Verse:Mwail/Old Gloob: Difference between revisions

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{{construction}}
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}}|Themsárimai: '''Gáthvar themsárimar''']]


{{Infobox language
|image =
|imagesize =
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]
|name = {{PAGENAME}}
|nativename = ''themsárimar''
|pronunciation=  /θè̞msarꜜimar/
|region = Tálsym
|extinct = 220 v.T.
|familycolor=raxo-talsmic
|fam1= [[Gamedan languages|Gamedan]]
|fam2= [[Raxo-Talsmic languages|Raxo-Talsmic]]
|fam3= [[Talsmic languages|Talsmic]]
|script={{PAGENAME}} script, Raxic script
|iso3=qth
|notice=IPA
}}
{{PAGENAME}} is my first constructed language, intended to be a head-initial, head-marking language with a plausible development from an erstwhile dependent-marking language. The grammar and syntax has been heavily influenced by Semitic and Celtic languages, with some drawing from Japanese, German and other languages. The morphology is an experiment with grammatical non-concatenative morphology: as Celtic grammaticalizes initial consonant mutations, and Semitic vowel patterns, {{PAGENAME}} does so with tone patterns. The grammar is also an experiment on using inflections and agreement to show grammatical relations without case, hence the use of switch-reference on verbs and borderline polysynthesis. So I guess it ends up a tad more like some Native American languages. Other purposes of my language include mixing in some less-English constructions, such as the use of optatives in subordinate clauses, and using principally non-finite subordinate clauses in the indicative, and some topic and focus syntactic operations.
==Lexicon==
See the [[{{PAGENAME}}/Vocabulary|Themsarian-English lexicon]] (needs updating).
==Notes on notation==
===Glossary===
*<sup>CLF</sup>: classifier tone pattern (non-desinential or desinential)
*''H'': vowel hiatus with next syllable
*''N'': denotes a homorganic nasal
*''Z'': denotes ''r'' before a vowel or voiced C, ''s'' before a voiceless C, null before ''z''
*''~'': cognate to
==Background==
:''See also: [[{{PAGENAME}}/Sound changes from Proto-Talsmic]].
The '''{{PAGENAME}}''' (/θɛmˈsɑɹiən/) '''language''' ({{PAGENAME}}: ''gáthvar themsárimar'' [gáθʋàr θè̞msárimàr] "the {{PAGENAME}} throat") is a language classified into an [[Talsmic languages|isolated subbranch]] of the [[Raxo-Talsmic languages|Raxo-Talsmic]] language family, along with other para-{{PAGENAME}} languages which are/were natively spoken in the peninsula of Tálsym in the northwestern part of the Gameda subcontinent. The language remains clearly related to its continental relatives such as [[Raxic]] (It is often said that {{PAGENAME}} uses the same affixes as Raxic with different meanings); however, due to its long period of isolation and substrate influence (the substrate is sometimes speculated to have been a head-initial polysynthetic language), {{PAGENAME}} was a typological and lexical outlier in the larger family, within which it was distinguished by its heavily head-marking inflection in both clauses and possessive NPs as well as its strongly head-initial syntax and and its verb system approaching polysynthetic languages in complexity. The name of the {{PAGENAME}} language comes from the Themsár region, from whose dialect arose the prestige language of the peninsula. This elevated register/lect existed in a state of diglossia with the vernacular "dialects", diverse and often mutually unintelligible but still quite similar at this time. The prestige language described in this article, Noble {{PAGENAME}} was used as a living language by the ruling class for a period spanning 600 years until its demise in the year ca. 220 v.c., and was continued to be used as an important literary, academic and religious language on the peninsula and surrounding mainland areas.
In keeping with the greater Talsmic and Raxo-Talsmic milieu {{PAGENAME}} employs a mixed fusional and agglutinative inflectional morphology, notably doing so by using a combination of tone changes and affixes, and the use of a 3-gender system. The language is unusual for using a number system based on a generic-specific opposition.
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
Classical Themsarian used 22 consonants. Unusually for the family, it is devoid of affricates, ejectives, and lateral obstruents, possessing instead a preponderance of fricatives.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" |
!  |Labial
!  |Dental
!  |Alveolar
!  |Palatal
!  |Velar
!  |Radical
!  |Glottal
|-
! colspan="2" style="" |Nasal
| '''m''' /m/
|colspan="2"| '''n''' /n/
|
| <span style="color:gray;">'''n''' [ŋ]</span>
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |Plosive
! |<small>voiceless</small>
| '''p''' /p/
|colspan="2"| '''t''' /t/
|
| '''c''' /k/
| '''q''' /ʡ/
|
|-
! |<small>voiced</small>
| '''b''' /b/
|colspan="2"| '''d''' /d/
|
| '''g''' /g/
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" style="" |Fricative
! |<small>voiceless</small>
| '''f''' /f/
| '''th''' /θ/
| '''s''' /s/
|
| '''ch''' /x/
| '''ħ''' /ħ~ʜ/
|rowspan="2" | '''h''' /h~ɦ/
|-
! |<small>voiced</small>
|
| '''dh''' /ð/
| '''z''' /z/
|
| '''gh''' /ɣ/
| <span style="color:gray;">'''q''' [ʕ~ʢ]</span>
|-
! colspan="2" |Trill
|
|colspan="2"| '''r''' /r/
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
| '''v''' /ʋ/
| colspan="2"| '''l''' /l/
| '''j''' /j/
|
|
|
|}
Geminate /x/ and /θ/ are Romanized ''cch'' and ''tth'' respectively.
====Conditioned allophony====
Allophony in Themsarian is limited.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 570px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 120px; "|Phoneme
! style="width: 120px; " |Allophone
! style="width: 120px; " |Condition(s)
|-
| rowspan="2"| /ʡ/
| [ʡ]
| #_, C[+voiceless]_, V_V
|-
| [ʕ~ʢ]
| C[+voiced]_
|-
| /h/
| [ɦ]
| V_V
|-
|rowspan="2"| /n/
| [ŋ]
| _C[+velar]
|-
| [ɱ]
| _C[+labiodental]
|-
| C[+obstruent, ±voiced]
| C[+obstruent, ∓voiced]
| _C[+obstruent, -guttural, ∓voiced]
|}
===Vowels===
Classical {{PAGENAME}} has a six-vowel system, symmetrical to a fault, with a quantity distinction. Short vowels have one mora (except for epenthetic ''i/y'' which has zero morae), and long vowels have two morae.
{| class="IPA" cellspacing="0px" cellpadding="0" style="text-align:center; background:none;"
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:smaller;"
|style="padding-bottom:3px;"| &nbsp;
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Front'''
| style="width: 60px; word-spacing: -.3em;" | '''Near- front'''
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Central'''
| style="width: 60px;word-spacing: -.3em;" | '''Near- back'''
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Back'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Close'''
| style="height: 210px;" colspan=5 rowspan=7 | <div style="position: relative;">[[File:Blank vowel trapezoid.svg|300px|link=]]<div style="background:none; position:absolute; top:0; left:0;">
{| style="position:relative; width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:none;"
|-
| style="width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:none; font-size:120%;"|
<!-- CLOSE VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 5%; width: 2.3em; top: 2%; background: white;">i</div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 43%; width: 3.1em; top: 2%; background: white;">ʉ̜</div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 85%; width: 2.3em; top: 2%; background: white;">u</div>
<!-- NEAR-CLOSE VOWELS-->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 28%; width: 2.33em; top: 17%; background: white;"></div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 44%; width: 4em; top: 17%; background: white;"></div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 74%; width: 1.5em; top: 17%; background: white;"></div>
<!-- CLOSE-MID VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 16%; width: 2.7em; top: 30%; background: white;"></div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 50%; width: 2.7em; top: 30%; background: white;"></div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 84%; width: 2.7em; top: 30%; background: white;"></div>
<!-- MID VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 24%; width: 2.7em; top: 44%; background: white;">e̞</div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 57%; width: 1em; top: 44%; background: white;"></div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 83%; width: 2.7em; top: 44%; background: white;">o̞</div>
<!-- OPEN-MID VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 30%; width: 3em; top: 58%; background: white;"></div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 57%; width: 2.7em; top: 58%; background: white;"></div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 83%; width: 2.7em; top: 58%; background: white;"></div>
<!-- NEAR-OPEN VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 37%; width: 1.3em; top: 73%;"></div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 64%; width: 1em; top: 73%; background: white;"></div>
<!-- OPEN VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 44%; width: 3em; top: 86%; background: white;"></div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 68%; width: 1em; top: 86%; background: white;">a</div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 85%; width: 2em; top: 86%; background: white;"></div>
|}
</div></div>
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | &nbsp;&nbsp;'''Near-close'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Close-mid'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Mid'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Open-mid'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Near-open'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Open'''
|}
<div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 1.25em; margin-bottom: 0.33em"></div>
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
|-
! style="" |Close
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ī''' /iː/
| '''y''' /ʉ̜/
| '''ȳ''' /ʉ̜ː/
| '''u''' /u/
| '''ū''' /uː/
|-
! style="" |Mid
| '''e''' /e̞/
| '''ē''' /e̞ː/
|
|
| '''o''' /o̞/
| '''ō''' /o̞ː/
|-
! style="" |Open
|
|
| '''a''' /a/
| '''ā''' /aː/
|
|
|}
'''y ȳ''' is a close central half-rounded vowel.
====Diphthongs====
Closing diphthongs: '''ae ai ao au oi ui'''<br/>
Opening diphthongs: '''ea ie oa uo'''
===Tone===
Pitch accent, or tone, is phonemic in {{PAGENAME}}. The following is the notation for tones:
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 90px; "|
! style="width: 90px; " |Short
! style="width: 90px; " |Long
! style="width: 90px; " |Diphthong
|-
! style="" |Unmarked
| '''a'''
| '''ā'''
| '''ai'''
|-
! style="" |Initial high/falling
| '''á'''
| '''ā́'''
| '''ái'''
|-
! style="" |Initial rising
| '''-'''
| '''ā̀'''
| '''ài'''
|-
! style="" |Non-initial tonic
| '''á'''
| '''ā́'''
| '''ái'''
|-
|}
The pitch accent of a word (of more than one mora) consists of two components: the lexical tone/downstep which may not exist, and the position of the downstep. A low-tone word starts low and has the highest pitch at the tonic mora, which is immediately before the downstep, whereafter the pitch drops sharply. A high-tone word starts high, dips low and rises up to the point of the second downstep.
The following rules govern the marking of {{PAGENAME}} pitch accent:
#The initial syllable is marked if it is the tonic syllable. If it is not, it is marked as either high or low (unmarked).
#If the tonic syllable is non-initial, it is marked with an acute accent.
If the downstep occurred word-finally, the first syllable of a following high tone word would have slightly lower pitch. In [[w:Pausa|pausa]], a word final high short syllable is realized as a falling, short vowel.
Clitics, unmarked, phonologically behave as parts of the following word and inherit the tone of the following word.
===Phonotactics===
The maximal syllable structure is CCVCC, where V is any vowel or diphthong, and the second element in a complex coda must be an obstruent. /h/ cannot occur in clusters or coda; radicals are prohibited word-finally. Up to CCC medial clusters are permitted.
Permitted initial CC- clusters:
*[any obstruent except ''v''] + {''l'', ''r''}
*[non-labial obstruent] + {''v'', ''m''}
*''m'' + {''l'', ''r'', ''n''}
Permitted medial clusters are, roughly, those which begin like final clusters, may or may not have an "intersection" segment and end like initial clusters.
Permitted -CC- clusters (of these only geminates and clusters ending in non-radical obstruents are permissible as final -CC):
*The following geminates: ''cc'', ''cch'', ''ff'', ''ll'', ''mm'', ''nn'', ''pp'', ''rr'', ''ss'', ''tt'', ''tth''
*''bl, br''
*''cl, cm, cn, cr, cs, cv''
*''chl, chm, chn, chr, cht, chv''
*''dm, dn, dr, dv''
*''dhm, dhn, dhr, dhv''
*''fl, fr, fs''
*''gl, gm, gn, gr, gv''
*''ghl, ghm, ghn, ghr, ghv''
*''ħl, ħm, ħn, ħr, ħs, ħt, ħv''
*''lb, lc, lch, ld, ldh, lf, lg, lgh, lħ, lm, ln, lp, lq, ls, lt, lth, lv, lz''
*''mb, ml, mn, mp, mr, ms, mz''
*''nc, nch, nd, ndh, nf, ng, ngh, nħ, nl, nq, ns, nt, nth, nv, nz''
*''pl, pr, ps''
*''ql, qr, qv''
*''rb, rc, rch, rd, rdh, rf, rg, rgh, rħ, rm, rn, rp, rq, rs, rt, rth, rv, rz''
*''sc, sch, sf, sħ, sq, st, sth, sv''
*''thm, thn, thr, thv''
*''tm, tn, tr, tv''
===Phonological diachronics===
====Simple consonant correspondences====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width:650px; text-align:center;"
|-
! PTal
! {{recon|m}}
! {{recon|p}}
! {{recon|b}}
! {{recon|ɸ}}
! {{recon|n}}
! {{recon|t}}
! {{recon|d}}
! {{recon|s}}
! {{recon|z}}
! {{recon|r}}
! {{recon|θ}}
! {{recon|ł}}
! {{recon|λ}}
! {{recon|l}}
! {{recon|j}}
! {{recon|k}}
! {{recon|g}}
! {{recon|x}}
! {{recon|kʷ}}
! {{recon|gʷ}}
! {{recon|xʷ}}
! {{recon|w}}
! {{recon|q}}
! {{recon|χ}}
! {{recon|ʁ}}
! {{recon|ʔ}}
! {{recon|h}}
|-
! Thm.
| ''m''
| ''p''
| ''b''
| ''f''
| ''n''
| ''t''
| ''d''
| ''s''
| ''z'', ''-r-''
| ''r''
| ''th''
| ''th''
| ''dh''
| ''l''
| ''j''
| ''c''
| ''g''
| ''ch''
| ''c''
| ''v''
| ''f''
| ''v''
| ''q''
| ''ħ''
| ''gh''
| 0-
| ''h-''
|}
====Consonant clusters====
*''*sm, *sn, *sl, *sr'' > ''mm, nn, ll, rr''
*''*mʔ, *nʔ, *lʔ, *rʔ'' > ''mm, nn, ll, rr'' OR ''mp, nt, lt, rt''
*''*mh, *nh, *lh, *rh'' > ''nf, nth, lth, rth''
*coronal obstruent + sibilant<sub>i</sub> > sibilant<sub>i</sub>sibilant<sub>i</sub>
*CC[+resonant]{C, #} > CyC[+resonant]{C, #}
**Cyj{C, #} > Ci{C, #}
*CC[-resonant]C > CiC[-resonant]C
*''jy[ː]'' > ''i[ː]''
*''z'' > ''r'' / V_C[-semivowel, +voiced, ~{/z/}]
*''h''  > [ː~] / _C[+fricative]
*''*ʔ'' > [ː~] / _C
*''c'' > ''ch'' / _{''d'', ''t''}
*''*tk''/''*łt''/''*pt''/''*kt''/''*łk'', ''*tx'' > ''cht'', ''cth''
*''q''
**> ''ħ'' / _{''t''}
*''nr'' > ''ndr'', ''lr'' > ''ldr''
*''e'' > ''a'' / ʔ_#
*''ds ts ths zs ts'' > ''ss''
*''dz tz thz tz zz'' > ''z''
*''*λ'' > ''l'', ''*λλ'' > ''ld''
*''*ḽ'' > ''dh'', ''*ḽḽ'' > ''ldh''
====Vowel correspondences====
<!--===Post-classical readings===
The greatest variation is found in palatalization and the treatment of tone, radicals and interdentals.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align:center;"
|-
! Grapheme
! '''r'''
! '''d'''
! '''z'''
! '''m'''
! '''p'''
! '''b'''
! '''f'''
! '''n'''
! '''t'''
! '''th'''
! '''dh'''
! '''s'''
! '''c'''
! '''g'''
! '''ch'''
! '''q'''
! '''ħ'''
! '''l'''
! '''v'''
! '''j'''
! '''h'''
|-
! Classical
| /r/
| /d/
| /z/
| /m/ 
| /p/
| /b/
| /f/
| /n/
| /t/
| /θ/
| /ð/
| /s/
| /k/
| /g/
| /x/
| /ʡ/
| /ħ/
| /l/
| /ʋˠ/
| /j/
| /h/
|-
![[Núrian]]
| /r/, /r̥/
| /d/, /dʱ/
| /z/, /zʱ/
| /m/, /m̥/
| /p/, /pʰ/
| /b/, /bʱ/
| /f/, /pfʰ/
| /n/, /n̥/
| /t/, /tʰ/
| /t/, /tʰ/
| /d/, /dʱ/
| /s/, /sʰ/
| /k/, /kʰ/
| /g/, /gʱ/
| /x/, /kxʰ/
| /ʡ/, /ʡʰ/
| /ʕ/, /ħ/
| /l/, /ɬ/
| /w/, /ʍ/
| /j/, /ɧ/
| Ø, /h/
|-
!|[[Qelorian]]
| /r/
| /d̪/
| /z/
| /m/
| /p/
| /b/
| /f/
| /n̪/
| /t̪/
| /f/
| /v/
| /s/
| /k/
| /ɴ/
| /χ/
| /ɴ/
| /χ/, /a/
| /l/
| /v/
| Ø
| Ø
|-
!|[[Snaħħian]]
| /r/
| /d̪/, /dʒ/
| /z/, /ʒ/
| /m/
| /p/
| /b/
| /ɸ~β/
| /n̪/
| /t̪/, /tʃ/
| /ħ/
| /d̪/
| /s/, /ʃ/
| /k/, /tʃ/
| /g/, /dʒ/
| /x/, /ʃ/
| /ʕ/
| /ħ/
| /l/
| /f~v/
| /j/
| Ø
|}
-->
==Orthography==
<!--
[[Image:tā́thimā́ script.jpg|right|thumb|{{PAGENAME}} script in the ''tā́thimā́'' style.|240px]]
-->The standardized {{PAGENAME}} alphabet, whose variants are also used to write other Talsmic languages, is a native alphabetic script consisting of consonant and vowel letters in addition to diacritics for vowel length and tones. It has developed from a runic alphabet. In the earliest texts vowel length and tone were not recorded; diacritics for these were first devised for religious and official purposes and gradually came to be universally mandatory. In texts meant to be sung (e.g. poetry or hymns) the tone marks are substituted with various cantillation marks that 'correspond' to the tone. Tone is generally ''not'' assigned when transcribing foreign words.
The alphabetical order is as follows:
#'''R:''' ''ràebe'' 'bud'
#'''D:''' ''drālé'' 'wave'
#'''Z:''' ''zúngin'' 'banner'
#'''I:''' ''ī́r'' 'island'
#'''GH:''' ''ghél'' 'mouse'
#'''A:''' ''àil'' 'heart'
#'''Ħ:''' ''ħestū́bir'' 'petals'
#'''F:''' ''fántos'' 'wings'
#'''M:''' ''merrī́d'' 'equanimity'
#'''L:''' ''luccé'' 'pericarp'
#'''G:''' ''gáthve'' 'throat'
#'''C:''' ''cár'' 'human'
#'''H:''' ''hél'' 'voice'
#'''B:''' ''bàon'' 'fish'
#'''S:''' ''sáom'' 'moon'
#'''V:''' ''vā̀l'' 'gate'
#'''O:''' ''osíen'' 'rill'
#'''J:''' ''jā́dh'' 'bird'
#'''Q:''' ''qìed'' 'saw'
#'''DH:''' ''dhorfás'' 'to pierce'
#'''Y:''' ''ýst'' 'air'
#'''CH:''' ''chàostis'' 'to go down'
#'''T:''' ''tīmé'' 'hand'
#'''N:''' ''nùoss'' 'to go up'
#'''TH:''' ''thrā̀p'' 'combat'
#'''P:''' ''pàor'' 'pond'
#'''E:''' ''éara'' 'upright'
#'''U:''' ''umī́s'' 'tent'
==Parts of speech==
{{construction|WHOLE SECTION, pardon me, but especially this one,}}
===Independent pronouns===
====Personal====
The independent personal pronouns are used in sentences with a predicate noun, adjective or prepositional phrase, and for emphasis of what is already indexed on the heads, be it the subject, the direct object, or an oblique argument. The Themsarian pronoun system is unusual for making a sex distinction in the 2nd person singular but not the 3rd.
Pronouns, unlike nouns, use a singular-plural system.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg  " style="width: 350px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3"| '''Independent personal pronouns'''
|-
!style="width: 50px; "|
!style="width: 100px; "|Singular
!style="width: 100px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|''ná''
|''chā́m''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''taqḗn''
|-
!|2.m
|''zḕr''
|rowspan="2"|''lā́s''
|-
!|2.f
|''vḕr''
|-
!|3.an
|''vā́''
|
|-
!|3.inan
|''vé''
|
|-
!|3.abs/hon
|''vī́''
|
|-
!|4
|colspan="2"|''it''
|-
!|impersonal
|colspan="2"|''is''
|}
Adding the ''ħe-'' demonstrative prefix creates intensified pronouns ''ħená, ħezḗr'' etc., thus etymologically "it's me", "it's you" etc. The intensified pronouns are often used to emphasize that the pronoun is the focus rather than the topic (which is fronted like the focus often is).
====Demonstrative====
The demonstrative pronouns come in three distance levels: the ''m''-series, the ''ħ''-series and the ''t''-series.
When a demonstrative modifies a noun phrase, the noun modified must be grammatically definite.
The three distance levels of demonstratives each have derived uses in discourse:
*The ''m''-series is used:
**very similarly to English ''this'', as a cataphoric reference, or to highlight new or especially vivid information in general
*The ''ħ''-series is used:
**For general anaphora (things already mentioned in the discourse)
**In dialogue, to refer to things that are only known to the speaker or the listener
**(the pronouns) for anaphoric uses at a focus level intermediate of that of the ''m''-series and the 3rd person pronouns.
*The ''t''-series is used:
**In dialogue, to refer to things that are known by both the speaker and the listener
**For psychologically distant items, places or times
**To express contempt
**As a second-in-line demonstrative, similar to obviation
====Reciprocal====
The reciprocal pronoun, "each other", is ''nálnai''. It originated from an adverb that was later reanalyzed as a pronoun.
====Reflexive====
The suffixed forms of ''hél'' ('soul, voice') are used as independent/emphatic reflexive pronouns in the 3rd person:
3sg.an.rfl: ''hélā''<br/>
3sg.inan.rfl: ''hély''<br/>
3sg.abs/hon.rfl: ''hélī''<br/>
3pl.an.rfl: ''hélech''<br/>
3pl.inan/abs/hon.rfl: ''héler''<br/>
===Nouns===
Nouns are inflected according to the native gender-number-state system. They also fall into several declension patterns.
====Summary of the gender-number-state system====
Nouns can have ''states'', including indefinite, definite and predicative (which is arguably a case). There is no definiteness distinction in the collective; collective nouns are automatically definite.
Nouns are divided into four classes/genders. The gender of each noun should be learned; although, diachronically, the gender system is semantic, assignment of gender is still to some degree arbitrary, in part due to shifts in the meaning of words.
*Animate: Many animate nouns have all three numbers. Animate nouns include not only humans or animals, but also many body parts, some plants, more "active" natural processes such as rain and storms, and heavenly bodies.
*Inanimate: The countable inanimate nouns have all three numbers. Some inanimate nouns are mass nouns, and thus only have a generic number and a singulative number.
*Abstract: Singulative and plurative abstract nouns denote specific instantiations or manifestations of the abstract concept. (So ''moigī́d'' 'kindness' in the collective could be rendered as 'an act of kindness' in the singulative (indefinite) ''moigī́a''.)
*Honorific: Honorific nouns arose from abstract nouns "made countable", i.e. abstract nouns in singulative and plurative forms, and their morphology generalized to the collective distinction. Respected/titled persons and gods are honorific, as well as nouns derived with suffixes such as ''-iṓr'' (augmentative).
{{PAGENAME}} also makes a state distinction in third person possessed forms, namely between the ''absolute'' possessed form, which indicates a noun possessed by a pronoun, and the ''conjunct'' possessed form, used to indicate a possessive relationship between two nouns and agreeing with the gender of the possessor. This distinction is marked with tone changes or zero.
Proper names are indeclinable, i.e. they are always definite, and cannot be possessed.
====Declension====
Here follow the declension paradigms. The reflexive possessed forms are used to refer to third person subjects.
=====Basic possessive suffixes=====
These suffixes are added to the combining form.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg  " style="width: 350px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3"| '''Possessive suffixes'''
|-
!style="width: 50px; "|
!style="width: 100px; "|Singular
!style="width: 100px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|''-n''
|''-am''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''-nta''
|-
!|2.m
|''-(y)s''
|rowspan="2"|''-(y)lys''
|-
!|2.f
|''-(y)zy''
|-
!|3.an
|''-ā''
|''-ech''
|-
!|3.inan
|''-v, -y''
|rowspan="2"|''-er''
|-
!|3.abs/hon
|''-ī''
|-
!|4
|colspan="2"|''-(i)t''
|-
!|impersonal
|colspan="2"|''-si''
|}
=====Consonant declension=====
Nouns underlyingly ending in -consonant-resonant insert an epenthetic ''y'' in the singular indefinite form: ''{{recon|catr}}'' > ''cátyr'' 'a flower', ''cátr'''y'''r'' 'the flower', ''cátr'''y'''n'' 'my flower'.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" |''sṓr'' - 'house' (mobile downstep)
|-
!|Collective
|colspan="2"|''sṓra''
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singulative
!style="width: 100px;"|Plurative
|-
!|Indefinite
|''sṓr''||''sōrách''
|-
!|Definite
|''sṓryr''||''sōrúod''
|-
!|Combining
|''sṓr-''||''sṓruo-''
|}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" |''cápsin'' - 'food' (fixed downstep)
|-
!|Collective
|colspan="2"|''cápsin''
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singulative
!style="width: 100px;"|Plurative
|-
!|Indefinite
|''cápsin''||''cápsinach''
|-
!|Definite
|''cápsinyr''||''cápsinuod''
|-
!|Combining
|''cápsin-''||''cápsinuo-''
|}
=====*w-declensions=====
=====Vowel declension=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" |''físta'' - 'board' (fixed downstep)
|-
!|Collective
|colspan="2"|''físta''
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|Indefinite
|''fístā''||''fístaer''
|-
!|Definite
|''fístar''||''fístant''
|-
!|Combining
|''fístar-''||''fístant-''
|}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" |''gére'' - 'son' (fixed downstep)
|-
!|Collective
|colspan="2"|''gére''
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|Indefinite
|''gérea''||''gérēr''
|-
!|Definite
|''gérer''||''gérent''
|-
!|Combining
|''gérer-''||''gérent-''
|}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" |''véli'' - 'name' (fixed downstep)
|-
!|Collective
|colspan="2"|''véli''
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|Indefinite
|''vélie''||''vélīr''
|-
!|Definite
|''vélir''||''vélint''
|-
!|Combining
|''vélir-''||''vélint-''
|}
=====Abstract ''-ī́d'' declension=====
This paradigm is used for nouns that carry the special ''-ī́-'' abstract noun suffix.
Abstract nouns have only a definite form (''-ī́d'') in the collective number.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" |''vaorī́d'' - 'courage'
|-
!|Collective
|colspan="2"|''vaorī́d''
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singulative
!style="width: 100px;"|Plurative
|-
!|Indefinite
|''vaorī́a''||''vaorī́r''
|-
!|Definite
|''vaorī́d''||''vaorī́nt''
|-
!|Combining
|''vaorī́d-''||''vaorī́nt-''
|}
====Possessive constructions====
The possessum comes before the possessor. Adjectives that modify the possessum may be placed at any point after the possessum.
If the posssessum is definite, it assumes the ''bound possessum'' or ''conjunct'' form taking the pronominal suffix of gender and number appropriate for the possessor.
Note that the bound possessum state takes the same tonal pattern as the unpossessed forms, unlike the free possessum forms which always have non-desinential downstep; compare the bound possessum form ''ābatā́'' ('the book of [his]') with the free possessum form ''ābátā'' ('his book').
Should the possessum be indefinite, inanimate ''and'' alienable, the appositive construction "{{sc|possessum}}, the-thing-of {{sc|possessor}}" is used.
This construction is not possible if the indefinite possessum is animate ''or'' inalienable; in such cases {{PAGENAME}} resorts to using the phrase ''cṓm gil...'' (one/some of...) followed by the appropriate plural definite possessum.
====Tonal patterns of nominals====
Every noun falls under one of two tonal paradigms, derived from the Proto-Talsmic relic classifier clitic system:
*'''Unpossessed:''' {{sc|*noun<nowiki>=</nowiki>clf}}(ʔ)
*'''Free possessum:''' {{sc|*possessum-suffix}}
*'''Bound possessum:''' {{sc|*possessum-suffix<nowiki>=</nowiki>clf(ʔ) possessor}}
The classifier clitic was deleted while determining the downstep pattern of the noun. By corollary the absolute possessed forms have non-final downstep, and the unpossessed and conjunct forms have the same pattern (exceptions occur when the word ended in ''*ʔ''), the choice of which is lexically determined.
Humans, inalienables, uncountables and abstract nouns did not take a classifier, and hence was allocated to the "non-desinential tonic syllable" paradigm.
Adjectives will agree with the tonal pattern of the nouns they modify.
====Irregular nouns====
Irregular nouns are the following:
*''cár'' 'human being', plural ''itávach''
====Fossilized case marking====
A descendant of a language with developed noun and adjective cases, {{PAGENAME}} preserves vestigial case marking. Many nominal and adjectival endings are themselves diachronically derived from Proto-Talsmic case suffixes.
=====Irregular definiteness=====
The definite unpossessed inflection is a generalization from the accusative case, which marked the definite direct object in addition to adverbial uses, certain oblique objects and time expressions. The indefinite base endings diachronically stem from the genitive case (from its partitive meaning and frequency in prepositional phrases); the predicative/possessum adjective endings as well as most forms where possessive suffixes are attached, come from the nominative.
Definiteness is required:
*in some time expressions (e.g. ''crúomā/rā́zā/ħíngā/mínā'' "in the morning/at daytime/at dusk/at night")
*in some adverbial expressions.
=====Fossilized oblique cases=====
The frozen oblique cases (ablative, instrumental/locative and allative) are largely found in two lexical classes: adverbs and prepositions.
Ablatives, found in causal expressions, end in ''-ēn'', ''-ān'', and ''-īn'' for the first, second and third declensions respectively; the instrumental/locative ends in ''-īl'' (1) or ''-ai'' (2); and the allative, often found in purpose expressions, ends in ''-st''.
The instrumental/locative suffix ''-īl'' derive adverbs and prepositions of location, manner or concern.
There is another adverbial suffix, ''-ai'', whence comes "in language X" adverbs (e.g. ''themsárimai'' 'in Themsarian') and the instrumental preposition ''nai'' itself.
===Adjectives===
Attributive adjectives agree in number, definiteness, gender and possessedness with their heads. Nouns that describe an attribute may also be used as adjectives.
Predicate adjectives are declined differently than attributive adjectives (that modify non-predicate nouns); predicative adjectives carry the downstep on a non-final syllable, while the attributive adjectives have to agree with the downstep of the noun. Predicate adjectives can be used as complements of certain verbs (with meanings of being or change of state, or causing a change of state) and as non-restrictive appositional adjectives.
The possessum state indicates that the adjective modifies a noun with a possessive suffix. In poetry the possessive suffix may be attached to the adjective in a noun-adjective phrase while the head noun takes the possessum form of the adjective.
Adjectives also take degree inflection (positive, "less/least", "more/most", elative, "X enough", "too X").
====Declension====
====Degree====
The comparative is formed with the suffix ''-énn'', and the negative comparative is formed with ''-ṓt''. Adding the telic prefix ''ar-/as-'' to the comparative forms yields the superlative forms.
:''lā́m'' 'good'
:''lām'''énn''''' 'better'
:'''''ar'''lām'''énn''''' 'best'
:''lām'''ṓt''''' 'less good'
:'''''ar'''lām'''ṓt''''' 'least good'
:''qìest'' 'strict'
:''qiest'''énn''''' 'stricter'
:'''''as'''qiest'''énn''''' 'strictest'
:''qiest'''ṓt''''' 'strict'
:'''''as'''qiest'''ṓt''''' 'strict'
:''zèrim'' 'foolish'
:''zerim'''énn''''' 'more foolish'
:'''''a'''zerim'''énn''''' 'most foolish'
:''zerim'''ṓt''''' 'less foolish'
:'''''a'''zerim'''ṓt''''' 'least foolish'
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg  " style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan="2"| '''Degree affixes'''
|-
! width="110px"|more
| width="190px"|''-énn''
|-
!|most
|''aZ-énn''
|-
!|less
|''-ṓt''
|-
!|least
|''aZ-ṓt''
|-
!|as X as
|''-íchan''
|-
!|too much
|<sup>RDPL</sup>- (of 1st C)
|-
!|enough
|''-éris''
|-
|}
====Adverb formation====
The most productive adverbial suffix is ''-ēr'', and it can mean "[adjective]ly", or "like a [noun]" (latter meaning is less productive).
There is another adverbial suffix, ''-ai'', whence comes "in language X" adverbs (e.g. ''themsárimai'' 'in Themsarian') and the instrumental preposition ''nai'' itself.
===Table of correlatives===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg  " style="width: 600px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="9"|Table of correlatives
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 240px; "|Interrogative/Existential
!style="width: 240px; "|Near speaker
!style="width: 240px; "|Near hearer
!style="width: 240px; "|Distal
!style="width: 240px; "|Negational/Elective
!style="width: 240px; "|Collective
!style="width: 240px; "|Distributive
|-
!|Pronominal
|''jé'' (who);<br/>''ján'' (what)
|''má''
|''ħá''
|''tá''
|''atié'' (anyone); ''atián'' (anything)
|''rṓg'', ''bást'' (adjective), ''cárbást'' (person)
|''thivé''
|-
!|Place
|''jách''
|''mách*; dáte*''
|''ħách''
|''tách''
|''atiách''
|''smárbást''
|''smárthivé''
|-
!|Origin
|''giljách;'' ''jáchēn''
|''gilmách/máchēn*; gildát/dátēn*''
|''gilħách;'' ''ħáchēn''
|''giltách;'' ''táchēn''
|''gil atiách''
|''gil smárbást''
|''gil smárthivé''
|-
!|Destination
|''vojách;'' ''jáchást''
|''vomách/máchást*; vódát/dátást*''
|''voħách;'' ''ħáchást''
|''votách;'' ''táchást''
|''vo atiách''
|''vo smárbást''
|''vo smárthivé''
|-
!|Time
|''jápse'', ''jéma''
|''gáma''
|colspan= '2'|''sónēt''
|''fúot''
|''pívomīl''
|''gissé''
|-
!|Quantity/Extent
|''jávōth''
|''mávōth''
|''ħávōth''
|''távōth''
|''-''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
!|Manner/Quality
|''jḗr''
|''mḗr''
|''ħḗr''
|''tḗr''
|''atiḗr''
|''rṓg ýthīl''
|''-''
|-
!|Cause<sup>1</sup>
|''jḗn'', ''jḗrmé''
|''mḗn''
|''ħḗn''
|''tḗn''
|''-''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
!|Purpose<sup>1</sup>
|''jást''
|''mást''
|''ħást''
|''tást''
|''-''
|''-''
|''-''
|}
<nowiki>*</nowiki>The difference between the two words for 'here' is that of clusivity: ''mách'' means "where I am/we(exc) are or pointing" whereas ''dáte'' means "where we(inc) are".<br/>
<sup>1</sup>Traditionally described "cause" and "purpose", the "cause" series is used with verbs in the realis tenses (present, past, future), and the "purpose" series with the jussive or expressions/verbs of wanting or necessity (e.g. ''srétī́n'').
The only difference between the interrogative and existential usage of interrogative words is that the interrogative word or the phrase containing it is fronted:
:'''''{{blue|Ján}} báolis?'''''
:''What is the matter?''
:'''''Ē báolis {{blue|ján}}?'''''
:''Is something the matter?''
===Verbs===
Verbs have elaborate but quite regular inflection. Finite verbs are marked for TAM, mirativity, voice (active and passive), the subject's (and the object's, if it is indexed) person, number, and gender. Verbs also have several non-finite forms, used with various subordinating conjunctions and relative clauses. If the direct object is definite, the verb is obligatorily marked with the direct object's person, number, and gender.
Definite direct object agreement is not required:
*in the imperative and the prohibitive (though it may be used for sake of disambiguation).
*in the presence of an animate indirect object; the verb may agree with the dative object instead.
*in poetry.
*DDO agreement is prohibited with reciprocal pronouns.
{{PAGENAME}} verbs display so-called ''first-conjunct agreement'' as common amongst VSO languages, i.e. when the verb precedes a subject composed of two or more conjunctive noun phrases (in the form ''A ie B ie C''), the verb will agree with the first NP. With the conjunctions ''at'' 'or' or ''nu'' 'xor' in the subject, the verb agrees with the nearest subject. In the case of coordinated objects the verb agrees with the first contiguous noun phrase (i.e. 'and' has higher precedence than 'or').
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|+'''{{PAGENAME}} finite verb template'''
!&minus;3!!&minus;2!!&minus;1!!0!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!/Downstep
|-
|Derivational/Applicative prefix||Imperfect prefix||Discourse/Subjunctive||'''STEM'''||Causative||Passive||Supplementary aspect||TAM/Subject||Object||TAM/Subject
|}
====Verbal prefixes====
Verbal prefixes may mark one of several applicative voices or have a derivational meaning.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg  " style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan="2"| '''Verbal prefixes'''
|-
! width="110px"|telic
| width="190px"|''aZ-''
|-
!|locative
|''bel-''
|-
!|ablative
|''ivi-''
|-
!|comitative
|''lau-''
|-
!|dative
|''tar-''
|-
!|benefactive
|''vaes-''
|}
====Tense-Aspect-Mood====
=====Basic TAMs=====
The basic TAMs, marked with a combination of tone, suffixes and prefixes, are:
*Imperative
*Present
*Past perfective
*Past imperfective
*Future
*Jussive
======Imperative======
The imperative is used to issue orders; it is negated with ''ham''.
======Present======
The present is used for events that are taking/habitually take place in the present time, or for gnomic statemnets.
======Past perfective======
The past perfective or preterite is for events that were completed at some point in time in the past. It is marked with a separate set of subject markers from the present.
======Imperfect======
The imperfect indicates a background event or events that happened in the past frequently or over a period of time. Therefore it corresponds to past frequentative, habitual or progressive. The imperfect developed from the construction ''*ʔṇʔ-'' [{{sc|present}}], where ''*ʔṇʔ-'' was a past tense of the copula ''vācī́n''). The ''yn-'' prefix displays a number of special behaviors:
*assimilates to labials ''p b m''
*mutates to ''ynt-'' before a stem beginning with a vowel, liquid, or ''j'' (the ''j'' becomes an ''i'' in that case)
*mutates to ''ynth-'' before a stem beginning with ''h''.
======Future======
The future denotes an event predicted to occur some time in the future. It is aspect-indifferent unlike the past tenses. The future tense forms are underlyingly composed of the dynamic ''*-he-''  plus present tense subject suffixes. (The contraction of the theme vowels with the following ''*-he-'' yielded the future "lengthened" theme vowels, ''-ē-''/''-ā-''/''-ie-''.)
======Jussive======
The {{PAGENAME}} jussive (''cýlinā́'' 'urging form') continues three different irrealis moods in Proto-Talsmic: desiderative, hortative and optative. The desiderative form was composed of the present tense plus a suffix ''-ʔe'', which caused the downstep to shift to the desinence in the 1ex singular and plural forms and, by analogy, in the 1ex dual. The hortative was marked with the suffix ''-ti'' (hence the ''-t, -ti-'' in the 1+2 and 2 forms), and the optative was marked with ''-aʔ'' (hence the final ''-á, -ā́-'' in the 3rd person jussive).
The jussive is a finite verb form that bears a wide range of uses:
* optatives (wishes), polite requests (often with the particle ''stái'') and hortatives (urging).
:'''''Ðuodisá áromis!'''''
:<small>be_long-JUSS.3SG.F life-DEF.2SG.M</small>
:''May your life be long!''
* imperatives in indirect speech, with the complementizer ''ne''
:'''''Cýlea ne stúmī́n.'''''
:<small>urge/PFV.3SG.M COMP return/JUSS.1SG</small>
:''He urged that I go back.''
* impersonal instructions, in the passive
:'''''chavinaresá hadísār ýrnȳ́nār'''''
:<small>lower.PASS-JUSS.3SG.F note-DEF.SG second-DEF.SG.F</small>
:''the second note is to be lowered''
* purpose clauses:
** with ''ie''
:'''''Irēdá cṓm gílelys mī̀se, ie mrínáinylys.'''''
:''One of you should send a gift, so that I may [lit. and let me...] pardon you.''
** after a conditional conjunction ''nit'', ''ar'', or ''gin'', or less commonly after ''vórêl ne'', it expresses "in order that...".
:'''''ħḗstyr rin chényremá'''''
:<small>word-DEF REL say-PASS-JUSS.3SG.M</small>
:''the word to say/the word that should be said''
* to express deliberative questions, of whether something should be done, or what should be done.
:'''''Jḗr vamenarī́n?'''''
:<small>how advocate-PASS-JUSS.1SG</small>
:''How am I to defend myself?/How shall I defend myself?''
* 'mocking' imperatives (2nd person imperatives deemed unlikely to be fulfilled, or unlikely to produce the result desired by the doer)
:'''''Vái mìevat vṓn dū̀sind cṓm.'''''
:<small>come_on cut-JUSS.2SG DAT-1SG wound-DIM.SG.INDEF one.M</small>
:''Let's see you inflict even one prick on me.''
* as a protasis to a conditional sentence, without using a word for "if".
:'''''Irēdamá vṓn mī̀se, mrínā́ny.'''''
:''Supposing that he sends me a gift, [lit. let him send me a gift] I shall pardon him.''
=====Supplementary aspects=====
======Perfect======
The perfect is formed periphrastically; the preterite participle (for a completed action) or the imperfect participle (for cumulative progress) is used as a predicate, with either the pronouns or the conjugated forms of the copula ''vā́cī́n''.
Unlike in English the perfect can be used in imperative sentences:
:'''''Dellasárlech dhinōrúod vā́c in stúmsyn.'''''
:<small>trap-PST.PART-SG<3PL.M animal-PL.DEF be-IMP.2SG until return-INF-1SG</small>
:''Trap the animals by the time I return.''
======Inceptive======
The inceptive expresses the beginning of a imperfective period in time of the action, and is expressed by the suffix ''-ssī́n'' placed after the theme vowel: ''mólyssī́n'' 'begin to thank', ''nesassīn'' 'begin to kill', ''teressī́n'' 'begin to flourish'.
======Continuative======
The continuative expresses the meaning of "continues/keeps on X-ing", and is expressed by the suffix ''-lī́n''. The theme vowel is lengthened like in the future tense.
======Cessative======
The cessative expresses the end of an imperfective period in time of the action, and is expressed by the suffix ''-mbī́n''; ''mólymbī́n'' 'cease to thank', ''nésambī́n'' 'cease to kill', ''terembī́n'' 'cease to flourish'.
=====Additional mood/evidentiality/discourse marking=====
======Mirative======
The mirative, marking information, inference or realization new to the speaker, is marked by reduplicating first CV- of the stem.
:'''''{{blue|gá}}gā́lem'''''
:/ga&#769;gaːꜜliɜs/
:<small>{{blue|RDPL}}-gā́l-em</small>
:<small>{{blue|MIR}}-sing-PRES.3SG.AN</small>
:''I see that she sings''/''she sings indeed''
======Energic======
The energic presents information new to the audience, or presents information to exhort the audience to consider it. It is indicated by reduplication of the last syllable of the stem.
:'''''gālā́lem'''''
:/gílgaːꜜleis/
:<small>{{blue|RDPL-il}}-gā́lem</small>
:<small>{{blue|ENER}}-sing-PRES.3SG.AN</small>
:''(see/you know), she is singing''
:'''''Yntáeqáeqīn di būqȳrerī Slȳ́sar.'''''
:<small>yn-{{blue|RDPL-il}}-taeqen di būqȳr-ái S.</small>
:<small>IMPF-{{blue|ENER}}-visit-IMPF-1SG LOC temple-3SG.HON.CONJ S.</small>
:''(You know,) I used to frequent Slȳ́sar's temple.''
======Subjunctive======
The subjunctive, used for doubtful statements and for hypothetical outcomes, is marked by a prefix of the first CV + ''N''.
:'''''{{blue|gán}}gā́lem'''''
:/lʉ&#769;ngaːꜜleis/
:<small>{{blue|RDPL-n}}-gā́lies</small>
:<small>{{blue|SBJV}}-sing-PRES.3SG.F</small>
:''she supposedly sings/she would sing''
The subjunctive is also used in exclamations of disbelief (with the conjunction ''ne''):
:'''''Ne ħis{{blue|an}}aromíā tach!'''''
:<small>ne ħis-RDPL-n-aromi-ā tách</small>
:<small>COMPZ ‹SBJV›survive-PRET.3SG there</small>
:''It is astounding that he survived that!''
It must be used with ''imḗr'' 'almost' when it indicates something that nearly happened, but didn't:
:'''''Imē&#769;r sur{{blue|min}}emnadán.'''''
:''I nearly fell asleep [but did not].''
====Voice====
=====Basic voices=====
======Active======
The active voice is the default voice, used when the subject is the agent of the verb.
======Passive======
The passive marks the subject as a patient of the verb. Apart from passivity, passives may have a derivational function; they may indicate reflexive or involuntary/spontaneous actions with active intransitives (''sṓtvati machīnýn'' "my legs walk by themselves, without my control"). As such there are quite a few deponent verbs, verbs that are inherently passive, and also passive counterparts of active intransitive verbs.
=====Supplementary voices=====
======Causative======
The causative expresses causation or facilitation of the action. It is indicated by the suffix ''-inai'' in the case of null thematic vowel, and by ''-scái'' for ''a''- or ''e''-thematic verbs.
=====Non-finite forms=====
The non-finite forms are the participle and two infinitives.
======Participle======
The participle can be used in many different contexts like in many Indo-European languages, but its main function is to build relative clauses whose subject is the head.
======Infinitive======
The infinitive is used in reason clauses, time clauses, indirect speech (as the infinitive copula ''va̋cs'' + participle) whose truth is believed strongly by the speaker, and more rarely purpose clauses. The possessor of the infinitive represents the verb's subject. The infinitive is also used in dependent irrealis verbs that do ''not'' directly express an order or wish and thus for which jussive would be inappropriate.
======Supine======
The supine is used as a complement to certain verbs and in any other situation calling for a verb with no independent subject or TAM, and is used adverbially with prepositions. The ''supine absolute'' construction formed with the supine indicates a manner of action or simultaneous action. The possessor of the supine represents the verb's object.
======Action noun======
The action noun functions grammatically as a noun and denotes the action of a noun, but takes verbal syntax. There are a variety of action noun suffixes, such as ''-lne'' and ''-íħe''.
====Voice/Subject/TAM markers====
:''See also [[{{PAGENAME}}/Verbal subparadigms|tables for conjugation subparadigms]].''
'''Note on agreement.''' Collectives of animate nouns take animate plural agreement; collectives of inanimate nouns take non-animate singular agreement.
Shown below are the final and combining forms of subject suffixes of the three conjugation paradigms: the first conjugation, with null thematic vowel, the second conjugation, with thematic vowel ''a'', and the third conjugation, with thematic vowel ''e''.
To form the passive, the paradigms ''-ī́n'', ''-áin'', ''-ī́n'' are replaced by ''-yréin'', ''-aréin'', ''-erī́n'', respectively.
The citation form of a verb is the 1st person jussive. The three major conjugations are correlated with the semantics of the verb:
*1st conjugation ''-ī́n'' < ''*-īn=ʔ'': primary verbs.
**The above contains ''-iī́n'' verbs (''*j''-stems, realized as pseudo-thematic vowel ''i'').
*2nd conjugation ''-áin'' < ''*-a-īn=ʔ'': typically denominative, factitive or transitive verbs.
*3rd conjugation ''-ī́n'' < ''*-e-īn=ʔ'': typically dynamic or reflexive verbs.
The zero theme vowel conjugation often contains irregularities from interactions between the final consonant and the ending (in fact some alteration occurs for all consonants except ''m'', ''r'' and ''ch'', unless the stem-terminating consonant is part of a cluster) and hence includes [[{{PAGENAME}}/Verbal subparadigms|many subconjugations]].
'''NB.''' The downstep position is preserved upon addition of the object suffix.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg  " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | Subject affixes
|-
!colspan="3" | Present
|-
!|
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|''-īn, -ī(n)<sup>1</sup>-''<br/>''-ain, -ai(n)<sup>1</sup>-''<br/>''-īn, -ī(n)<sup>1</sup>-''
|''-maech, -maech-''<br/>''-ámaech, -amaech-''<br/>''-émaech, -emaech-''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''-nse, -nsi-''<br/>''-ánse, -ansi-''<br/>''-énse, -ensi-''
|-
!|2
|''-yr, -yr-''<br/>''-ar, -ar-''<br/>''-er, -er-''
|''-lse, -lsi-''<br/>''-álse, -alsi-''<br/>''-élse, -elsi-''
|-
!|3.an
|''-ym, -m-''<br/>''-am, -am-''<br/>''-em, -em-''
|''-vi, -vi-''<br/>''-ávi, -avi-''<br/>''-évi, -evi-''
|-
!|3.other
|''-is, -isi-''<br/>''-ais, -aisi-''<br/>''-ēs, -ēsi-''
|''-ti, -ti-''<br/>''-áti, -ati-''<br/>''-éti, -eti-''
|-
!colspan="3" | Imperfect
|-
|colspan="3"|''Add the ''yn-'' prefix to the present forms.''
|-
!colspan="3" | Preterite
|-
!|
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|''-ýn, -ýn-''<br/>''-án, -án-''<br/>''-én, -én-''
|''-mor, -mor-''<br/>''-ámor, -amor-''<br/>''-émor, -emor-''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''-tor, -tor-''<br/>''-átor, -ator-''<br/>''-étor, -etor-''
|-
!|2
|''-ýr, -ýr-''<br/>''-ár, -ár-''<br/>''-ér, -ér-''
|''-lis, -lis-''<br/>''-ális, -alis-''<br/>''-élis, -elis-''
|-
!|3.an
|''-a, -am-''<br/>''-ā, -ām-''<br/>''-ea, -eam-''
|''-aví, -avíe-''<br/>''-āví, -āvíe''<br/>''-eaví, -eavíe-''
|-
!|3.other
|''-ar, -ar-''<br/>''-ār, -ār''<br/>''-ear, -ear-''
|''-atí, -atíe-''<br/>''-ātí, -ātíe''<br/>''-eatí, -eatíe-''
|-
!colspan="3" | Future
|-
!|
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|''-ḗn, -ḗn-''<br/>''-ā́n, -ā́n-''<br/>''-íen, -íen-''
|''-ḗmi, -ēmī-''<br/>''-ā́mi, -āmī-''<br/>''-íemi, -iemī-''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''-ḗnse, -ēnsi-''<br/>''-ā́nse, -ānsi-''<br/>''-íense, -iensi-''
|-
!|2
|''-ḗr, -ḗr-''<br/>''-ā́r, -ā́r-''<br/>''-íer, -íer-''
|''-ḗlse, -ēlsi-''<br/>''-ā́lse, -ālsi-''<br/>''-íelse, -ielsi-''
|-
!|3.an
|''-ḗm, -ḗm-''<br/>''-ā́m, -ā́m-''<br/>''-íem, -íem-''
|''-ḗvi, -ēvi-''<br/>''-ā́vi, -āvi-''<br/>''-íevi, -ievi-''
|-
!|3.other
|''-ḗsi, -ḗsi-''<br/>''-ā́si, -ā́si-''<br/>''-íesi, -íesi-''
|''-ḗti, -ēti-''<br/>''-ā́ti, -āti-''<br/>''-íeti, -ieti-''
|-
!colspan="3" | Imperative
|-
!|
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|''-ī́n, -ī́(n)<sup>1</sup>-''<br/>''-áin, -ái(n)<sup>1</sup>-''<br/>''-ī́n, -ī́(n)<sup>1</sup>-''
|''-máech, -máech-''<br/>''-amáech, -amáech-''<br/>''-emáech, -emáech-''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''-nt, -nti-''<br/>''-ant, -anti-''<br/>''-ent, -enti-''
|-
!|2
|''-yt, -yti-''<br/>''-at, -ati-''<br/>''-et, -eti-''
|''-lt, -lti-''<br/>''-alt, -alti-''<br/>''-elt, -elti-''
|-
!|3.an
|''-mór, -mór-''<br/>''-amór, -amór-''<br/>''-emór, -emór-''
|''-ivór, -vór-''<br/>''-avór, -avór-''<br/>''-evór, -evór-''
|-
!|3.other
|''-isór, -isór-''<br/>''-asór, -asór-''<br/>''-esór, -esór-''
|''-itór, -itór-''<br/>''-atór, -atór-''<br/>''-etór, -etór-''
|-
!colspan="3"| Non-finite forms
|-
!Present<br/>participle
|colspan="3"|''-́nea'', ''-́neq-''<br/>''-ánea'', ''-áneq-''<br/>''-énea'', ''-éneq-''
|-
!Imperfect<br/>participle
|colspan="3"|''Prefix ''yn-'' to the present participle.''
|-
!Preterite<br/>participle
|colspan="3"|''-lánea<sup>F</sup>'', ''-láneq-''<br/>''-alánea<sup>F</sup>'', ''-alaneq-''<br/>''-elánea'', ''-eláneq-''
|-
!Future<br/>participle
|colspan="3"|''-ḗnea<sup>F</sup>'', ''-ḗneq-''<br/>''-ā́nea'', ''-ā́neq-''<br/>''-íenea<sup>F</sup>'', ''-íeneq-''
|-
!Infinitive
|colspan="3"|''-s<sup>M</sup>''<br/>''-ás<sup>M</sup>''<br/>''-és<sup>M</sup>''
|-
!Supine
|colspan="3"|''-ēdh<sup>M</sup>''<br/>''-ādh<sup>M</sup>''<br/>''-iedh<sup>M</sup>''
|}
<sup>1</sup> See below.<br/>
====Object affixes====
The object affixes combine at the end of the verb to agree with the definite direct object or indirect object, the indirect object having higher priority.
The following table specifies how the object affixes combine with the combining forms of TAM/subject suffixes. For the most part, the suffixes are more or less directly added to the combining form (as the notation ''+ -allomorph'' indicates). Exceptions are in bold.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 1000px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="18" |'''Object affixes'''
|-
!|Condition
!|1sg
!|1pl.ex
! rowspan="8" |
!|1pl.in
! rowspan="8" |
!|2sg.m
!|2sg.f
!|2pl
! rowspan="8" |
!|3sg.an
!|3pl.an
! rowspan="8" |
!|3sg.inan
!|3sg.abs
!|3pl.other
! rowspan="8" |
!|4
|-
!|''-C-''
|''+ -yn''
|rowspan="2"|''+ -am''
|''+ -ynta''
|''+ -ys''
|''+ -yzy''
|''+ -ylys''
|''+ -ā''
|''+ -u''
|''+ -y''
|rowspan="2"|''+ -ī''
|''+ -int''
|''+ -it''
|-
!|''-i-, -u-,'' hiatus
|rowspan="5"|''+ -n''
|rowspan="6"|''+ -nta''
|rowspan="5"|''+ -s''
|rowspan="5"|''+ -zy''
|rowspan="5"|''+ -lys''
|''+ -ā''
|rowspan="5"|''+ -vu''
|rowspan="5"|''+ -v''
|rowspan="5"|''+ -vint''
|rowspan="5"|''+ -t''
|-
!|''-ā-''
|''+ -m''
|''+ -vā''
|'''''-ai'''''
|-
!|''-ē-''
|rowspan="2"|''+ -am''
|rowspan="2"|''+ -(v)ā''
|'''''-ī'''''
|-
!|''-ī-''
|rowspan="2"|''+ -ī''
|-
!|''-ie-''
|'''''-eam'''''
|''+ -vā''
|-
!|''-(n)-''
|''+ -nyn''
|''+ -nam''
|''+ -nys''
|''+ -nyzy''
|''+ -nlys''
|''+ -nā''
|''+ -nu''
|''+ -ny''
|''+ -nī''
|''+ -nt''
|''+ -t''
|}
There exist reflexive object suffixes. These are simply the 3rd person suffixes with an initial consonant ''l-'' (''-lā, -ly, -lī, -lu, -lint''), and can be attached directly to the combining form of the subject suffix. Non-3rd person reflexive verbs are marked with the object affix with the same person as the subject.
=====Double object affixes=====
Ditransitive constructions employing double object affixes (which occur in the order {{sc|verb-IO-DO}}) can only be used with certain combinations of pronominal objects, not with full noun phrases (another constraint is that the recipient outrank the theme in animacy; hence ''capsascā́ny!'' 'feed me it!' is licensed but not ''*capsascáun!'' 'feed me to him!'). Participles and supines (objects patterning as in finite verbs) may receive a similar "double possessive" suffix.
When another suffix is added to the 2nd person singular, the combining form of the 2nd person singular suffix is ''-zy-'' regardless of the gender.
====Syncretic forms====
Syncretic forms are the following:
====Similar forms====
Forms that are only distinguished by tone are the following:
'''All verbs:'''
*''-īn, -ī(n)-'' present 1sg, ''-ī́n, -ī́(n)-'' jussive 1sg
*''-dir, -dir-'' present 1sg, ''-dír, -dír-'' jussive 1dl.ex
*''-maech, -mae-'' present 1pl.ex, ''-máech, -máe-'' jussive 1pl.ex
*''-r, -r-'' present 2sg, ''-́r, -́r-'' preterite 2sg
*''-mor'' preterite 1pl.ex, ''-mór'' jussive 3sg.an
*''-tor'' preterite 1pl.in, ''-tór'' jussive 3pl.other
'''''-áin'' verbs:'''
*''-ā'' active preterite 3sg.an, ''-ā́'' active imperative 2sg
*''-ām'' active imperative 2sg > 1pl. ex, ''-ā́m'' active future 3sg.an unipersonal
*''-ār, -ār-'' active preterite 3sg.other, ''-ā́r, -ā́r'' active future 2sg
===Prepositions===
Prepositions in {{PAGENAME}} are inflected with pronominal enclitics.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="22" |'''Inflection of prepositions'''
|-
!|
!|1sg
!|2sg.m
!|2sg.f
!|3sg.m
!|3sg.f
!|rfl.sg.m
!|rfl.sg.f
!|1dl.ex
!|1dl.in
!|2dl
!|3dl.m
!|3dl.f
!|rfl.dl.m
!|rfl.dl.f
!|1pl.ex
!|1pl.in
!|2pl
!|3pl.m
!|3pl.f
!|rfl.pl.m
!|rfl.pl.f
|-
!|Regular
|''-n''
|''-(y)s''
|''-(y)zy''
|''-(v)y''
|''-ī''
|''-ly''
|''-lī''
|''-nar''
|''-tidh''
|''-yth''
|''-(j)ār''
|''-(j)air''
|''-lār''
|''-lair''
|''-am''
|''-nta''
|''-lys''
|''-ch''
|''-r''
|''-lech''
|''-ler''
|-
!|Example
|''ástyn''
|''ástys''
|''ástyzy''
|''ásty''
|''ástī''
|''ástyly''
|''ástylī''
|''ástynar''
|''ástytidh''
|''ástyth''
|''ástār''
|''ástair''
|''ástylār''
|''ástylair''
|''ástam''
|''ástynta''
|''ástylys''
|''ástech''
|''áster''
|''ástylech''
|''ástyler''
|}
The following prepositions have completely regular inflection:
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 500px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3"|Regular prepositions
|-
!|{{PAGENAME}}
!|With noun
!|With infintive/supine
|-
|''ast''
|without, except
|unless (negative meaning)
|-
|''cerā́n''
|because of
|
|-
|''cute''
|on, on top of
|in addition to, simultaneously while
|-
|''chang''
|concerning
|
|-
|''det''
|colspan="2"|towards, until
|-
|''dietrem''
|inside, amidst
|whilst
|-
|''dismar'', ''hasfíer''
|colspan="2"|instead of
|-
|''énħēn''
|colspan="2"|because of
|-
|''giletrem''
|out of
|
|-
|''had''
|like, as, in correspondence to
|as if to (but with ''ne''-clause: "as")
|-
|''in''
|colspan="2"|until
|-
|''inír''
|like the X that it is
|
|-
|''lyr'', ''mol''
|by (animate agent)
|
|-
|''pram''
|unlike
|
|-
|''qal''
|in front of
|before
|-
|''sunā́n''
|in spite of
|
|-
|''tor''
|
|because (by implication of the fact that)
|-
|''trig''
|around
|approximately when
|-
|''tany''
|behind
|after
|-
|''véliīl''
|in the name of
|
|-
|''vorḗl''
|for the sake of
|in order that
|-
|''zom''
|between
|from event X until event Y
|-
|''dhymai''
|without (instrument)
|without X-ing (positive meaning)
|}
The following prepositions are irregular:
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 500px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3"|Irregular prepositions
|-
!|{{PAGENAME}}
!|With noun
!|With infintive/supine
|-
|''ā''
|with (comitative)
|when (imperfective aspect)
|-
|''di''
|in, at (locative)
|when (perfective aspect)
|-
|''nai''
|by, with (instrumental)
|by/in X-ing
|-
|''la''
|also
|
|-
|''vo''
|to, for (dative)
|
|-
|''gil''
|from, of (partitive, material)
|
|-
|''pī''
|against
|despite
|-
|''stái'' (conjugated as 1sg jussive verb)
|
|please do.../I would ask that...
|}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg  " style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="22" |'''Inflection of irregular prepositions'''
|-
!|
!|1sg
!|2sg.m
!|2sg.f
!|3sg.m
!|3sg.f
!|rfl.sg.m
!|rfl.sg.f
!|1dl.ex
!|1dl.in
!|2dl
!|3dl.m
!|3dl.f
!|rfl.dl.m
!|rfl.dl.f
!|1pl.ex
!|1pl.in
!|2pl
!|3pl.m
!|3pl.f
!|rfl.pl.m
!|rfl.pl.f
|-
!|''ā''
|''aħán''
|''ā́s''
|''āsý''
|''aħý''
|''aħī́''
|''aħlý''
|''aħlī́''
|''aħrén''
|''aħtídh''
|''aħrýth''
|''āħṓr''
|''āħȳ́r''
|''aħlṓr''
|''aħlȳ́r''
|''ā́m''
|''ā́nta''
|''āħlýs''
|''āħéch''
|''āħér''
|''āħléch''
|''āħlér''
|-
!|''di''
|''díen''
|''díes''
|''díezy''
|''díev''
|''dī́''
|''díely''
|''díelī''
|''díenar''
|''díetidh''
|''díeryth''
|''díevōr''
|''díevȳr''
|''díelōr''
|''díelȳr''
|''díevam''
|''díenta''
|''díelys''
|''díech''
|''díer''
|''díelech''
|''díeler''
|-
!|''vo''
|''vṓn''
|''vṓs''
|''vṓzy''
|''vū́''
|''vȳ́''
|''vṓly''
|''vṓlī''
|''vódhnar''
|''vṓtidh''
|''vódhryth''
|''vódhōr''
|''vódhȳr''
|''vṓlōr''
|''vṓlȳr''
|''vódham''
|''vṓnta''
|''vṓlys''
|''vṓch''
|''vṓr''
|''vṓslech''
|''vṓler''
|-
!|''nai''
|''náin''
|''náis''
|''naizý''
|''naivý''
|''naiī́''
|''nailý''
|''nailī́''
|''nairén''
|''naitídh''
|''nairýth''
|''naivṓr''
|''naivȳ́r''
|''nailṓr''
|''nailȳ́r''
|''naiám''
|''náinta''
|''náis''
|''náich''
|''náir''
|''nailéch''
|''nailér''
|-
!|''la''
|''láun''
|''láus''
|''lauzý''
|''lauvý''
|''lauvī́''
|''laulý''
|''laulī́''
|''laurén''
|''lautídh''
|''laurýth''
|''lauvṓr''
|''lauvȳ́r''
|''laulṓr''
|''laulȳ́r''
|''laujám''
|''láunta''
|''láulys''
|''láich''
|''láir''
|''lailéch''
|''lailér''
|-
!|''gil''
|''gilén''
|''gilés''
|''gilezý''
|''gilév''
|''giléī'''
|''gilelý''
|''gilelī́''
|''gilerén''
|''giletídh''
|''gilerýth''
|''gilevṓr''
|''gilevȳ́r''
|''gilelṓr''
|''gilelȳ́r''
|''gileám''
|''gilénta''
|''gilelýs''
|''gilḗch''
|''gilḗr''
|''gileléch''
|''gilelér''
|}
====Uses of the dative====
The dative preposition ''vo'' is often used for semantic experiencers:
:'''''vū́ nobáva'''''
:<small>DAT-3SG.M be_diseased(PASS)-3SG.M</small>
:''he (lit. to him) is sick''
The pronominal [[w:ethical dative]] is used to express some form of interest in the matter.
:'''''Armaíla vṓs.'''''
:<small>listen-IMP.2SG DAT-2SG.M</small>
:''Listen (for your own good).''
===Numerals===
{{PAGENAME}} employs a pure vigesimal numeral system. In transcriptions of {{PAGENAME}}, if positional numerals are desired, the vigesimal positional numerals should be used.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg  " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="8"|{{PAGENAME}} numerals
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|''n''
!style="width: 120px; "|''n''th
!style="width: 120px; "|''n'' times
!style="width: 120px; "|''n'' each/at a time
!style="width: 120px; "|1/''n''
!style="width: 120px; "|''n'' days
!style="width: 120px; "|''n'' years
|-
|?
|''jíes''
|''jínáth''
|''jíster''
|''jíssle''
|''jissínde''
|''jíníedh''
|
|-
|1
|''cṓm''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''férrȳ́n''
|''cṓnter''
|''cṓmle''
|''-''
|''cṓmíedh''
|''dóvī́em''
|-
|2
|''títhār''<sup>CLF</sup>
|''ýrnȳ́n''
|''tíster''
|''tíchle''
|''rā́ħé''
|''títhíedh''
|''tívíem''
|-
|3
|''náre''
|''naráth''
|''nárter''
|''narslé''
|''narínde''
|''naríedh''
|''narvíem''
|-
|4
|''múle''
|''muláth''
|''múlter''
|''mullé''
|''mulínde''
|''mulíedh''
|''mulvíem''
|-
|5
|''níte''
|''nitáth''
|''níchter''
|''nitlé''
|''nitínde''
|''nitíedh''
|''nitvíem''
|-
|6
|''thā̀me''
|''thāmáth''
|''thā̀mter''
|''thāmlé''
|''thāmínde''
|''thāmíedh''
|''thāmvíem''
|-
|7
|''rū̀de''
|''rūdáth''
|''rū́tter''
|''rūdlé''
|''rūdínde''
|''rūdíedh''
|''rūvîem''
|-
|8
|''lozéde''
|''lozedáth''
|''lóster''
|''lorlé''
|''lozínde''
|''lozíedh''
|''lorvíem''
|-
|9
|''fárve''
|''fárváth''
|''fárter''
|''fárlé''
|''fárvínde''
|''fáríedh''
|''fárvîem''
|-
|10/A<sub>20</sub>
|''ħȳ̀re''
|''ħȳráth''
|''ħȳ̀rter''
|''ħȳrlé''
|''ħȳrínde''
|''ħȳríedh''
|''ħȳrvíem''
|-
|11/B<sub>20</sub>
|''cṓmiħȳré''
|''cṓmiħȳráth''
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|12/C<sub>20</sub>
|''títhiħȳré''
|''tithiħȳráth''
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|13/D<sub>20</sub>
|''nariħȳré''
|''nariħȳráth''
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|14/E<sub>20</sub>
|''muliħȳré''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|15/F<sub>20</sub>
|''nistiħȳré''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|16/G<sub>20</sub>
|''thāmiħȳré''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|17/H<sub>20</sub>
|''rūdiħȳré''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|18/J<sub>20</sub>
|''loziħȳré''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|19/K<sub>20</sub>
|''farviħȳré''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|20/10<sub>20</sub>
|''nēsé''
|''nēsáth''
|''nḕster''
|''nēslé''
|''nēsínde''
|''nēsíedh''
|
|-
|21/11<sub>20</sub>
|''nēsé... ie cṓm<sup>CLF</sup>''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|22/12<sub>20</sub>
|''nēsé... ie títhār<sup>CLF</sup>''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|40/20<sub>20</sub>
|''títhnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|60/30<sub>20</sub>
|''narnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|80/40<sub>20</sub>
|''mulnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|100/50<sub>20</sub>
|''nistnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|120/60<sub>20</sub>
|''thāmnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|140/70<sub>20</sub>
|''rūdnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|160/80<sub>20</sub>
|''lornū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|180/90<sub>20</sub>
|''fárnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|200/A0<sub>20</sub>
|''ħȳrnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|220/B0<sub>20</sub>
|''ħȳrcōmnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|240/C0<sub>20</sub>
|''ħȳrtithnū́r''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|400/100<sub>20</sub>
|''taflé''
|''tafláth''
|''táfler''
|''tafslé''
|''taflínde''
|''taflíedh''
|
|-
|20<sup>3</sup>/1000<sub>20</sub>
|''idré''
|''idráth''
|''ídrer''
|''idryslé''
|''idrínde''
|''idríedh''
|
|-
|20<sup>4</sup>/10000<sub>20</sub>
|''zathné''
|''zathnáth''
|''záster''
|''zathnyslé''
|''zathrínde''
|''zathníedh''
|
|}
1 and 2 (and any number whose 1's digit = 1 or 2) are adjectives. For ones digit > 3, the numeral is a noun that takes the definiteness inflection on behalf of the noun phrase (as a corollary, with a demonstrative the numeral is "indefinite" as well), whilst the noun is in the form "unmarked" in definiteness (indefinite for unpossessed, definite for possessed).
For numerals whose ones digit is 1 or 2, such constructions as ''nevsé sṓrach ie títhār'' '22 houses' must be used.
The distributive suffix can be appended to the "''n'' times" numeral to express "''n'' times each"; e.g. ''thāmterslé'' (six times each).
The numerals can be combined with possessive suffixes to denote "(the) ''n'' of us/you/them" ''mullatís'' "four of you", ''mullâis'' "the four of you".
==Syntax==
===Word order and fronting===
The default constituent order is (time-place)-verb/predicate adjective-subject-pronominal oblique object-direct object-(place-time). Any constituent may be topicalized or focalized by being placed in front of the verb. The syntactic difference between topicalization and focalization is that a topicalized noun phrase is the absolute first constituent of a clause while focalized noun phrases have to follow pre-verbal adjuncts such as negation. New information adverbs such as ''la'' (also) tend to topicalize, and restrictive adverbs such as ''vid'' (only) tend to focus.
===Negation===
Negation of finite verbs is performed by the particle ''tír''.
Predicates and participles by default are negated with ''daer'' (a proclitic).
Irrealis (imperative, jussive) verbs are negated by using the irrealis negation clitic ''ham'', as are semantically irrealis participial clauses such as those indicating purpose. ''Hám'' may also be used as a standalone exclamation ("do not!"/"may it not happen!").
The negation of ''mór'' (in non-jussive forms) is ''íris'': ''íris vṓn sū́bin'' 'I have no possessions'.
Infinitives are negated with ''tíem''.
==="Emphasis"===
====Topicalization====
The clause begins with the topicalized noun phrase, then a 3rd pronoun corresponding to the subject is used in the sentence. If the topic is the object of a finite verb, a 3rd object suffix is used on the verb.
====Focalization====
{{PAGENAME}} focusing fronts the whole noun phrase (prepositions and all), unlike topicalization in which the topic is appositional and is expressed with a prepositional pronoun in the clause. If the focus is the subject fronting with no pronoun is used. Focusing may alternatively employ a type of cleft construction, with fronting of the focused noun phrase, by using the inverse verbal or prepositional object corresponding to the role of the focus in the sentence. The cleft construction is the one used when the focus is the direct object.
Focusing is likely to occur with verbs in the mirative mood or the energetic mood, i.e. verbs that mark new information.
===Noun phrases===
Numerals precede nouns; possessors follow their possessa (with poetic exceptions); demonstratives occur after attributive adjectives, which follow nouns. Inflected quantifiers (uninflected quantifiers, such as ''rṓg'' "every/all", precede the numeral) come after the adjective by default, but precede the noun when a demonstrative is used and precede the numeral when a numeral is used. Within these boundaries there is a lot of leeway; an attributive adjective or a demonstrative can occupy any position between its head and the relative clause.
====Distributive possession====
To express the meaning of "our/your/their respective NP" (in both dual and plural), the last noun of the NP is reduplicated in absolute possessed forms. The persons are decomposed into their component singular persons.
===Zero-copula sentences===
The predicative form of a noun or adjective may be used without ''vā́cī́n'' in the following cases:
*The noun is a complement of a verb of state, change of state, or enacting a change of state (making X into Y).
**The copula is rarely used in the present indicative in full clauses. Instead, the predicative noun goes to the front, as if it were a verb. An equational sentence begins with the subject, and a 3rd- or a 4th-person pronoun (cliticized and therefore toneless) agreeing with the subject may be used anywhere in the sentence, or omitted (as is often the case, as the predicate adjectives and the end of each noun phrase are quite transparent). When the clitic pronoun is used it may precede or follow the predicate noun or adjective.
*The supine of the copula, ''vā́cḗdh'' can be omitted when its complement is in the predicative form: ''Tír fūlā́ny vā́ga.'' 'I shall not let him be evil.'
===Predicative possession===
For alienable possession, 'X has Y' is expressed with the construction ''mór''  Y ''vo'' X", or "''mór''-[pronoun affix for pronominal X] Y".
For inalienable possession, it is unnecessary to indicate the fact that X has Y, hence this existential construction is not used. To say 'X has an [adjective] Y' with inalienable possession, the topicalizing construction 'X {{sc|predicative adjective}} Y-{{sc|possessive suffix}}' (hence 'X, his/her/its/their Y is [adjective]') is most common.
:'''''Mórvien híltámsach.'''''
:<small>exist/PRES.3PL.M-1SG evidence-PL.INDEF</small>
:''I have proof.''
===Coordinating conjunctions===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 500px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3"|Coordinating conjunctions
|-
!|{{PAGENAME}}
!|Gloss
!|Notes
|-
|''at''
|or
|
|-
|''coru''
|then
|
|-
|''ie''
|and
|can be rendered as 'but, while, whereas' with topicalized clauses
|-
|''ieládh''
|however, nevertheless, moreover
|
|-
|''nesi''
|but (rather)
|
|-
|''nu''
|xor/nand
|
|-
|''sēm''
|but, yet, however
|
|-
|''ū̌de''
|so
|
|}
===Subordinate clauses===
{{PAGENAME}} prefers sentences with one independent (tensed realis) clause, with infinitives, jussives or participles in subordinate clauses (except usually in complement clauses).
====Subordinators governing finite verbs====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 500px; text-align: center;"
|-
!|{{PAGENAME}}
!|Gloss
!|Notes
|-
|''ach''
||although||
|-
|''ānne''
||when (with finite verb)||future distinction is made for protasis
|-
|''ar''
||if (specific/provisional)||if the condition is in future time, then use future for protasis
|-
|''atar''
||even if, regardless of whether||
|-
|''ēr''
||because, for||
|-
|''īs''
||if (counterfactual)||
|-
|''ne''
||that (complementizer)||
|-
|''nit''
||if (general conditional)||
|-
|''nitrṓg/trṓg''
||whoever/whatever (generic relativizer)||
|-
||''rin''
||that, which (specific relativizer)||
|-
||''sunne''
||which (abstract relativizer)||
|}
====Participial clauses====
Three types of participial clauses are used in {{PAGENAME}}: attributive participle clauses, absolute participle clauses and adverbial participle clauses. All participles are negated with ''daer''.
Attributive participial clauses are used as relative clauses whose subject is the head. They take the same tenses as if they were finite relative clauses, where the present is defined as the time of the utterance. Note that attributive participles take a possessive suffix; the possessor of a participle is the direct object if the participle is active, and is the agent if the participle is passive.
In absolute participial clauses the participle is inflected into the predicative state. It can be used to give the general circumstances or purpose (with a future participle) of an event. Certain subordinating conjunctions may be used in tandem with such a participle as well.
Adverbial participial clauses denote manner of action, often corresponding to clauses of the type "as if X-ing" or "as if to..." in English.
=====Subordinators governing participles=====
The following subordinating conjunctions can govern any clause with a predicate (be it a noun, adjective or participle). If the subject is a pronoun then it is absorbed into the conjunction as a pronominal suffix (and inflected as if they were nouns or prepositions):
:'''''qōmḗnylys bisuvarlū́am'''''
:<small>qōmḗn-lys bisu-va-rl-ū-am</small>
:<small>for-2PL favor-PASS-PART-PL.M-1PL.EX</small>
:''for we are on your side''
If the subject is omitted, the dependent clause is assumed to have the same subject as the main clause.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 500px; text-align: center;"
|-
!|{{PAGENAME}}
!|Gloss
!|Notes
|-
|''aumé''
|if (it is found to be the case that...)
|inflected as declension 2 noun
|-
|''dhisēn''
|for the fact that...
|
|-
|''gōté''
|because (physical cause)
|inflected as declension 2 noun
|-
|''fedū''
|when
|
|-
|''ħuoná''
|as long as
|
|-
|''nār, nā̀r-''
|although, albeit
|
|-
|''qōmḗn''
|for, because
|
|-
|''stī́m''
|in order that
|
|}
====Time clauses using the infinitive====
Time clauses may be constructed with a preposition and the infinitive with the possessor as subject.
:'''''ā lēvásyn''' (lit. with my running)''
:''while I run/was running (imperfective)''
:'''''dí táqrysī ā̀mān''' (lit. at my mother's being-born)''
:''when my mother was born (perfective)''
====Relative clauses====
The participial relative clause is introduced with a participle. A part of the language's head marking system, it ''must'' be used when the head is the subject. (The supine is used instead of the participle if the finite verb would be in the jussive.) The possessor of an active participle is the direct object, and the possessor of a passive participle is the agent.
The finite restrictive relative clause is introduced with a relativizer ''rin'' (specific) or ''nitrṓg/trṓg'' (non-specific; etymologically "whenever"). To modify a sentence with a relative clause the relativizer ''surith'' is used instead. If the head is the relative clause's object the verbal agreement with it is not necessary.
Non-restrictive counterparts to the above two types can be thought of as apposed sentences; the full sentence is copied directly after the noun.
====Complement clauses====
{{PAGENAME}} uses chiefly finite complement clauses (with verbs of information, saying or knowing), unlike for other types of subordinate clauses. As in English, changes in tense occur if the matrix verb is in a past tense (not a present perfect tense):
*present > imperfect
*imperfect > imperfect perfect (imperfect participle + imperfect of ''vā́cī́n'')
*preterite > preterite perfect (preterite participle + imperfect of ''vā́cī́n'')
*future > future perfect (future participle + imperfect of ''vā́cī́n'')
The subjunctive mood may be used if the source of the information is not identical to the speaker.
Headless complenet clauses are also found. The distinction between indicative and subjunctive moods can be used to indicate whether the speaker's degree of belief:
:'''''ne ascinévi d'iennā́'''''
:''(the fact) that they are exceptional in war''
:'''''ne arnynscinévi d'iennā́'''''
:''(the allegation) that they are exceptional in war''
Indirect questions use the same interrogative words as direct questions, with appropriate changes in person and tense. In indirect polar (yes/no) questions the verb is often cast into the subjunctive mood. Wh-words remain unchanged, and the question particle ''ē'' often but not always changes to ''ar''.
====Conditional clauses====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 500px; text-align: center;"
|-
!|Type
!|Form of protasis
!|Form of apodosis
|-
|gnomic; general present
|<abbr title="whenever Mary does/is doing...">''nit'' + present indicative</abbr>
|present indicative
|-
|general past
|<abbr title="whenever Mary did/was doing...">''nit'' + imperfect indicative</abbr>
|imperfect indicative
|-
|situational, more probable
|''ar'' + <abbr title="if Mary is doing...">present</abbr>/<abbr title="if Mary does...">future</abbr> indicative
|future indicative
|-
|situational, 'risk-taking'
|jussive
|future indicative
|-
|situational, improbable
|''īs'' + <abbr title="in the unlikely case that Mary is doing...">present</abbr>/<abbr title="in the unlikely case that Mary does...">future</abbr> indicative
|future subjunctive
|-
|counterfactual/metaphorical present/imperfect
|<abbr title="If Mary did/were doing/had been doing...">''īs'' + imperfect indicative</abbr>
|present/imperfect subjunctive
|-
|counterfactual/metaphorical preterite
|<abbr title="Had Mary done...">''īs'' + preterite indicative</abbr>
|preterite subjunctive
|}
The apodosis is put in the subjunctive in an unreal conditional, or if the outcome or causality is less probable. Needless to say other combinations of TAMs are possible as well depending on the specific condition being discussed.
===Coreferentiality===
There are several situations where the strictly head-marking language tracks coreferentiality, or which agreeing noun a verb or pronoun taking a given agreement refers to.
====Switch reference====
{{PAGENAME}} uses the ''switch reference'' clitic ''-(i)s(e)'' to signal that the current clause has a different subject than the subject of the previous clause. This clitic goes between the conjunction and the first constituent in the clause.
====Comparison====
====="Than"=====
The comparative particle 'than' is ''rū''. {{PAGENAME}} enables one to discriminate "He loved me more than she [loved me]" and "He loved me more than [he loved] her", by focusing the argument in the main clause that is compared. The comparative phrase is by default placed after the subject or verb, and the compared noun phrase is stated, or repeated with a pronoun.
Note that the fronting does not automatically imply that the fronted noun phrase is compared, but simply that it is given the most focus. The compared argument is the closer argument to the comparative:
====Indirect speech====
If the complement clause's subject corefers with the subject of the main clause, it is left unstated in the complement clause, and the verb does not take the swtich reference affix.
==="Impersonal" sentences===
Impersonal pronouns do not exist in {{PAGENAME}}. The verb is put into the passive with the subject as patient/object, or no subject if there is no patient.
:'''''sṓtva nárgiedh gle chmásān det cardḗ'''''
:''one walks (lit. it is walked) for three days from my village to the coast''
===Modal constructions===
{{PAGENAME}} is poor in true modal and auxiliary verbs; "adverbial" and "adjectival" modal constructions are more common. Deontic modalities tend to be expressed adjectivally, while situational and epistemic modalities tend to have adverbial expressions. All modal expressions come before the (negation-) lexical verb (e.g. ''Jêr métar ħlomaréch thyrfāmâst!'' "How dare you betray my brothers!", note that the verb is in the preterite).
====Modal adjectives====
*''lāmérsa'': "it is sufficient to..."
*''jalúna'': "advisable".
*''ēdámmeta'': "necessary", used to express need to do something.
*''thǔmeta'': "charged/required/compulsory"; moral obligation, "ought to".
*''tē̌meta'': "permitted", used to express permissibility.
====Modal adverbs====
*''ídā́'': "ably", used to express ability to do something.
*''mṓtēr'': equivalent of "dare".
*''lā́mīl'': "possibly", used to express epistemic possibility.
*''tóssēr'': "seemingly".
*''arizḗn'': "certainly", used to express speaker's certainty (English epistemic "must").
*''spádīl'' "in truth", "indeed".
*''thezēr'': "successfully".
====Modal verbs====
"To want" is ''srétī́n''. It is used (chiefly with an intransitive verb) in the infinitive, always with a subject possessor (''Srétīn mindasén d'insé'' "I want to travel in a city", lit. "I want my traveling in a city"), or with transitive verbs in the supine (definite direct objects are marked).
==Compound verb constructions==
{{PAGENAME}} prefers to compound verbs with directional verbs to indicate certain meanings, unlike English which uses adverbs:
*''-nuosī́n'' 'up'
*''-chaostī́n'' 'down'
*''-īvī́n'' 'out'
*''-rochtī́n'' 'in/into':
**''thándirochtī́n'' 'write in'
*''-riedī́n'' 'towards speaker'
*''-harī́n'' 'away from speaker'
*''-cōtī́n'' 'continue to'
*''-issī́n'' 'with great caution'
==Derivational morphology==
===Affixal===
*‹''l''› (not productive): often on verbs
*‹''r''› (not productive): often on nouns or adjectives
**''c'''r'''ū̀'': 'fish' (< 'swimmer', derived from the PRT verb ''*kow'' 'swim')
*''-érle'' 'degree of [adjective]'
*''-íber'' resultative
*''-īa'' (def. ''-īd'', combining form ''-ī-'') 'state of being [noun]/[adjective]'; -ness, -hood, -ity
*''-in'' patient noun (not productive)
**''cáps'''in''''' 'food' < ''caps-'' 'eat'
**''ráuz'''in''''' 'favor' < ''rauz-'' 'apportion'
*''ar-'' (before voiced segment)/''as-'' (before unvoiced segment): telic verbal prefix (to completion/purposive)
*''hir-'' 'not/un-/in-'
*''-índ-'' diminutive
*''-noth'' able to be [patient] of verb
**''frínqe'''nóth''''' 'hopeless' (lit. 'despair-able')
**''vingi'''nóth''''' 'mortal' < ''ving-'' 'die'
*''-sin'' something to be X-ed
*''-iṓr'' augmentative
**''gā́liṓr'' 'song' < ''gā''
===Compounding===
Compounding and incorporation is the main, characteristically {{PAGENAME}} method of derivation.
Noun-adjective compounding occurs by removing the ending of the noun (and inserting ''-o-'' for first declension, ''-e-'' for second declennsion, and ''-i-'' for third declension of the noun if phonotactically required). If the compound is a noun with a supplemental meaning by the adjective, the lexical tone is that of the noun; on the contrary, as an adjective with the meaning colored by the noun, the lexical tone is adopted from the adjective. (e.g. ''cólyn'' (1st decl., high tone) + ''simáttim'' (accent paradigm ''c'') ''= cólnosimáttim'' 'wind' + 'northern' = 'north wind'; post-classical neologisms include ''dhálfaromīdáth'' ''tradition'' < ''dhál-'' 'passing, transmission' + ''fáromīdáth'' 'legitimate'; ''thilqārdé'' 'broadsword, claymore' < ''thilqé'' 'sword' + ''ârd'' 'big, great').
A major subtype of noun compounds is of the form [head noun] + [noun]-''áth'', where the final ''-áth'' agrees with the head noun in gender, e.g. ''sōrachráth'' 'royalty, royal household' < ''sôr'' 'house' + ''achráth'' 'royal'.
Compounds headed by the final noun are largely 'kind of noun' compounds (noun-noun/adj-noun) and are much less productive than the right-branching ones often of a noun-adjective form.
Verb-verb compounding also occurs, e.g. ''duaħivingī́'' 'go extinct, perish, die out' < ''duaħī́'' 'fade, be erased' + ''vingī́'' 'die'.
====Incorporation====
Nouns and adverbs can be incorporated into verbs as they can into adjectives. This is primarily a derivational, rather than grammatical, device.
:'''''qḗdmoplaħemā́m'''''
:''may he grant strength to us''
==Personal names==
Names are often from definite/possessed nouns, definite or predicative adjectives, and verb forms.
==Literature==
===''Zinnṓdhrir''===
''Zinnṓdhrir'' or simply ''nṓdhrir'' (plurale tantum) is the {{PAGENAME}} term for [[w:rhymed prose|rhymed prose]], a very popular literary form for oratory and other didactic works in both classical and post-classical periods, but not uncommon either for ordinary descriptive writings.
===Poetry===
The criteria to be considered poetry is for there to be a quantitative meter pattern in addition to rhyming.
==Vocabulary==
A {{PAGENAME}}-English lexicon may be found at [[{{PAGENAME}}/Vocabulary]].
==Old Themsarian==
''Old Themsarian'' usually refers to the stage of the Themsarian language attested from 740 q.v.C. to 500 q.v.C., based on presence of archaic grammatical features.
===Nouns and adjectives===
Old Themsarian still had case marking (in addition to possessor marking) in nouns, adjectives, and pronouns which disappeared in Classical Themsarian. The four cases were:
*predicative
*[[w:direct case|direct]] (the only case with a definiteness distinction)
*genitive
*instrumental
Here follow the declension paradigms of nouns in Old Themsarian:
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" |''sṓr'' - 'house'
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>Case↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|Predicative
|''sṓra''||''sṓru''
|-
!|Direct indefinite
|''sṓryt''||''sōránt''
|-
!|Direct definite
|''sṓryr''||''sōrúod''
|-
!|Genitive
|''sṓr''||''sōrách''
|}
===Verbs===
Verbs are less synthetic; object clitics are case-marked and are not yet obligatory.
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:A priori]][[Category:Talsmic languages]][[Category:Gamedan languages]][[Category:{{PAGENAME}}|*]]

Latest revision as of 00:36, 24 June 2025

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