Verse:Mwail/Old Gloob

Themsaran
themsármā
Pronunciation	[/θè̞msarꜜmaː/]
Created by	–
Extinct	220 v.T.
Language family	Zachydic Raxo-Talsmic Talsmic Themsaran
Language codes
ISO 639-3	qth

Mwail/Old Gloob gávthȁ themsármā
Type
Fusional
Alignment
Nominative-accusative
Head direction
Initial	Mixed		Final
Primary word order
Verb-subject-object
Tonal
Yes
Declensions
Yes
Conjugations
Yes
Genders
2
Nouns decline according to...
Case		Number
Definiteness		Gender
Verbs conjugate according to...
Voice		Mood
Person		Number
Tense		Aspect

Themsaran is my first constructed language, for my conworld of Hheergrem. It is intended to be a head-initial, head-marking language with a plausible development from an erstwhile dependent-/double-marking language. The grammar, syntax and morphology has been heavily influenced by Semitic and Celtic languages, with some drawing from Japanese. Aesthetically it has hints of Baltic, Germanic, Celtic, Semitic, Khmer and Gyeongsang Korean. The main departure from Semitic grammar is that the language has been augmented with new features such as strict head-marking inflection utilizing two types of switch-reference on verbs, the applicative voice and borderline polysynthesis. So I guess it ends up a tad more like some Native American languages. Other purposes of my language include mixing in un-English verb syntax, such as the use of optatives in subordinate clauses, and using principally non-finite subordinate clauses in the indicative.

Background

See also: Themsaran/Sound changes from Proto-Talsmic.

The Themsaran (/ˈθɛmsɑɹən/) language (Themsaran: gávthȁ themsármā [gáʊ̯fθàː θè̞msármàː] "the Themsaran mouth") was traditionally classified into a separate subbranch of the Zachydic language family, along with other para-Themsaran languages which are/were natively spoken in the island of Tálsèm off the northeastern coast of the Zachydi subcontinent. (Since then, Talsmic's close ties to Ractamic languages, such as Raxic, has gained widespread recognition.) Due to its long period of isolation and substrate influence, Themsaran was a typological and lexical outlier in its family, within which it was distinguished by its heavily head-marking inflection in both clauses and possessive NPs as well as its strongly head-initial syntax. It also notably employs a combination of tone changes and affixes to convey grammatical information. The language possesses mixed fusional and agglutinative inflection, and nominative-accusative morphosyntax (mostly). The name of the language comes from the Themsár region, from whose dialect arose the prestige language of the island. This elevated language existed in a state of diglossia with the diverse and often mutually unintelligible vernacular "dialects". Classical Themsaran was used as a living language by the ruling class for a period spanning 600 years until its demise in the year ca. 220 v.c., and was continued to be used as an important literary, academic and religious language on the island and surrounding mainland areas. |- !|3.f |hémólnar
henesánar
hetacvénar |hémolstí
henesastí
hetacvēstí |} With initial vowels or words beginning with h the he prefix combines thus:

• he+(h)a→hā
• he+(h)e→hē
• he+(h)i→hei
• he+(h)o→hō
• he+(h)u→hū
• he+(h)y→hȳ
• he+long vowel/diphthong = h+long vowel/diphthong

Certain preceding obstruents will also combine with the h-:

• b/p+h→f
• d/t+h→th
• ž/ŧ+h→š
• g/c+h→ch

Future
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	mólchỳn nésàchyn tacvéchyn	mólchỳm nésàchym tacvêchym
1.in	-	mólènais nésànais tacvénais
2.m	mólchỳr nesáchyr tacvéchyr	mólèlais nésàlais tacvélais
2.f	mólchy̏ nesáchy̏ tacvéchy̏	mólèrais nésàrais tacvérais
3.m	mólchỳ nésàchy tacvéchy	mólchȅv nesáchēv tacvéchēv
3.f	mólchỳs nésàchys tacvéchys	mólchȅt nesáchēt tacvéchēt

Jussive
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	mólî nesâi tacvêi	mólémit nesámit tacvêmit
1.in	-	mólédan nesádan tacvědan
2.m	mólîr nesâir tacvêir	mólèlt nésàlt tacvêlt
2.f	mólît nesâit tacvêit	mólèrt nésàrt tacvêrt
3.m	mólìm nesàim tácvèim	mólivá nesavá tacvevá
3.f	mólisá nesasá tacvesá	mólitá nesatá tacvetá

Non-finite forms of the active

The active participle is formed by infixing ⟨en/an/ēn⟩ (respectively for -î/-âi/-êi conjugations) before the nucleus of the first syllable of the stem of the third person masculine form and removing any final vowels.

The first infinitive is formed by suffixing -s to the 2nd person masculine singular imperative.

The second infinitive is formed by -m to the 2nd person masculine singular imperative.

The action noun is formed by -né (g) to the 2nd person masculine singular imperative.

Allomorphy of the mediopassive suffix

The mediopassive suffix is -vâi, but the vowel changes to -vi / _Ci. Also the present tense 3pl masculine suffix is irregular -vini.

Non-finite forms of the passive

The static passive participle is formed through the infix ⟨ir/air/eir⟩ in the bare stem.

The dynamic passive participle is formed with the ⟨(i)s⟩ in the passive 3rd person masculine singular stem minus the final vowel.

The infinitive is formed by adding -v(e)n, and the action noun is formed by -vné.

Object affixes

Main article: Themsaran bipersonal affixes

The object affixes combine at the end of the verb, sometimes in less predictable ways, to agree with the direct object.

Object affixes
1sg	2sg.m	2sg.f	3sg.m.dir	3sg.f.dir	4sg.m	4sg.f	inv	1ex	1in	2pl.m	2pl.f	3pl.m.dir	3pl.f.dir	4pl.m	4pl.f
-(e)n	-ze	-ve	-(j)u	-(j)i	-ŧ(u)	-ŧi	-th	-am	-(e)nt	-sŋa	-sŋe	-(e)ch, -ū	-(e)r, -īn	-ŧech, -ŧū	-ŧer, -ŧīn

As a general rule the downstep shifts to the end when the objectless form has it on the stem; the downstep stays put when the objectless form has it on the ending.

Prepositions

Prepositions in Themsaran are inflected with pronominal enclitics. If the resulting combination is monosyllabic the syllable takes ´ or ˆ as the accent. If disyllabic (unless 1s, 3mp and 3fp) the second takes the ´ accent.

Inflection of prepositions
1sg	2sg.m	2sg.f	3sg.m	3sg.f	4sg.m	4sg.f	inv	1ex	1in	2pl	3pl.m	3pl.f	4pl.m	4pl.f
-en	-ze	-vi	-(j)u	-(j)i	-ŧu	-ŧi	-th	-am	-(e)nt	-sħe	-(e)ch	-(e)r	-ŧech	-ŧer

Inflection of example preposition
1sg	2sg.m	2sg.f	3sg.m	3sg.f	4sg.m	4sg.f	inv	1ex	1in	2pl	3pl.m	3pl.f	4pl.m	4pl.f
aštén	aštezé	aštví	aštú	aští	ašteŧú	ašteŧí	ášteth	aštám	aštént	aštesħé	aštéch	aštér	ašteŧéch	ašteŧér

The following prepositions have completely regular inflection:

• ašt 'without, except' (negation of comitative)
• chaŋ (! definite object) 'concerning'
• det 'towards, until'
• dienem 'inside, amidst'
• dismar, tŋisfîer 'instead of
• éŋħȅn 'because of'
• glenem 'out of'
• had 'like, as, in correspondence to'
• ħal 'in front of'
• lyr 'agent'
• mel 'agent' (interchangable with lyr)
• oles 'until'
• pram 'unlike'
• rimên 'because of'
• sűnân 'despite'
• tor 'because of (implication)'
• trig 'around'
• ŧani (ı-stem) 'after'
• vórêl 'for, for sake of'
• zom 'between'
• žymai 'without' (negation of instrumental)

The following are inflections of irregular prepositions:

Inflection of ā, āC (comitative)
1sg	2sg.m	2sg.f	3sg.m	3sg.f	4sg.m	4sg.f	inv	1ex	1in	2pl	3pl.m	3pl.f	4pl.m	4pl.f
āħán	āzzé	āvví	āħá	āħé	āŧŧú	āŧŧí	âtthu	âm	ânt	āsħé	āħách	āħár	āŧŧéch	āŧŧér

Inflection of di, d' 'in, at'
1sg	2sg.m	2sg.f	3sg.m	3sg.f	4sg.m	4sg.f	inv	1ex	1in	2pl	3pl.m	3pl.f	4pl.m	4pl.f
dîen	dîeze	dîevi	dîe	dî	dîeŧu	dîeŧi	dîeth	dîem	dîent	dîesħe	dîech	dîer	dîeŧech	dîeŧer

Inflection of vo 'to, for'
1sg	2sg.m	2sg.f	3sg.m	3sg.f	4sg.m	4sg.f	inv	1ex	1in	2pl	3pl.m	3pl.f	4pl.m	4pl.f
vôjen	vôzze	vôvví	vû	vŷ	vôŧu	vôŧi	vôth	vōdám	vônt	vōsħé	vōıéch, vôch	vōıér, vôr	vošŧéch	vošŧér

Inflection of nai' 'with, by means of'
1sg	2sg.m	2sg.f	3sg.m	3sg.f	4sg.m	4sg.f	inv	1ex	1in	2pl	3pl.m	3pl.f	4pl.m	4pl.f
nâin	naizé	naiví	nāıú	nāıí	naiŧú	naiŧí	nâith	nājám	nâint	naisħé	nâich	nâir	naiŧéch	naiŧér

Inflection of la 'also; no matter... (with interrogatives)'
1sg	2sg.m	2sg.f	3sg.m	3sg.f	4sg.m	4sg.f	inv	1ex	1in	2pl	3pl.m	3pl.f	4pl.m	4pl.f
lâin	laizé	laiví	laıú	lâi	laiŧú	laiŧí	lâith	laıám	lâint	laisħé	lâich	lâir	laŧéch	laŧér

Inflection of gle, gl' 'from' (ablative, partitive, substance)
1sg	2sg.m	2sg.f	3sg.m	3sg.f	4sg.m	4sg.f	inv	1ex	1in	2pl	3pl.m	3pl.f	4pl.m	4pl.f
glên	glēzé	glēví	glējú	glî	glēŧú	glēŧí	glêth	glēıám	glênt	glēsħé	glêch	glêr	glēŧéch	glēŧér

Inflection of pī (against)
1sg	2sg.m	2sg.f	3sg.m	3sg.f	4sg.m	4sg.f	inv	1ex	1in	2pl	3pl.m	3pl.f	4pl.m	4pl.f
pîn	pīzé	pīví	pīıú	pīıí	pīŧú	pīŧí	pîth	pîm	pînt	pīsħé	pîch	pîr	pīŧéch	pīŧér

Uses of the dative

The dative preposition vo is often used for semantic experiencers:

vû nobáva

DAT-3SG.M be_diseased(PASS)-3SG.M

he (lit. to him) is sick

The pronominal w:ethical dative is used to express some form of interest in the matter.

Numerals

Themsaran employs a pure vigesimal numeral system. In transcriptions of Themsaran, if positional numerals are desired, the vigesimal positional numerals should be used.

Themsaran numerals
	n	nth	n times	n each/at a time	1/n	n days	n years
?	ıíes	ıínáš	ıístèr	ıísslè	ıissínde	ıíníež
1	cêm	félàš	ce̋mtèr	cêmslè	-	ce̋míež
2	títhâr	ŷrnàš	tístèr	tístlè	ra̋ħé	títhiež
3	nárgè	palsáš	nártèr	nárslè	nárgínde	náríež
4	mulé	muláš	múltèr	mulslé	mulínde	mulǐež
5	niļŧé	niļŧáš	níļŧèr	niļļé	niļŧínde	nilŧǐež
6	ftāmé	ftāmáš	ftǎmtèr	ftāmslé	ftāmínde	ftāmǐež
7	rūdé	rūdáš	rǔttèr	rūsslé	rūdínde	rūdǐež
8	lozedé	lozedáš	lóster	lorlé	lozínde	lozǐež
9	fárvé	fárváš	fártèr	fárslé	fárvínde	fáríež
10/A20	ħȳré	ħȳráš	ḥȳrtér	ħȳrslè	ħȳrínde	ħȳríež
11/B20	ħȳrcêm
12/C20	ħȳrtithâr
13/D20	ħȳrnárge
14/E20	ħȳrmulé
15/F20	ħȳrniļŧé
16/G20	ħȳrftāmé
17/H20	ħȳrrūdé
18/J20	ħȳrlozzedé
19/c20	ħȳrfarvé
20/1020	nevsé	nevsáš	nétvèr	nevsré	nevsínde	nevǐež
21/1120
40/2020
60/3020
80/4020
100/5020
120/6020
140/7020
160/8020
180/9020
200/A020
220/B020
240/C020
260/D020
280/E020
300/F020
320/G020
340/H020
360/J020
380/c020
400/10020	ŧaflé	ŧafláš	ŧáflèr	ŧafslé	ŧaflínde	ŧaflǐež
203/100020	idré	idráš	ídrer	idreslé	idrínde	idrǐež
204/1000020	zathné	zathnáš	zástèr	zathneslé	zathrínde	zathnǐež

The numeral is a noun that takes the definiteness inflection on behalf of the noun phrase (as a corollary, with a demonstrative the numeral is "indefinite" as well), whilst the noun is in the form "unmarked" in definiteness (indefinite for unpossessed, definite for possessed). 'Two' has a special definite form, títhîe.

nárgè glűanàch
/nárꜜge glúəꜜnax/
nárg-è glűan-àch
three-INDEF mushroom-PL.INDEF
three mushrooms

nárgȁ glűanàch
/nárꜜgaː glúəꜜnax/
nárg-ȁ glűan-àch
three-DEF mushroom-PL.INDEF
the three mushrooms

nárgȁ glűanûgit
/nárꜜgaː glúənuꜜugit/
nárg-ȁ glűan-ûgit
three-DEF mushroom-2SG.M>PL.DEF
your three mushrooms

nárgè glűanûgit mû
/nárꜜge glúənuꜜugit muꜜu/
nárg-è glűan-ûgit mû
three-INDEF mushroom-2SG.M>PL.DEF this.M.PL
these three mushrooms of yours

The distributive suffix can be appended to the "n times" numeral to express "n times each"; the -ter suffix then becomes -tr-: (Li̋chatâju tínžèr mé névsreslé. "We (inclusive) wrote this sentence 20 times each.")

The numerals can be combined with possessive suffixes to denote "(the) n of us/you/them" mullaŧís "four of you", mullâis "the four of you".

Syntax

Word order and fronting

The default constituent order is (time-place)-verb-subject-pronominal oblique object-direct object-(place-time). Any constituent may be topicalized or focalized by being placed in front of the verb. The syntactic difference between topicalization and focalization is that a topicalized noun phrase is the absolute first constituent of a clause while focalized noun phrases have to follow pre-verbal adjuncts such as negation. New information adverbs such as la (also) tend to topicalize, and restrictive adverbs such as vid (only) tend to focus.

"Emphasis"

Topicalization

The clause begins with the topicalized noun phrase, then a 3rd or 4th person pronoun corresponding to the subject is used in the sentence. If the topic is the object of a finite verb, a 3rd or 4th person object suffix is used on the verb.

Focalization

Themsaran focusing fronts the whole noun phrase (prepositions and all), unlike topicalization in which the topic is appositional and is expressed with a prepositional pronoun in the clause. If the focus is the subject fronting with no pronoun is used. Focusing may alternatively employ a type of cleft construction, with fronting of the focused noun phrase, by using the inverse verbal or prepositional object corresponding to the role of the focus in the sentence. The cleft construction is the one used when the focus is the direct object.

Noun phrases

Numerals precede nouns; possessors follow their possessa (with poetic exceptions); demonstratives occur after attributive adjectives, which follow nouns. Inflected quantifiers (uninflected quantifiers, such as rôg "every/all", precede the numeral) come after the adjective by default, but precede the noun when a demonstrative is used and precede the numeral when a numeral is used. Within these boundaries there is a lot of leeway; an attributive adjective or a demonstrative can occupy any position between its head and the relative clause.

Distributive possession

To express the meaning of "our/your/their respective NP", the last noun of the NP is reduplicated in absolute possessed forms. The plural persons are decomposed as follows:

• 1ex.m: noun-1sg›sg noun-3sg.m›sg or noun-3sg.m›sg noun-1sg›sg
• 1ex.f: noun-1sg›sg noun-3sg.f›sg or noun-3sg.f›sg noun-1sg›sg
• 1in.m: noun-2sg.m›sg noun-1sg›sg or noun-1sg›sg noun-2sg.m›sg
• 1in.f: noun-2sg.f›sg noun-1sg›sg or noun-1sg›sg noun-2sg.f›sg
• 2pl.m: noun-2sg.m›sg noun-2sg.m›sg
• 2pl.f: noun-2sg.f›sg noun-2sg.f›sg
• 3pl.m: noun-3sg.m›sg noun-3sg.m›sg
• 3pl.f: noun-3sg.f›sg noun-3sg.f›sg
• 4pl.m: noun-4sg.m›sg noun-4sg.m›sg
• 4pl.f: noun-4sg.f›sg noun-4sg.f›sg

These exact forms are always used disregarding the finer aspects of gender composition in the group. Thus, for example, if the only male in a group speaks of "our (exclusive) respective villages", he will still say chmásán chmásâu "my village his village".

Equational sentences

The copula va̋cî is rarely used in the present indicative in full (not relative) clauses. Instead, an equational sentence begins with the subject, and a 3rd- or a 4th-person pronoun (cliticized and therefore toneless) agreeing with the subject may be used anywhere in the sentence, or omitted (as is often the case, as the predicate adjectives and the end of each noun phrase are quite transparent). The uncliticized pronoun is used when the subject is pronominal or when the copular pronoun is used at the end of a clause.

Predicative possession

"X has Y" is expressed with the construction "gîe Y vo X", or "gîe-[pronoun affix for pronominal X] Y" if X is animate. If X is inanimate, the construction X ā Y ('X is with Y'), or X ašt Y ('X is without Y') is used.

Coordinating conjunctions

at: or

ie: and (also 'but, while, whereas' with topicalized clauses)

íeláš: however, nevertheless, moreover

nesi: but (rather)

nu: xor/nand

seim: but, yet, however

Subordinating clauses

Themsaran prefers sentences with one independent (tensed realis) clause, with infinitives, jussives or participles in subordinate clauses (except usually in complement clauses). Using a finite verb in a dependent clause instead of an infinitive or participle carries focus, on the verb or another constituent.

Subordinating conjunctions

ach: although

ānne: when (with finite verb)

ar: if (situational; P will result in Q); if the condition occurs in a future time, then use future

eir: because, for

gin: if (metaphorical/counterfactual)

isi: only if

ne: that (complementizer)

nit: if (epistemic; P logically implies Q)

nitrôg/trôg: whoever/whatever (generic)

rin: that, which (specific)

surith: which (sentential relativizer)

Time clauses

Time clauses are constructed with a preposition and the first infinitive with the possessor as subject.

āl lēvasén (lit. with my running)

while I run/was running (imperfective)

dí ta̋ŋrèsi ātmán (lit. at my mother's being-born)

when my mother was born (perfective)

ħal riesseví (lit. before your coming)

before you came/come

Relative clauses

The participial relative clause is introduced with a participle. An active participle's possessor is the object and a passive participle's possessor is the agent. It is the default relative clause formation method.

The finite relative clause is introduced optionally with a relativizer rin (specific) or nitrôg/trôg (non-specific; etymologically "whenever"). When the head is omitted, the relativizer is mandatory. To modify a sentence with a relative clause the relativizer surith is used instead.

Complement clauses

Themsaran uses chiefly finite complement clauses, unlike for other types of subordinate clauses. Using a non-finite complement clause entails using the verb va̋cî with a participle. This expresses a strong conviction that the complement clause is true.

Negation

Negation of finite verbs is performed by the pre-verbal clitic tir, except in the future, where the particle vēt is used with the jussive.

The predicate negator is dâ(r).

Imperatives and jussives are negated by using the irrealis negation clitic ham with the jussive. Hám may be used as a standalone exclamation ("do not!"/"may it not happen!").

Infinitives are negated with tíessù.

Coreferentiality

There are several situations where the strictly head-marking language tracks coreferentiality, or which agreeing noun a verb or pronoun taking a given agreement refers to.

Inverse marking

Themsaran has so-called "inverse" verbal affixes that force a particular, marked order of the sentence, rather like the Austronesian trigger system. This marker serves simultaneously to trigger a more focused meaning on the more fronted constituent.

Verbal inverse marking

Constituents	Direct (unless otherwise marked)	Inverse (forced reading)
VN	VS	VO
NV	SV	OV
VNN	VSO	VOS
NVN	SVO	OVS
NNV	OSV	SOV

Proximate/obviative affixes

The 3rd person, or proximate, object marks foreground or central referents, usually the first one or the most animate/possessing one mentioned soon after it. while the 4th person, or obviative, object refers to background or peripheral referents. The third person and the fourth person combine as 3+4=3, and when parts of a proximate plural is taken out, the first noun phrase to be taken out is the new 3rd person.

Hezūŋasré Colnosimáttmē ie Ŋirchâ né ıégléch ħēdāthénne, mežî ramlēsré né žlómalcámth canílsnuhu scőtálg zîm teizár vo nassamsŧû.
/hèzuːŋasreꜜ kòlnosimattꜜmeː ìəŋirxaꜜa néjeglexꜜ ħèːdaːθenꜜne mèʒiꜜi ràmleːsreꜜ néʒlomalcamθꜜ kànilꜜsnuhu scóːtalgꜜ zíꜜim teizarꜜ vònassamst͡ʃuꜜu/
he-zūŋ-asré colnosimáttm-ē ie Ŋirch-â ne=ıégléch ħēdāth-énn-e, mežî raml-ēsré ne=žlómalc-ámth c<an>íls-nuh-Ø-u scőtálg zîm teizár vo=nassams-ŧû
IPFV-dispute-IPFV.3/4PL.M North.Wind-DEF.SG and Sun-DEF.SG COMPZ=which.one powerful-COMP-PRED.M.SG, then agree-PFV.3/4PL.M COMPZ=win.see-PASS.JUSS.3SG take.off<ACT.PTCP>-CAUS-ACT.PRES-3/4SG.M>DEF.SG.M/CONJ traveller first successfully DAT=clothing-4SG.M>DEF.PL
The North Wind and the Sun disputed as to which was the most powerful and agreed that he should be declared the victor who could first strip a way-faring man of his clothes.

Because the traveler (scőtálg) is an obviate referent, his clothes are referred to as nassamsŧû, with the fourth person possessor, not nassamsû, which would be interpreted as "the North Wind's clothes".

Comparison

"Than"

The comparative particle 'than' is rā. Themsaran enables one to discriminate "He loved me more than she [loved me]" and "He loved me more than [he loved] her", by focusing the argument in the main clause that is compared. The comparative phrase is by default placed after the subject or verb, and the compared noun phrase is stated, or repeated with a pronoun.

žá hārbenín slá ra̋ ŧî
/ʒá hàːrbeninꜜ sláꜜ ráːt͡ʃíꜜiː/
žá he-arb-nin/ slá rā ŧî
3SG.M PAST.IPFV-teach/PAST.IPFV.3/4SG.M>1SG more.ADV than 4SG.F
He taught me more than she did.

na̋ hārbeníth slá ra̋ ŧî
/náː hàːrbeniθꜜ sláꜜ ráːt͡ʃiꜜiː/
na̋ he-arb-nith/ slá rā žî
1SG PAST.IPFV-teach/PAST.IPFV.3/4SG.M>INV.SG.M more.ADV than 4SG.F
He taught me more than he did her.

Note that the fronting does not automatically imply that the fronted noun phrase is compared, but simply that it is given the most focus. The compared argument is the closer argument to the comparative:

na̋ hārbeníth žá slá ra̋ ŧî
/náː hàːrbeniθꜜ ʒáꜜ sláꜜ ráːt͡ʃiꜜiː/
na̋ he-arb-nith/ žá slá rā ŧî
1SG PAST.IPFV-teach/PAST.IPFV.3/4SG.M>1SG 3SG.M more.ADV than 4SG.F
It is I whom he taught more than she did.

"Surpass"

Themsaran also, more succinctly, allows comparison by incorporating the adjective into the verb fcínêi 'surpass'. Unsurprisingly this construction is rather common for predicative comparisons:

Giemofcíneich arbalgâst.
giem(o)-fcin-eich arbâlg-āst
intelligent-surpass-/1SG.PRES>3PL.M teacher.1SG>DEF.PL
I am smarter than my teachers.

Indirect speech

If the complement clause's subject corefers with the subject of the main clause, it is left unstated in the complement clause. Otherwise the third- or fourth-person pronoun is used as the subject as appropriate.

"Impersonal" sentences

Impersonal pronouns do not exist in Themsaran. The verb is put into the mediopassive (or mediopassive of causative or applicative, as appropriate) with the subject as patient/object, or no subject if there is no patient.

scőtèv nárgìež glé chmásán det cazrê

one walks (lit. it is walked) for three days from my village to the coast

Modal constructions

Themsaran is poor in true modal and auxiliary verbs; "adverbial" and "adjectival" modal constructions are more common. Deontic modalities tend to be expressed adjectivally, while situational and epistemic modalities tend to have adverbial expressions. All modal expressions come before the (negation-) lexical verb (e.g. Jêr méŧar ħlomaréch šyrfāmâst! "How dare you betray my brothers!", note that the verb is in the preterite).

Modal adjectives

• lāmérse: "it is sufficient to..."
• ıalúne: "advisable".
• re̋dáme: "necessary", used to express need to do something.
• širŋúre: "required/compulsory"; moral obligation, "ought to".
• tírēné: "permitted", used to express permissibility.

Modal adverbs

• ŋídâ: "ably", used to express ability to do something.
• méŧár: equivalent of "dare".
• ļámȉl: "possibly", used to express epistemic possibility.
• tóssár: "seemingly".
• arzên: "certainly", used to express speaker's certainty (English epistemic "must").
• teizár: "successfully".

Modal verbs

"To want" is sréŋî. It is used (chiefly with an intransitive verb) in the first infinitive, always with a subject possessor (Sréŋȉ mispasén d'insé "I want to travel in a city", lit. "I want my traveling in a city"), or with transitive verbs in the second infinitive (definite direct objects are marked).

Periphrastic causatives

Using a periphrastic construction to express causatives often has the implicature of downplaying the agency of the agent or the degree of compulsion involved in the causation. Said degress can be fine-tuned further with the choice of the auxiliary verb of causation.

Derivational morphology

Affixal

Nouns and Adjectives

• -ácše (f, c): [noun]-manship, proper way of [verb]ing/being [adjective]
• -álg- (c): semantic agent of [verb]
• -áŋ- (plural, c): associative plural
• -átte (f, c): domain, place of [noun/adjective]
• -ath (c): adjectival suffix
• -ber (m, c): resultative of [verb]
• -d-/-de: nominalizer (less productive)
• -dr- (c): -ful
• [most often 1st infinitive]-ige (f c): nominalizer of [verb]
• -in (m g, not very productive): semantic patient of (verb)
• -índ- (c): diminutive
• -īd (f, 2, c): abstract noun
• cī(v)-: -less; ci̋lafrapâth: 'irresponsible'
• -m- (c): originating from [noun/adjective]; fǒnèm: 'marine'
• -malé (f th): manner of [verb]ing
• -met (m, g): semantic patient; fólħa̋met: sacrifice; ħarvímet: inconstant, ever-changing
• -ms (m, c): instrument noun; ežħams: trophy, prize
• -ŋ- (c) [noun]-like
• -né (g): action of [verb]; the action noun of [verb]
• -noš- (c): capable/worthy of patienthood, [verb]-able
• -őf- (c): weaker pejorative, "just some"
• -or- (š): pejorative
• -re (f, c, less productive): patient/resultative
• -rn- (š): capable of/good at agenthood, fit to be a [noun/adjective]; mattechivsáren: diligent
• -se (f, c): singulative
• -tán (f, c) "[noun] material"
• tir-: non-, un-[adjective]
• -ȳr (m, g): place noun
• -y̌the/y̋the (f, c): state of being [adjective], most often used for mental states

Verbs

• -lî/-ālî/-ēlî dynamic from [adjective/stative verb]
• -ystî or just -âi: cause to be [adjective]
• -trî: intensive
• -dm- iterative
• -alcâi: :see/depict as
• -nach-: [verb] to completion
• -dħâi: un-, dis- (intransitive)
• -prî: un-, dis- (transitive)
• -(i/u)t- (with tone change): transitivizer (not productive)

Compounding

Noun-adjective compounding occurs by removing the ending of the noun (and inserting -o- for first declension, -e- for second declennsion, and -i- for third declension of the noun if phonotactically required). If the compound is a noun with a supplemental meaning by the adjective, the lexical tone is that of the noun; on the contrary, as an adjective with the meaning colored by the noun, the lexical tone is adopted from the adjective.

cólèn (1st decl., high tone) + simáttem (accent paradigm c) = cólnosimáttmē

wind + northern = the north wind

Compounds headed by the final noun are largely 'kind of noun' compounds (noun-noun/adj-noun), whereas more coordinative compounds will be right-branching, often of a noun-adjective form.

Incorporation

Nouns and adverbs can be incorporated into verbs as they can into adjectives. This is primarily a derivational, rather than grammatical, device.

ħe̋demplaħêıam

strengthen us (flowery)

Sample texts

Featured Conlang Banner

Hebānnúvver gávthè mî ce̋mērâc./Bānnúvver gávthè mî.

This language was made-to-attract-attention at-one-time./This language has been made-to-attract-attention.

Éŋħȅn lāmennǐdīr chīrıīdái ie arvētnošīdái íe máugamalanî, miramlétnev bānnuvvní.

Because-of the bestness of its fineness, its believability and its ways-of-using, its being-made-to-attract-attention was/has been agreed-upon/assented. -->