m
!|3pl.f
!|refl.pl.m
!|refl.pl.f
|-
!|Singular
|''-Ø''||''-ē''<sup>CLF</sup>||''-yn''||''-ys''||''-yzy''||''-y''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-ī''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-ly''||''-lī''||''-ren''||''-tið''||''-ryth''||''-ōr''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-ȳr''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-lōr''||''-lȳr''||''-am''||''-ynt''||''-ylys''||''-ech''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-er''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-lech''||''-ler''
|-
!|Dual
|''-ār''<sup>CLF</sup>||''-ō''<sup>CLF</sup>||''-ōn''||''-ōs''||''-ōzy''||''-ōry''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-ōrī''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-ōly''||''-ōlī''||''-ōren''||''-ōtið''||''-ōryth''||''-ōrōr''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-ōrȳr''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-ōlōr''||''-ōlȳr''||''-ōvam''||''-ōnt''||''-ōlys''||''-ōrech''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-ōrer''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-ōlech''||''-ōler''
|-
!|Plural
|''-ach''<sup>CLF</sup>||''-uod''<sup>CLF</sup>||''-uon''||''-uos''||''-uozy''||''-ū''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-ȳ''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-uoly''||''-uolī''||''-uoren''||''-uotið''||''-uoryth''||''-uovōr''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-uovȳr''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-uolōr''||''-uolȳr''||''-uovam''||''-uont''||''-uolys''||''-uoch''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-uor''(<sup>CLF</sup>)||''-uolech''||''-uoler''
|}
Here follows an example declension:
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="4" |''sṓr'' - 'house' (mobile downstep)
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Dual
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|Indefinite
|''sṓr''||''sṓrā́r''||''sṓrách''
|-
!|Definite
|''sṓrḗ''||''sṓrṓ''||''sṓrúod''
|-
!|1sg
|''sṓryn''||''sṓrōn''||''sṓruon''
|-
!|2sg.m
|''sṓrys''||''sṓrōs''||''sṓruos''
|-
!|2sg.f
|''sṓryzy''||''sṓrōzy''||''sṓruozy''
|-
!|3sg.m
|''sṓry''||''sṓrōry''||''sṓrū''
|-
!|3sg.m.conj
|''sṓrý''||''sṓrōrý''||''sṓrū́''
|-
!|3sg.f
|''sṓrī''||''sṓrōrī''||''sṓrȳ''
|-
!|3sg.f.conj
|''sṓrī́''||''sṓrōrī́''||''sṓrȳ́''
|-
!|refl.sg.m
|''sṓryly''||''sṓrōly''||''sṓruoly''
|-
!|refl.sg.f
|''sṓrylī''||''sṓrōlī''||''sṓruolī''
|-
!|1dl.ex
|''sṓryren''||''sṓrōren''||''sṓruoren''
|-
!|1dl.in
|''sṓrytið''||''sṓrōtið''||''sṓruotið''
|-
!|2dl
|''sṓryryth''||''sṓrōryth''||''sṓruoryth''
|-
!|3dl.m
|''sṓrōr''||''sṓrōrōr''||''sṓruovōr''
|-
!|3dl.f
|''sṓrȳr''||''sṓrōrȳr''||''sṓruovȳr''
|-
!|3dl.m.conj
|''sṓrṓr''||''sṓrōrṓr''||''sṓruovṓr''
|-
!|3dl.f.conj
|''sṓrȳ́r''||''sṓrōrȳ́r''||''sṓruovȳ́r''
|-
!|refl.dl.m
|''sṓrylōr''||''sṓrōlōr''||''sṓruolōr''
|-
!|refl.dl.f
|''sṓrylȳr''||''sṓrōlȳr''||''sṓruolȳr''
|-
!|1pl.ex
|''sṓram''||''sṓrōvam''||''sṓruovam''
|-
!|1pl.in
|''sṓrynt''||''sṓrōnt''||''sṓruont''
|-
!|2pl
|''sṓrylys''||''sṓrōlys''||''sṓruolys''
|-
!|3pl.m
|''sṓrech''||''sṓrōrech''||''sṓruoch''
|-
!|3pl.f
|''sṓrer''||''sṓrōrer''||''sṓruor''
|-
!|3pl.m.conj
|''sṓréch''||''sṓrōréch''||''sṓrúoch''
|-
!|3pl.f.conj
|''sṓrér''||''sṓrōrér''||''sṓrúor''
|-
!|refl.pl.m
|''sṓrylech''||''sṓrōlech''||''sṓruolech''
|-
!|refl.pl.f
|''sṓryler''||''sṓrōler''||''sṓruoler''
|}
=====Masculine vowel declension=====
=====Feminine consonant declension=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 1000px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="24" |'''Feminine consonant declension'''
|-
!|State→<br/>Number↓
!|Indef.
!|Def.
!|1sg
!|2sg.m
!|2sg.f
!|3sg.m
!|3sg.f
!|refl.sg.m
!|refl.sg.f
!|1dl.ex
!|1dl.in
!|2dl
!|3dl.m
!|3dl.f
!|refl.dl.m
!|refl.dl.f
!|1pl.ex
!|1pl.in
!|2pl
!|3pl.m
!|3pl.f
!|refl.pl.m
!|refl.pl.f
|-
!|Singular
|''-e''<sup>CLF</sup>||''-ā''<sup>CLF</sup>||''-ān''||''-ās''||''-āzy''||''-au''||''-ai''||''-āly''||''-ālī''||''-āren''||''-ātið''||''-āryth''||''-āvōr''||''-āvȳr''||''-ālōr''||''-ālȳr''||''-ām''||''-ānt''||''-ālys''||''-aech''||''-aer''||''-ālech''||''-āler''
|-
!|Dual
|''-air''<sup>CLF</sup>||''-ie''<sup>CLF</sup>||''-ien''||''-ies''||-ie''-iezy''||''-iery''||''-ierī''||''-iely''||''-ielī''||''-ieren''||''-ietið''||''-ieryth''||''-ierōr''||''-ierȳr''||''-ielōr''||''-ielȳr''||''-ieram''||''-ient''||''-ielys''||''-ierech''||''-ierer''||''-ielech''||''-ieler''
|-
!|Plural
|''-ir''<sup>CLF</sup>||''-enna''<sup>CLF</sup>||''-annyn''||''-annys''||''-annyzy''||''-anny''||''-annī''||''-anly''||''-anlī''||''-arren''||''-antið''||''-arryth''||''-annōr''||''-annȳr''||''-anlōr''||''-anlȳr''||''-annam''||''-annynt''||''-anlys''||''-annech''||''-anner''||''-anlech''||''-anler''
|}
Here follows an example declension:
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="4" |''gávthe'' - 'throat; language' (fixed downstep)
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Dual
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|Indefinite
|''gávthe''||''gávthair''||''gávthir''
|-
!|Definite
|''gávthā''||''gávthie''||''gávthénna''
|-
!|1sg
|''gávthān''||''gávthien''||''gávthánnyn''
|-
!|2sg.m
|''gávthās''||''gávthies''||''gávthánnys''
|-
!|2sg.f
|''gávthāzy''||''gávthiezy''||''gávthánnyzy''
|-
!|3sg.m
|''gávthau''||''gávthiery''||''gávthánny''
|-
!|3sg.f
|''gávthai''||''gávthierī''||''gávthánnī''
|-
!|3sg.m.conj
|''gávthau''||''gávthiery''||''gávthánny''
|-
!|3sg.f.conj
|''gávthai''||''gávthierī''||''gávthánnī''
|-
!|refl.sg.m
|''gávthāly''||''gávthiely''||''gávthánly''
|-
!|refl.sg.f
|''gávthālī''||''gávthielī''||''gávthánlī''
|-
!|1dl.ex
|''gávthāren''||''gávthieren''||''gávthárren''
|-
!|1dl.in
|''gávthātið''||''gávthietið''||''gávthántið''
|-
!|2dl
|''gávthāryth''||''gávthieryth''||''gávthárryth''
|-
!|3dl.m
|''gávthāvōr''||''gávthierōr''||''gávthánnōr''
|-
!|3dl.f
|''gávthāvȳr''||''gávthierȳr''||''gávthánnȳr''
|-
!|3dl.m.conj
|''gávthāvōr''||''gávthierōr''||''gávthánnōr''
|-
!|3dl.f.conj
|''gávthāvȳr''||''gávthierȳr''||''gávthánnȳr''
|-
!|refl.dl.m
|''ǵāvthālōr''||''gávthielōr''||''gávthánlōr''
|-
!|refl.dl.f
|''gávthālȳr''||''gávthielȳr''||''gávthánlȳr''
|-
!|1pl.ex
|''gávthām''||''gávthieram''||''gávthánnam''
|-
!|1pl.in
|''gávthānt''||''gávthient''||''gávthánnynt''
|-
!|2pl
|''gávthālys''||''gávthielys''||''gávthánlys''
|-
!|3pl.m
|''gávthaech''||''gávthierech''||''gávthánnech''
|-
!|3pl.f
|''gávthaer''||''gávthierer''||''gávthánner''
|-
!|3pl.m.conj
|''gávthaech''||''gávthierech''||''gávthánnech''
|-
!|3pl.f.conj
|''gávthaer''||''gávthierer''||''gávthánner''
|-
!|refl.pl.m
|''gávthalech''||''gávthielech''||''gávthánlech''
|-
!|refl.pl.f
|''gávthaler''||''gávthieler''||''gávthánler''
|}
====Possessive constructions====
The possessum comes before the possessor. Adjectives that modify the possessum may be placed at any point after the possessum.
If the posssessum is definite, it assumes the ''bound possessum'' or ''conjunct'' form taking the pronominal suffix of gender and number appropriate for the possessor:
:'''''ā́batý négmē'''''
:<small>book.SG-3SG.M.CONJ priest-SG.DEF</small>
:''the priest's book''
Note that the bound possessum state takes the same tonal pattern as the unpossessed forms, unlike the free possessum forms which always have non-desinential downstep; compare the bound possessum form ''ā́batý'' ('the book of [his]') with the free possessum form ''ā́báty'' ('his book').
Should the possessum be indefinite, inanimate ''and'' alienable, the appositive construction "{{sc|possessum}}, the-thing-of {{sc|possessor}}" is used:
:'''''ā́bát satý négmē'''''
:<small>book-SG.INDEF thing-SG<3SG.M priest-SG.DEF</small>
:''a book of the priest''
This construction is not possible if the indefinite possessum is animate ''or'' inalienable; in such cases Themsaran resorts to using the phrase ''navé gil...'' (one/some of...) followed by the appropriate plural definite possessum.
:'''''navé gil vṓthū négmē'''''
:<small>some.SG.M from son-PL<3SG.M priest-SG.DEF</small>
:''one of the priest's sons''
====Tonal patterns of nominals====
Every noun falls under one of two tonal paradigms, derived from the Proto-Talsmic relic classifier clitic system:
*'''Unpossessed:''' {{sc|*noun<nowiki>=</nowiki>clf}}(ʔ)
*'''Free possessum:''' {{sc|*possessum-suffix}}
*'''Bound possessum:''' {{sc|*possessum-suffix<nowiki>=</nowiki>clf(ʔ) possessor}}
The classifier clitic was deleted while determining the downstep pattern of the noun. By corollary the absolute possessed forms have non-final downstep, and the unpossessed and conjunct forms have the same pattern (exceptions occur when the word ended in ''*ʔ''), the choice of which is lexically determined.
Humans, uncountables and abstract nouns did not take a classifier, and hence was allocated to the "non-desinential tonic syllable" paradigm.
Adjectives will agree with the tonal pattern of the nouns they modify.
====Irregular nouns====
Irregular nouns are the following:
*''cár'' 'human being', plural ''itávach''
====Fossilized case marking====
A descendant of a language with developed noun and adjective cases, Themsaran preserves vestigial case marking. Many nominal and adjectival endings are themselves diachronically derived from Proto-Talsmic case suffixes.
=====Irregular definiteness=====
The definite unpossessed inflection is a generalization from the accusative case, which marked the definite direct object in addition to adverbial uses, certain oblique objects and time expressions. The indefinite base endings diachronically stem from the genitive case (from its partitive meaning and frequency in prepositional phrases); the predicative/possessum adjective endings as well as most forms where possessive suffixes are attached, come from the nominative.
Definiteness is required:
*in some time expressions (e.g. ''crúomā/rā́zā/ħíngā/mínā'' "in the morning/at daytime/at dusk/at night")
*in some adverbial expressions.
=====Fossilized oblique cases=====
The frozen oblique cases (ablative, instrumental/locative and allative) are largely found in two lexical classes: adverbs and prepositions.
Ablatives, found in causal expressions, end in ''-ēn'', ''-ān'', and ''-īn'' for the first, second and third declensions respectively; the instrumental/locative ends in ''-īl'' (1) or ''-ai'' (2); and the allative, often found in purpose expressions, ends in ''-thŧ''.
The instrumental/locative suffix ''-īl'' derive adverbs and prepositions of location, manner or concern. The feminine counterpart ''-ai'' form adverbs from original feminine nouns, and has derived "in language X" adverbs and the instrumental preposition ''nai'' itself.
===Adjectives===
Attributive adjectives agree in number, definiteness, gender and possessedness with their heads. The possessum state indicates that the adjective modifies a noun with a possessive suffix.
Predicate adjectives are declined differently than attributive adjectives; predicative adjectives carry the downstep on a non-final syllable, while the attributive adjectives have to agree with the downstep of the noun.
Predicate adjectives can be used with certain verbs (with meanings of being or change of state, or causing a change of state) and as non-restrictive appositional adjectives.
Adjectives also take degree inflection (positive, "less/least", "more/most", elative, "X enough", "too X"). Adjectives exhibit tonal ablaut like those of nouns.
====Declension====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="7"|Declension of adjectives
|-
!rowspan="3"|
!colspan="6"|Declension 1/2
|-
!colspan="2"|Singular
!colspan="2"|Dual
!colspan="2"|Plural
|-
!style="width: 50px;"|Masculine
!style="width: 50px;"|Feminine
!style="width: 50px;"|Masculine
!style="width: 50px;"|Feminine
!style="width: 50px;"|Masculine
!style="width: 50px;"|Feminine
|-
!|Predicative
|''-a''
|''-ar''
|''-ōr''
|''-ȳr''
|''-u''
|''-ann''
|-
!|Indefinite
|''-''Ø
|''-e''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-ār''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-air''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-ach''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-ir''<sup>CLF</sup>
|-
!|Definite
|''-ē''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-ā''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-ō''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-ie''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-uod''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-enna''<sup>CLF</sup>
|-
!|Possessum
|''-a''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-ar''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-ōr''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-ȳr''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-u''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-ann''<sup>CLF</sup><!--
|-
!rowspan="3"|
!colspan="6"|Declension 3
|-
!colspan="2"|Singular
!colspan="2"|Dual
!colspan="2"|Plural
|-
!style="width: 50px;"|Masculine
!style="width: 50px;"|Feminine
!style="width: 50px;"|Masculine
!style="width: 50px;"|Feminine
!style="width: 50px;"|Masculine
!style="width: 50px;"|Feminine
|-
!|Predicative
|''-i''
|''-ir''
|''-iōr''
|''-iēr''
|''-iu''
|''-inn''
|-
!|Indefinite
|colspan="2"|''-i''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-iār''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-ier''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-iach''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-īr''<sup>CLF</sup>
|-
!|Definite
|colspan="2"|''-ī''<sup>CLF</sup>
|colspan="2"|''-ivie''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-iuot''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-inna''<sup>CLF</sup>
|-
!|Possessum
|''-i''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-ir''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-iōr''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-īr''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-iu''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''-inn''<sup>CLF</sup>
-->
|}
=====Examples of classifierwise agreement=====
*''lā́mar cámrā'' 'the woman is good' / ''lā́mar thilqā́'': 'the sword is good'
*''cámre lā́me'': 'a good woman' / ''thilqé lāmé'': 'a good sword'
*''cámrān lā́mar'': 'my good wife' /''thílqān lā́mar'': 'my good sword' (but ''lā́mar cámrān/thílqān'': 'my wife/sword is good')
*''cámrau lā́mar thrāpalóchē'': 'the warrior's good wife' / ''thilqáu lāmár thrāpalóchē'': 'the warrior's good sword'
====Degree====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg  " style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan="2"| '''Degree affixes'''
|-
! width="110px"|comparative (more/most)
| width="190px"|''-énn''
|-
!|elative
|''-rȳ́n''
|-
!|cercative (less)
|''-ṓt''
|-
!|equative (as X as)
|''-ígym''
|-
!|excessive (too much)
|<sup>RDPL</sup>- (of 1st C)
|-
!|suffective
|''-érs''
|-
!|defective
|''-ṓm''
|-
|}
Adjectives with degree inflections may be nominalized (e.g. ''qēdāthrȳ́nīd'' "supreme strength" < ''qēdāthrȳ́n'' "the very strongest").
====Adverb formation====
The adverbial suffix is ''-ēr'', and it can mean "[adjective]ly", or "like a [noun]" (latter meaning is less productive).
===Table of correlatives===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg  " style="width: 600px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="9"|Table of correlatives
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 240px; "|Interrogative
!style="width: 240px; "|Near speaker
!style="width: 240px; "|Near hearer
!style="width: 240px; "|Distal
!style="width: 240px; "|Existential
!style="width: 240px; "|Negational/Elective
!style="width: 240px; "|Collective
!style="width: 240px; "|Distributive
|-
!|Adnominal
|rowspan=2|''jé'' (who);<br/>''ján'' (what)
|''mé''
|''ħé''
|''ŧá''
|''navé''
|rowspan="2"|''atiért;'' ''atié'', ''atián''
|''rṓg'', ''bást'' (adjective)
|rowspan=2|''thivé''
|-
!|Pronominal
|''imé''
|''iħé''
|''iŧá''
|''morcár'' (human); ''morsát'' (nonhuman)
|''carbást''
|-
!|Place
|''jách''
|''mách*; dáte*''
|''ħách''
|''ŧách''
|''smárján''
|''atiách''
|''smárbást''
|''smárthivé''
|-
!|Origin
|''giljách;'' ''jáchēn''
|''gilmách/máchēn*; gildát/dátēn*''
|''gilħách;'' ''ħáchēn''
|''gilŧách;'' ''ŧáchēn''
|''gil smárján''
|''gil atiách''
|''gil smárbást''
|''gil smárthivé''
|-
!|Destination
|''vojách;'' ''jáchást''
|''vomách/máchást*; vódát/dátást*''
|''voħách;'' ''ħáchást''
|''voŧách;'' ''ŧáchást''
|''vo smárján''
|''vo atiách''
|''vo smárbást''
|''vo smárthivé''
|-
!|Time
|''jápse'', ''jéma''
|''gáma''
|colspan= '2'|''sónēŧ''
|''morrā́c''
|''fúot''
|''pídħīl''
|''gislé''
|-
!|Quantity/Extent
|''jávōth''
|''mévōth''
|''ħévōth''
|''ŧévōth''
|''návōth''
|''-''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
!|Manner/Quality
|''jḗr''
|''mḗr''
|''ħḗr''
|''ŧḗr''
|''navḗr''
|''atiḗr''
|''rṓg ýthīl''
|''-''
|-
!|Cause<sup>1</sup>
|''jḗn'', ''jḗrmé''
|''mḗn''
|''ħḗn''
|''ŧḗn''
|''navḗn''
|''-''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
!|Purpose<sup>1</sup>
|''jást''
|''mést''
|''ħést''
|''ŧést''
|''navést''
|''-''
|''-''
|''-''
|}
<nowiki>*</nowiki>The difference between the two words for 'here' is that of clusivity: ''mách'' means "where I am/we(exc) are or pointing" whereas ''dáte'' means "where we(inc) are".<br/>
<sup>1</sup>Traditionally described "cause" and "purpose", the "cause" series is used with verbs in the realis tenses (present, past, future), and the "purpose" series with the jussive.
The three distance levels of demonstratives each have derived uses in discourse:
*The ''m''-series is used:
**very similarly to English ''this'', as a cataphoric reference, or to highlight new or especially vivid information in general
*The ''ħ''-series is used:
**For general anaphora (things already mentioned in the discourse)
**In dialogue, to refer to things that are only known to the speaker or the listener
**(the pronouns) for anaphoric uses at a focus level intermediate of that of the ''m''-series and the 3rd person pronouns.
*The ''ŧ''-series is used:
**In dialogue, to refer to things that are known by both the speaker and the listener
**For psychologically distant items, places or times
**To express contempt
**As a second-in-line demonstrative, similar to obviation
In highly humble language (roughly equivalent to German ''Ihr''), the "near speaker" and "near hearer" demonstratives are used in epithets for 1st and 2nd person respectively in lieu of grammatical 1st or 2nd person. (e.g. ''clū́dílē mé'': "this humble subject", ''áchrē ħé/tīnā́ ħī́/sliévā ħī́'': Your Majesty/Highness; lit. "that king/hand/throne", ''domarvárlē/a̋thmavárlē ħé/ā́thmī́dī ħī́'', "that called one/sanctified one/holiness"; used to address a priest, ''mách/ħách'' generic humble language, used for locative obliques as substitutes for 1st or 2nd person inflected prepositions)
===Verbs===
Verbs have elaborate but quite regular inflection. Finite verbs are marked for TAM, mirativity, voice (active and passive), the subject's (and the object's, if it is indexed) person, number, and gender. Verbs also have several non-finite forms, used with various subordinating conjunctions and relative clauses. If the direct object is definite, the verb is obligatorily marked with the direct object's person, number, and gender.
Definite direct object agreement is not required:
*in the imperative and the prohibitive (though it may be used for sake of disambiguation).
*in the presence of an animate indirect object; the verb may agree with the dative object instead.
*in poetry.
*DDO agreement is prohibited with reciprocal pronouns.
Themsaran verbs display so-called ''first-conjunct agreement'' as common amongst VSO languages, i.e. when the verb precedes a subject composed of two or more conjunctive noun phrases (in the form ''A ie B ie C''), the verb will agree with the first NP. With 'or' conjunctions (''at'' or ''nu'') in the subject, the verb agrees with the nearest subject. In the case of coordinated objects the verb agrees with the first contiguous noun phrase (i.e. 'and' has higher precedence than 'or').
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|+'''Themsaran finite verb template'''
!&minus;3!!&minus;2!!&minus;1!!0!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!/Downstep
|-
|Derivational prefix||Imperfect prefix||Discourse/Subjunctive||'''STEM'''||Supplementary  aspect||Causative||Theme vowel/Passive||TAM/Subject||Object||TAM/Subject
|}
====Tense-Aspect-Mood====
=====Basic TAMs=====
The basic TAMs, marked with a combination of tone, suffixes and prefixes, are:
*Imperative
*Present
*Past perfective
*Past imperfective
*Future
*Jussive
======Imperative======
The imperative is used to issue ''affirmative'' orders. The original "future imperative" has been revived/reanalyzed as a more emphatic variant of the imperative, influenced by the use of the future as an emphatic imperative.
======Present======
The present is used for events that are taking/habitually take place in the present time, or for gnomic statemnets.
======Past perfective======
The past perfective or preterite is for events that were completed at some point in time in the past. It is marked with a separate set of subject markers from the present.
======Imperfect======
The imperfect indicates a background event or events that happened in the past frequently or over a period of time. Therefore it corresponds to past frequentative, habitual or progressive. The imperfect developed from the construction ''*ʔṇʔ-'' [{{sc|present}}], where ''*ʔṇʔ-'' was a past tense of the copula ''vācī́n''). The ''yn-'' 'augment' displays a number of special behaviors:
*assimilates to labials ''p b m''
*mutates to ''ynt-'' before a stem beginning with a vowel, liquid, or ''j'' (the ''j'' becomes an ''i'' in that case)
*mutates to ''ynth-'' before a stem beginning with ''h''.
======Future======
The future denotes an event predicted to occur some time in the future. It is aspect-indifferent unlike the past tenses. The future tense forms are underlyingly composed of the prospective ''*-he-''  plus present tense subject suffixes. (The contraction of the theme vowels with the following ''*-he-'' yielded the future "lengthened" theme vowels, ''-ē-''/''-ā-''/''-ie-''.)
======Jussive======
The Themsaran jussive (''cýlinā́'' 'urging form') continues three different irrealis moods in Proto-Talsmic: desiderative, hortative and optative. The desiderative form was composed of the present tense plus a suffix ''-ʔe'', which caused the downstep to shift to the desinence in the 1ex singular and plural forms and, by analogy, in the 1ex dual. The hortative was marked with the suffix ''-ti'' (hence the ''-t, -ti-'' in the 1+2 and 2 forms), and the optative was marked with ''-aʔ'' (hence the final ''-á, -ā́-'' in the 3rd person jussive).
The jussive is a finite verb form that bears a wide range of uses:
* optatives (wishes), polite requests (often with the particle ''stái'') and hortatives (urging).
:'''''Ðuodisá áromizé'''''
:<small>be_long-JUSS.3SG.F life-DEF.2SG.M</small>
:''May your life be long!''
* prohibitions, with the prohibitive marker.
:'''''Scṓtyls!''' vs. '''Hám scṓtylt!'''''
:<small>walk/2PL.IMP / PROH walk/2PL.JUSS</small>
:''Walk! / Don't walk!''
* imperatives in indirect speech, with the complementizer ''ne''
:'''''Cýlés ne stúmī́.'''''
:<small>urge/PFV.3SG.M COMP return/JUSS.1SG</small>
:''He urged that I go back.''
* impersonal instructions, in the passive
:'''''chavinosá hadísā ýrnȳnā́'''''
:<small>lower.PASS-JUSS.3SG.F note-DEF.SG second-DEF.SG.F</small>
:''the second note is to be lowered''
* purpose clauses:
** with a relativizer
** after a conditional conjunction ''nit'', ''ar'', or ''gin'', or less commonly after ''vórêl ne'', it expresses "in order that...".
:'''''ħéistē rin chénumá'''''
:<small>word-DEF REL say-PASS-JUSS.3SG.M</small>
:''the word to say/the word that should be said''
* to express deliberative questions, of whether something should be done, or what should be done.
:'''''Jḗr vamenavái?'''''
:<small>how advocate-PASS-JUSS.1SG</small>
:''How am I to defend myself?/How shall I defend myself?''
* 'mocking' imperatives (2nd person imperatives deemed unlikely to be fulfilled, or unlikely to produce the result desired by the doer)
:'''''Vái mìevat vṓn dū̀sind cḗm.'''''
:''Let's see you inflict even one prick on me.''
=====Supplementary aspects=====
======Perfect======
The perfect is formed periphrastically; the preterite participle (for a completed action) or the imperfect participle (for cumulative progress) is used as a predicate, with either the pronouns or the conjugated forms of the copula ''vā́cī́n''.
Unlike in English the perfect can be used in imperative sentences:
:'''''Echrasárlech ðinōrúod vā́c in stúmsyn.'''''
:<small>trap-PST.PART-SG<3PL.M animal-PL.DEF be-IMP.2SG until return-INF-1SG</small>
:''Trap the animals by the time I return.''
======Inceptive======
The inceptive expresses the beginning of a imperfective period in time of the action, and is expressed by the suffix ''-iħ-'' placed after the stem.
======Cessative======
The cessative expresses the end of an imperfective period in time of the action, and is expressed by is the suffix ''-rim-''. It can also express perfect in certain circumstances.
=====Additional mood/evidentiality/discourse marking=====
======Mirative======
The mirative, marking information, inference or realization new to the speaker, is marked by reduplicating first consonant of stem.
:'''''{{blue|gý}}gā́leis!'''''
:/gʉ&#769;gaːꜜliɜs/
:<small>{{blue|RDPL}}-gā́lies</small>
:<small>{{blue|MIR}}-sing-PRES.3SG.F</small>
:''I see that she sings''/''she sings indeed''
======Energic======
The energic presents information new to the audience, or presents information to exhort the audience to consider it. It is indicated by reduplication of the first consonant + ''il''.
:'''''{{blue|gíl}}gā́leis'''''
:/gílgaːꜜleis/
:<small>{{blue|RDPL-il}}-gā́lies</small>
:<small>{{blue|ENER}}-sing-PRES.3SG.F</small>
:''(see/you know), she is singing''
:'''''Yn{{blue|til}}táeqein di būqȳrái Slȳ́sar.'''''
:<small>yn-{{blue|RDPL-il}}-taeqen di būqȳr-ái S.</small>
:<small>IMPF-{{blue|ENER}}-visit-PRES.3SG.F LOC temple-3SG.F.CONJ S.</small>
:''(You know,) I used to frequent Slȳ́sar's temple.''
======Subjunctive======
The subjunctive, used for doubtful statements and for hypothetical outcomes, is marked by a prefix of the last consonant + ''N''.
:'''''{{blue|lýn}}gā́leis'''''
:/lʉ&#769;ngaːꜜleis/
:<small>{{blue|RDPL-n}}-gā́lies</small>
:<small>{{blue|SBJV}}-sing-PRES.3SG.F</small>
:''she supposedly sings/she would sing''
The subjunctive is also used in exclamations of disbelief (with the conjunction ''ne''):
:'''''Ne ħis{{blue|myn}}aromíā ŧach!'''''
:<small>ne ħis-RDPL-n-aromi-ā ŧách</small>
:<small>COMPZ ‹SBJV›survive-PRET.3SG there</small>
:''It is astounding that he survived that!''
====Voice====
=====Basic voices=====
======Active======
The active voice is the default voice, used when the subject is the agent of the verb.
======Passive======
The passive marks the subject as a patient of the verb. Apart from passivity, passives may have a derivational function; they may indicate reflexive or involuntary/spontaneous actions with active intransitives (''sṓtvati machīnýn'' "my legs walk by themselves, without my control"). As such there are quite a few deponent verbs, verbs that are inherently passive, and also passive counterparts of active intransitive verbs.
=====Supplementary voices=====
======Causative======
The causative expresses causation or facilitation of the action. It is indicated by the suffix ''-inai'' in the case of null thematic vowel, and by ''-scái'' for ''a''- or ''e''-thematic verbs.
=====Non-finite forms=====
The non-finite forms are the participle and two infinitives.
======Participle======
The participle can be used in many different contexts like in many Indo-European languages. The tense of a participle is relative to the tense of the main clause.
======Infinitive======
The infinitive is used in reason clauses, time clauses, indirect speech (as the infinitive copula ''va̋cs'' + participle) whose truth is believed strongly by the speaker, and more rarely purpose clauses. The possessor of the infinitive represents the verb's subject. The infinitive is also used in dependent irrealis verbs that do ''not'' directly express an order or wish and thus for which jussive would be inappropriate.
======Supine======
The supine is used as a complement to certain verbs and in any other situation calling for a verb with no independent subject or TAM, and is used adverbially with prepositions. The ''supine absolute'' construction formed with the supine indicates a manner of action or simultaneous action. The possessor of the supine represents the verb's object.
====Voice/Person/TAM markers====
:''See also [[Themsaran/Verbal subparadigms|tables for conjugation subparadigms]].''
Shown below are the final and combining forms of subject suffixes of the three conjugation paradigms: the first conjugation, with null thematic vowel, the second conjugation, with thematic vowel ''a'', and the third conjugation, with thematic vowel ''e''. Passive is marked by theme vowel changes (The passive voice suffix has fused with the theme vowel in the history of Themsaran).
The citation form of a verb is the 1st person jussive. The three major conjugations are correlated with the semantics of the verb:
*1st conjugation ''-ī́'' < ''*-īn=ʔ'': primary verbs.
**The above contains ''-iī́'' verbs (''*j''-stems, realized as pseudo-thematic vowel ''i'').
*2nd conjugation ''-ái'' < ''*-a-īn=ʔ'': typically denominative, factitive or transitive verbs.
*3rd conjugation ''-éi'' < ''*-e-īn=ʔ'': typically dynamic or reflexive verbs.
The zero theme vowel conjugation often contains irregularities from interactions between the final consonant and the ending (in fact some alteration occurs for all consonants except ''m'', ''r'' and ''ch'', unless the stem-terminating consonant is part of a cluster) and hence includes [[User:Ílchőfti Lēmáthīd/Themsaran/Verbal subparadigms|many subconjugations]].
=====Subject affixes=====
'''NB.''' When the combining suffixes are shown without a tonic syllable, the tonic syllable alternates between the object affix and the stem/theme vowel depending on the object affix.
Similar forms are often distinguished by tone:
Non-final/mobile tonic syllable: ''vezórmi'' 'we (exc) encounter', ''vezormīlýs'' 'we encounter you'<br/>
Final/fixed tonic syllable: ''vezormí'' 'may we (exc) encounter', ''vezormī́lys'' 'may we encounter you'
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg  " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="7" | Subject affixes
|-
!colspan="7" | Present
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 50px; "|
!colspan="3" | Active
!colspan="3" | Passive
|-
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Dual
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Dual
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|''-īn, -ī(n)-<sup>1</sup>-''<br/>''-ain, -ai(n)-<sup>1</sup>-''<br/>''-ein, -ei(n)<sup>1</sup>-''
|''-dir, -dir-''<br/>''-ádir, -adir-''<br/>''-édir, -edir-''
|''-mi, -mī-''<br/>''-ámi, -amī-''<br/>''-émi, -emī-''
|''-ȳn''<br/>''-ȳn''<br/>''-iēn''
|''-údir''<br/>''-ódir''<br/>''-iódir''
|''-úmi''<br/>''-ómi''<br/>''-iómi''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''-vse, -vsi-''<br/>''-ávse, -avsi-''<br/>''-évse, -evsi-''
|''-nse, -nsi-''<br/>''-ánse, -ansi-''<br/>''-énse, -ensi-''
|''-''
|''-úvse''<br/>''-óvse''<br/>''-ióvse''
|''-únse''<br/>''-ónse''<br/>''-iónse''
|-
!|2
|''-yr, -yr-''<br/>''-ar, -ar-''<br/>''-er, -er-''
|''-rse, -rsi-''<br/>''-árse, -arsi-''<br/>''-érse, -ersi-''
|''-lse, -lsi-''<br/>''-álse, -alsi-''<br/>''-élse, -elsi-''
|''-ur''<br/>''-or''<br/>''-ior''
|''-úrse''<br/>''-órse''<br/>''-iórse''
|''-úlse''<br/>''-ólse''<br/>''-iólse''
|-
!|3.m
|''-e, -m-''<br/>''-a, -am-''<br/>''-e, -em-''
|rowspan="2"|''-ir, -iri-''<br/>''-air, -airi-''<br/>''-eir, -eiri-''
|''-vi, -vie-''<br/>''-ávi, -avie-''<br/>''-évi, -evie-''
|''-y''<br/>''-u''<br/>''-iu''
|rowspan="2"|''-ȳr''<br/>''-ȳr''<br/>''-iēr''
|''-úvi''<br/>''-óvi''<br/>''-ióvi''
|-
!|3.f
|''-is, -isi-''<br/>''-ais, -aisi-''<br/>''-eis, -eisi-''
|''-ti, -tie-''<br/>''-áti, -atie-''<br/>''-éti, -etie-''
|''-ȳs''<br/>''-ȳs''<br/>''-iēs-''
|''-óvi''<br/>''-óti''<br/>''-ióti''
|-
!colspan="7" | Preterite
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 50px; "|
!colspan="3" | Active
!colspan="3" | Passive
|-
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Dual
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Dual
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|''-ýn, -ýn-''<br/>''-án, -án-''<br/>''-én, -én-''
|''-sid, -sid-''<br/>''-ásid, -asid-''<br/>''-ésid, -esid-''
|''-mā, -mā-''<br/>''-ámā, -amā-''<br/>''-émā, -emā-''
|''-ún''<br/>''-ón''<br/>''-ión''
|''-úsid''<br/>''-ósid''<br/>''-iósid''
|''-úmā''<br/>''-ómā''<br/>''-iómā''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''-tar, -tar-''<br/>''-átar, -atar-''<br/>''-étar, -etar-''
|''-tā, -tā-''<br/>''-átā, -atā-''<br/>''-étā, -etā-''
|''-''
|''-útar''<br/>''-ótar''<br/>''-iótar''
|''-útā''<br/>''-ótā''<br/>''-iótā''
|-
!|2
|''-ýr, -ýr-''<br/>''-ár, -ár-''<br/>''-ér, -ér-''
|''-rith, -rith-''<br/>''-árith, -arith-''<br/>''-érith, -erith-''
|''-lith, -lith-''<br/>''-álith, -alith-''<br/>''-élith, -elith-''
|''-úr''<br/>''-ór''<br/>''-iór''
|''-úrith''<br/>''-órith''<br/>''-iórith''
|''-úlith''<br/>''-ólith''<br/>''-iólith''
|-
!|3.m
|''-a, -am-''<br/>''-ā, -ām-''<br/>''-ea, -eam-''
|rowspan="2"|''-arí, -aríe-''<br/>''-ārí, -āríe''<br/>''-earí, -earíe-''
|''-aví, -avíe-''<br/>''-āví, -āvíe''<br/>''-eaví, -eavíe-''
|''-va''<br/>''-oa''<br/>''-ia''
|rowspan="2"|''-varí''<br/>''-oarí''<br/>''-iarí-''
|''-vaví''<br/>''-oaví''<br/>''-iaví''
|-
!|3.f
|''-ar, -ar-''<br/>''-ār, -ār''<br/>''-ear, -ear-''
|''-atí, -atíe-''<br/>''-ātí, -ātíe''<br/>''-eatí, -eatíe-''
|''-var''<br/>''-oar''<br/>''-iar''
|''-vatí''<br/>''-oatí''<br/>''-iatí''
|-
!colspan="7" | Imperfect
|-
|colspan="7"|''Add the ''yn-'' prefix to the present forms.''
|-
!colspan="7" | Future
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 50px; "|
!colspan="3" | Active
!colspan="3" | Passive
|-
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Dual
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Dual
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|''-ḗn, -ḗn-''<br/>''-ā́n, -ā́n-''<br/>''-íen, -íen-''
|''-ḗdir, -ēdir-''<br/>''-ā́dir, -ādir-''<br/>''-íedir, -iedir-''
|''-ḗmi, -ēmī-''<br/>''-ā́mi, -āmī-''<br/>''-íemi, -iemī-''
|''-ū́n''<br/>''-ṓn''<br/>''-úon''
|''-ū́dir''<br/>''-ṓdir''<br/>''-úodir''
|''-ū́mi''<br/>''-ṓmi''<br/>''-úomi''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''-ḗvse, -ēvsi-''<br/>''-ā́vse, -āvsi-''<br/>''-íevse, -ievsi-''
|''-ḗnse, -ēnsi-''<br/>''-ā́nse, -ānsi-''<br/>''-íense, -iensi-''
|''-''
|''-ū́vse''<br/>''-ṓvse''<br/>''-úovse''
|''-ū́nse''<br/>''-ṓnse''<br/>''-úonse''
|-
!|2
|''-ḗr, -ḗr-''<br/>''-ā́r, -ā́r-''<br/>''-íer, -íer-''
|''-ḗrse, -ērsi-''<br/>''-ā́rse, -ārsi-''<br/>''-íerse, -iersi-''
|''-ḗlse, -ēlsi-''<br/>''-ā́lse, -ālsi-''<br/>''-íelse, -ielsi-''
|''-ū́r''<br/>''-ṓr''<br/>''-úor''
|''-ū́rse''<br/>''-ṓrse''<br/>''-úorse''
|''-ū́lse''<br/>''-ṓlse''<br/>''-úolse''
|-
!|3.m
|''-ḗ, -ḗm-''<br/>''-ā́, -ā́m-''<br/>''-íe, -íem-''
|rowspan="2"|''-ḗri, -ḗri-''<br/>''-ā́ri, -ā́ri-''<br/>''-íeri, -íeri-''
|''-ḗvi, -ēvie-''<br/>''-ā́vi, -āvie-''<br/>''-íevi, -ievie-''
|''-ū́''<br/>''-ṓ''<br/>''-úo''
|rowspan="2"|''-ū́ri''<br/>''-ṓri''<br/>''-úori''
|''-ū́vi''<br/>''-ṓvi''<br/>''-úovi''
|-
!|3.f
|''-ḗsi, -ḗsi-''<br/>''-ā́si, -ā́si-''<br/>''-íesi, -íesi-''
|''-ḗti, -ētie-''<br/>''-ā́ti, -ātie-''<br/>''-íeti, -ietie-''
|''-ū́si''<br/>''-ṓsi''<br/>''-úosi''
|''-ū́ti''<br/>''-ṓti''<br/>''-úoti''
|-
!colspan="7" | Jussive
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 50px; "|
!colspan="3" | Active
!colspan="3" | Passive
|-
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Dual
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Dual
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|''-ī́n, -ī́(n)<sup>1</sup>-''<br/>''-áin, -ái(n)<sup>1</sup>-''<br/>''-éin, -éi(n)<sup>1</sup>-''
|''-dír, -dír-''<br/>''-adír, -adír-''<br/>''-edír, -edír-''
|''-mí, -mī́-''<br/>''-amí, -amī́-''<br/>''-emí, -emī́-''
|''-ȳ́n''<br/>''-ȳ́n''<br/>''-iḗn''
|''-udír''<br/>''-odír''<br/>''-iodír''
|''-umí''<br/>''-omí''<br/>''-iomí''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''-vt, -vti-''<br/>''-avt, -avti-''<br/>''-evt, -evti-''
|''-nt, -nti-''<br/>''-ant, -anti-''<br/>''-ent, -enti-''
|''-''
|''-uvt''<br/>''-ovt''<br/>''-iovt''
|''-unt''<br/>''-ont''<br/>''-iont''
|-
!|2
|''-t, -t-''<br/>''-at, -at-''<br/>''-et, -et-''
|''-rt, -rti-''<br/>''-art, -arti-''<br/>''-ert, -erti-''
|''-lt, -lti-''<br/>''-alt, -alti-''<br/>''-elt, -elti-''
|''-ut''<br/>''-ot''<br/>''-iot''
|''-urt''<br/>''-ort''<br/>''-iort''
|''-ult''<br/>''-olt''<br/>''-iolt''
|-
!|3.m
|''-má, -mā́-''<br/>''-amá, -amā́-''<br/>''-emá, -emā́-''
|rowspan="2"|''-irá, -irā́-''<br/>''-ará, -arā́-''<br/>''-erá, -erā́-''
|''-vá, -vā́-''<br/>''-avá, -avā́-''<br/>''-evá, -evā́-''
|''-umá''<br/>''-omá''<br/>''-iomá''
|rowspan="2"|''-urá''<br/>''-orá''<br/>''-iorá''
|''-uvá''<br/>''-ová''<br/>''-iová''
|-
!|3.f
|''-isá, -isā́-''<br/>''-asá, -asā́-''<br/>''-esá, -esā́-''
|''-tá, -tā́-''<br/>''-atá, -atā́-''<br/>''-etá, -etā́-''
|''-usá''<br/>''-osá''<br/>''-iosá''
|''-utá''<br/>''-otá''<br/>''-iotá''
|-
|-
!colspan="7" | Imperative
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 50px; "|
!colspan="3" | Active
!colspan="3" | Passive
|-
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Dual
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Dual
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''-vs, -vs-''<br/>''-avs, -avs-''<br/>''-evs, -evs-''
|''-ns, -ns-''<br/>''-ans, -ans-''<br/>''-ens, -ens-''
|''-''
|''-uvs''<br/>''-ovs''<br/>''-iovs''
|''-uns''<br/>''-ons''<br/>''-ions''
|-
!|2
|''-Ø''<br/>''-a, -a-''<br/>''-e, -e-''
|''-rs, -rs-''<br/>''-ars, -ars-''<br/>''-ers, -ers-''
|''-ls, -ls-''<br/>''-als, -als-''<br/>''-els, -els-''
|''-y''<br/>''-u''<br/>''-iu''
|''-urs''<br/>''-ors''<br/>''-iors''
|''-uls''<br/>''-ols''<br/>''-iols''
|-
!colspan="7" | Emphatic imperative
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 50px; "|
!colspan="3" | Active
!colspan="3" | Passive
|-
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Dual
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Dual
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''-ḗvs, -ēvs-''<br/>''-ā́vs, -ā́vs-''<br/>''-íevs, -íevs-''
|''-ḗns, -ēns-''<br/>''-ā́ns, -ā́ns-''<br/>''-íens, -íens-''
|''-''
|''-ū́vs''<br/>''-ṓvs''<br/>''-úovs''
|''-ū́ns''<br/>''-ṓns''<br/>''-úons''
|-
!|2
|''-ḗ, -ḗ-''<br/>''-ā́, -ā́-''<br/>''-íe, -íe-''
|''-ḗrs, -ḗrs-''<br/>''-ā́rs, -ā́rs-''<br/>''-íers, -íers-''
|''-ḗls, -ḗls-''<br/>''-ā́ls, -ā́ls-''<br/>''-íels, -íels-''
|''-ū́''<br/>''-ṓ''<br/>''-úo''
|''-ū́rs''<br/>''-ṓrs''<br/>''-úors''
|''-ū́ls''<br/>''-ṓls''<br/>''-úols''
|-
!colspan="7"| Non-finite forms
|-
!|
!colspan="3"| Active
!colspan="3"| Passive
|-
!Present<br/>participle
|colspan="3"|''-́ryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-rl-''<br/>''-áryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-árl-''<br/>''-éryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-érl-''
|colspan="3"|''-uryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-url-''<br/>''-óryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-órl-''<br/>''-ióryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-iorl-''
|-
!Preterite<br/>participle
|colspan="3"|''-sáryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-sárl-''<br/>''-asáryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-asárl-''<br/>''-esáryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-esárl-''
|colspan="3"|''-usáryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-usárl-''<br/>''-osáryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-osárl-''<br/>''-iosáryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-iosárl-''
|-
!Imperfect<br/>participle
|colspan="7"|''Prefix ''yn-'' to the present participle.''
|-
!Future<br/>participle
|colspan="3"|''-ḗryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-ḗrl-''<br/>''-ā́ryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-ā́rl-''<br/>''-íeryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-íerl-''
|colspan="3"|''-ū́ryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-ū́rl-''<br/>''-ṓryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-ṓrl-''<br/>''-úoryl<sup>F</sup>'', ''-úorl-''
|-
!Stative<br/>participle
|colspan="3"|''-''
|colspan="3"|''-́met''<br/>''-ámet''<br/>''-émet''
|-
!Infinitive
|colspan="3"|''-s<sup>M</sup>''<br/>''-as<sup>M</sup>''<br/>''-es<sup>M</sup>''
|colspan="3"|''-us<sup>M</sup>''<br/>''-os<sup>M</sup>''<br/>''-ios<sup>M</sup>''
|-
!Supine
|colspan="3"|''-ēð<sup>M</sup>''<br/>''-āð<sup>M</sup>''<br/>''-ieð<sup>M</sup>''
|colspan="3"|''-ūð<sup>M</sup>''<br/>''-ōð<sup>M</sup>''<br/>''-uoð<sup>M</sup>''
|}
<sup>1</sup> See below.<br/>
====Object affixes====
The object affixes combine at the end of the verb to agree with the definite direct object or indirect object. Indirect objects are given higher priority than direct objects.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 1000px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="16" |'''Object affixes'''
|-
!|Condition
!|1sg
!|2sg.m
!|2sg.f
!|3sg.m
!|3sg.f
!|1dl.ex
!|1dl.in
!|2dl
!|3dl.m
!|3dl.f
!|1pl.ex
!|1pl.in
!|2pl
!|3pl.m
!|3pl.f
|-
!|''-C-''
|''+ -yn''
|''+ -ys''
|''+ -yzy''
|''+ -y''
|rowspan="2"|''+ -ī''
|rowspan="7"|''+ -ren''
|rowspan="7"|''+ -tið''
|''+ -yth''
|rowspan="2"|''+ -ō''
|''+ -ie''
|rowspan="2"|''+ -am''
|''+ -ynt''
|''+ -lys''
|''+ -uo''
|''+ -inn''
|-
!|''-i-, -u-,'' hiatus
|rowspan="5"|''+ -n''
|rowspan="5"|''+ -s''
|rowspan="5"|''+ -zy''
|''+ -v''
|rowspan="5"|''+ -ryth''
|rowspan="5"|''+ -vie''
|rowspan="6"|''+ -nt''
|rowspan="5"|''+ -lys''
|rowspan="5"|''+ -ch''
|rowspan="5"|''+ -r''
|-
!|''-ā-''
|'''''-au'''''
|'''''-ai'''''
|''+ -vō''
|''+ -m''
|-
!|''-ē-''
|'''''-eu'''''
|'''''-ei'''''
|rowspan="2"|''+ -ō''
|rowspan="2"|''+ -am''
|-
!|''-ī-''
|rowspan="2"|''+ -v''
|rowspan="2"|''+ -ī''
|-
!|''-ie-''
|''+ -vō''
|'''''-eam'''''
|-
!|''-(n)-''
|''+ -nyn''
|''+ -nys''
|''+ -nyzy''
|''+ -ny''
|''+ -nī''
|''+ -nyth''
|''+ -nō''
|''+ -nie''
|''+ -nam''
|''+ -lys''
|''+ -nuo''
|''+ -ninn''
|}
The reflexive object suffixes are simply the 3rd person suffixes with an initial consonant l- (''-ly, -lī, -lōr, -lȳr, -lū/-lech, -linn/-ler''), and can be attached right on the combining form of the subject suffix. Non-3rd person reflexive verbs are marked with the same pronoun à la Romance.
=====Double object affixes=====
Ditransitive constructions employing double object affixes (which occur in the order {{sc|verb-IO-DO}}) can only be used with certain combinations of pronominal objects, not with full noun phrases (another constraint is that the recipient outrank the theme in animacy; hence ''capsascā́ny!'' 'feed me it!' is licensed but not ''*capsascáun!'' 'feed me to him!'). Participles and supines (objects patterning as in finite verbs) may receive a similar "double possessive" suffix.
===Prepositions===
Prepositions in Themsaran are inflected with pronominal enclitics.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="22" |'''Inflection of prepositions'''
|-
!|
!|1sg
!|2sg.m
!|2sg.f
!|3sg.m
!|3sg.f
!|rfl.sg.m
!|rfl.sg.f
!|1dl.ex
!|1dl.in
!|2dl
!|3dl.m
!|3dl.f
!|rfl.dl.m
!|rfl.dl.f
!|1pl.ex
!|1pl.in
!|2pl
!|3pl.m
!|3pl.f
!|rfl.pl.m
!|rfl.pl.f
|-
!|Regular
|''-n''
|''-(y)s''
|''-(y)zy''
|''-(v)y''
|''-ī''
|''-ly''
|''-lī''
|''-ren''
|''-tið''
|''-yth''
|''-(j)ār''
|''-(j)air''
|''-lār''
|''-lair''
|''-am''
|''-nt''
|''-lys''
|''-ch''
|''-r''
|''-lech''
|''-ler''
|-
!|Example
|''ástyn''
|''ástys''
|''ástyzy''
|''ásty''
|''ástī''
|''ástyly''
|''ástylī''
|''ástren''
|''ástytið''
|''ástyth''
|''ástār''
|''ástair''
|''ástylār''
|''ástylair''
|''ástam''
|''ástynt''
|''ástylys''
|''ástech''
|''áster''
|''ástylech''
|''ástyler''
|}
The following prepositions have completely regular inflection:
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 500px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3"|Regular prepositions
|-
!|Themsaran
!|With noun
!|With infintive/supine
|-
|''ast''
|without, except
|unless (negative meaning)
|-
|''chang''
|concerning
|
|-
|''cute''
|on, on top of
|in addition to, simultaneously while
|-
|''det''
|colspan="2"|towards, until
|-
|''dietrem''
|inside, amidst
|whilst
|-
|''dismar'', ''hasfíer''
|colspan="2"|instead of
|-
|''énħēn''
|colspan="2"|because of
|-
|''gletrem''
|out of
|
|-
|''had''
|like, as, in correspondence to
|as if to (but with ''ne''-clause: "as")
|-
|''inír''
|like the X that it is
|
|-
|''lyr'', ''myl''
|by (animate agent)
|
|-
|''oles''
|colspan="2"|until
|-
|''pram''
|unlike
|
|-
|''qal''
|in front of
|before
|-
|''rimḗn''
|because of
|
|-
|''sunā́n''
|in spite of
|
|-
|''tor''
|
|because (by implication of the fact that)
|-
|''trig''
|around
|approximately when
|-
|''ŧany''
|behind
|after
|-
|''véliīl''
|in the name of
|
|-
|''vorḗl''
|for the sake of
|in order that
|-
|''zom''
|between
|from event X until event Y
|-
|''ðymai''
|without (instrument)
|without X-ing (positive meaning)
|}
The following prepositions are irregular:
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 500px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3"|Irregular prepositions
|-
!|Themsaran
!|With noun
!|With infintive/supine
|-
|''ā''
|with (comitative)
|when (imperfective aspect)
|-
|''di''
|in, at (locative)
|when (perfective aspect)
|-
|''nai''
|by, with (instrumental)
|by/in X-ing
|-
|''la''
|also
|
|-
|''vo''
|to, for (dative)
|
|-
|''gil''
|from, of (partitive, material)
|
|-
|''pī''
|against
|
|-
|''stái'' (conjugated as 1sg jussive verb)
|
|please do.../I would ask that...
|}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg  " style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="22" |'''Inflection of irregular prepositions'''
|-
!|
!|1sg
!|2sg.m
!|2sg.f
!|3sg.m
!|3sg.f
!|rfl.sg.m
!|rfl.sg.f
!|1dl.ex
!|1dl.in
!|2dl
!|3dl.m
!|3dl.f
!|rfl.dl.m
!|rfl.dl.f
!|1pl.ex
!|1pl.in
!|2pl
!|3pl.m
!|3pl.f
!|rfl.pl.m
!|rfl.pl.f
|-
!|''ā''
|''aħán''
|''ā́s''
|''āsý''
|''aħý''
|''aħī́''
|''aħlý''
|''aħlī́''
|''aħrén''
|''aħtíð''
|''aħrýth''
|''āħṓr''
|''āħȳ́r''
|''aħlṓr''
|''aħlȳ́r''
|''ā́m''
|''ā́nt''
|''āħlýs''
|''āħéch''
|''āħér''
|''āħléch''
|''āħlér''
|-
!|''di''
|''díen''
|''díes''
|''díezy''
|''díev''
|''dī́''
|''díely''
|''díeli''
|''díeren''
|''díetið''
|''díeryth''
|''díevōr''
|''díevȳr''
|''díelōr''
|''díelȳr''
|''díevam''
|''díent''
|''díelys''
|''díech''
|''díer''
|''díelech''
|''díeler''
|-
!|''vo''
|''vṓn''
|''vṓs''
|''vṓzy''
|''vū́''
|''vȳ́''
|''vṓly''
|''vṓlī''
|''vóðren''
|''vṓtið''
|''vóðryth''
|''vóðōr''
|''vóðȳr''
|''vṓlōr''
|''vṓlȳr''
|''vóðam''
|''vṓnt''
|''vṓlys''
|''vṓch''
|''vṓr''
|''vṓslech''
|''vṓler''
|-
!|''nai''
|''náin''
|''náis''
|''naizý''
|''naivý''
|''naiī́''
|''nailý''
|''nailī́''
|''nairén''
|''naitíð''
|''nairýth''
|''naivṓr''
|''naivȳ́r''
|''nailṓr''
|''nailȳ́r''
|''naiám''
|''náint''
|''náis''
|''náich''
|''náir''
|''nailéch''
|''nailér''
|-
!|''la''
|''láun''
|''láus''
|''lauzý''
|''lauvý''
|''lauvī́''
|''laulý''
|''laulī́''
|''laurén''
|''lautíð''
|''laurýth''
|''lauvṓr''
|''lauvȳ́r''
|''laulṓr''
|''laulȳ́r''
|''laujám''
|''láunt''
|''láulys''
|''láich''
|''láir''
|''lailéch''
|''lailér''
|-
!|''gil''
|''gilén''
|''gilés''
|''gilezý''
|''giléu''
|''giléi'''
|''gilelý''
|''gilelī́''
|''gilerén''
|''giletíð''
|''gilerýth''
|''gilevṓr''
|''gilevȳ́r''
|''gilelṓr''
|''gilelȳ́r''
|''gileám''
|''gilént''
|''gilelýs''
|''gilḗch''
|''gilḗr''
|''gileléch''
|''gilelér''
|}
====Uses of the dative====
The dative preposition ''vo'' is often used for semantic experiencers:
:'''''vū́ nobáva'''''
:<small>DAT-3SG.M be_diseased(PASS)-3SG.M</small>
:''he (lit. to him) is sick''
The pronominal [[w:ethical dative]] is used to express some form of interest in the matter.
:'''''Armaíla vṓs.'''''
:<small>listen-IMP.2SG DAT-2SG.M</small>
:''Listen (for your own good).''
===Numerals===
Themsaran employs a pure vigesimal numeral system. In transcriptions of Themsaran, if positional numerals are desired, the vigesimal positional numerals should be used.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg  " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="8"|Themsaran numerals
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|''n''
!style="width: 120px; "|''n''th
!style="width: 120px; "|''n'' times
!style="width: 120px; "|''n'' each/at a time
!style="width: 120px; "|1/''n''
!style="width: 120px; "|''n'' days
!style="width: 120px; "|''n'' years
|-
|?
|''jíes''
|''jínáth''
|''jíster''
|''jíssle''
|''jissínde''
|''jíníeð''
|
|-
|1
|''cḗm''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''férrȳ́n''
|''cḗmter''
|''cḗmsle'
|''-''
|''cḗmíeð''
|''dóvī́em''
|-
|2
|''títhār''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''ýrnȳ́n''
|''tíster''
|''tístle''
|''rā́ħé''
|''títhíeð''
|''tívíem''
|-
|3
|''naré''
|''palnáth''
|''nárter''
|''narslé''
|''narínde''
|''naríeð''
|''narvíem''
|-
|4
|''mulé''
|''muláth''
|''múlter''
|''mulslé''
|''mulínde''
|''mulíeð''
|''mulvíem''
|-
|5
|''nisŧé''
|''nisŧáth''
|''nísŧer''
|''nislé''
|''nisŧínde''
|''nisŧíeð''
|''nisvíem''
|-
|6
|''chtāmé''
|''chtāmáth''
|''chtā́mter''
|''chtāmslé''
|''chtāmínde''
|''chtāmíeð''
|''chtāmvíem''
|-
|7
|''rūdé''
|''rūdáth''
|''rū́tter''
|''rūslé''
|''rūdínde''
|''rūdíeð''
|''rūvîem''
|-
|8
|''lozedé''
|''lozedáth''
|''lóster''
|''loslé''
|''lozínde''
|''lozíeð''
|''lorvíem''
|-
|9
|''fárvé''
|''fárváth''
|''fárter''
|''fárslé''
|''fárvínde''
|''fáríeð''
|''fárvîem''
|-
|10/A<sub>20</sub>
|''ħȳré''
|''ħȳráth''
|''ħȳ́rter''
|''ħȳrslé''
|''ħȳrínde''
|''ħȳríeð''
|''ħȳrvíem''
|-
|11/B<sub>20</sub>
|''cḗmiħȳré''
|''cḗmiħȳráth''
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|12/C<sub>20</sub>
|''títhiħȳré''
|''tithiħȳráth''
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|13/D<sub>20</sub>
|''nariħȳré''
|''nariħȳráth''
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|14/E<sub>20</sub>
|''muliħȳré''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|15/F<sub>20</sub>
|''nisŧiħȳré''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|16/G<sub>20</sub>
|''chtāmiħȳré''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|17/H<sub>20</sub>
|''rūdiħȳré''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|18/J<sub>20</sub>
|''loziħȳré''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|19/K<sub>20</sub>
|''farviħȳré''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|20/10<sub>20</sub>
|''nevsé''
|''nevsáth''
|''névter''
|''nevslé''
|''nevsínde''
|''nevíeð''
|
|-
|21/11<sub>20</sub>
|''nevsé... ie cḗm<sup>CLF</sup>''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|22/12<sub>20</sub>
|''nevsé... ie títhār<sup>CLF</sup>''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|40/20<sub>20</sub>
|''títhnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|60/30<sub>20</sub>
|''narnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|80/40<sub>20</sub>
|''mulnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|100/50<sub>20</sub>
|''nisŧnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|120/60<sub>20</sub>
|''chtāmnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|140/70<sub>20</sub>
|''rūdnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|160/80<sub>20</sub>
|''lornū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|180/90<sub>20</sub>
|''fárnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|200/A0<sub>20</sub>
|''ħȳrnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|220/B0<sub>20</sub>
|''ħȳrcēmnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|240/C0<sub>20</sub>
|''ħȳrtithnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|400/100<sub>20</sub>
|''ŧaflé''
|''ŧafláth''
|''ŧáfler''
|''ŧafslé''
|''ŧaflínde''
|''ŧaflíeð''
|
|-
|20<sup>3</sup>/1000<sub>20</sub>
|''idré''
|''idráth''
|''ídrer''
|''idryslé''
|''idrínde''
|''idríeð''
|
|-
|20<sup>4</sup>/10000<sub>20</sub>
|''zathné''
|''zathnáth''
|''záster''
|''zathnyslé''
|''zathrínde''
|''zathníeð''
|
|}
1 and 2 (and any number whose 1's digit = 1 or 2) are adjectives. For ones digit > 3, the numeral is a noun that takes the definiteness inflection on behalf of the noun phrase (as a corollary, with a demonstrative the numeral is "indefinite" as well), whilst the noun is in the form "unmarked" in definiteness (indefinite for unpossessed, definite for possessed).
For numerals whose ones digit is 1 or 2, such constructions as ''nevsé sṓrach ie títhār'' '22 houses' must be used.
The distributive suffix can be appended to the "''n'' times" numeral to express "''n'' times each"; e.g. ''chtāmterslé'' (six times each).
The numerals can be combined with possessive suffixes to denote "(the) ''n'' of us/you/them" ''mullaŧís'' "four of you", ''mullâis'' "the four of you".
==Syntax==
===Word order and fronting===
The default constituent order is (time-place)-verb/predicate adjective-subject-pronominal oblique object-direct object-(place-time). Any constituent may be topicalized or focalized by being placed in front of the verb. The syntactic difference between topicalization and focalization is that a topicalized noun phrase is the absolute first constituent of a clause while focalized noun phrases have to follow pre-verbal adjuncts such as negation. New information adverbs such as ''la'' (also) tend to topicalize, and restrictive adverbs such as ''vid'' (only) tend to focus.
===Negation===
Negation of finite verbs is performed by the particle ''tír''.
Predicates and participles by default are negated with ''dār'' (a proclitic).
Irrealis (imperative, jussive) verbs are negated by using the irrealis negation clitic ''ham'', as are semantically irrealis participial clauses such as those indicating purpose. ''Hám'' may also be used as a standalone exclamation ("do not!"/"may it not happen!").
The negation of ''mór'' (in non-jussive forms) is ''íris, irs-''.
Infinitives are negated with ''tíem''.
==="Emphasis"===
====Topicalization====
The clause begins with the topicalized noun phrase, then a 3rd pronoun corresponding to the subject is used in the sentence. If the topic is the object of a finite verb, a 3rd object suffix is used on the verb.
====Focalization====
Themsaran focusing fronts the whole noun phrase (prepositions and all), unlike topicalization in which the topic is appositional and is expressed with a prepositional pronoun in the clause. If the focus is the subject fronting with no pronoun is used. Focusing may alternatively employ a type of cleft construction, with fronting of the focused noun phrase, by using the inverse verbal or prepositional object corresponding to the role of the focus in the sentence. The cleft construction is the one used when the focus is the direct object.
Focusing is likely to occur with verbs in the mirative mood or the energetic mood, i.e. verbs that mark new information.
===Noun phrases===
Numerals precede nouns; possessors follow their possessa (with poetic exceptions); demonstratives occur after attributive adjectives, which follow nouns. Inflected quantifiers (uninflected quantifiers, such as ''rṓg'' "every/all", precede the numeral) come after the adjective by default, but precede the noun when a demonstrative is used and precede the numeral when a numeral is used. Within these boundaries there is a lot of leeway; an attributive adjective or a demonstrative can occupy any position between its head and the relative clause.
====Distributive possession====
To express the meaning of "our/your/their respective NP" (in both dual and plural), the last noun of the NP is reduplicated in absolute possessed forms. The persons are decomposed as follows:
*1{{sc|ex.m}}: noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-3{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}} or noun-3{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}}
*1{{sc|ex.f}}: noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-3{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}} or noun-3{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}}
*1{{sc|in.m}}: noun-2{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} or noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-2{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}}
*1{{sc|in.f}}: noun-2{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} or noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-2{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}}
*2{{sc|.m}}: noun-2{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-2{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}}
*2{{sc|.f}}: noun-2{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-2{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}}
*3{{sc|.m}}: noun-3{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-3{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}}
*3{{sc|.f}}: noun-3{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-3{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}}
===Equational sentences===
The copula is rarely used in the present indicative in full (not relative) clauses. Instead, an equational sentence begins with the subject, and a 3rd- or a 4th-person pronoun (cliticized and therefore toneless) agreeing with the subject may be used anywhere in the sentence, or omitted (as is often the case, as the predicate adjectives and the end of each noun phrase are quite transparent). When the clitic pronoun is used it may precede or follow the predicate noun or adjective.
===Predicative possession===
"X has Y" is expressed with the construction "''[[Themsaran/Verbal subparadigms|mór]]''  Y ''vo'' X", or "''mór''-[pronoun affix for pronominal X] Y" if X is animate. If X is inanimate, the construction ''X ā Y'' ('X is with Y'), or ''X ast Y'' ('X is without Y') is used. (''Mór'' is a suppletive verb.)
:'''''Mórvien híltámsach.'''''
:<small>exist/PRES.3PL.M-1SG evidence-PL.INDEF</small>
:''I have proof.''
===Coordinating conjunctions===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 500px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3"|Coordinating conjunctions
|-
!|Themsaran
!|Gloss
!|Notes
|-
|''at''
|or
|
|-
|''coru''
|then
|
|-
|''ie''
|and
|can be rendered as 'but, while, whereas' with topicalized clauses
|-
|''ieláð''
|however, nevertheless, moreover
|
|-
|''nesi''
|but (rather)
|
|-
|''nu''
|xor/nand
|
|-
|''seim''
|but, yet, however
|
|-
|''ū̌de''
|so
|
|}
===Subordinate clauses===
Themsaran prefers sentences with one independent (tensed realis) clause, with infinitives, jussives or participles in subordinate clauses (except usually in complement clauses).
====Subordinators governing finite verbs====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 500px; text-align: center;"
|-
!|Themsaran
!|Gloss
!|Notes
|-
|''ach''
||although||
|-
|''ānne''
||when (with finite verb)||
|-
|''ar''
||if (specific/provisional)||if the condition is predicted to occur, then use future for protasis
|-
|''eir''
||because, for||
|-
|''īs''
||if (counterfactual)||
|-
|''ne''
||that (complementizer)||
|-
|''nit''
||if (general conditional)||
|-
|''nitrṓg/trṓg''
||whoever/whatever (generic relativizer)||
|-
||''rin''
||that, which (specific relativizer)||
|-
||''surith''
||which (sentential relativizer)||
|}
====Participial clauses====
Three types of participial clauses are used in Themsaran: attributive participle clauses, absolute participle clauses and adverbial participle clauses.
Attributive participial clauses are used as relative clauses whose subject is the head. The only difference is that the tense of a participial clause describes the time relative to the main clause. Note that attributive participles take a possessive suffix; the possessor of a participle is the direct object if the participle is active, and is the agent if the participle is passive.
In absolute participial clauses the participle is inflected into the predicative state. It can be used to give the general circumstances or purpose (with a future participle) of an event. Certain subordinating conjunctions may be used in tandem with such a participle as well.
Adverbial participial clauses denote manner of action, often corresponding to clauses of the type "as if X-ing" or "as if to..." in English.
=====Subordinators governing participles=====
The following subordinating conjunctions can govern any clause with a predicate (be it a noun, adjective or participle). If the subject is a pronoun then it is absorbed into the conjunction as a pronominal suffix (and inflected as if they were nouns or prepositions):
:'''''qōmḗnylys bisuvarlū́am'''''
:<small>qōmḗn-lys bisu-va-rl-ū-am</small>
:<small>for-2PL favor-PASS-PART-PL.M-1PL.EX</small>
:''for we are on your side''
If the subject is omitted, the dependent clause is assumed to have the same subject as the main clause.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 500px; text-align: center;"
|-
!|Themsaran
!|Gloss
!|Notes
|-
|''aumé''
|if (it is found to be the case that...)
|inflected as declension 2 noun
|-
|''ðisēn''
|for the fact that...
|
|-
|''gōté''
|because (physical cause)
|inflected as declension 2 noun
|-
|''fełū''
|when
|
|-
|''ħuoná''
|as long as
|
|-
|''nōr, nō̌r-''
|although, albeit
|
|-
|''qōmḗn''
|for, because
|
|-
|''stī́m''
|in order that
|
|}
====Time clauses using the infinitive====
Time clauses may be constructed with a preposition and the infinitive with the possessor as subject.
:'''''ā lēvásyn''' (lit. with my running)''
:''while I run/was running (imperfective)''
:'''''dí táqrysī ā̀tmān''' (lit. at my mother's being-born)''
:''when my mother was born (perfective)''
====Relative clauses====
The participial relative clause is introduced with a participle. It is used when the head is the subject. The possessor of an active participle is the direct object, and the possessor of a passive participle is the agent.
The finite restrictive relative clause is introduced with a relativizer ''rin'' (specific) or ''nitrṓg/trṓg'' (non-specific; etymologically "whenever"). To modify a sentence with a relative clause the relativizer ''surith'' is used instead. If the head is the relative clause's object the verbal agreement with it is not necessary.
Non-restrictive relative clauses can be thought of as apposed sentences; the full sentence is copied directly after the noun.
====Complement clauses====
Themsaran uses chiefly finite complement clauses (with verbs of information, saying or knowing), unlike for other types of subordinate clauses. As in English, changes in tense occur if the matrix verb is in a past tense (not a present perfect tense):
*present > imperfect
*imperfect > imperfect perfect (imperfect participle + imperfect of ''vā́cī́n'')
*preterite > preterite perfect (preterite participle + imperfect of ''vā́cī́n'')
*future > future perfect (future participle + imperfect of ''vā́cī́n'')
The subjunctive mood may be used if the source of the information is not identical to the speaker.
Headless complenet clauses are also found. The distinction between indicative and subjunctive moods can be used to indicate whether the speaker's degree of belief:
:'''''ne ascinévi d'iennā́'''''
:''(the fact) that they are exceptional in war''
:'''''ne arnynscinévi d'iennā́'''''
:''(the allegation) that they are exceptional in war''
Indirect questions use the same interrogative words as direct questions, with appropriate changes in person and tense. In indirect polar (yes/no) questions the verb is often cast into the subjunctive mood. Wh-words remain unchanged, and the question particle ''ei'' often but not always changes to ''ar''.
====Conditional clauses====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 500px; text-align: center;"
|-
!|Type
!|Form of protasis
!|Form of apodosis
|-
|gnomic; general present
|<abbr title="whenever Mary does/is doing...">''nit'' + present indicative</abbr>
|present indicative
|-
|general past
|<abbr title="whenever Mary did/was doing...">''nit'' + imperfect indicative</abbr>
|imperfect indicative
|-
|situational, more probable
|''ar'' + <abbr title="if Mary is doing...">present</abbr>/<abbr title="if Mary does...">future</abbr> indicative
|future indicative
|-
|situational, improbable
|''īs'' + <abbr title="in the unlikely case that Mary is doing...">present</abbr>/<abbr title="in the unlikely case that Mary does...">future</abbr> indicative
|future subjunctive
|-
|counterfactual/metaphorical present/imperfect
|<abbr title="If Mary did/were doing/had been doing...">''īs'' + imperfect indicative</abbr>
|present/imperfect subjunctive
|-
|counterfactual/metaphorical preterite
|<abbr title="Had Mary done...">''īs'' + preterite indicative</abbr>
|preterite subjunctive
|}
The apodosis is put in the subjunctive in an unreal conditional, or if the outcome or causality is less probable. Needless to say other combinations of TAMs are possible as well depending on the specific condition being discussed.
===Coreferentiality===
There are several situations where the strictly head-marking language tracks coreferentiality, or which agreeing noun a verb or pronoun taking a given agreement refers to.
====Switch reference====
Themsaran uses the ''switch reference'' clitic ''-(i)s(e)'' to signal that the current clause has a different subject than the subject of the previous clause. This clitic goes between the conjunction and the first constituent in the clause.
====Comparison====
====="Than"=====
The comparative particle 'than' is ''rū''. Themsaran enables one to discriminate "He loved me more than she [loved me]" and "He loved me more than [he loved] her", by focusing the argument in the main clause that is compared. The comparative phrase is by default placed after the subject or verb, and the compared noun phrase is stated, or repeated with a pronoun.
{{gloss
|phrase = vá yntarpsýn slá rū vī́
|IPA=/ʋˠá ʉntàrpsʉnꜜ sláꜜ rúː ʋˠíꜜiː/
|morphemes = vá ynt-arb-s-n/ slá rū́ ī́
|gloss = 3SG.M PAST.IPFV-teach/PAST.IPFV.3SG.M>1SG more.ADV than 3SG.F
|translation=He taught me more than she did.}}
{{gloss
|phrase = ná yntarpsýn slá rū vī́
|IPA=/náː ʉntàrpsʉnꜜ sláꜜ rúː ʋˠiꜜiː/
|morphemes = ná ynt-arb-´s-n/ slá rū́ vī
|gloss = 1SG PAST.IPFV-teach/PAST.IPFV.3SG.M>INV.SG.M more.ADV than 3SG.F
|translation=He taught me more than he did her.}}
Note that the fronting does not automatically imply that the fronted noun phrase is compared, but simply that it is given the most focus. The compared argument is the closer argument to the comparative:
{{gloss
|phrase = ná yntarpsýn vá slá rū vī́
|IPA=/náː ʉntàrpsʉnꜜ ʋˠáꜜ sláꜜ rúː ʋˠiꜜiː/
|morphemes = ná ynt-arb-´s-n/ vá slá rū́ vī́
|gloss = 1SG PAST.IPFV-teach/PAST.IPFV.3SG.M>1SG 3SG.M more.ADV than 3SG.F
|translation=It is I whom he taught more than she did.}}
====Indirect speech====
If the complement clause's subject corefers with the subject of the main clause, it is left unstated in the complement clause, and the verb does not take the swtich reference affix.
==="Impersonal" sentences===
Impersonal pronouns do not exist in Themsaran. The verb is put into the passive with the subject as patient/object, or no subject if there is no patient.
:'''''sṓtva nárgieð gle chmásān det cardḗ'''''
:''one walks (lit. it is walked) for three days from my village to the coast''
===Modal constructions===
Themsaran is poor in true modal and auxiliary verbs; "adverbial" and "adjectival" modal constructions are more common. Deontic modalities tend to be expressed adjectivally, while situational and epistemic modalities tend to have adverbial expressions. All modal expressions come before the (negation-) lexical verb (e.g. ''Jêr méŧar ħlomaréch thyrfāmâst!'' "How dare you betray my brothers!", note that the verb is in the preterite).
====Modal adjectives====
*''lāmérsa'': "it is sufficient to..."
*''jalúna'': "advisable".
*''ēdámmeta'': "necessary", used to express need to do something.
*''thǔmeta'': "charged/required/compulsory"; moral obligation, "ought to".
*''tē̌meta'': "permitted", used to express permissibility.
====Modal adverbs====
*''ídā́'': "ably", used to express ability to do something.
*''mṓŧēr'': equivalent of "dare".
*''łámīl'': "possibly", used to express epistemic possibility.
*''tóssēr'': "seemingly".
*''arzḗn'': "certainly", used to express speaker's certainty (English epistemic "must").
*''spádīl'' "in truth", "indeed".
*''teizēr'': "successfully".
====Modal verbs====
"To want" is ''srétī́''. It is used (chiefly with an intransitive verb) in the infinitive, always with a subject possessor (''Srétī mindasén d'insé'' "I want to travel in a city", lit. "I want my traveling in a city"), or with transitive verbs in the supine (definite direct objects are marked).
===Periphrastic causatives===
Using a periphrastic construction to express causatives often has the implicature of downplaying the agency of the agent or the degree of compulsion involved in the causation. Said nuances can be fine-tuned further with the choice of the auxiliary verb of causation.
*''flúotéi'' - 'to cause', a neutral verb.
*''bēslinái'' - 'to force'.
*''asqruofái'' - 'to coax, cajole'.
==Derivational morphology==
===Affixal===
====Nouns and Adjectives====
*''-ácse'' (''f'', ''c''): [noun]-manship, proper way of [verb]ing/being [adjective]
*''-átte'' (''f'', ''c''): domain, place of [noun/adjective] (''víssī́'' 'sell' > ''víssátte'' 'market')
*''-áth'' (''c''): adjectival suffix
*''-ber'' (''m'', ''c''): resultative of [verb]
*''-d-/-de'': nominalizer (less productive)
*''-dr-'' (''c''): -ful
*''[most often infinitive]-iħe'' (''f'' ''c''): nominalizer of [verb]
*''-im-'' (''c''): originating from [noun/adjective]; ''fō̌nim'': 'marine'
*''-in'' (''m'' ''g'', not very productive): semantic patient of (verb)
*''ir-'': non-, un-[adjective]
*''-índ-'' (''c''): diminutive (''ħrṓm'' 'horse' > ''ħrōmínd'' 'foal, colt')
*''-ing'' (''g''): group/collective noun (''ħéisting'' 'vocabulary' < ''ħéist'' 'word')
*''-īd'' (''f'', ''2'', ''c''): abstract noun; ''thrȳzamétīd'' 'definiteness (grammatical)' < ''thrȳzámet'' 'remembered' (stative passive ptcp.)
*''cī(v)-'': -less; ''cīpalnáth'' 'mutually exhaustive' < ''paln-'' 'third'
*''-lné'' (''g''): action of [verb]; the action noun of [verb] ''gā́lelné'' 'singing'
*''-loch-'' (''c''): semantic agent of [verb]
*''-malé'' (''f'' ''th''): manner of [verb]ing; ''vālizamalé'' 'pattern, paradigm' < ''vālizái'' 'order'
*''-ms'' (''m'', ''c''): instrument noun; ''éðħams'': trophy, prize
*''-noth-'' (''c''): capable/worthy of patienthood, [verb]-able; (''vingái'' 'die' > ''vinganóth'' 'mortal', ''frínqái'' 'to despair' > ''frínqanóth'' 'futile, vain')
*''-őf-'' (''c''): weaker pejorative, "just some"
*''-org-'' (''th''): pejorative
*''-re'' (''f'', ''c'', less productive): patient/resultative; ''gavȳ̌re'' 'small piece, exemplar' < ''gavȳnī́'' 'take out, examine'; ''pastáre'' 'staircase, scale, program, protocol' < ''pastái'' 'stratify, layer'
*''-se'' (''f'', ''c''): singulative
*''-tán'' (''f'', ''c'') "[noun] material" ''híchatán'' 'batter' < ''híchái'' 'bake'
*''-tv-'' (''c'') [noun]-like
*''-yng-'' (plural, ''c''): associative plural
*''-ȳré'' (''f'', ''g''): place noun (''ā́thim'' 'holy' > ''ā́thimȳré'' 'shrine, sanctuary')
*''-ýthe'' (''f'', ''c''): state of being [adjective], most often used for mental states; probably related to ''ýthe'' 'color, manner'
====Verbs====
*''-scái''/''-ái'' (less productive): cause to be [adjective] (''ðúoscái'' 'lengthen'; ''qēscái'' 'strengthen'; ''ārdái'' 'magnify, greaten, enlarge')
*''-inái'': do the action of [noun]
*''-trī́'': intensive
*''-dm-'' iterative
*''-achlái'': :see/depict as
*''-ðħái'': un-, dis- (transitive)
*''-brī́'': un-, dis- (intransitive)
*''-(i/u)tái-'' (with tone change): transitivizer (not productive)
*''fúd-'' (< ''fúdái'' 'answer'): in return, re-
===Compounding===
Compounding and incorporation is the main, characteristically Themsaran method of derivation.
Noun-adjective compounding occurs by removing the ending of the noun (and inserting ''-o-'' for first declension, ''-e-'' for second declennsion, and ''-i-'' for third declension of the noun if phonotactically required). If the compound is a noun with a supplemental meaning by the adjective, the lexical tone is that of the noun; on the contrary, as an adjective with the meaning colored by the noun, the lexical tone is adopted from the adjective. (e.g. ''cólyn'' (1st decl., high tone) + ''simáttim'' (accent paradigm ''c'') ''= cólnosimáttim'' 'wind' + 'northern' = 'north wind'; ''sōrachráth'' 'royalty, royal household' < ''sôr'' 'house' + ''achráth'' 'royal'; post-classical neologisms include ''ðálfaromīdáth'' ''tradition'' < ''ðál-'' 'passing, transmission' + ''fáromīdáth'' 'legitimate'; ''thilqārdé'' 'broadsword, claymore' < ''thilqé'' 'sword' + ''ârd'' 'big, great').
Compounds headed by the final noun are largely 'kind of noun' compounds (noun-noun/adj-noun) and are much less productive than the right-branching ones often of a noun-adjective form.
Verb-verb compounding also occurs, e.g. ''duaħivingī́'' 'go extinct, perish, die out' < ''duaħī́'' 'fade, be erased' + ''vingī́'' 'die'.
====Incorporation====
Nouns and adverbs can be incorporated into verbs as they can into adjectives. This is primarily a derivational, rather than grammatical, device.
:'''''qḗdmoplaħemā́m'''''
:''may he grant strength to us''
==Personal names==
Names are often from definite/possessed nouns, definite or predicative adjectives, and verb forms.
==Literature==
===''Zinnṓðrir''===
''Zinnṓðrir'' or simply ''nṓðrir'' (plurale tantum) is the Themsaran term for [[w:rhymed prose|rhymed prose]], a very popular literary form for oratory and other didactic works in both classical and post-classical periods, but not uncommon either for ordinary descriptive writings.
===Poetry===
The criteria to be considered poetry is for there to be a quantitative meter pattern in addition to rhyming.
==Old Vernacular Talsmic==
Old Vernacular Talsmic dialects are largely similar to Noble Themsaran, but there are grammatical, lexical and stylistic differences:
*The preterite perfect tense predominate in use as th general preterite; the synthetic preterite falls into disuse.
*The possessum state of adjectives is lost, being replaced by the definite state.
*The dual is often not used, except for emphasis or stylistic reasons.
==Sample texts==
===Chōłȳ́ cosprā́===
===Look, a ''bān''ner!===
''Ymbānínais gávthā mī́ cḗmērā́c.''
This language was made to attract fame/renown at one time.
''Énħēn lāmennī́dīr chīriī́diī ie arvētnothī́diī íe máugamalánnī, arramlía bānscavā́sī.''
Because of the bestness of its fineness, its believability and its ways of using, its being made to attract fame was agreed upon.
==Vocabulary==
A Themsaran-English lexicon may be found at [[Themsaran/Vocabulary]].
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:A priori]][[Category:Talsmic languages]][[Category:Zachydic languages]]

Latest revision as of 00:36, 24 June 2025

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