User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51

IlL/Spare pages 1/51/Lexicon

IlL/Spare pages 1/51 (IlL/Spare pages 1/51: a Thígall [ə ˈɬiːɡ̊ɤᵝˤ] or a ŋgaoth dIlL/Spare pages 1/51 [ə ŋɔɬ ˈtiːɡ̊ɤᵝˤ] 'the IlL/Spare pages 1/51 language'; pronounced "teagle" in English) is a IlL/Spare pages 1/51ic language (a subbranch of the Talmic languages) inspired by Irish, German and Hindi. It is the largest Talmic language in terms of number of speakers. IlL/Spare pages 1/51 was created in part as a thought experiment posing the question "What would Irish look like with umlaut instead of palatalization?". Like all modern Talmic languages, IlL/Spare pages 1/51 is a descendant of Thensarian. It is spoken on the west coast of the continent of Kuodhlev on Hussmauch.

Numbers

1: cēm- > cémh 2: tithōr > tiothar 3: nazge > nág 4: dhaufe > daó 5: salir > salar 6: stām- > sdámh 7: rōde > ródh-L 8: lorethe > lorath-L 9: farve > arbh-L 10: ħiōr > eór

Todo

• Translate Haggadah (as exercise)
• Affixes:
  • -sim

Notes

If a IlL/Spare pages 1/51 word is underlined, hover over it to view the pronunciation.

Symbols

• ⁱ - i-umlaut
• ^u - u-umlaut
• ^L - lenition/aspiration
• ^N - eclipsis
• ^B - b-prefixation

Orthography

Talmic script, used for writing IlL/Spare pages 1/51

Like other modern Talmic languages, IlL/Spare pages 1/51 is written in the Talmic cursive script, which is written from left to right. Some letters are not used in modern IlL/Spare pages 1/51, such as the Thensarian letters y, θ, δ, χ, γ; the letters j and v are not used except in loanwords. The letter h is used for lenition as in Irish. So the IlL/Spare pages 1/51 alphabet is usually considered to have 20 letters (r d z i a f m g t h b s o ŋ p l n e u c) (digraphs and length diacritics are not counted).

The native orthography is extremely conservative and in part reflects Old IlL/Spare pages 1/51 pronunciation. (A more shallow orthography will be used in this article.)

Double consonants are used for ⟨ll, nn, rr⟩, which come from the Old IlL/Spare pages 1/51 fortis resonants /L, N, R/; they are pronounced identically to single ⟨l, n, r⟩ in standard IlL/Spare pages 1/51.

Phonology

Stress

Primary stress usually falls on the first syllable, except for some inflected prepositions.

Consonants

IlL/Spare pages 1/51 has a relatively average consonant inventory of around 25 consonants. The phonology is unusual for distinguishing lateral consonants in fricatives but not in liquids.

IlL/Spare pages 1/51 consonants

		Labial	Dental/Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Glottal
Nasal		m m	n n	ng ɲ~ŋ~ɴ
Stop	tenuis	b p	d t	g c~k~q			(ʔ)
	aspirated	p pʰ	t tʰ	k cʰ~kʰ~qʰ
Spirant	voiceless	f f	th ɬ~ꞎ	ch ç~x
	voiced	v v	dh ɮ	gh j~ɣ
Non-spirant	voiceless		s s				h h
	voiced		z z
Liquid			l ɾ~ɺ~l			r ʁ
Approximant		w w		j j

Notes

• An initial /ʔ/ can be added to null initials (but is not mandatory).
• Étaoin IlL/Spare pages 1/51 has a form of Auslautverhärtung: aspiration is neutralized for word-final stops.
• Unaspirated consonants /p, t, k/ are half-voiced [b̥, d̥, ɡ̊] between vowels (at least within a word).
• /w/ is a labiovelar approximant [ɰʷ] with the vocalic quality of [u].
• /n, tʰ, t, ɬ, ɮ/ are usually alveolar [n, tʰ, t, ɬ, ɮ], but can be dental [n̪, t̪ʰ, t̪, ɬ̪, ɮ̪] as well.
• /s, z/ are alveolar retracted [s̠, z̠], similar to the Northern/Central Castillan Spanish and Modern Greek /s/.
• The coronal liquid has 3 allophones broadly:
  • After a consonant, it is a postalveolar [ɾ̞].
  • Word-initially or intervocalically, it is a postalveolar [l̠] or [ɺ̠].
  • Before a consonant or word-finally, it is a postalveolar lateral [l̠], with varying resonances (though never velarized) depending on speaker.
• /ŋ, kʰ, k/ are usually velar [ŋ, kʰ, k], but are often labialized pharyngealized uvular [ɴʷˁ, qʷˁʰ, qʷˁ] next to /ʀ~ʟ/. /kʰʀ/ becomes an affricate or a trilled affricate [qχ].
• /ŋ, kʰ, k, x, ɣ/ palatalize to [ɲ, cʰ~cç, c, ç, j] before /iː yː iə yə eː øː/.
• The uvular liquid /ʁ/:
  • The allophone occuring before vowels is a pharyngealized uvular fricative or approximant [ʁᵝˤ] in careful speech which devoices to [χᵝˤ] after an aspirate or another fricative. In casual speech it tends to become velar [ɰᵝ].
  • The allophone occuring before consonants is phonetically a pharyngealized uvular approximant with compressed rounding [ʁ̞ᵝˤ~ʁ̠̞ᵝ]; the vocalic quality resembles [ɤ]. It is similar to the Philadelphia English vocalized L.
  • In classical singing and some accents [ɫ] is used in all positions.
• After a vowel, /ɣ/ disappears with compensatory lengthening of the vowel if the vowel is short. (Unless the /ɣ/ begins a stressed syllable.)

Fortis and lenis resonants

Certain accents and dialects preserve to varying degrees the Old IlL/Spare pages 1/51 distinction between fortis and lenis resonants: /l L n N r R/.

One dialect has:

• /l/ > /ʁᵝˤ/
• /L/ > /l̪ˠ/
• /n/ > /ð̞̃/
• /N/ > /n/
• /r/ > /ɹ/
• /R/ > /ɾ/

Mutations

Consonant mutations

Grapheme	m	p	b	f	n	t	d	s*	z	r	ŋ	k	g	l	0
IPA	/m/	/pʰ/	/p/	/f/	/n/	/tʰ/	/t/	/s/	/z/	/ɺ˞~ɭ/	/ŋ/	/kʰ/	/k/	/ʀ~ʟ/	/ʔ/
Lenited	m:w	p:f	b:v	f:h	-	t:th	d:dh	s:h	z:	-	-	k:ch	g:gh	-	:h
IPA	/w/	/f/	/v/	/h/	-	/ɬ/	/ɮ/	/h/	silent	-	-	/x/	/ɣ/	-	/h/
Eclipsed	-	p:b	b:m	f:w	-	t:d	d:n	s:z	-	-	-	k:g	g:ŋ	-	:ŋ
IPA	-	/p/	/m/	/w/	-	/t/	/n/	/z/	-	-	-	/k/	/ŋ/	-	/ŋ/

^*The clusters sp, st, sk do not mutate.

Vowels

IlL/Spare pages 1/51 has a vowel system with a complexity comparable to that of German, with 7 basic vowel qualities, vowel length, and the effects of L-vocalization.

It is important to note that the given orthographic values are only a proxy for the exact vowel, especially for the front rounded vowels (due to, among other things, irregular changes in unstressed syllables, and some words having "double umlaut").

IlL/Spare pages 1/51 vowels

	Front				Central		Back
	unrounded		rounded		unrounded	rounded	unrounded	rounded
	short	long	short	long	short	long	short	short	long
Close	i /ɪ/	í /iː/	y /ʏ/	ý /yː/		ú /ʉː/		u /ʊ/
Mid	e, ae, ai, ei, ia /ɛ/	aé, aí, éi /eː/	eu, oi, aio, aoi, iao, uai /œ/	aío, aói, eío /øː/	a [ə]	aó /ɵː/	al [ɤˁ]	o, ao, ua /ɔ/
Open		á, eá /aː/			a, ea /ɐ/

Diphthongs: é, ía /iə/ éu, ói, íao, úai /yə/ ó, úa /uə/ au /ɐw/

The vowel [ə] occurs only in unstressed syllables, and is written a.

L-colored vowels

In Étaoin IlL/Spare pages 1/51 l-colored vowels and diphthongs result from combinations of any vowels or diphthongs with the vocalized velar liquid [ɤˁ]:

• /iː/, /iə/ + [ɤˁ] > /iɤˁ/
• /ɪ/ + [ɤˁ] > /ɪɤˁ/
• /yː/, /yə/ + [ɤˁ] > /yɤˁ/
• /ʏ/ + [ɤˁ] > /ʏɤˁ/
• /ʊ/, /ʉː/, /uə/ + [ɤˁ] > /ʊˁː/
• /eː/ + [ɤˁ] > /eɤˁ/
• /ɛ/ + [ɤˁ] > /ɛɤˁ/
• /øː/ + [ɤˁ] > /øɤˁ/
• /œ/ + [ɤˁ] > /œɤˁ/
• /ɔ/, /ɵː/ + [ɤˁ] > /ɔˁː/
• /ɐ/, /aː/ + [ɤˁ] > /ɒˁː/

Notes

Close vowels

• /iː/ is close front unrounded [iː] (listen).
• /iə/ is phonetically [iə] (listen).
• /iɤˁ/ is phonetically [iːɤˁ] (listen).
• /yː/ is usually close near-front rounded [y̠ː] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
• /yə/ is phonetically [yə], [y̠ə] or [ʏə] (listen).
• /yɤˁ/ is phonetically [y̠ːɤˁ] (listen).
• /ʉː/ is somewhat retracted close central rounded [ʉ̠ː] (listen). Its rounding is protruded.
• /uə/ is phonetically [uə] or [ʊə] (listen). It is a monophthong [uː] for some speakers.
• /ʊˁː/ is near-close back rounded [ʊ̠ˁː] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
  • In careful speech, this is a diphthong [ʊ̠ɤˁ].
• /ɪ/ is near-close near-front unrounded [ɪ] (listen).
• /ʏ/ is near-close near-front rounded [ʏ] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
• /ʏɤˁ/ is phonetically [ʏɤˁ] (listen).
• /ʊ/ is near-close near-back rounded [ʊ] or back rounded [ʊ̠] (listen). Its rounding is protruded.

Mid vowels

• /eː/ is close-mid front unrounded [eː] (listen).
• /eɤˁ/ is phonetically [eːɤˁ] (listen).
• /øː/ is close-mid near-front rounded [ø̠ː] or mid front rounded [ø̞ː] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
• /øɤˁ/ is phonetically [ø̠ːɤˁ] (listen).
• /ɵː/ is somewhat retracted close-mid central rounded [ө̠ː] (listen). Its rounding is protruded.
• /ɔˁː/ is open-mid near-back rounded [ɔˁː] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
  • In careful speech, this is a diphthong [oɤˁ] or [ɔɤˁ].
• /ɛ/ is open-mid front unrounded [ɛ] or mid near-front unrounded [ɛ̽] (listen).
• /ɛɤˁ/ is phonetically [ɛ̞ɤˁ] (listen).
• /œ/ is open-mid near-front rounded [œ] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
• /œɤˁ/ is phonetically [œɤˁ] or [ɞɤˁ] (listen).
• [ə] is mid central unrounded [ə]. It is often fronted [ə̟] when word-final or utterance-final.
  • If a sonorant follows in the syllable coda, the schwa often disappears so that the sonorant becomes syllabic.
• [ɤˁ] is close-mid compressed pharyngealized [ɤᵝˁ].
• /ɔ/ is open-mid back rounded [ɔ] or mid back rounded [o̞] (listen). Its rounding is protruded.

Open vowels

• /aː/ is central unrounded [äː] (listen).
• /ɐ/ is near-open central unrounded [ɐ] (listen).
• /ɑˁː/ is most often phonetically a diphthong [ɑɤˁ] or [äɤˁ] (listen).

Umlaut

Vowels in the first syllable of roots may undergo i-umlaut or u-umlaut under the addition of some affixes.

Umlaut

Root vowel	a	a	aí	aó	e	é	i	í	o	ó	u	ú
u-umlaut	ao	aó	aío	-	eu	éu	iu	iú	-	-	-	-
i-umlaut	ai	aí	-	aoi	-	-	-	-	oi	ói	ui	uí

Some phonological rules

• unstressed -amha- > -aó- /ɵː/
• /ʏw/, /yəw/, /yːw/ > /ʉː/

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns are classed into two genders and are inflected in two numbers (singular and plural) and three states (indefinite, definite, construct).

Masculine vowel declension

Used mostly with some noun suffixes, such as -edh, -ǿng

ést - 'word'
Number→ State↓	Singular	Plural
Indefinite	ést	ésten
Definite	a :héste	éstel
Construct	éstedh	éstel
1sg possessor	ésten	éstelen
2sg.m possessor	éstis	éstelis
2sg.f possessor	éstus	éstelus
3sg.m possessor	éstu	éstelu
3sg.f possessor	ésti	ésteli
1exc possessor	éstem	éstelem
1inc possessor	ésted	ésteled
2pl possessor	éstek	éstelek
3pl possessor	éstel	éstelel

Masculine consonantal declension

The mutation after the noun surfaces on adjectives and genitive nouns.

suol - 'house'
Number→ State↓	Singular	Plural
Indefinite	suol	syøle
Definite	a shór	syølen
Construct	suoledh	syølel
1sg possessor	suolen	syølelen
2sg.m possessor	suolis	syølelis
2sg.f possessor	suolus	syølelus
3sg.m possessor	suolu	syølelu
3sg.f possessor	suoli	syøleli
1exc possessor	suolem	syølelem
1inc possessor	suoled	syøleled
2pl possessor	suolek	syølelek
3pl possessor	suolel	syølelel

Masculine nouns with -Cedh: -Cedh / -Cten / -Cte / -Ctel / -Ctedh / -Cter (indef sg / indef pl / def sg/ def pl / const sg / const pl)

Feminine consonant declension

émh - 'mother'
Number→ State↓	Singular	Plural
Indefinite	iew	iewel
Definite	a :ngiew	a iew
Construct	úhedh	úhen

Feminine nouns with -Cedh: -Cedh / -Ctel / -Ctedh / -Cten (indef sg / indef pl / const sg / const pl)

Mass and collective nouns

Mass and collective nouns are either singularia tantum or pluralia tantum; these often have a significantly different indefinite singular state.

Adjectives

Declension paradigms

The definite article is a, and is an before vowels.

Sample declensions

sieth 'sharp'
	Singular		Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Masculine	Feminine
Predicative	sieth a nguol	sieth a t:diłng	sieth nguolen	sieth a tiłng
Indefinite	nguol s:zieth	tiłng sieth	nguole siethe	tiłngel siethel
Definite	a ngyøl s:hieth	a t:diłng s:zieth	nguolen siethen	a tiłng sieth
Construct	nguole s:hieth	tyłnge s:hieth	nguolel siethen	tyłngel sieth

éthew 'holy'
	Singular		Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Masculine	Feminine
Predicative	éthew a aésda	éthew a dtilŋ	éthew aésdan	éthew a tilŋ
Indefinite	éste éthew	tiłng éthew	ésten éthó	tiłngel éthól
Definite	a ést :héthew	a t:diłng :ngéthew	éstel éthón	a tiłng :héthew
Construct	éstedh :héthew	tyłnge :héthew	éstel éthón	tyłngel éthew

Degree

The comparative form of adjectives is formed with the suffix -ene. The comparandum is marked with the particle lá 'than'.

The superlative is formed with the suffix -ente.

Pronouns

Personal

IlL/Spare pages 1/51 personal pronouns

	1sg	2sg.m	2sg.f	3sg.m	3sg.f	1pl.ex	1pl.in	2pl	3pl
Independent	ná	ziel	hiel	ŋú	hí	gáw	géd	zéd	hál
Dependent	dhá	iel	iel	ú	í	áw	kél	sél	ál

To emphasize a pronoun or an inflected preposition, -de is added to the pronoun.

Other

• tá = what?
• tuov = who?
• tach = where?

Prepositions

Prepositions are inflected, as in the ancestor Thensarian.

mo^L, m' comes from a word meaning "next to". It is also the direct object marker for definite persons (like Romanian pe).

Inflection of prepositions

	1sg	2sg.m	2sg.f	3sg.m	3sg.f	1pl.ex	1pl.in	2pl	3pl
chaoi 'before'	chaoín	chaoís	chaós	chaó	chaoí	chaoím	chaoíd	chaoíc	chaoír
de-L, d'- 'in, at'	deán	déis	deós	deó	deí	dém	déd	déc	dér
dli 'on'	dlian	dlis	dlios	dlú	dlí	dlim	dlid	dlic	dlir
gil 'from'	gialn	gilis	gilus	gilu	gili	gilam	gilad	gilac	gilar
go-L 'with'	gón	goís	gós	gú	goí	góm	gód	góc	gór
mo-L, m'-	món	móis	mós	mó	muí	móm	mód	móc	mór
anh/nha 'with (instrumental)'	naín	naís	naíos	naío	naí	naím	naíd	naíc	naír
riz 'alienable possession marker'	rizan	rizis	rizus	rizu	rizi	rizam	rizad	rizac	rizar
ru (ergative)	rúin	rúis	ruíos	rú	ruí	rúim	rúid	rúic	rúir
so 'to'	són	súis	sús	sú	suí	súm	súd	súc	súr
zead 'after'	zeadan	zeadis	zeadus	zeadu	zeadi	zeadam	zeadad	zeadac	zeadar

Dli can be used to indicate obligation, as in Irish and Hebrew:

Dlian cháisaladh a cháisan.

[ˈdʁiən ˈçeːsəʀəɬ ə ˈçeːsn̩]

on-1SG eat-VN-CONST MO DEF.SG.M food

I have to eat the food.

Verbs

Old IlL/Spare pages 1/51 had a verb system with complex alternations, almost comparable to that of Old Irish. Modern IlL/Spare pages 1/51 simplified this system substantially, leaving behind a mixture of synthetic forms (used without a subject pronoun) and analytic forms (used with a subject noun or pronoun), similar to the Modern Irish system. Due to their different origins - namely, synthetic forms come from Thensarian conjugated verbs while analytic forms come from Thensarian participles or verbal nouns - they often morphologically behave differently.

Addition of the b-prefix

Certain verb forms undergo the morphophonological process of b-prefixation, which stems from the Thensarian 3rd person singular object prefix bi-. The b-prefix is not added to analytic forms (since those come from participles), impersonal forms, or imperatives.

For unprefixed verbs, the b-prefix is added by lenition of the stem's initial consonant. If the result of lenition begins with a vowel, then b'- is added.

For prefixed verbs, the addition of the b-prefix works as follows:

• For prefixes ending in a resonant, the first consonant of the root undergoes eclipsis.
  • síl-sreichdadh ná 'I restrain', síl-zsreichdar 'you restrain'
• For other prefixes, the mutation that would otherwise be induced by the prefix is blocked.
  • pé-zhophadh ná 'I make an effort', pé-zophar 'you make an effort'

Present tense

The present tense is conjugated as follows. For some verbs, umlaut occurs with certain affixes.

Template:Col-3

Present tense
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	STEM-adh ná BSTEM-an (poetic)	STEM-aóch
1.in	-	STEM-adh géid BSTEM-ad (poetic)
2	BSTEM-ar	STEM-adh zéid BSTEM-asg (poetic)
3.m	STEM-adh ŋú/hí	STEM-adh hár
Impersonal	STEM-(a)1ra

Present tense of the verb moladh 'thank'
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	moladh ná mholan (poetic)	mholaóch
1.in	-	moladh géid mholad (poetic)
2	mholar	moladh zéid mholasg (poetic)
3.m	moladh ó moladh ŋí	moladh hár
Impersonal	molra

Present tense of the verb idadh 'lie in a place'
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	idadh ná b'idan (poetic)	b'idaóch
1.in	-	idadh géid b'idad (poetic)
2	b'idar	idadh zéid b'idasg (poetic)
3.m	idadh ó idadh ŋí	idadh hár
Impersonal	idara

¹ The buffer -a- is added when the previous consonant is a coronal.

Imperfect tense

To form the imperfect tense, the particle g'laí is used before the verb, -a is added to the stem, and the verb undergoes eclipsis.

• g'laí mola ná 'I used to thank'
• g'laí ŋ-ida ŋí 'she used to lie'

Preterite tense

The preterite is considered archaic in Standard IlL/Spare pages 1/51. It may be found in remote or isolated dialects.

Perfect tense

The suffix ⁱ-ín is added to the stem to form the past participle. The subject is preceded by an ergative marker ro. For the impersonal the subject is simply omitted. This is the standard way of forming the preterite in Étaoin IlL/Spare pages 1/51.

Késín ruk lýn.

I ate/have eaten a fruit.

Pluperfect tense

g'laímh + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite.

• g'laímh moilín ná 'I had thanked'
• g'laímh idín ŋí 'she had lain'

Future tense

Template:Col-3

Future tense
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	STEM-tadh ná BSTEM-tan (poetic)	STEM-taóch
1.in	-	STEM-tadh géid BSTEM-tad (poetic)
2	BSTEM-tar	STEM-tadh zéid BSTEM-tasg (poetic)
3.m	STEM-tadh ŋú/hí	STEM-tadh hár
Impersonal	STEM-art

Future tense of the verb moladh 'thank'
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	moltadh ná mholtan (poetic)	mholtaóch
1.in	-	moltadh géid mholtad (poetic)
2	mholtar	moltadh zéid mholtasg (poetic)
3.m	moltadh ŋú/hí	moltadh hár
Impersonal	molart

Future tense of the verb idadh 'lie in a place'
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	idatadh ná b'idatan (poetic)	b'idataóch
1.in	-	idatadh géid b'idatad (poetic)
2	b'idatar	idatadh zéid b'idatasg (poetic)
3.m	idatadh ó idatadh ŋí	idatadh hár
Impersonal	idart

Future perfect tense

fácht + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite.

Imperative

Template:Col-3

Imperative
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	-	-
1.in	-	STEM-ad!
2	STEM!	STEM-asg!
3.m	-	-
Impersonal	-

Imperative of the verb moladh 'thank'
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	-	-
1.in	-	molad!
2	mol!	molasg!
3.m	-	-
Impersonal	-

Imperative of the verb idadh 'lie in a place'
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	-	-
1.in	-	idad!
2	id!	idasg!
3.m	-	-
Impersonal	-

Verbal noun

The verbal noun serves many important syntactic functions.

Some affixes for verbal nouns:

• ⁱ-al
• -a/-as?
• -ach
• ablaut
• bare stem
• i-umlaut

Derivational morphology

Below are some common IlL/Spare pages 1/51 derivational affixes:

• ⁱ-e (f): nominalizer
• -ev: diminutive
• -ech: verbal noun (the most common suffix)
• -á: adjectivizer
• -eł: adjectivizer
• ⁱ-eł (m.): nominalizer
  • ŋølkeł 'bitterness, resentment' < ŋolk 'bitter'
• -al: diminutive
• ⁱ-ew: adjectivizer
  • køthlew 'floral' < kothel 'flower'
• -dí (f): nominalizer
• ie-: 'common, co-' (from Thensarian ēs-)
  • ietøn: 'common/universal, standard' < tøn 'mold, cast'
• í-L: non-
• -í/-zí: adjective suffix (Kagasa)
• -gén (f): abstract noun
• mí-: mis-
  • míwóhech "misuse" < móhech "use"
• ⁱ-øŋ, indef. pl. ⁱ-øŋen, def. pl. ⁱ-øŋel: agentive (< Thn. -iōȝī < Kagasa -yōȝi)
  • spýthǿŋ 'spýth player' < spýth 'a Talmic lute, usually fretless or with movable frets'
• -uol: augmentative
• -lá: able
  • káslá = edible
• -st-: adjectivizer, [NOUN]-like
• -tiv: adjectivizer

Syntax

Constituent order

The overall syntax of IlL/Spare pages 1/51 resembles that of Irish but with more flexibility.

IlL/Spare pages 1/51 is almost completely head-initial, except for compound words which are head-final. The constituent order is VSO. Background information (usually in the order time-manner-place) may be placed before the verb (unlike in Irish), after the subject, or after the direct object. However, no constituent may come between the verb and the subject.

Noun phrase

Adjectives

Adjectives always follow their head nouns.

Possessive noun phrases

In possessive noun phrases the possessed noun uses the construct form, and the possessor (indefinite or definite) is placed after it. For pronominal possessors, the disjunctive pronoun is used.

Moredh a t:thacht m'yøwedh ú.
/ˈmɔˤːʀəɬ ʔə ˈɬɐxt ˈm‿yəwəɬ ʉː/
mol-adh a-^L tachd mo^L émh-^uadh ú
thank-PRES DEF.SG.M child MO mother-CONS.SG.F 3SG.M.DISJ
The child thanks his mother.

Verb phrase

Negation

• interrogative: ie-L
• negative: tí
• negative interrogative: iest-L

Sentence phrase

Predicate nouns and adjectives

IlL/Spare pages 1/51 is zero-copula, like Hebrew. For predicate sentences, the predicate (unmarked) form of the predicate noun or adjective is placed before the subject, and the pronoun is used.

Zodhme ŋú kothel.

A flower is a plant.

Zodhme ŋú.

It's a plant.

Similarly for definite nouns as subjects, though the pronoun is not mandatory in this case:

Zodhme (ŋú) a k:chothel.

The flower is a plant.

Áld (hí) a k:gowne.

The woman is tall.

Áld hí.

She is tall.

Conjunctions

• ar: 'and'
• lú: 'or'
• ach: 'but'
• ri-N: 'that (relative clause)'
• ní-L : 'that (complement clause)'
• faódh-N: 'because'
• dri-L: 'when, if'

Dependent clauses

Relative clauses

The relativizer is li^N. A resumptive pronoun may be used when the head is not the subject of the relative clause, and is mandatory when the head is a prepositional object or a possessor.

A k:chal li f:weledh hú "Zivlen"

The man whose name was "Lightning"

Verbs in relative clauses may be placed anywhere within the relative clause, subject to the constraint that the verb and (syntactic) subject may not be separated unless the subject of the relative clause is the head. If the subject is the head, the relativizer li may be omitted, however in that case the verb must immediately follow the head.

Nominalized relative clauses use nuol li... 'those who...'

nuol li míwóhedh hú

'those who misuse it'

Time clauses

There are two ways of forming time clauses.

Infinitive clauses

Infinitive clauses resemble German zu-infinitive clauses in that they are verb-final: the infinitive is used at the end. The particle used before the infinitive is ho-L /hɔ/.

Tí róskeł fách ná, s'a s:huol lizen ho f:hlúnech.

I was unable to return to my house.

Phrasebook

• Feren [NAME]. = My name is [NAME].
• Re... = Well...
• Tá a g:ŋøwle? (vulgar) = I don't give a shit!

Sample texts

The North Wind and the Sun

Phonetic version

A b:vuołkołn al a :ŋúd

Kiewlách gré a b:vuołkołn al a :ŋúd d'uskech go nal dli ní t:thuov girel édhene, án nyødhín zothlǿŋ de léhe d'z:ýl go p:fespeł f:wún dlú. Ieliedhín tythlen ní ŋamew édhene zuspín ho ré ŋú a b:ván li c:grynteteth sú hǿn, s'an z:othlǿŋ ho lá, a p:fespeł lizu ho d:dhelvech. Úle ŋolín a b:vuołkołn go t:thán li gré conlethu, ach go ŋolech al gré ŋole ŋú, ón al-sŋýchtín a p:fespeł lizu lu an z:othlóiŋ dli ŋrúdhu. Di hél a p:bánev, síł-bárín a b:vuołkołn gił a snǿseł. Úle sásefín fýne lu a :ŋúd, al k:chéhest delvín a p:fespeł lizu lu an z:othlǿŋ. Al anást fáchín prénín a b:vuołkołn ho g:gholgiespech, ní a :ŋúd hí a b:ván :hédhene.

Orthographic version

A bhólcoln ar a ŋ-úd

Cémhrách g'laí a bhólcoln ar a ŋ-úd d'usgach go nar dri ní thóbh gilar aédhanna, án nuaidhín zothróiŋ de reía d'zhíor go pheisbal mhfúnn drú. Éréidhín tiothrann ní ŋamamh aédhanna zusbín sho laí ŋú a bhánn ri gcluintatadh sú heíon, s'an zhothróiŋ sho reá, a pheisbal rizu sho dherbhach. Iomhra ŋorrín a bhólcoln go thán ri g'laí conrathu, ach go ŋorrach ar g'laí ŋorra ŋú, aón ar-sŋúichdín a pheisbal rizu ru an zhothróiŋ dri ŋlúdhu. Di fhaír a bpánabh, síl-bpálín a bhólcoln gil a snóisal. Iomhra sásaphín fúinna ru a ŋ-úd, ar cheíasd derbhín a pheisbal rizu ru an zhothróiŋ. Ar anásd fáchín pléinín a bhólcoln sho ghorgésbach, ní a ŋ-úd hí a bhánn h-aédhanna.

Gloss

Kiewlách gré a b:vuołkołn al a :ŋúd d'uskech go nal dli ní t:thuov girel édhene, án nyødhín zothlǿŋ de léhe d'z:ýl go p:fespeł f:wún dlú.
[ˈcʰiəwl̠äːx qʷˁeː ə ˈvʊːˁkʰɔːˁn əl̠ ə ˈŋʉ̠ːt ˈtʊs̠kəx kə ˈnal̠ dɾɪ niː ˈɬɵ̠ːv ˈɡɪʁᵝəl̠ ˈeːɮənə̟ ǀ äːn ˈnyəɮiːn ˈz̠ɔɬl̠øːŋ də ˈl̠eːə ˈdyːl̠ ɡə ˈfɛs̠pɤᵝˁ ˈwʉ̠ːn dɾʉ̠ː]
cémhrách g'laí-N a-L bólcoln ar a-N úd de-L usgach go-L nar dri ní-L tóbh gil-ar aédh-ana, ánh-L nuaidh-ính zothl-óiŋ de-L reía d-L zíor go-L peisbal N-fún dr-ú
one_time IPF DEF.M.SG north-wind and DEF.F.SG sun COMIT each_other on COMP who from-3PL strong-CMPV, when easily-PST.PART travel-AGT LOC come-VN LOC way COMIT cloak INDEF.M.SG.warm on-3SG
Once the north wind and the sun were arguing with each other about which one was stronger, when a traveler appeared in the way with a warm cloak on him.

Ieliedhín tythlen ní ŋamew édhene zuspín ho ré ŋú a b:ván li c:grynteteth sú hǿn, s'an z:othlǿŋ ho lá, a p:fespeł lizu ho d:dhelvech.
[ˈʔiəl̠iəɮiːn ˈtʰʏɬl̠ən niː ˈŋɐməw ˈeːɮənə ˈʐʊs̠piːn hɔ̽ ʁeː ŋʉ̠ː ə väːn l̠ɪ ɢʷˁʏntʰətʰəɬ s̠ʉ̠ː høːn ǀ s̠ən ˈɔɬl̠øːŋ hɔ̽ ˈl̠äː ə ˈfɛs̠pɤᵝˁ l̠ɪz̠ʊ hɔ̽ ˈɮɛl̠vəx]
é-réidh-ính tiothar-n ní-L zusb-ính sho-L laí ŋú a-L bán ri-N cluinht-t-adh s-ú heíonh so-L anh-L zothróiŋ sho-L reá, a-L peisbal riz-u sho-L derbh-ach
together-come-PST.PART two-DEF.M.PL COMP strong-CMPV TEL-count_as-PST.PART TO_INFINITIVE be.VN 3SG.M.INDEP DEF-M one REL succeed-FUT-PART to-3SG.M first to DEF.M.SG traveller TO_INFINITIVE make.VN DEF.M.SG cloak POSS-3SG.M TO_INFINITIVE take_off-VN
The two agreed that he was to be considered stronger who would first succeed in making the traveler take off his cloak.

Úle ŋolín a b:vuołkołn go t:thán li gré conlethu, ach go ŋolech al gré ŋole ŋú, ón al-sŋýchtín a p:fespeł lizu lu an z:othlóiŋ dli ŋrúdhu.
[ˈʔʉ̠ːl̠ə ˈŋɔl̠iːn ə ˈvʊːˁkʰɔːˁn gə ˈɬäːn lɪ qʷˁeː ˈkʰɔnl̠əɬʊ ǀ ʔɐx ˈŋɔl̠əx əl̠ qʷˁeː ˈŋɔl̠ə ŋʉ̠ː ǀ ˈɵːn ˈɐl̠s̠ɲyːxtiːn ˈfɛs̠pɤᵝˁ l̠ɪz̠ʊ l̠ʊ ən ˈɔɬl̠øːŋ ə dɾɪ ˈɴᵝˁʉ̠ːɮʊ]
iomhra ŋorr-ính a-L bólconh go-L tánh ri-N g'laí-N conrath-u, ach go-L ŋorral ar g'laí-N ŋorr-a 3SG.M-IPFV ón ar-sŋúichd-ính a-L peisbal riz-u ru anh-L zothlóiŋ dri ŋlúdh-u
now blow-PST.PART DEF.M.SG north_wind COMI all DEF IPFV might-3SG.M, but COMI blow.VN and IPFV blow-IPFV 3SG.M.INDEP more fasten-PST.PART DEF.M.SG cloak POSS-3SG.M ERG DEF.M.SG traveller on body-3SG.M
Now the north wind blew with all his might, but the more he blew, the more did the traveler fasten the cloak around him.

Di hél a p:bánev, síł-bárín a b:vuołkołn gił a snǿseł.
[tɪ ˈheːl̠ ə bäːnəv ˈsiːɤᵝˁbɑːʁᵝiːn ə ˈvʊːˁkʰɔːˁn gɪɤᵝˁ ə ˈʂnøːs̠ɤᵝˁ]
di-L faír síl-bpálính a-L bólcoln gil a-L snóis-al
LOC bottom DEF lamp give_up-PST.PART DEF.M.SG north_wind from DEF.SG.N continue-VN
Realizing that continuing would be futile, the north wind gave up continuing.

Úle sásefín fýne lu a :ŋúd, al k:chéhest delvín a p:fespeł lizu lu an z:othlǿŋ.
[ˈʔʉ̠ːl̠ə ˈs̠äːs̠əfiːn ˈfyːnə l̠ʊ ə ˈŋʉ̠ːt ǀ əl̠ ˈçeːəst tɛl̠viːn ə ˈfɛs̠pɤᵝˁ ˈl̠ɪz̠ʊ l̠ʊ ən ˈɔɬl̠øːŋ]
iomhra sásaph-ính fúina ru a-N 'úd ar H-ceíasd derbh-ính a peisbal riz-u ru anh-L zothróiŋ
now shine-PST.PART warmth ERG DEF.F.SG sun, and ADV-immediate take_off-PST.PART DEF.M.SG cloak ERG DEF.M.SG traveler
Now the sun shined out warmth, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak.

Al anást fáchín prénín a b:vuołkołn ho g:gholgiespech, ní a :ŋúd hí a b:ván :hédhene.
[əl̠ əˈnäːs̠t fäːçiːn ˈpʰʁᵝeːniːn ə ˈvʊːˁkʰɔːˁn hɔ̽ ˈɣɔl̠giəs̠pəx ǀ niː ə ˈŋʉ̠ːt hiː ə väːn ˈheːɮənə̟]
ar anásd fá-ính plénh-ính a-L bólcoln sho-L gorgésbach ní a-N úd hí a-L bán L-aédh-ana
and thus be-PST.PART obligate-PST.PART DEF.M.SG TO_INFINITIVE confess.VN, COMP DEF.F.SG 3SG.F.INDEP DEF.M.SG one DEF.M.SG-strong-CMPV
And thus the north wind was obliged to admit that the sun was the stronger one.