User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51

IlL/Spare pages 1/51/Lexicon

IlL/Spare pages 1/51 (IlL/Spare pages 1/51: a Thígall [ə ˈɬiːɡ̊ɤᵝˤ] or a ŋgaoth dIlL/Spare pages 1/51 [ə ŋɔɬ ˈtiːɡ̊ɤᵝˤ] 'the IlL/Spare pages 1/51 language'; pronounced "teagle" in English) is a IlL/Spare pages 1/51ic language (a subbranch of the Talmic languages) inspired by Irish, German and Hindi. It is the largest Talmic language in terms of number of speakers. IlL/Spare pages 1/51 was created in part as a thought experiment posing the question "What would Irish look like with umlaut instead of palatalization?". Like all modern Talmic languages, IlL/Spare pages 1/51 is a descendant of Thensarian. It is spoken on the west coast of the continent Cuadhlabh on Hussmauch.

Numbers

1: cēm- > cémh 2: tithōr > tiothaꝛ 3: nazge > nág 4: dhaufe > daó 5: salir > salaꝛ 6: stām- > sdámh 7: rōde > ródh-L 8: lorethe > loꝛath-L 9: farve > aꝛbh-L 10: ħiōr > eóꝛ

Todo

• Translate Haggadah (as exercise)
• Affixes:
  • -sim

Notes

If a IlL/Spare pages 1/51 word is underlined, hover over it to view the pronunciation.

Symbols

• ⁱ - i-umlaut
• ^u - u-umlaut
• ^L - lenition/aspiration
• ^N - eclipsis
• ^B - b-prefixation

Orthography

Talmic script, used for writing IlL/Spare pages 1/51

Like other modern Talmic languages, IlL/Spare pages 1/51 is written in the Talmic cursive script, which is written from left to right. Some letters are not used in modern IlL/Spare pages 1/51, such as the Thensarian letters y, th, dh, ch, gh; the letters j and v are not used except in loanwords. The letter h is used for lenition as in Irish. So the IlL/Spare pages 1/51 alphabet is usually considered to have 20 letters (r d z i a f m g t h b s o ŋ p l n e u c) (digraphs and length diacritics are not counted).

The spelling is extremely conservative and in part reflects Old Tigal pronunciation.

Double consonants are used for ⟨ll, nn, rr⟩, which come from the Old IlL/Spare pages 1/51 fortis resonants /L, N, R/; they are pronounced identically to single ⟨l, n, r⟩ in standard IlL/Spare pages 1/51.

Phonology

Treated below is the phonology of Standard IlL/Spare pages 1/51 (a Thigall hÉtaoin). Other dialects differ mostly in vowel reflexes from Old IlL/Spare pages 1/51 and in the treatment of Old IlL/Spare pages 1/51 /n, nn, l, ll, r, rr/.

Stress

Primary stress usually falls on the first syllable, except for some inflected prepositions.

Consonants

IlL/Spare pages 1/51 has a relatively average consonant inventory of around 25 consonants. The phonology is unusual for distinguishing lateral consonants in fricatives but not in liquids.

IlL/Spare pages 1/51 consonants

		Labial	Dental/Alveolar	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Glottal
Nasal		m, mb m	nh, nd n̪	n ɳ	ŋ, ŋg ɲ~ŋ~ɴ
Stop	tenuis	b, bp p	d, dt t~ʈ		g, gc c~k~q			(ʔ)
	aspirated	p pʰ	t tʰ~ʈʰ		c cʰ~kʰ~qʰ
Spirant	voiceless	f, ph f	th ɬ~ꞎ		ch ç~x
	voiced	bh v	dh ɮ~ɮ˞		gh j~ɣ
Non-spirant	voiceless		s s~ʂ					h, fh, sh h
	voiced		z, zs z~ʐ
Liquid				ꝛ, ꝛꝛ ɺ~ɭ			l, ll ʀ~ʟ
Approximant		mh, mhf, v w			j j

Notes

• An initial /ʔ/ can be added to null initials (but is not mandatory).
• Étaoin IlL/Spare pages 1/51 has a form of Auslautverhärtung: aspiration is neutralized for word-final stops.
• Unaspirated consonants /p, t, k/ are half-voiced [b̥, d̥, ɡ̊] between vowels (at least within a word).
• /w/ is a labiovelar approximant [ɰʷ] with the vocalic quality of [u].
• /tʰ, t, ɬ, ɮ/ are usually alveolar [tʰ, t, ɬ, ɮ], and are retroflex [ʈʰ, ʈ, ꞎ, ɮ˞] adjacent to /ɽ˞~ɭ/.
• /n/ is lamino-dental [n̪].
  • Before /iː yː iə yə eː øː/ it palatalizes to alveolo-palatal [nʲ].
• /s, z/ are alveolar retracted [s̠, z̠], similar to the Northern/Central Castillan Spanish and Modern Greek /s/. They have retroflex allophones [ʂ, ʐ] next to /ɳ, ɺ˞~ɭ/.
• /ɳ/ is apical postalveolar [n̠].
• The retroflex liquid /ɭ/ is most often an apical postalveolar [l̠]. It can be a postalveolar lateral flap [ɺ] before vowels. Other allophones include [ɹ] and [ʟ].
  • The sequence /ŋɽ/ may become a retroflex lateral nasal [ɳᶩ] or, for some speakers, even a weak retroflex click [ᵑǃ˞].
• /ŋ, kʰ, k/ are usually velar [ŋ, kʰ, k], but are often labialized pharyngealized uvular [ɴʷˁ, qʷˁʰ, qʷˁ] next to /ʀ~ʟ/. /kʰʀ/ becomes an affricate or a trilled affricate [qχ].
• /ŋ, kʰ, k, x, ɣ/ palatalize to [ɲ, cʰ~cç, c, ç, j] before /iː yː iə yə eː øː/.
• The uvular liquid /ʀ~ʟ/:
  • The [ʀ] allophone occurs before consonants, and can be described as a "trilled Philly L". It is a pharyngealized uvular fricative or approximant [ʁᵝˤ] in careful speech which devoices to [χᵝˤ] after an aspirate or another fricative. In casual speech it tends to become velar [ɰᵝ].
  • The allophone transcribed as [ʟ] occurs after vowels but may occur before consonants. It is phonetically a pharyngealized uvular approximant with compressed rounding [ʁ̞ᵝˤ~ʁ̠̞ᵝ]; the vocalic quality resembles [ɤ]. It is similar to the Philadelphia English vocalized L.
  • In classical singing and some dialects [ɫ] is used in all positions.
• After a vowel, /ɣ/ disappears with compensatory lengthening of the vowel if the vowel is short. (Unless the /ɣ/ begins a stressed syllable.)

Fortis and lenis resonants

Certain accents and dialects preserve to varying degrees the Old IlL/Spare pages 1/51 distinction between fortis and lenis resonants: /l L n N r R/.

One dialect has:

• /l/ > /ʟ/
• /L/ > /l̪ˠ/
• /n/ > /n/
• /N/ > /ɳ/
• /r/ > /ɺ~l/
• /R/ > /ɺ˞~ɭ/

Mutations

Consonant mutations

Grapheme	m	p	b	f	n	t	d	s*	z	r	ŋ	c	g	l	0
IPA	/m/	/pʰ/	/p/	/f/	/ɳ/	/tʰ/	/t/	/s/	/z/	/ɺ˞~ɭ/	/ŋ/	/kʰ/	/k/	/ʀ~ʟ/	/ʔ/
Lenited	mh	ph	bh	fh	nh	th	dh	sh	zh	-	-	ch	gh	-	h-
IPA	/w/	/f/	/v/	/h/	/n/	/ɬ/	/ɮ/	/h/	silent	-	-	/x/	/ɣ/	-	/h/
Eclipsed	-	bp	mb	mhf	-	dt	nd	zs	-	-	-	gc	ŋg	-	ŋ-
IPA	-	/p/	/m/	/w/	-	/t/	/n/	/z/	-	-	-	/k/	/ŋ/	-	/ŋ/

^*The clusters sb, sd, sg do not mutate.

Vowels

IlL/Spare pages 1/51 has a vowel system with a complexity comparable to that of German, with 7 basic vowel qualities, vowel length, and the effects of L-vocalization.

It is important to note that the given orthographic values are only a proxy for the exact vowel, especially for the front rounded vowels (due to, among other things, irregular changes in unstressed syllables, and some words having "double umlaut").

IlL/Spare pages 1/51 vowels

	Front				Central		Back
	unrounded		rounded		unrounded	rounded	unrounded	rounded
	short	long	short	long	short	long	short	short	long
Close	i /ɪ/	í /iː/	io, ui /ʏ/	iú, úi /yː/		ú /ʉː/		u /ʊ/
Mid	e, ae, ai, ei, ia /ɛ/	aé, aí, éi /eː/	eu, oi, aio, aoi, iao, uai /œ/	aío, aói, eío /øː/	a [ə]	aó /ɵː/	al [ɤˁ]	o, ao, ua /ɔ/
Open		á, eá /aː/			a, ea /ɐ/

Diphthongs: é, ía /iə/ éu, ói, íao, úai /yə/ ó, úa /uə/ au /ɐw/

The vowel [ə] occurs only in unstressed syllables, and is written a.

L-colored vowels

In Étaoin IlL/Spare pages 1/51 l-colored vowels and diphthongs result from combinations of any vowels or diphthongs with the vocalized velar liquid [ɤˁ]:

• /iː/, /iə/ + [ɤˁ] > /iɤˁ/
• /ɪ/ + [ɤˁ] > /ɪɤˁ/
• /yː/, /yə/ + [ɤˁ] > /yɤˁ/
• /ʏ/ + [ɤˁ] > /ʏɤˁ/
• /ʊ/, /ʉː/, /uə/ + [ɤˁ] > /ʊˁː/
• /eː/ + [ɤˁ] > /eɤˁ/
• /ɛ/ + [ɤˁ] > /ɛɤˁ/
• /øː/ + [ɤˁ] > /øɤˁ/
• /œ/ + [ɤˁ] > /œɤˁ/
• /ɔ/, /ɵː/ + [ɤˁ] > /ɔˁː/
• /ɐ/, /aː/ + [ɤˁ] > /ɒˁː/

Notes

Close vowels

• /iː/ is close front unrounded [iː] (listen).
• /iə/ is phonetically [iə] (listen).
• /iɤˁ/ is phonetically [iːɤˁ] (listen).
• /yː/ is usually close near-front rounded [y̠ː] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
• /yə/ is phonetically [yə], [y̠ə] or [ʏə] (listen).
• /yɤˁ/ is phonetically [y̠ːɤˁ] (listen).
• /ʉː/ is somewhat retracted close central rounded [ʉ̠ː] (listen). Its rounding is protruded.
• /uə/ is phonetically [uə] or [ʊə] (listen). It is a monophthong [uː] for some speakers.
• /ʊˁː/ is near-close back rounded [ʊ̠ˁː] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
  • In careful speech, this is a diphthong [ʊ̠ɤˁ].
• /ɪ/ is near-close near-front unrounded [ɪ] (listen).
• /ʏ/ is near-close near-front rounded [ʏ] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
• /ʏɤˁ/ is phonetically [ʏɤˁ] (listen).
• /ʊ/ is near-close near-back rounded [ʊ] or back rounded [ʊ̠] (listen). Its rounding is protruded.

Mid vowels

• /eː/ is close-mid front unrounded [eː] (listen).
• /eɤˁ/ is phonetically [eːɤˁ] (listen).
• /øː/ is close-mid near-front rounded [ø̠ː] or mid front rounded [ø̞ː] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
• /øɤˁ/ is phonetically [ø̠ːɤˁ] (listen).
• /ɵː/ is somewhat retracted close-mid central rounded [ө̠ː] (listen). Its rounding is protruded.
• /ɔˁː/ is open-mid near-back rounded [ɔˁː] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
  • In careful speech, this is a diphthong [oɤˁ] or [ɔɤˁ].
• /ɛ/ is open-mid front unrounded [ɛ] or mid near-front unrounded [ɛ̽] (listen).
• /ɛɤˁ/ is phonetically [ɛ̞ɤˁ] (listen).
• /œ/ is open-mid near-front rounded [œ] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
• /œɤˁ/ is phonetically [œɤˁ] or [ɞɤˁ] (listen).
• [ə] is mid central unrounded [ə]. It is often fronted [ə̟] when word-final or utterance-final.
  • If a sonorant follows in the syllable coda, the schwa often disappears so that the sonorant becomes syllabic.
• [ɤˁ] is close-mid compressed pharyngealized [ɤᵝˁ].
• /ɔ/ is open-mid back rounded [ɔ] or mid back rounded [o̞] (listen). Its rounding is protruded.

Open vowels

• /aː/ is open (fully) front unrounded [aː], or near-open front unrounded [æː] (listen).
• /ɐ/ is near-open central unrounded [ɐ] (listen).
• /ɑˁː/ is most often phonetically a diphthong [ɑɤˁ] or [äɤˁ] (listen).

Umlaut

Vowels in the first syllable of roots may undergo i-umlaut or u-umlaut under the addition of some affixes.

Umlaut

Root vowel	a	a	aí	aó	e	é	i	í	o	ó	u	ú
u-umlaut	ao	aó	aío	-	eu	éu	iu	iú	-	-	-	-
i-umlaut	ai	aí	-	aoi	-	-	-	-	oi	ói	ui	uí

Some phonological rules

• unstressed -amha- > -aó- /ɵː/
• /ʏw/, /yəw/, /yːw/ > /ʉː/

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns are classed into two genders and are inflected in two numbers (singular and plural) and three states (indefinite, definite, construct).

Masculine vowel declension

Used mostly with some noun suffixes, such as -adh, -óiŋ

aésd - 'word'
Number→ State↓	Singular	Plural
Indefinite	aésd	aésdan
Definite	a haésda	aésdar
Construct	aésdadh	aésdar
1sg possessor	aésdanh	aésdaranh
2sg.m possessor	aésdis	aésdaris
2sg.f possessor	aésdus	aésdarus
3sg.m possessor	aésdu	aésdaru
3sg.f possessor	aésdi	aésdari
1exc possessor	aésdam	aésdaram
1inc possessor	aésdad	aésdarad
2pl possessor	aésdac	aésdarac
3pl possessor	aésdar	aésdarar

Masculine consonantal declension

The mutation after the noun surfaces on adjectives and genitive nouns.

sór - 'house'
Number→ State↓	Singular	Plural
Indefinite	sór	sóira
Definite	a shuar	sóiran
Construct	sóradh	sóirar
1sg possessor	sóranh	sóiraranh
2sg.m possessor	sóris	sóiraris
2sg.f possessor	sórus	sóirarus
3sg.m possessor	sóru	sóiraru
3sg.f possessor	sóri	sóirari
1exc possessor	sóram	sóiraram
1inc possessor	sórad	sóirarad
2pl possessor	sórac	sóirarac
3pl possessor	sórar	sóirarar

Masculine nouns with -Cadh: -Cadh / -Ctan / -Cta / -Ctar / -Ctadh / -Ctar (indef sg / indef pl / def sg/ def pl / const sg / const pl)

Feminine consonant declension

émh - 'mother'
Number→ State↓	Singular	Plural
Indefinite	émh	émhar
Definite	a ŋ-émh	a émh
Construct	éumhadh	éumhan

Feminine nouns with -Cadh: -Cadh / -Ctar / -Ctadh / -Ctan (indef sg / indef pl / const sg / const pl)

Mass and collective nouns

Mass and collective nouns are either singularia tantum or pluralia tantum; these often have a significantly different indefinite singular state.

Adjectives

Declension paradigms

The definite article is a, and is an before vowels.

Sample declensions

séth 'sharp'
	Singular		Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Masculine	Feminine
Predicative	séth a ŋór	séth a dtilŋ	séth ŋóran	séth a tilŋ
Indefinite	ŋór zséth	tilŋ séth	ŋóra sétha	tilŋar séthar
Definite	a ŋóir shéth	a dtilŋ zséth	ŋóran séthan	a tilŋ séth
Construct	ŋóra shéth	tiulŋa shéth	ŋórar séthan	tiulŋar séth

áithamh 'holy'
	Singular		Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Masculine	Feminine
Predicative	áithamh a aésda	áithamh a dtilŋ	áithamh aésdan	áithamh a tilŋ
Indefinite	aésda áithamh	tilŋ áithamh	aésdan áithaó	tilŋar áithaór
Definite	a aésd háithamh	a dtilŋ ŋ-áithamh	aésdar áithaón	a tilŋ háithamh
Construct	aésdadh h-áithamh	tylŋa h-áithamh	aésdar áithaón	tylŋar áithamh

Degree

The comparative form of adjectives is formed with the suffix -ana. The comparandum is marked with the particle rá 'than'.

The superlative is formed with the suffix -anhta.

Pronouns

Personal

IlL/Spare pages 1/51 personal pronouns

	1sg	2sg.m	2sg.f	3sg.m	3sg.f	1pl.ex	1pl.in	2pl	3pl
Independent	ná	zér	fhér	ŋú	hí	gámh	géid	zéid	hár
Dependent	nhá	ér	ér	ú	í	ámh	céir	séir	ár

To emphasize a pronoun or an inflected preposition, -da is added to the pronoun.

Other

• tá = what?
• tóbh = who?
• tach = where?

Prepositions

Prepositions are inflected, as in the ancestor Thensarian.

mo^L, m' comes from a word meaning "next to". It is also the direct object marker for definite persons (like Romanian pe).

Inflection of prepositions

	1sg	2sg.m	2sg.f	3sg.m	3sg.f	1pl.ex	1pl.in	2pl	3pl
chaoi 'before'	chaoính	chaoís	chaós	chaó	chaoí	chaoím	chaoíd	chaoíc	chaoír
de-L, d'- 'in, at'	deánh	déis	deós	deó	deí	dém	déd	déc	dér
dli 'on'	dlianh	dlis	dlios	dlú	dlí	dlim	dlid	dlic	dlir
gil 'from'	gialnh	gilis	gilus	gilu	gili	gilam	gilad	gilac	gilar
go-L 'with'	gónh	goís	gós	gú	goí	góm	gód	góc	gór
mo-L, m'-	mónh	móis	mós	mó	muí	móm	mód	móc	mór
anh/nha 'with (instrumental)'	naính	naís	naíos	naío	naí	naím	naíd	naíc	naír
riz 'alienable possession marker'	rizanh	rizis	rizus	rizu	rizi	rizam	rizad	rizac	rizar
ru (ergative)	rúinh	rúis	ruíos	rú	ruí	ruím	ruíd	ruíc	ruír
so 'to'	sónh	súis	sús	sú	suí	súm	súd	súc	súr
zead 'after'	zeadanh	zeadis	zeadus	zeadu	zeadi	zeadam	zeadad	zeadac	zeadar

Dli can be used to indicate obligation, as in Irish and Hebrew:

Dlianh cháisaladh a cháisanh.

[ˈdʁiən ˈçeːsəʀəɬ ə ˈçeːsn̩]

on-1SG eat-VN-CONST MO DEF.SG.M food

I have to eat the food.

Verbs

Old IlL/Spare pages 1/51 had a verb system with complex alternations, almost comparable to that of Old Irish. Modern IlL/Spare pages 1/51 simplified this system substantially, leaving behind a mixture of synthetic forms (used without a subject pronoun) and analytic forms (used with a subject noun or pronoun), similar to the Modern Irish system. Due to their different origins - namely, synthetic forms come from Thensarian conjugated verbs while analytic forms come from Thensarian participles or verbal nouns - they often morphologically behave differently.

Addition of the b-prefix

Certain verb forms undergo the morphophonological process of b-prefixation, which stems from the Thensarian 3rd person singular object prefix bi-. The b-prefix is not added to analytic forms (since those come from participles), impersonal forms, or imperatives.

For unprefixed verbs, the b-prefix is added by lenition of the stem's initial consonant. If the result of lenition begins with a vowel, then b'- is added.

For prefixed verbs, the addition of the b-prefix works as follows:

• For prefixes ending in a resonant, the first consonant of the root undergoes eclipsis.
  • síl-sꝛeichdadh ná 'I restrain', síl-zsꝛeichdaꝛ 'you restrain'
• For other prefixes, the mutation that would otherwise be induced by the prefix is blocked.
  • pé-zhophadh ná 'I make an effort', pé-zophaꝛ 'you make an effort'

Present tense

The present tense is conjugated as follows. For some verbs, umlaut occurs with certain affixes.

Template:Col-3

Present tense
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	STEM-adh ná BSTEM-anh (poetic)	STEM-aóch
1.in	-	STEM-adh géid BSTEM-ad (poetic)
2	BSTEM-aꝛ	STEM-adh zéid BSTEM-asg (poetic)
3.m	STEM-adh ŋú/hí	STEM-adh háꝛ
Impersonal	STEM-(a)1ra

Present tense of the verb moladh 'thank'
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	moladh ná mholanh (poetic)	mholaóch
1.in	-	moladh géid mholad (poetic)
2	mholaꝛ	moladh zéid mholasg (poetic)
3.m	moladh ó moladh ŋí	moladh hár
Impersonal	molꝛa

Present tense of the verb idadh 'lie in a place'
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	idadh ná b'idan (poetic)	b'idaóch
1.in	-	idadh géid b'idad (poetic)
2	b'idaꝛ	idadh zéid b'idasg (poetic)
3.m	idadh ó idadh ŋí	idadh háꝛ
Impersonal	idaꝛa

¹ The buffer -a- is added when the previous consonant is a coronal.

Imperfect tense

To form the imperfect tense, the particle g'laí is used before the verb, -a is added to the stem, and the verb undergoes eclipsis.

• g'laí mola ná 'I used to thank'
• g'laí ŋ-ida ŋí 'she used to lie'

Preterite tense

The preterite is considered archaic in Standard IlL/Spare pages 1/51. It may be found in remote or isolated dialects.

Perfect tense

The suffix ⁱ-ính is added to the stem to form the past participle. The subject is preceded by an ergative marker ro. For the impersonal the subject is simply omitted. This is the standard way of forming the preterite in Étaoin IlL/Spare pages 1/51.

Cáisính luc ꝛuính.

I ate/have eaten a fruit.

Pluperfect tense

g'laímh + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite.

• g'laímh moilính ná 'I had thanked'
• g'laímh idính ŋí 'she had lain'

Future tense

Template:Col-3

Future tense
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	STEM-tadh ná BSTEM-tanh (poetic)	STEM-taóch
1.in	-	STEM-tadh géid BSTEM-tad (poetic)
2	BSTEM-taꝛ	STEM-tadh zéid BSTEM-tasg (poetic)
3.m	STEM-tadh ŋú/hí	STEM-tadh háꝛ
Impersonal	STEM-aꝛt

Future tense of the verb moladh 'thank'
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	moltadh ná mholtanh (poetic)	mholtaóch
1.in	-	moltadh géid mholtad (poetic)
2	mholtaꝛ	moltadh zéid mholtasg (poetic)
3.m	moltadh ŋú/hí	moltadh háꝛ
Impersonal	molaꝛt

Future tense of the verb idadh 'lie in a place'
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	idatadh ná b'idatanh (poetic)	b'idataóch
1.in	-	idatadh géid b'idatad (poetic)
2	b'idataꝛ	idatadh zéid b'idatasg (poetic)
3.m	idatadh ó idatadh ŋí	idatadh háꝛ
Impersonal	idaꝛt

Future perfect tense

fácht + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite.

Imperative

Template:Col-3

Imperative
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	-	-
1.in	-	STEM-ad!
2	STEM!	STEM-asg!
3.m	-	-
Impersonal	-

Imperative of the verb moladh 'thank'
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	-	-
1.in	-	molad!
2	mol!	molasg!
3.m	-	-
Impersonal	-

Imperative of the verb idadh 'lie in a place'
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	-	-
1.in	-	idad!
2	id!	idasg!
3.m	-	-
Impersonal	-

Verbal noun

The verbal noun serves many important syntactic functions.

Some affixes for verbal nouns:

• ⁱ-al
• -a/-as?
• -ach
• ablaut
• bare stem
• i-umlaut

Derivational morphology

Below are some common IlL/Spare pages 1/51 derivational affixes:

• ⁱ-a (f): nominalizer
• -abh: diminutive
• -ach: verbal noun (the most common suffix)
• -agha: adjectivizer
• -all: adjectivizer
• ⁱ-al (m.): nominalizer
  • ŋoiꝛcal 'bitterness, resentment' < ŋoꝛc 'bitter'
• -al: diminutive
• ⁱ-amh: adjectivizer
  • caoithꝛamh 'floral' < caothaꝛ 'flower'
• -dí (f): nominalizer
• é-: 'common, co-' (from Thensarian ēs-)
  • étaoin: 'common/universal, standard' < taoin 'mold, cast'
• í-L: non-
• -í/-zí: adjective suffix (Kagasa)
• -gáinh (f): abstract noun
• mí-: mis-
  • mímhaóghach "misuse" < maóghach "use"
• ⁱ-óiŋ, indef. pl. ⁱ-óiŋann, def. pl. ⁱ-óiŋar: agentive (< Thn. -iōȝī < Kagasa -yōȝi)
  • sbúithóiŋ 'sbúith player' < sbúith 'a Talmic lute, usually fretless or with movable frets'
• -óꝛ: augmentative
• -ꝛá: able
  • cásꝛá = edible
• -sd-: adjectivizer, [NOUN]-like
• -tibh: adjectivizer

Syntax

Constituent order

The overall syntax of IlL/Spare pages 1/51 resembles that of Irish but with more flexibility.

IlL/Spare pages 1/51 is almost completely head-initial, except for compound words which are head-final. The constituent order is VSO. Background information (usually in the order time-manner-place) may be placed before the verb (unlike in Irish), after the subject, or after the direct object. However, no constituent may come between the verb and the subject.

Noun phrase

Adjectives

Adjectives always follow their head nouns.

Possessive noun phrases

In possessive noun phrases the possessed noun uses the construct form, and the possessor (indefinite or definite) is placed after it. For pronominal possessors, the disjunctive pronoun is used.

Moladh a thachd m'éumhadh ú.
/ˈmɔˤːʀəɬ ʔə ˈɬɐxt ˈm‿yəwəɬ ʉː/
mol-adh a-^L tachd mo^L émh-^uadh ú
thank-PRES DEF.SG.M child MO mother-CONS.SG.F 3SG.M.DISJ
The child thanks his mother.

Verb phrase

Negation

• interrogative: é-L
• negative: tí
• negative interrogative: ésd-L

Sentence phrase

Predicate nouns and adjectives

IlL/Spare pages 1/51 is zero-copula, like Hebrew. For predicate sentences, the predicate (unmarked) form of the predicate noun or adjective is placed before the subject, and the pronoun is used.

Zuadhma ŋú caothaꝛ.

A flower is a plant.

Zuadhma ŋú.

It's a plant.

Similarly for definite nouns as subjects, though the pronoun is not mandatory in this case:

Zuadhma (ŋú) a chaothaꝛ.

The flower is a plant.

Áꝛd (hí) a gcomhnha.

The woman is tall.

Áꝛd hí.

She is tall.

Conjunctions

• aꝛ: 'and'
• lú: 'or'
• ach: 'but'
• ꝛi-N: 'that (relative clause)'
• ní-L : 'that (complement clause)'
• faódh-N: 'because'
• dꝛi-L: 'when, if'

Dependent clauses

Relative clauses

The relativizer is ꝛi^N. A resumptive pronoun may be used when the head is not the subject of the relative clause, and is mandatory when the head is a prepositional object or a possessor.

A chaꝛ ꝛi mhfeiladh hú "Zibhaꝛn"

The man whose name was "Lightning"

Verbs in relative clauses may be placed anywhere within the relative clause, subject to the constraint that the verb and (syntactic) subject may not be separated unless the subject of the relative clause is the head. If the subject is the head, the relativizer ꝛi may be omitted, however in that case the verb must immediately follow the head.

Nominalized relative clauses use nóꝛ ꝛi... 'those who...'

nóꝛ ꝛi mímhaóghadh

'those who misuse'

Time clauses

There are two ways of forming time clauses.

Infinitive clauses

Infinitive clauses resemble German zu-infinitive clauses in that they are verb-final: the infinitive is used at the end. The particle used before the infinitive is sho /hɔ/.

Tí laósgall fách ná, s'a sóꝛ rizanh sho frúnhach.

I was unable to return to my house.

Phrasebook

• Feilanh [NAME]. = My name is [NAME].
• Le... = Well...
• Tá a ŋgoimhꝛa? (vulgar) = I don't give a shit!

Sample texts

The North Wind and the Sun

A bhólcolnh aꝛ a ŋ-úd

Cémhꝛách g'laí a bhólcoln aꝛ a ŋ-úd d'usgach go nhaꝛan di ní thóbh gilaꝛ aédhana, ánh nhuaidhính zothꝛóiŋ de ꝛeía d'zhíoꝛ go pheisbal mhfún drú. Éꝛéidhính tiothꝛan ní ŋamamh aédhana zusbính sho laí ŋú a bhán ꝛi gcluinhtatadh sú heíonh, s'anh zhothꝛóiŋ sho ꝛeá, a pheisbal ꝛizu sho dheꝛbhach. Iomhꝛa ŋoꝛꝛính a bhólcoln go thánh ꝛi g'laí conꝛathu, ach go ŋoꝛꝛal aꝛ g'laí ŋoꝛꝛa ŋú, ón aꝛ-sŋúichdính a pheisbal ꝛizu ꝛu anh zhothꝛóiŋ dꝛi ŋlúdhu. Di fhaíꝛ a bpánhabh, síl-bpálính a bhólcoln gil a snóisal. Iomhꝛa sásaphính fúina ꝛu a ŋ-úd, aꝛ cheíasd deꝛbhính a pheisbal ꝛizu ꝛu anh zhothꝛóiŋ. Ar anásd fáchính plénhính a bhólcoln sho ghoꝛgésbach, ní a ŋ-úd hí a bhán h-aédhana.

Gloss

Cémhꝛách g'laí a bhólcoln aꝛ a ŋ-úd d'usgach go nhaꝛan di ní thóbh gilaꝛ aédhana, ánh nhuaidhính zothꝛóiŋ de ꝛeía d'zhíoꝛ go pheisbal mhfún dꝛú.
[ˈcʰiəwl̠æːx qʷˁeː ə ˈvʊːˁkʰɔːˁn̠ əl̠ ə ˈŋʉ̠ːt ˈtʊs̠kəx kə ˈn̪al̠ən̠ dl̠ɪ n̠iː ˈɬɵ̠ːv ˈɡɪʁᵝəl̠ ˈeːɮən̠ə̟ ǀ æːn̪ ˈn̪yəɮiːn̪ ˈz̠ɔɬl̠øːŋ də ˈl̠eːə ˈdyːl̠ ɡə ˈfɛs̠pɤᵝˁ ˈwʉ̠ːn̠ dl̠ʉ̠ː]
cémhrách g'laí-N a-L bólcoln ar a-N úd de-L usgach go-L narn dri ní-L tóbh gil-ar aédh-ana, ánh-L nuaidh-ính zothl-óiŋ de-L reía d-L zíor go-L peisbal N-fún dr-ú
one_time IPF DEF.M.SG north-wind and DEF.F.SG sun COMIT each_other on COMP who from-3PL strong-CMPV, when easily-PST.PART travel-AGT LOC come-VN LOC way COMIT cloak INDEF.M.SG.warm on-3SG
Once the north wind and the sun were arguing with each other about which one was stronger, when a traveler appeared in the way with a warm cloak on him.

Éꝛéidhính tiothꝛan ní ŋamamh aédhana zusbính sho laí ŋú a bhán ꝛi gcluinhtatadh sú heíonh, s'anh zhothꝛóiŋ sho ꝛeá, a pheisbal ꝛizu sho dheꝛbhach.
[ˈʔiəl̠iəɮiːn̪ ˈtʰʏɬl̠ən̠ n̠iː ˈŋɐməw ˈeːɮən̠ə ˈʐʊs̠piːn̪ hɔ̽ ʁeː ŋʉ̠ː ə væːn̠ l̠ɪ ɢʷˁʏn̪tʰətʰəɬ s̠ʉ̠ː høn̪ ǀ s̠ən̪ ˈɔɬl̠øːŋ hɔ̽ ˈl̠æː ə ˈfɛs̠pɤᵝˁ l̠ɪz̠ʊ hɔ̽ ˈɮɛl̠vəx]
é-réidh-ính tiothar-n ní-L zusb-ính sho-L laí ŋú a-L bán ri-N cluinht-t-adh s-ú heíonh so-L anh-L zothróiŋ sho-L reá, a-L peisbal riz-u sho-L derbh-ach
together-come-PST.PART two-DEF.M.PL COMP strong-CMPV TEL-count_as-PST.PART SHO be.VN 3SG.M.INDEP DEF-M one REL succeed-FUT-PART to-3SG.M first to DEF.M.SG traveller SHO make.VN DEF.M.SG cloak POSS-3SG.M SHO take_off-VN
The two agreed that he was to be considered stronger who would first succeed in making the traveler take off his cloak.

Iomhꝛa ŋoꝛꝛính a bhólcoln go thánh ꝛi g'laí conꝛathu, ach go ŋoꝛꝛal aꝛ g'laí ŋoꝛꝛa ŋú, ón aꝛ-sŋúichdính a pheisbal ꝛizu ꝛu anh zhothꝛóiŋ dꝛi ŋlúdhu.
[ˈʔʉ̠ːl̠ə ˈŋɔl̠iːn̪ ə ˈvʊːˁkʰɔːˁn̠ gə ˈɬæːn lɪ qʷˁeː ˈkʰɔn̠l̠əɬʊ ǀ ʔɐx ˈŋɔl̠ɤᵝˁ əl̠ qʷˁeː ˈŋɔl̠ə ŋʉ̠ː ǀ ˈuən ˈɐl̠s̠ɲyːxtiːn̪ ˈfɛs̠pɤᵝˁ l̠ɪz̠ʊ l̠ʊ ən̪ ˈɔɬl̠øːŋ ə dl̠ɪ ˈɴᵝˁʉ̠ːɮʊ]
iomhra ŋorr-ính a-L bólconh go-L tánh ri-N g'laí-N conrath-u, ach go-L ŋorral ar g'laí-N ŋorr-a 3SG.M-IPFV ón ar-sŋúichd-ính a-L peisbal riz-u ru anh-L zothlóiŋ dri ŋlúdh-u
now blow-PST.PART DEF.M.SG north_wind COMI all DEF IPFV might-3SG.M, but COMI blow.VN and IPFV blow-IPFV 3SG.M.INDEP more fasten-PST.PART DEF.M.SG cloak POSS-3SG.M ERG DEF.M.SG traveller on body-3SG.M
Now the north wind blew with all his might, but the more he blew, the more did the traveler fasten the cloak around him.

Di fhaíꝛ a bpánhabh, síl-bpálính a bhólcoln gil a snóisal.
[tɪ ˈheːl̠ ə bæːn̪əv ˈsiːɤᵝˁbɑːʁᵝiːn̪ ə ˈvʊːˁkʰɔːˁn̠ gɪɤᵝˁ ə ˈʂn̠øːs̠ɤᵝˁ]
di-L faír síl-bpálính a-L bólcoln gil a-L snóis-al
LOC bottom DEF lamp give_up-PST.PART DEF.M.SG north_wind from DEF.SG.N continue-VN
Realizing that continuing would be futile, the north wind gave up continuing.

Iomhꝛa sásaphính fúina ꝛu a ŋ-úd, aꝛ cheíasd deꝛbhính a pheisbal ꝛizu ꝛu anh zhothꝛóiŋ.
[ˈʔʉ̠ːl̠ə ˈs̠æːs̠əfiːn̪ ˈfyːn̠ə l̠ʊ ə ˈŋʉ̠ːt ǀ əl̠ ˈçeːəst tɛl̠viːn̪ ə ˈfɛs̠pɤᵝˁ ˈl̠ɪz̠ʊ l̠ʊ ən̪ ˈɔɬl̠øːŋ]
iomhra sásaph-ính fúina ru a-N 'úd ar H-ceíasd derbh-ính a peisbal riz-u ru anh-L zothróiŋ
now shine-PST.PART warmth ERG DEF.F.SG sun, and ADV-immediate take_off-PST.PART DEF.M.SG cloak ERG DEF.M.SG traveler
Now the sun shined out warmth, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak.

Aꝛ anásd fáchính plénhính a bhólcoln sho ghoꝛgésbach, ní a ŋ-úd hí a bhán h-aédhana.
[əl̠ əˈn̠æːs̠t fæːçiːn̪ ˈpʰʁᵝeːn̪iːn̪ ə ˈvʊːˁkʰɔːˁn̠ hɔ̽ ˈɣɔl̠giəs̠pəx ǀ n̠iː ə ˈŋʉ̠ːt hiː ə væːn̠ ˈheːɮən̠ə̟]
ar anásd fá-ính plénh-ính a-L bólcoln sho-L gorgésbach ní a-N úd hí a-L bán L-aédh-ana
and thus be-PST.PART obligate-PST.PART DEF.M.SG SHO confess.VN, COMP DEF.F.SG 3SG.F.INDEP DEF.M.SG one DEF.M.SG-strong-CMPV
And thus the north wind was obliged to admit that the sun was the stronger one.