Lanikel orthography: Difference between revisions

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== Romanization ==
== Romanization ==


=== Basic Phonemes ===
=== Consonants ===
Some consonants can be written with either digraphs or a non-ASCII monograph. Syllabic consonants are always written as digraphs, however.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |
![[w:Labial_consonant|Labial]]
![[w:dental_consonant|Dental]]
![[w:alveolar_consonant|Alveolar]]
![[w:postalveolar_consonant|Postalveolar]]
![[w:palatal_consonant|Palatal]]
![[w:dorsal_consonant|Dorsal]]
![[w:glottal_consonant|Glottal]]
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |[[w:nasal_consonant|Nasal]]
! rowspan="3" |Occlusive Consonant
|[[w:Voiced_labiodental_nasal|ɱ]] '''m'''
!Phoneme
|
!ɱ
|[[w:Voiced_alveolar_nasal|n]] '''n'''
!n
|
!ɲ
|[[w:Voiced_palatal_nasal|ɲ]] '''ñ'''
!ŋ
|[[w:Voiced_velar_nasal|ŋ]] '''ng'''
!p
|
!t
!t͡ʃ
!k
!ʔ
!b
!d͡z
!d͡ʒ
!ɡ
!ŋ͡ʇ
!ŋ͡ǃ¡
!ŋ͡ǂ
!k͡ʇ
!k͡ǃ¡
!k͡ǂ
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[w:stop_consonant|Stop]]
! rowspan="2" |Grapheme
![[w:voicelessness|Voiceless]]
|''m''
|[[w:voiceless_bilabial_plosive|p]] '''p'''
|''n''
|
|''ny''
|[[w:Voiceless_alveolar_plosive|t]] '''t'''
|''ng''
|[[w:Voiceless_palato-alveolar_affricate|t͡ʃ]] '''ch'''
|''p''
|
|''t''
|[[w:IPA_k|k]] '''k'''
|''ch''
|[[w:glottal_stop|ʔ]] '''c'''
|''k''
|''q''
|''b''
|''dz''
|''j''
|''g''
|''cn''
|''cǹ''
|''cñ''
|''ct''
|''cl''
|''cy''
|-
|-
![[w:Voicedness|Voiced]]
|''m''
|[[w:IPA_b|b]] '''b'''
|''n''
|
|''ñ''
|[[w:Voiced_alveolar_affricate|d͡z]] '''dz'''
|''ŋ''
|[[w:Voiced_palato-alveolar_affricate|d͡ʒ]] '''j'''
|''p''
|
|''t''
|[[w:IPA_g|ɡ]] '''g'''
|''č''
|
|''k''
|''q''
|''b''
|''ẑ''
|''j''
|''g''
|''cn''
|''cǹ''
|''cñ''
|''ct''
|''cl''
|''cy''
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Fricative|Fricative]]
! rowspan="3" |Continuant Consonant
![[w:voicelessness|Voiceless]]
!Phoneme
|[[w:IPA_f|f]] '''f'''
!f
|[[w:voiceless_dental_fricative|θ]] '''th'''
!θ
|[[w:IPA_s|s]] '''s'''
!s
|[[w:voiceless_palato-alveolar_fricative|ʃ]] '''sh'''
!ʃ
|[[w:voiceless_palatal_lateral_fricative|ʎ̝̊]] '''hl'''
!ʎ̝̊
|[[w:IPA_x|x]] '''x'''
!x
|[[w:IPA_h|h]] '''h'''
!h
!v
!ð
!z
!ʒ
!w
!l
!j
!w̃
!l̃
!j̃
!ɾ
!ʀ
|-
|-
![[w:Voicedness|Voiced]]
! rowspan="2" |Grapheme
|[[w:IPA_v|v]] '''v'''
|''f''
|[[w:voiced_dental_fricative|ð]] '''dh'''
|''th''
|[[w:IPA_z|z]] '''z'''
|''s''
|[[w:voiced_palato-alveolar_fricative|ʒ]] '''zh'''
|''sh''
|
|''lh''
|
|''x''
|
|''h''
|''v''
|''d''
|''z''
|''zh''
|''w''
|''l''
|''y''
|''wǹ''
|''lǹ''
|''yǹ''
|''r''
|''rr''
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Approximant|Approximant]]
|''f''
![[w:oral_consonant|Oral]]
|''þ''
|[[w:IPA_w|w]] '''w'''
|''s''
|
|''š''
|[[w:IPA_l|l]] '''l'''
|''ç''
|
|''x''
|[[w:IPA_j|j]] '''y'''
|''h''
|
|''v''
|
|''d''
|''z''
|''ž''
|''w''
|''l''
|''y''
|''ṽ''
|''ł''
|''ỹ''
|''r''
|''ř''
|}
 
=== Vowels ===
Vowels with the circumflex diacritics change diacritics based on suprasegmentals, specified later in this article.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
![[w:nasal_consonant|Nasal]]
! rowspan="2" |Toneless Vowel
|[[w:nasalized_consonant|w̃]] '''ňw'''
!Phoneme
|
!i
|[[w:nasalized_consonant|l̃]] '''ňl'''
!ɪ
|
!ʊ
|[[w:nasalized_consonant|j̃]] '''ňy'''
!u
|
!e
|
!ə
!ʌ
!o
!a
!ɑ
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |[[w:vibrant_consonant|Vibrant]]
!Grapheme
|
|''i''
|
|''î''
|[[w:voiced_alveolar_tap|ɾ]] '''r'''
|''û''
|
|''u''
|
|''e''
|[[w:voiced_uvular_trill|ʀ]] '''rr'''
|''ê''
|
|''ô''
|''o''
|''a''
|''â''
|}
=== Syllabic Consonants ===
Toneless syllabic consonants are written with an overdot. On digraphs, the underdot is written only on the first letter (e.g. /ŋ̩ ʀ̩/ get written ⟨ṇg ṛr⟩). The toneless syllabic consonant /j̍/ is instead written ⟨ẏ⟩.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[w:click_consonant|Click]]
! rowspan="2" |Toneless Syllabic Consonant
![[w:nasal_click|Nasal]]
!Phoneme
|
!ɱ̩
|[[w:dental_nasal_click|ŋ͡ʇ]] '''dn'''
!n̩
|[[w:nasal_alveolar_click|ŋ͡ǃ¡]] '''qn'''
!ɲ̩
|
!ŋ̩
|[[w:nasal_palatal_click|ŋ͡ǂ]] '''qñ'''
!v̩
|
!ð̩
|
!z̩
!ʒ̍
!w̩
!l̩
!j̍
!w̩̃
!l̩̃
!j̩̃
!ɾ̩
!ʀ
|-
|-
![[w:tenuis_consonant|Tenuis]]
!Grapheme
|
|''ṃ''
|[[w:tenuis_dental_click|k͡ʇ]] '''d'''
|''ṇ''
|[[w:tenuis_alveolar_click|k͡ǃ¡]] '''ql'''
|''ṇy''
|
|''ṇg''
|[[w:tenuis_palatal_click|k͡ǂ]] '''q'''
|''ṿ''
|
|''ḍ''
|
|''ẓ''
|''ẓh''
|''ẉ''
|''ḷ''
|''ẏ''
|''ẉǹ''
|''ḷǹ''
|''ẏǹ''
|''ṛ''
|''ṛr''
|}
|}
=== Tones ===
High tone on vowels is marked with an acute accent on vowels without a diacritic. On vowels with a circumflex, the circumflex is replaced with a grave accent (e.g. /í ɪ́/ are ⟨í ì⟩).
Mid tone on vowels is marked with a breve on vowels without a diacritic. On vowels with a circumflex, the circumflex is replaced with a tilde (e.g. /ī ɪ̄/ are ⟨ĭ ĩ⟩).
Low tone is marked with an apostrophe before the nucleus.
Because word-initial high tone words are most common, Iskel romanizes them differently to avoid extensive diacritic use: a high tone on a multisyllabic word is not written if there is only one high tone and it's word initial. Multisyllabic words with no tones are written as if they have a word-initial high tone.
For polypthongs, tone (not including low tone because it has unusual romanization) is always written on the first vowel grapheme, so every vowel with a tone diacritic begins its syllable's nucleus. It is therefore unnecessary to use a diaerisis on such vowels.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
![[w:Front_vowel|Front]]
![[w:Near-Front_vowel|Near-Front]]
![[w:Near-Back_vowel|Near-Back]]
![[w:Back_vowel|Back]]
|-
|-
![[w:Close_vowel|Close]]
! rowspan="2" |High Tone Vowel
|[[w:IPA_i|i]] '''i'''
!Phoneme
|[[w:near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel|ɪ]] '''ie'''
!i˥
|[[w:near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel|ʊ]] '''uo'''
!ɪ˥
|[[w:IPA_u|u]] '''u'''
!ʊ˥
!u˥
!e˥
!ə˥
!ʌ˥
!o˥
!a˥
!ɑ˥
|-
!Grapheme
|''í''
|''ì''
|''ù''
|''ú''
|''é''
|''è''
|''ò''
|''ó''
|''á''
|''à''
|-
! rowspan="2" |Mid Tone Vowel
!Phoneme
!i˧
!ɪ˧
!ʊ˧
!u˧
!e˧
!ə˧
!ʌ˧
!o˧
!a˧
!ɑ˧
|-
!Grapheme
|''ĭ''
|''ĩ''
|''ũ''
|''ŭ''
|''ĕ''
|''ẽ''
|''õ''
|''ŏ''
|''ă''
|''ã''
|-
|-
![[w:Mid_vowel|Mid]]
! rowspan="2" |Low Tone Vowel
|[[w:IPA_e|e]] '''e'''
!Phoneme
|[[w:mid_central_vowel|ə]] '''eo'''
!i˩
|[[w:open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel|ʌ]] '''oe'''
!ɪ˩
|[[w:IPA_o|o]] '''o'''
!ʊ˩
!u˩
!e˩
!ə˩
!ʌ˩
!o˩
!a˩
!ɑ˩
|-
|-
![[w:Open_vowel|Open]]
!Grapheme
|[[w:IPA_a|a]] '''a'''
|''<nowiki/>'i''
|
|''<nowiki/>'î''
|
|''<nowiki/>'û''
|[[w:open_back_unrounded_vowel|ɑ]] '''ao'''
|''<nowiki/>'u''
|''<nowiki/>'e''
|''<nowiki/>'ê''
|''<nowiki/>'ô''
|''<nowiki/>'o''
|''<nowiki/>'a''
|''<nowiki/>'â''
|}
|}
High tone syllabic consonants /ɱ̩́ ń̩ ɲ̩́ ŋ̩́ ź̩ ʒ̩́ ẃ̩ ĺ̩ j̩́ w̩̃́ l̩̃́ j̩̃́ ɾ̩́ ʀ̩́/ have their underdots replaced with the acute accent ⟨ḿ ń ńy ńg ź źh ẃ ĺ ý ẃǹ ĺǹ ýǹ ŕ ŕr⟩. High tone /ð̩/ is written with ⟨ð⟩ instead of ⟨d́⟩, and high tone /v̩/ is written with a ⟨ŵ⟩.


Mid tone syllabic consonants are written similar to their toneless forms, but with overdots instead of underdots. The mid tone /v̩̄ j̩̄/, however, are written ⟨ẅ ÿ⟩.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" |High Tone Syllabic Consonant
!Phoneme
!ɱ̩˥
!n̩˥
!ɲ̩˥
!ŋ̩˥
!v̩˥
!ð̩˥
!z̩˥
!ʒ̍˥
!w̩˥
!l̩˥
!j̍˥
!w̩̃˥
!l̩̃˥
!j̩̃˥
!ɾ̩˥
!ʀ̩˥
|-
!Grapheme
|''ḿ''
|''ń''
|''ńy''
|''ńg''
|''ŵ''
|''ð''
|''ź''
|''źh''
|''ẃ''
|''ĺ''
|''ý''
|''ẃǹ''
|''ĺǹ''
|''ýǹ''
|''ŕ''
|''ŕr''
|-
! rowspan="2" |Mid Tone Syllabic Consonant
!Phoneme
!ɱ̩˧
!n̩˧
!ɲ̩˧
!ŋ̩˧
!v̩˧
!ð̩˧
!z̩˧
!ʒ̍˧
!w̩˧
!l̩˧
!j̍˧
!w̩̃˧
!l̩̃˧
!j̩̃˧
!ɾ̩˧
!ʀ̩˧
|-
!Grapheme
|''ṁ''
|''ṅ''
|''ṅy''
|''ṅg''
|''ẅ''
|''ḋ''
|''ż''
|''żh''
|''ẇ''
|''ŀ''
|''ÿ''
|''ẇǹ''
|''ŀǹ''
|''ÿǹ''
|''ṙ''
|''ṙr''
|-
! rowspan="2" |Low Tone Syllabic Consonant
!Phoneme
!ɱ̩˩
!n̩˩
!ɲ̩˩
!ŋ̩˩
!v̩˩
!ð̩˩
!z̩˩
!ʒ̍˩
!w̩˩
!l̩˩
!j̍˩
!w̩̃˩
!l̩̃˩
!j̩̃˩
!ɾ̩˩
!ʀ̩˩
|-
!Grapheme
|''<nowiki/>'ṃ''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇ''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇy''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇg''
|''<nowiki/>'ṿ''
|''<nowiki/>'ḍ''
|''<nowiki/>'ẓ''
|''<nowiki/>'ẓh''
|''<nowiki/>'ẉ''
|''<nowiki/>'ḷ''
|''<nowiki/>'ẏ''
|''<nowiki/>'ẉǹ''
|''<nowiki/>'ḷǹ''
|''<nowiki/>'ẏǹ''
|''<nowiki/>'ṛ''
|''<nowiki/>'ṛr''
|}
=== Gemination ===
=== Gemination ===
Long vowels are written with a macron over the first letter. Geminated single-letter consonants are written by doubling their letter. Geminated digraphic oral clicks and affricates are written by doubling their first letter, and the other geminated digraphic consonants are written by doubling their last letter.  
Geminated single-letter phonemes are written by doubling their letter. Geminated digraphs are written by doubling their first letter.
 
Geminated syllabic consonants are marked by doubling the letter with the syllabic or tone diacritic. The syllabic geminate consonant /ʀ̩ː/ is only written with two marked ⟨r⟩s instead of two marked ⟨r⟩s and an unmarked one.  
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="21" |Geminate Romanization
! colspan="22" |Geminate Romanization
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |Occlusive
! rowspan="6" |Consonant
! rowspan="3" |Occlusive
!Phoneme
!Phoneme
!ɱː
!ɱː
Line 162: Line 438:
!k͡ǂː
!k͡ǂː
|-
|-
!Grapheme
! rowspan="2" |Grapheme
|''mm''
|''mm''
|''nn''
|''nn''
|''ññ''
|''nny''
|''ngg''
|''nng''
|''pp''
|''pp''
|''tt''
|''tt''
|''chh''
|''cch''
|''kk''
|''kk''
|''cc''
|''qq''
|''bb''
|''bb''
|''ddz''
|''ddz''
|''jj''
|''jj''
|''gg''
|''gg''
|''dnn''
|''ccn''
|''qnn''
|''ccǹ''
|''qññ''
|''ccñ''
|''dd''
|''cct''
|''qql''
|''ccl''
|''ccy''
|-
|''mm''
|''nn''
|''ññ''
|''ŋŋ''
|''pp''
|''tt''
|''čč''
|''kk''
|''qq''
|''qq''
|''bb''
|''ẑẑ''
|''jj''
|''gg''
|''ccn''
|''ccǹ''
|''ccñ''
|''cct''
|''ccl''
|''ccy''
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |Continuant
! rowspan="3" |Continuant
!Phoneme
!Phoneme
!fː
!fː
Line 203: Line 499:
!j̃ː
!j̃ː
!ʀː
!ʀː
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="3" |
|-
|-
!Grapheme
! rowspan="2" |Grapheme
|''ff''
|''ff''
|''thh''
|''tth''
|''ss''
|''ss''
|''shh''
|''ssh''
|''hll''
|''llh''
|''xx''
|''xx''
|''hh''
|''hh''
|''vv''
|''vv''
|''dhh''
|''dd''
|''zz''
|''zz''
|''zhh''
|''zzh''
|''ww''
|''ww''
|''ll''
|''ll''
|''yy''
|''yy''
|''ww'''
|''wwǹ''
|''ll'''
|''llǹ''
|''yy'''
|''yyǹ''
|''rrr''
|''rrr''
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |Vowel
|''ff''
|''þþ''
|''ss''
|''šš''
|''çç''
|''xx''
|''hh''
|''vv''
|''dd''
|''zz''
|''žž''
|''ww''
|''ll''
|''yy''
|''ṽṽ''
|''łł''
|''ỹỹ''
|''řř''
|-
! rowspan="8" |Syllabic Consonant
! rowspan="2" |Toneless
!Phoneme
!ɱ̩ː
!n̩ː
!ɲ̩ː
!ŋ̩ː
!v̩ː
!ð̩ː
!z̩ː
!ʒ̍ː
!w̩ː
!l̩ː
!j̍ː
!w̩̃ː
!l̩̃ː
!j̩̃ː
!ʀ̩ː
! colspan="4" rowspan="8" |
|-
!Grapheme
|''ṃṃ''
|''ṇṇ''
|''ṇṇy''
|''ṇṇg''
|''ṿṿ''
|''ḍḍ''
|''ẓẓ''
|''ẓẓh''
|''ẉẉ''
|''ḷḷ''
|''ẏẏ''
|''ẉẉǹ''
|''ḷḷǹ''
|''ẏẏǹ''
|''ṛṛ''
|-
! rowspan="2" |High Tone
!Phoneme
!ɱ̩ː˥
!n̩ː˥
!ɲ̩ː˥
!ŋ̩ː˥
!v̩ː˥
!ð̩ː˥
!z̩ː˥
!ʒ̍ː˥
!w̩ː˥
!l̩ː˥
!j̍ː˥
!w̩̃ː˥
!l̩̃ː˥
!j̩̃ː˥
!ʀ̩ː˥
|-
!Grapheme
|''ḿḿ''
|''ńń''
|''ńńy''
|''ńńg''
|''ŵŵ''
|''ðð''
|''źź''
|''źźh''
|''ẃẃ''
|''ĺĺ''
|''ýý''
|''ẃẃǹ''
|''ĺĺǹ''
|''ýýǹ''
|''ŕŕ''
|-
! rowspan="2" |Mid Tone
!Phoneme
!ɱ̩ː˧
!n̩ː˧
!ɲ̩ː˧
!ŋ̩ː˧
!v̩ː˧
!ð̩ː˧
!z̩ː˧
!ʒ̍ː˧
!w̩ː˧
!l̩ː˧
!j̍ː˧
!w̩̃ː˧
!l̩̃ː˧
!j̩̃ː˧
!ʀ̩ː˧
|-
!Grapheme
|''ṁṁ''
|''ṅṅ''
|''ṅṅy''
|''ṅṅg''
|''ẅẅ''
|''ḋḋ''
|''żż''
|''żżh''
|''ẇẇ''
|''ŀŀ''
|''ÿÿ''
|''ẇẇǹ''
|''ŀŀǹ''
|''ÿÿǹ''
|''ṙṙ''
|-
! rowspan="2" |Low Tone
!Phoneme
!ɱ̩ː˩
!n̩ː˩
!ɲ̩ː˩
!ŋ̩ː˩
!v̩ː˩
!ð̩ː˩
!z̩ː˩
!ʒ̍ː˩
!w̩ː˩
!l̩ː˩
!j̍ː˩
!w̩̃ː˩
!l̩̃ː˩
!j̩̃ː˩
!ʀ̩ː˩
|-
!Grapheme
|''<nowiki/>'ṃṃ''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇṇ''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇṇy''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇṇg''
|''<nowiki/>'ṿṿ''
|''<nowiki/>'ḍḍ''
|''<nowiki/>'ẓẓ''
|''<nowiki/>'ẓẓh''
|''<nowiki/>'ẉẉ''
|''<nowiki/>'ḷḷ''
|''<nowiki/>'ẏẏ''
|''<nowiki/>'ẉẉǹ''
|''<nowiki/>'ḷḷǹ''
|''<nowiki/>'ẏẏǹ''
|''<nowiki/>'ṛṛ''
|-
! rowspan="8" |Vowel
! rowspan="2" |Toneless
!Phoneme
!Phoneme
!iː
!iː
Line 231: Line 689:
!ʊː
!ʊː
!uː
!uː
!e
!eː
!əː
!əː
!ʌː
!ʌː
Line 237: Line 695:
!aː
!aː
!ɑː
!ɑː
! colspan="9" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="9" rowspan="8" |
|-
|-
!Grapheme
!Grapheme
|''ī''
|''ii''
|''īe''
|''îî''
|''ūo''
|''ûû''
|''ū''
|''uu''
|''ē''
|''ee''
|''ēo''
|''êê''
|''ōe''
|''ôô''
|''ō''
|''oo''
|''ā''
|''aa''
|''āo''
|''ââ''
|}
 
=== Syllabic Consonants ===
Toneless syllabic consonants are written with an overdot. On digraphs, the underdot is written only on the first letter (e.g. /ŋ̩ ʀ̩/ get written ⟨ṇg ṛr⟩). For the syllabic palatal nasal, the ⟨ñ⟩ is replaced with ⟨ny⟩, upon which the underdot can be placed ⟨ṇy⟩. Syllabic /ð̩/ is written with ⟨d⟩ instead of ⟨dh⟩, and so receives the underdot as ⟨ḍ⟩. Geminated syllabic consonants are only marked for syllabicity/tone on the final letter. The toneless syllabic consonant /j̍/ is instead written ⟨ÿ⟩.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |
!Labial
!Dental
!Alveolar
!Palatal
!Dorsal
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
! rowspan="2" |High Tone
|ɱ̩ '''ṃ'''
!Phoneme
|
!iː˥
|n̩ '''ṇ'''
!ɪː˥
|ɲ̩ '''ṇy'''
!ʊː˥
|ŋ̩ '''ṇg'''
!uː˥
!eː˥
!əː˥
!ʌː˥
!oː˥
!aː˥
!ɑː˥
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |Fricative
!Grapheme
|v̩ '''ṿ'''
|''íí''
|ð̩ '''ḍ'''
|''ìì''
|z̩ '''ẓ'''
|''ùù''
|ʒ̍ '''ẓh'''
|''úú''
|
|''éé''
|''èè''
|''òò''
|''óó''
|''áá''
|''àà''
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |Approximant
! rowspan="2" |Mid Tone
!Oral
!Phoneme
|w̩ '''ẉ'''
!iː˧
|
!ɪː˧
|l̩ '''ḷ'''
!ʊː˧
|j̍ '''ÿ'''
!uː˧
|
!eː˧
!əː˧
!ʌː˧
!oː˧
!aː˧
!ɑː˧
|-
|-
!Nasal
!Grapheme
|w̩̃ '''ňẉ'''
|''ĭĭ''
|
|''ĩĩ''
|l̩̃ '''ňḷ'''
|''ũũ''
|j̩̃ '''ňÿ'''
|''ŭŭ''
|
|''ĕĕ''
|''ẽẽ''
|''õõ''
|''ŏŏ''
|''ăă''
|''ãã''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |Vibrant
! rowspan="2" |Low Tone
|
!Phoneme
|
!iː˩
|ɾ̩ '''ṛ'''
!ɪː˩
|
!ʊː˩
|ʀ̩ '''ṛr'''
!uː˩
|}
!eː˩
 
!əː˩
=== Tones ===
!ʌː˩
High tone is marked with an acute accent on vowels without a diacritic. On vowels with a macron (denoting length), the macron is replaced with a circumflex (e.g. /í íː/ are ⟨í î⟩). High tone syllabic consonants /ɱ̩́ ń̩ ɲ̩́ ŋ̩́ ź̩ ʒ̩́ ẃ̩ ĺ̩ j̩́ ɾ̩́ ʀ̩́/ have their underdots replaced with the acute accent ⟨ḿ ń ńy ńg ź źh ẃ ĺ ý ŕ ŕr⟩. High tone /ð̩/ is written with ⟨ð⟩ instead of ⟨d́⟩, and high tone /v̩/ is written with a ⟨ŵ⟩.
!oː˩
 
!aː˩
Because word-initial high tone words are most common, Iskel romanizes them differently to avoid extensive diacritic use: a high tone on a multisyllabic word is not written if there is only one high tone and it's word initial. Multisyllabic words with no tones are written as if they have a word-initial high tone.
!ɑː˩
 
Mid tone is marked with a grave accent on vowels without a diacritic. On vowels with a macron (denoting length), the macron is replaced with a caron (e.g. /ī īː/ are ⟨ì ǐ⟩). Mid tone syllabic consonants are written similar to their toneless forms, but with overdots instead of underdots. The mid tone /v̩̄/, however, is written ⟨ẅ⟩.
 
Low tone is marked with an apostrophe before the nucleus.
 
For polypthongs, tone (not including low tone because it has unusual romanization) and length are always written on the first vowel grapheme, so every vowel with a tone or length diacritic begins its syllable's nucleus. It is therefore unnecessary to use a diaerisis on such vowels.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Labial
! colspan="3" |Dental
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
! colspan="3" |Palatal
! colspan="3" |Dorsal
|-
|-
!High
!Grapheme
!Mid
|''<nowiki/>'ii''
!Low
|''<nowiki/>'îî''
!High
|''<nowiki/>'ûû''
!Mid
|''<nowiki/>'uu''
!Low
|''<nowiki/>'ee''
!High
|''<nowiki/>'êê''
!Mid
|''<nowiki/>'ôô''
!Low
|''<nowiki/>'oo''
!High
|''<nowiki/>'aa''
!Mid
|''<nowiki/>'ââ''
!Low
!High
!Mid
!Low
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|ɱ̩˥ '''ḿ'''
|ɱ̩˧ '''ṁ'''
|ɱ̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ṃ'''
|
|
|
|n̩˥ '''ń'''
|n̩˧ '''ṅ'''
|n̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ṇ'''
|ɲ̩˥ '''ńy'''
|ɲ̩˧ '''ṅy'''
|ɲ̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ṇy'''
|ŋ̩˥ '''ńg'''
|ŋ̩˧ '''ṅg'''
|ŋ̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ṇg'''
|-
! colspan="2" |Fricative
|v̩˥ '''ŵ'''
|v̩˧ '''ẅ'''
|v̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ṿ'''
|ð̩́˥ '''ð'''
|ð̩˧ '''ḋ'''
|ð̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ḍ'''
|z̩˥ '''ź'''
|z̩˧ '''ż'''
|z̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ẓ'''
|ʒ̍˥ '''źh'''
|ʒ̍˧ '''żh'''
|ʒ̍˩ '''<nowiki/>'ẓh'''
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |Approximant
!Oral
|w̩˥ '''ẃ'''
|w̩˧ '''ẇ'''
|w̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ẉ'''
|
|
|
|l̩˥ '''ĺ'''
|l̩˧ '''ŀ'''
|l̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ḷ'''
|j̍˥ '''ý'''
|j̍˧ '''ẏ'''
|j̍˩ '''<nowiki/>'ÿ'''
|
|
|
|-
!Nasal
|w̩̃˥ '''ňẃ'''
|w̩̃˧ '''ňẇ'''
|w̩̃˩ '''<nowiki/>'ẉ'''
|
|
|
|l̩̃˥ '''ňĺ'''
|l̩̃˧ '''ňŀ'''
|l̩̃˩ '''<nowiki/>'ňḷ'''
|j̩̃˥ '''ňý'''
|j̩̃˧ '''ňẏ'''
|j̩̃˩ '''<nowiki/>'ňÿ'''
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Vibrant
|
|
|
|
|
|
|ɾ̩˥ '''ŕ'''
|ɾ̩˧ '''ṙ'''
|ɾ̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ṛ'''
|
|
|
|ʀ̩˥ '''ŕr'''
|ʀ̩˧ '''ṙr'''
|ʀ̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ṛr'''
|}
|}
=== Multigraph Disambiguation ===
=== Disambiguation ===
Many consonant phonemes are expressed with multigraphs that have an equivalent cluster. They are differenciated orthographically with apostrophes placed between consonant graphemes in a cluster.
Many consonant phonemes are expressed with multigraphs that have an equivalent cluster. They are differenciated orthographically with apostrophes placed between consonant graphemes in a cluster.  


Polyphthongs are mostly written by simply juxtaposing vowel letters together, but in cases with vowels that use digraphs, an overdot is placed on the non-first grapheme(s) of a diphthong to distinguish them (e.g. /ɪ i͡e/ are ⟨ie iė⟩, and /a͡ʌ ɑ͡e a͡o͡e/ are ⟨aȯe aoė aȯė⟩). Since all two- or three-vowel clusters contrast with a polypthong, a diaerisis is placed on the non-first grapheme(s) of such clusters to distinguish them (e.g.  /ɪ i.e/ are ⟨ie ië⟩, and /a.ʌ ɑ.e a.o.e/ are ⟨aöe aoë aöë⟩).
Polyphthongs are written by simply juxtaposing vowel letters together. Since all two- or three-vowel clusters contrast with a polypthong, a diaerisis is placed on the non-first grapheme(s) of such clusters to distinguish them.
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
! colspan="15" |Multigraph Disambiguation (Short Phonemes)
! colspan="15" |Multigraph Disambiguation
|-
|-
! colspan="6" |Consonants
! colspan="6" |Consonants (All)
! colspan="3" |Syllabic Consonants
! colspan="3" |Syllabic Consonants (All)
! colspan="6" |Vowels
! colspan="6" |Vowels (Examples)
|-
|-
! colspan="3" |Digraph
! colspan="3" |Digraph
! colspan="3" |Trigraph
! colspan="3" |Trigraph
! colspan="3" |Digraph
! colspan="3" |Digraph
! colspan="3" |Short Digraph
! colspan="3" |Short Vowel Multigraph
! colspan="3" |Long Digraph
! colspan="3" |Long Vowel Multigraph
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |Grapheme
! colspan="2" |Grapheme
Line 458: Line 823:
!Distinction
!Distinction
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |ch
! rowspan="2" |dz
|''ch''
|''dz''
|/t͡ʃ/
|/d͡z/
! rowspan="3" |chh
! rowspan="3" |ddz
|''chh''
|''ddz''
|/t͡ʃː/
|/d͡zː/
! rowspan="2" |ṇy
! rowspan="2" |ṇy
|''ṇy''
|''ṇy''
|/ɲ̩/
|/ɲ̩/
! rowspan="3" |ie
! rowspan="2" |ie
|''ie''
|ie
|/ɪ/
|/i͡e/
! rowspan="2" |īe
! rowspan="4" |iea
|''īe''
|iea
|/ɪː/
|/i͡e͡a/
|-
|-
|''c'h''
|''d'z''
|/ʔh/
|/ðz/
|''ch'h''
|''d'dz''
|/t͡ʃh/
|/ðd͡z/
|''ṇ'y''
|''ṇ'y''
|/n̩j/
|/n̩j/
|''iė''
|iē
|/ie̯/
|/i.e/
|''īë''
|iēa
|/iː.e/
|/i.e͡a/
|-
|-
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" |
|''c'hh''
|''dd'z''
|/ʔhː/
|/ðːz/
! rowspan="2" |ńy
! rowspan="2" |ńy
|''ńy''
|''ńy''
|/ɲ̩˥/
|/ɲ̩˥/
|''ië''
| colspan="3" rowspan="2" |
|/i.e/
|ieā
| colspan="3" |
|/i͡e.a/
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |dh
! rowspan="2" |lh
|''dh''
|lh
|/ð/
|/ʎ̝̊/
! rowspan="3" |dhh
! rowspan="3" |llh
|''dhh''
|''llh''
|/ðː/
|/ʎ̝̊ː/
|''ń'y''
|''ń'y''
|/n̩˥j/
|/n̩˥j/
! rowspan="3" |uo
|iēā
|''uo''
|/i.e.a/
|/ʊ/
! rowspan="2" |ūo
|''ūo''
|/ʊː/
|-
|-
|''d'h''
|''l'h''
|/k͡ʇh/
|/lh/
|''dh'h''
|''l'lh''
|/ðh/
|/lʎ̝̊/
! rowspan="2" |ṅy
! rowspan="2" |ṅy
|''ṅy''
|''ṅy''
|/ɲ̩˧/
|/ɲ̩˧/
|''uȯ''
! rowspan="2" |ui
|/uo̯/
|ui
|''ūö''
|/u͡i/
|/uː.o/
! rowspan="4" |uio
|uio
|/u͡i͡o/
|-
|-
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" |
|''d'hh''
|''ll'h''
|/k͡ʇhː/
|/lːh/
|''ṅ'y''
|''ṅ'y''
|/n̩˧j/
|/n̩˧j/
|''uö''
|uī
|/u.o/
|/u.i/
| colspan="3" |
|uīo
|/u.i͡o/
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |dn
! rowspan="2" |ng
|''dn''
|''ng''
|/ŋ͡ʇ/
|/ŋ/
! rowspan="3" |dnn
! rowspan="3" |nng
|''dnn''
|''nng''
|/ŋ͡ʇː/
|/ŋː/
! rowspan="2" |'ṇy'''<nowiki/>'''
! rowspan="2" |'ṇy'''<nowiki/>'''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇy'''''<nowiki/>'''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇy'''''<nowiki/>'''
|/ɲ̩˩'''<nowiki/>'''/
|/ɲ̩˩'''<nowiki/>'''/
! rowspan="3" |eo
| colspan="3" rowspan="2" |
|''eo''
|uiō
|/ə/
|/u͡i.o/
! rowspan="2" |ēo
|''ēo''
|/əː/
|-
|-
|''d'n''
|''n'g''
|/k͡ʇn/
|/nɡ/
|''dn'n''
|''n'ng''
|/ŋ͡ʇh/
|/nŋ/
|''<nowiki/>'ṇ'y'''''<nowiki/>'''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇ'y'''''<nowiki/>'''
|/n̩˩'''<nowiki/>'''j/
|/n̩˩'''<nowiki/>'''j/
|''eȯ''
|uīō
|/eo̯/
|/u.i.o/
|''ēö''
|/eː.o/
|-
|-
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" |
|''d'nn''
|''nn'g''
|/k͡ʇnː/
|/nːɡ/
! rowspan="2" |ṇg
! rowspan="2" |ṇg
|''ṇg''
|''ṇg''
|/ŋ̩/
|/ŋ̩/
|''eö''
! rowspan="2" |oa
|/e.o/
|oa
| colspan="3" |
|/o͡a/
! rowspan="4" |oae
|oae
|/o͡a͡e/
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |dz
! rowspan="2" |ny
|''dz''
|''ny''
|/d͡z/
|/ɲ/
! rowspan="3" |ddz
! rowspan="3" |nny
|''ddz''
|''nny''
|/d͡zː/
|/ɲː/
|''ṇ'g''
|''ṇ'g''
|/n̩ɡ/
|/n̩ɡ/
! rowspan="3" |oe
|oā
|''oe''
|/o.a/
|/ʌ/
|oāe
! rowspan="2" |ōe
|/o.a͡e/
|''ōe''
|/ʌː/
|-
|-
|''d'z''
|''n'y''
|/k͡ʇz/
|/nj/
|''d'dz''
|''n'ny''
|/k͡ʇd͡z/
|/nɲ/
! rowspan="2" |ńg
! rowspan="2" |ńg
|''ńg''
|''ńg''
|/ŋ̩˥/
|/ŋ̩˥/
|''oė''
| colspan="3" rowspan="2" |
|/oe̯/
|oaē
|''ōë''
|/o͡a.e/
|/oː.e/
|-
|-
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" rowspan="4" |
|''dd'z''
|''nn'y''
|/k͡ʇːz/
|/nːj/
|''ń'g''
|''ń'g''
|/n̩˥ɡ/
|/n̩˥ɡ/
|''oë''
|oāē
|/o.e/
|/o.a.e/
| colspan="3" |
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |hl
! rowspan="3" |rrr
|''hl''
|''rrr''
|/ʎ̝̊/
|/ʀː/
! rowspan="3" |hll
|''hll''
|/ʎ̝̊ː/
! rowspan="2" |ṅg
! rowspan="2" |ṅg
|''ṅg''
|''ṅg''
|/ŋ̩˧/
|/ŋ̩˧/
! rowspan="3" |ao
! rowspan="2" |iê
|''ao''
|iê
|/ɑ/
|/i͡ə/
! rowspan="2" |āo
! rowspan="4" |iêa
|''āo''
|iêa
|/ɑː/
|/i͡ə͡a/
|-
|-
|''h'l''
|''rr'r''
|/hl/
|/ʀɾ/
|''hl'l''
|/ʎ̝̊l/
|''ṅ'g''
|''ṅ'g''
|/n̩˧ɡ/
|/n̩˧ɡ/
|''aȯ''
|ië
|/ao̯/
|/i.ə/
|''āö''
|iëa
|/aː.o/
|/i.ə͡a/
|-
|-
| colspan="3" |
|''r'rr''
|''h'll''
|/ɾʀ/
|/hlː/
! rowspan="2" |'ṇg'''<nowiki/>'''
! rowspan="2" |'ṇg'''<nowiki/>'''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇg'''''<nowiki/>'''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇg'''''<nowiki/>'''
|/ŋ̩˩'''<nowiki/>'''/
|/ŋ̩˩'''<nowiki/>'''/
|''aö''
| colspan="3" rowspan="2" |
|/a.o/
|iêā
| colspan="3" |
|/i͡ə.a/
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |ng
! rowspan="2" |sh
|''ng''
|''sh''
|/ŋ/
|/ʃ/
! rowspan="3" |ngg
! rowspan="3" |ssh
|''ng''
|''ssh''
|/ŋː/
|/ʃː/
|''<nowiki/>'ṇ'g'''''<nowiki/>'''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇ'g'''''<nowiki/>'''
|/n̩ɡ/
|/n̩ɡ/
! colspan="6" rowspan="24" |
|iëā
|/i.ə.a/
|-
|-
|''n'g''
|''s'h''
|/nɡ/
|/sh/
|''ng'g''
|''s'sh''
|/ŋɡ/
|/sʃ/
! rowspan="2" |ẓh
! rowspan="2" |ẓh
|''ẓh''
|''ẓh''
|/ʒ̍/
|/ʒ̍/
! rowspan="2" |ûi
|ûi
|/ʊ͡i/
! rowspan="4" |ûiô
|ûiô
|/ʊ͡i͡ʌ/
|-
|-
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" |
|''n'gg''
|''ss'h''
|/nɡː/
|/sːh/
|''ẓ'h''
|''ẓ'h''
|/z̩h/
|/z̩h/
|ûī
|/ʊ.i/
|ûīô
|/ʊ.i͡ʌ/
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |ql
! rowspan="2" |th
|''ql''
|''th''
|/k͡ǃ¡/
|/θ/
! rowspan="3" |qql
! rowspan="3" |tth
|''ql''
|''tth''
|/k͡ǃ¡ː/
|/θː/
! rowspan="2" |źh
! rowspan="2" |źh
|''źh''
|''źh''
|/ʒ̍˥/
|/ʒ̍˥/
| colspan="3" rowspan="2" |
|ûiö
|/ʊ͡i.ʌ/
|-
|-
|''q'l''
|''t'h''
|/k͡ǂl/
|/th/
|''q'ql''
|''t'th''
|/k͡ǂk͡ǃ¡/
|/tθ/
|''ź'h''
|''ź'h''
|/z̩˥h/
|/z̩˥h/
|ûīö
|/ʊ.i.ʌ/
|-
|-
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" |
|''qq'l''
|''tt'h''
|/k͡ǂːl/
|/tːh/
! rowspan="2" |żh
! rowspan="2" |żh
|''żh''
|''żh''
|/ʒ̍˧/
|/ʒ̍˧/
! rowspan="2" |ôâ
|ôâ
|/ʌ͡ɑ/
! rowspan="4" |ôâê
|ôâê
|/ʌ͡ɑ͡ə/
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |qn
! rowspan="2" |zh
|''qn''
|''zh''
|/ŋ͡ǃ¡/
|/ʒ/
! rowspan="3" |qnn
! rowspan="3" |zzh
|''qnn''
|''zzh''
|/ŋ͡ǃ¡ː/
|/ʒː/
|''ż'h''
|''ż'h''
|/z̩˧h/
|/z̩˧h/
|ôä
|/ʌ.ɑ/
|ôäê
|/ʌ.ɑ͡ə/
|-
|-
|''q'n''
|''z'h''
|/k͡ǂn/
|/zh/
|''qn'n''
|''z'zh''
|/ŋ͡ǃ¡n/
|/zʒ/
! rowspan="2" |'ẓh'''<nowiki/>'''
! rowspan="2" |'ẓh'''<nowiki/>'''
|''<nowiki/>'ẓh'''''<nowiki/>'''
|''<nowiki/>'ẓh'''''<nowiki/>'''
|/ʒ̍˩'''<nowiki/>'''/
|/ʒ̍˩'''<nowiki/>'''/
| colspan="3" rowspan="2" |
|ôâë
|/ʌ͡ɑ.ə/
|-
|-
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" |
|''q'nn''
|''zz'h''
|/k͡ǂnː/
|/zːh/
|''<nowiki/>'ẓ'h'''''<nowiki/>'''
|''<nowiki/>'ẓ'h'''''<nowiki/>'''
|/z̩˩h/
|/z̩˩h/
|-
|ôäë
! rowspan="2" |qñ
|/ʌ.ɑ.ə/
|''qñ''
|/ŋ͡ǂ/
! rowspan="3" |qññ
|''qññ''
|/ŋ͡ǂː/
! rowspan="2" |ṛr
|''ṛr''
|/ʀ̩/
|-
|''q'ñ''
|/k͡ǂɲ/
|''qñ'ñ''
|/ŋ͡ǂɲ/
|''ṛ'r''
|/ɾ̩ɾ/
|-
| colspan="3" rowspan="4" |
|''q'ññ''
|/k͡ǂɲː/
! rowspan="2" |ŕr
|''ŕr''
|/ʀ̩˥/
|-
! rowspan="3" |rrr
|''rrr''
|/ʀː/
|''ŕ'r''
|/ɾ̩˥ɾ/
|-
|''rr'r''
|/ʀɾ/
! rowspan="2" |ṙr
|''ṙr''
|/ʀ̩˧/
|-
|''r'rr''
|/ɾʀ/
|''ṙ'r''
|/ɾ̩˧ɾ/
|-
! rowspan="2" |sh
|''sh''
|/ʃ/
! rowspan="3" |shh
|''shh''
|/ʃː/
! rowspan="2" |'ṛr'''<nowiki/>'''
|''<nowiki/>'ṛr'''''<nowiki/>'''
|/ʀ̩˩'''<nowiki/>'''/
|-
|''s'h''
|/sh/
|''sh'h''
|/ʃh/
|''<nowiki/>'ṛ'r'''''<nowiki/>'''
|/ɾ̩˩ɾ/
|-
| colspan="3" |
|''s'hh''
|/shː/
! colspan="3" rowspan="7" |
|-
! rowspan="2" |th
|''th''
|/θ/
! rowspan="3" |thh
|''thh''
|/θː/
|-
|''t'h''
|/th/
|''th'h''
|/θh/
|-
| colspan="3" |
|''t'hh''
|/thː/
|-
! rowspan="2" |zh
|''zh''
|/ʒ/
! rowspan="3" |zhh
|''zhh''
|/ʒː/
|-
|''z'h''
|/zh/
|''zh'h''
|/ʒh/
|-
| colspan="3" |
|''z'hh''
|/zhː/
|}
|}

Latest revision as of 02:55, 13 April 2026

Lanikel is a dialect of Iskel which is primarily distinct from the others in its phonology. Therefore, its orthography differs from other dialects for both romanization and native script.

Romanization

Consonants

Some consonants can be written with either digraphs or a non-ASCII monograph. Syllabic consonants are always written as digraphs, however.

Occlusive Consonant Phoneme ɱ n ɲ ŋ p t t͡ʃ k ʔ b d͡z d͡ʒ ɡ ŋ͡ʇ ŋ͡ǃ¡ ŋ͡ǂ k͡ʇ k͡ǃ¡ k͡ǂ
Grapheme m n ny ng p t ch k q b dz j g cn cǹ cñ ct cl cy
m n ñ ŋ p t č k q b ẑ j g cn cǹ cñ ct cl cy
Continuant Consonant Phoneme f θ s ʃ ʎ̝̊ x h v ð z ʒ w l j w̃ l̃ j̃ ɾ ʀ
Grapheme f th s sh lh x h v d z zh w l y wǹ lǹ yǹ r rr
f þ s š ç x h v d z ž w l y ṽ ł ỹ r ř

Vowels

Vowels with the circumflex diacritics change diacritics based on suprasegmentals, specified later in this article.

Toneless Vowel Phoneme i ɪ ʊ u e ə ʌ o a ɑ
Grapheme i î û u e ê ô o a â

Syllabic Consonants

Toneless syllabic consonants are written with an overdot. On digraphs, the underdot is written only on the first letter (e.g. /ŋ̩ ʀ̩/ get written ⟨ṇg ṛr⟩). The toneless syllabic consonant /j̍/ is instead written ⟨ẏ⟩.

Toneless Syllabic Consonant Phoneme ɱ̩ n̩ ɲ̩ ŋ̩ v̩ ð̩ z̩ ʒ̍ w̩ l̩ j̍ w̩̃ l̩̃ j̩̃ ɾ̩ ʀ
Grapheme ṃ ṇ ṇy ṇg ṿ ḍ ẓ ẓh ẉ ḷ ẏ ẉǹ ḷǹ ẏǹ ṛ ṛr

Tones

High tone on vowels is marked with an acute accent on vowels without a diacritic. On vowels with a circumflex, the circumflex is replaced with a grave accent (e.g. /í ɪ́/ are ⟨í ì⟩).

Mid tone on vowels is marked with a breve on vowels without a diacritic. On vowels with a circumflex, the circumflex is replaced with a tilde (e.g. /ī ɪ̄/ are ⟨ĭ ĩ⟩).

Low tone is marked with an apostrophe before the nucleus.

Because word-initial high tone words are most common, Iskel romanizes them differently to avoid extensive diacritic use: a high tone on a multisyllabic word is not written if there is only one high tone and it's word initial. Multisyllabic words with no tones are written as if they have a word-initial high tone.

For polypthongs, tone (not including low tone because it has unusual romanization) is always written on the first vowel grapheme, so every vowel with a tone diacritic begins its syllable's nucleus. It is therefore unnecessary to use a diaerisis on such vowels.

High Tone Vowel Phoneme i˥ ɪ˥ ʊ˥ u˥ e˥ ə˥ ʌ˥ o˥ a˥ ɑ˥
Grapheme í ì ù ú é è ò ó á à
Mid Tone Vowel Phoneme i˧ ɪ˧ ʊ˧ u˧ e˧ ə˧ ʌ˧ o˧ a˧ ɑ˧
Grapheme ĭ ĩ ũ ŭ ĕ ẽ õ ŏ ă ã
Low Tone Vowel Phoneme i˩ ɪ˩ ʊ˩ u˩ e˩ ə˩ ʌ˩ o˩ a˩ ɑ˩
Grapheme 'i 'î 'û 'u 'e 'ê 'ô 'o 'a 'â

High tone syllabic consonants /ɱ̩́ ń̩ ɲ̩́ ŋ̩́ ź̩ ʒ̩́ ẃ̩ ĺ̩ j̩́ w̩̃́ l̩̃́ j̩̃́ ɾ̩́ ʀ̩́/ have their underdots replaced with the acute accent ⟨ḿ ń ńy ńg ź źh ẃ ĺ ý ẃǹ ĺǹ ýǹ ŕ ŕr⟩. High tone /ð̩/ is written with ⟨ð⟩ instead of ⟨d́⟩, and high tone /v̩/ is written with a ⟨ŵ⟩.

Mid tone syllabic consonants are written similar to their toneless forms, but with overdots instead of underdots. The mid tone /v̩̄ j̩̄/, however, are written ⟨ẅ ÿ⟩.

High Tone Syllabic Consonant Phoneme ɱ̩˥ n̩˥ ɲ̩˥ ŋ̩˥ v̩˥ ð̩˥ z̩˥ ʒ̍˥ w̩˥ l̩˥ j̍˥ w̩̃˥ l̩̃˥ j̩̃˥ ɾ̩˥ ʀ̩˥
Grapheme ḿ ń ńy ńg ŵ ð ź źh ẃ ĺ ý ẃǹ ĺǹ ýǹ ŕ ŕr
Mid Tone Syllabic Consonant Phoneme ɱ̩˧ n̩˧ ɲ̩˧ ŋ̩˧ v̩˧ ð̩˧ z̩˧ ʒ̍˧ w̩˧ l̩˧ j̍˧ w̩̃˧ l̩̃˧ j̩̃˧ ɾ̩˧ ʀ̩˧
Grapheme ṁ ṅ ṅy ṅg ẅ ḋ ż żh ẇ ŀ ÿ ẇǹ ŀǹ ÿǹ ṙ ṙr
Low Tone Syllabic Consonant Phoneme ɱ̩˩ n̩˩ ɲ̩˩ ŋ̩˩ v̩˩ ð̩˩ z̩˩ ʒ̍˩ w̩˩ l̩˩ j̍˩ w̩̃˩ l̩̃˩ j̩̃˩ ɾ̩˩ ʀ̩˩
Grapheme 'ṃ 'ṇ 'ṇy 'ṇg 'ṿ 'ḍ 'ẓ 'ẓh 'ẉ 'ḷ 'ẏ 'ẉǹ 'ḷǹ 'ẏǹ 'ṛ 'ṛr

Gemination

Geminated single-letter phonemes are written by doubling their letter. Geminated digraphs are written by doubling their first letter.

Geminated syllabic consonants are marked by doubling the letter with the syllabic or tone diacritic. The syllabic geminate consonant /ʀ̩ː/ is only written with two marked ⟨r⟩s instead of two marked ⟨r⟩s and an unmarked one.

Geminate Romanization
Consonant Occlusive Phoneme ɱː nː ɲː ŋː pː tː t͡ʃː kː ʔː bː d͡zː d͡ʒː ɡː ŋ͡ʇː ŋ͡ǃ¡ː ŋ͡ǂː k͡ʇː k͡ǃ¡ː k͡ǂː
Grapheme mm nn nny nng pp tt cch kk qq bb ddz jj gg ccn ccǹ ccñ cct ccl ccy
mm nn ññ ŋŋ pp tt čč kk qq bb ẑẑ jj gg ccn ccǹ ccñ cct ccl ccy
Continuant Phoneme fː θː sː ʃː ʎ̝̊ː xː hː vː ðː zː ʒː wː lː jː w̃ː l̃ː j̃ː ʀː
Grapheme ff tth ss ssh llh xx hh vv dd zz zzh ww ll yy wwǹ llǹ yyǹ rrr
ff þþ ss šš çç xx hh vv dd zz žž ww ll yy ṽṽ łł ỹỹ řř
Syllabic Consonant Toneless Phoneme ɱ̩ː n̩ː ɲ̩ː ŋ̩ː v̩ː ð̩ː z̩ː ʒ̍ː w̩ː l̩ː j̍ː w̩̃ː l̩̃ː j̩̃ː ʀ̩ː
Grapheme ṃṃ ṇṇ ṇṇy ṇṇg ṿṿ ḍḍ ẓẓ ẓẓh ẉẉ ḷḷ ẏẏ ẉẉǹ ḷḷǹ ẏẏǹ ṛṛ
High Tone Phoneme ɱ̩ː˥ n̩ː˥ ɲ̩ː˥ ŋ̩ː˥ v̩ː˥ ð̩ː˥ z̩ː˥ ʒ̍ː˥ w̩ː˥ l̩ː˥ j̍ː˥ w̩̃ː˥ l̩̃ː˥ j̩̃ː˥ ʀ̩ː˥
Grapheme ḿḿ ńń ńńy ńńg ŵŵ ðð źź źźh ẃẃ ĺĺ ýý ẃẃǹ ĺĺǹ ýýǹ ŕŕ
Mid Tone Phoneme ɱ̩ː˧ n̩ː˧ ɲ̩ː˧ ŋ̩ː˧ v̩ː˧ ð̩ː˧ z̩ː˧ ʒ̍ː˧ w̩ː˧ l̩ː˧ j̍ː˧ w̩̃ː˧ l̩̃ː˧ j̩̃ː˧ ʀ̩ː˧
Grapheme ṁṁ ṅṅ ṅṅy ṅṅg ẅẅ ḋḋ żż żżh ẇẇ ŀŀ ÿÿ ẇẇǹ ŀŀǹ ÿÿǹ ṙṙ
Low Tone Phoneme ɱ̩ː˩ n̩ː˩ ɲ̩ː˩ ŋ̩ː˩ v̩ː˩ ð̩ː˩ z̩ː˩ ʒ̍ː˩ w̩ː˩ l̩ː˩ j̍ː˩ w̩̃ː˩ l̩̃ː˩ j̩̃ː˩ ʀ̩ː˩
Grapheme 'ṃṃ 'ṇṇ 'ṇṇy 'ṇṇg 'ṿṿ 'ḍḍ 'ẓẓ 'ẓẓh 'ẉẉ 'ḷḷ 'ẏẏ 'ẉẉǹ 'ḷḷǹ 'ẏẏǹ 'ṛṛ
Vowel Toneless Phoneme iː ɪː ʊː uː eː əː ʌː oː aː ɑː
Grapheme ii îî ûû uu ee êê ôô oo aa ââ
High Tone Phoneme iː˥ ɪː˥ ʊː˥ uː˥ eː˥ əː˥ ʌː˥ oː˥ aː˥ ɑː˥
Grapheme íí ìì ùù úú éé èè òò óó áá àà
Mid Tone Phoneme iː˧ ɪː˧ ʊː˧ uː˧ eː˧ əː˧ ʌː˧ oː˧ aː˧ ɑː˧
Grapheme ĭĭ ĩĩ ũũ ŭŭ ĕĕ ẽẽ õõ ŏŏ ăă ãã
Low Tone Phoneme iː˩ ɪː˩ ʊː˩ uː˩ eː˩ əː˩ ʌː˩ oː˩ aː˩ ɑː˩
Grapheme 'ii 'îî 'ûû 'uu 'ee 'êê 'ôô 'oo 'aa 'ââ

Disambiguation

Many consonant phonemes are expressed with multigraphs that have an equivalent cluster. They are differenciated orthographically with apostrophes placed between consonant graphemes in a cluster.

Polyphthongs are written by simply juxtaposing vowel letters together. Since all two- or three-vowel clusters contrast with a polypthong, a diaerisis is placed on the non-first grapheme(s) of such clusters to distinguish them.

Multigraph Disambiguation
Consonants (All) Syllabic Consonants (All) Vowels (Examples)
Digraph Trigraph Digraph Short Vowel Multigraph Long Vowel Multigraph
Grapheme Phonemes Grapheme Phonemes Grapheme Phonemes Grapheme Phonemes Grapheme Phonemes
Base Distinction Base Distinction Base Distinction Base Distinction Base Distinction
dz dz /d͡z/ ddz ddz /d͡zː/ ṇy ṇy /ɲ̩/ ie ie /i͡e/ iea iea /i͡e͡a/
d'z /ðz/ d'dz /ðd͡z/ ṇ'y /n̩j/ iē /i.e/ iēa /i.e͡a/
dd'z /ðːz/ ńy ńy /ɲ̩˥/ ieā /i͡e.a/
lh lh /ʎ̝̊/ llh llh /ʎ̝̊ː/ ń'y /n̩˥j/ iēā /i.e.a/
l'h /lh/ l'lh /lʎ̝̊/ ṅy ṅy /ɲ̩˧/ ui ui /u͡i/ uio uio /u͡i͡o/
ll'h /lːh/ ṅ'y /n̩˧j/ uī /u.i/ uīo /u.i͡o/
ng ng /ŋ/ nng nng /ŋː/ 'ṇy 'ṇy /ɲ̩˩/ uiō /u͡i.o/
n'g /nɡ/ n'ng /nŋ/ 'ṇ'y /n̩˩j/ uīō /u.i.o/
nn'g /nːɡ/ ṇg ṇg /ŋ̩/ oa oa /o͡a/ oae oae /o͡a͡e/
ny ny /ɲ/ nny nny /ɲː/ ṇ'g /n̩ɡ/ oā /o.a/ oāe /o.a͡e/
n'y /nj/ n'ny /nɲ/ ńg ńg /ŋ̩˥/ oaē /o͡a.e/
nn'y /nːj/ ń'g /n̩˥ɡ/ oāē /o.a.e/
rrr rrr /ʀː/ ṅg ṅg /ŋ̩˧/ iê iê /i͡ə/ iêa iêa /i͡ə͡a/
rr'r /ʀɾ/ ṅ'g /n̩˧ɡ/ ië /i.ə/ iëa /i.ə͡a/
r'rr /ɾʀ/ 'ṇg 'ṇg /ŋ̩˩/ iêā /i͡ə.a/
sh sh /ʃ/ ssh ssh /ʃː/ 'ṇ'g /n̩ɡ/ iëā /i.ə.a/
s'h /sh/ s'sh /sʃ/ ẓh ẓh /ʒ̍/ ûi ûi /ʊ͡i/ ûiô ûiô /ʊ͡i͡ʌ/
ss'h /sːh/ ẓ'h /z̩h/ ûī /ʊ.i/ ûīô /ʊ.i͡ʌ/
th th /θ/ tth tth /θː/ źh źh /ʒ̍˥/ ûiö /ʊ͡i.ʌ/
t'h /th/ t'th /tθ/ ź'h /z̩˥h/ ûīö /ʊ.i.ʌ/
tt'h /tːh/ żh żh /ʒ̍˧/ ôâ ôâ /ʌ͡ɑ/ ôâê ôâê /ʌ͡ɑ͡ə/
zh zh /ʒ/ zzh zzh /ʒː/ ż'h /z̩˧h/ ôä /ʌ.ɑ/ ôäê /ʌ.ɑ͡ə/
z'h /zh/ z'zh /zʒ/ 'ẓh 'ẓh /ʒ̍˩/ ôâë /ʌ͡ɑ.ə/
zz'h /zːh/ 'ẓ'h /z̩˩h/ ôäë /ʌ.ɑ.ə/
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