Verse:Mwail/Old Gloob

Themsárimai: Gávthā themsárimā
ראו דף זה בעברית

Themsarian
themsárimā
Pronunciation	[/θè̞msarꜜmaː/]
Created by	–
Extinct	220 v.T.
Language family	Zachydic Raxo-Talsmic Talsmic Themsarian
Language codes
ISO 639-3	qth

Mwail/Old Gloob gávthā themsárimā
Type
fusional, agglutinative
Alignment
nominative-accusative, head-marking
Head direction
Initial	Mixed		Final
Primary word order
Verb-subject-object
Tonal
Yes
Declensions
Yes
Conjugations
Yes
Genders
Masculine/feminine
Nouns decline according to...
Case		Number
Definiteness		Gender
Verbs conjugate according to...
Voice		Mood
Person		Number
Tense		Aspect

Themsarian is my first constructed language, for my conworld of Hheergrem. It is intended to be a head-initial, head-marking language with a plausible development from an erstwhile dependent-/double-marking language. The grammar and syntax has been heavily influenced by Semitic and Celtic languages, with some drawing from Japanese, German and other languages, while the aesthetics draws on Latin, Germanic, Greek, Celtic and Finnish, with hints of Khmer and Gyeongsang Korean. The morphology is an experiment with grammatical non-concatenative morphology: as Celtic grammaticalizes initial consonant mutations, and Semitic vowel patterns, Themsarian does so with tone patterns. The grammar is also an experiment on using inflections and agreement to show grammatical relations without case, which explains the gender system (however minimalistic), switch-reference on verbs, and the borderline polysynthesis. So I guess it ends up a tad more like some Native American languages. Other purposes of my language include mixing in un-English verb syntax, such as the use of optatives in subordinate clauses, and using principally non-finite subordinate clauses in the indicative.

todo

• How to implement coreferentiality minimizing ambiguity?
• Tabulate lists
• Examples for everything
• Improve aesthetics
• Expand explanation on infinitive and supine
• Ditch thematic vowels?

Notes on notation

Glossary

• ^CLF: classifier tone pattern (non-desinential or desinential)
• H: vowel hiatus with next syllable
• N: denotes a homorganic nasal
• Z: denotes r before a vowel or voiced C, s before a voiceless C, z before z
• ~: cognate to

Background

See also: Themsarian/Sound changes from Proto-Talsmic.

The Themsarian (/θɛmˈsɑɹiən/) language (Themsarian: gávthā themsárimā [gáʊ̯fθàː θè̞msárimàː] "the Themsarian throat") was traditionally classified into an isolated subbranch of the Zachydic language family, along with other para-Themsarian languages which are/were natively spoken in the (relatively large) island of Tálsym off the northwestern coast of the Pattiya subcontinent. (Since then, Talsmic's close ties to Ractamic languages, such as Raxic, has gained widespread recognition.) The language remains clearly Zachydic (It is often said that Themsarian uses the same affixes with different meanings); however, due to its long period of isolation and substrate influence (the substrate is sometimes speculated to have been a head-initial polysynthetic language), Themsarian was a typological and lexical outlier in the larger Zachydic family, within which it was distinguished by its heavily head-marking inflection in both clauses and possessive NPs as well as its strongly head-initial syntax. The name of the Themsarian language comes from the Themsár region, from whose dialect arose the prestige language of the island. This elevated register/lect existed in a state of diglossia with the diverse and often mutually unintelligible vernacular "dialects". Noble Themsarian was used as a living language by the ruling class for a period spanning 600 years until its demise in the year ca. 220 v.c., and was continued to be used as an important literary, academic and religious language on the island and surrounding mainland areas.

In keeping with the greater Talsmic and Zachydic milieu Themsarian employs a mixed fusional and agglutinative inflectional morphology, notably doing so by using a combination of tone changes and affixes.

Phonology

Consonants

Noble Themsarian (gávthā ħéntā 'the noble language') used 22 consonants (23 if /ʔ/ is analyzed as becoming silent V_V), a rather modest inventory for a Zachydic language.

Consonants
		Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Radical	Glottal
Nasal		m /m/	n /n/			n [ŋ]
Plosive	voiceless	p /p/	t /t/			c /k/	q /ʡ/	[ʔ]
	voiced	b /b/	d /d/			g /g/
Fricative	voiceless	f /f/	th /θ/	s /s/		ch /x~ɣ/	ħ /ħ~ʜ/	h /h~ɦ/
	voiced		ð /ð/	z /z/			q [ʕ~ʢ]
Affricate			ŧ /t̪s̪~ts~tɕ~tʃ/
Approximant		v /ʋˠ/			j /j/
Trill			r /r/
Lateral app.			l /l/

/ʋˠ/ behaves both as an obstruent and as an approximant. [ʔ] may occur only in morpheme boundaries.

Geminate /x/ and /θ/ are represented respectively by cch and tth in the Romanization.

Conditioned allophony

Phoneme	Allophone	Condition(s)
/ʡ/	[ʡ]	#_, C[+voiceless]_, V_V
	[ʕ~ʢ]	C[+voiced]_
/h/	[ɦ]	V_V, C[+voiced]_
/n/	[ŋ]	_C[+velar]
C[+obstruent, ±voiced]	C[+obstruent, ∓voiced]	_C[+obstruent, -guttural, ∓voiced]

Vowels

Themsarian has a six-vowel system, symmetrical to a fault, with a quantity distinction. Short vowels have one mora (except for epenthetic i/y which has zero morae), and long vowels have two morae. Short vowels in open syllables were pronounced approximately 1.5 times as long as short vowels in closed syllables; long vowels in closed syllables, 2.5 times as long; open long vowels, thrice as long.

	Front		Central		Back
	short	long	short	long	short	long
Close	i /i/	ī /iː/	y /ʉ̜/	ȳ /ʉ̜ː/	u /u/	ū /uː/
Mid	e /e̞/	ē /e̞ː/			o /o̞/	ō /o̞ː/
Open			a /a/	ā /aː/

y ȳ is a close central half-rounded vowel.

The short high vowels and a are mid-centralized: a i u y are pronounced [ɐ ɪ ʊ ʏ̜̈].

Diphthongs

Closing diphthongs: ae ai ao au ei oi ui
Opening diphthongs: ea ie oa uo

Tone

Pitch accent, or tone, is phonemic in Themsarian. The following is the notation for tones:

	Short	Long	Diphthong
Unmarked	a	ā	ai
Initial high/falling	á	ā́	ái
Initial rising	-	ā̀	ài
Non-initial tonic	á	ā́	ái

The pitch accent of a word (of more than one mora) consists of two components: the lexical tone/downstep which may not exist, and the position of the downstep (the latter is confined to appear in the 3rd-to-last syllable or after). A low-tone word starts low and has the highest pitch at the tonic mora, which is immediately before the downstep, whereafter the pitch drops sharply. A high-tone word starts high, dips low and rises up to the point of the second downstep.

The following rules govern the marking of Themsarian pitch accent:

1. The initial syllable is marked if it is the tonic syllable. If it is not, it is marked as "high".
2. If the tonic syllable is non-initial, it is marked with an acute accent.

If the downstep occurred word-finally, the first syllable of a following high tone word would have slightly lower pitch. In pausa, a word final high short syllable is realized as a falling, short vowel.

Clitics, unmarked, phonologically behave as parts of the following word and inherit the tone of the following word. Preceding a word with high lexical tone, the clitic is marked as high.

Stress

The first syllable is very lightly stressed, and there are no secondary stress phenomena.

Phonotactics

The maximal syllable structure is CCCjVCC, where V is any vowel or diphthong, and the second consonant in the complex coda must be an obstruent. /h/ is disallowed to occur in coda; radicals are prohibited word-finally. Up to CCC medial clusters are permitted.

Permitted initial CC- clusters:

• [any obstruent except v] + {l, r, n}
• [non-labial obstruent] + {v, m}
• s + {p, f, t, th, ŧ, c, ch, q, ħ}
• c + {th, s}
• m + {l, r, n}

Permitted CCC- clusters:

• s + {p, t, ŧ, c, q} + {l, r, n}
• sm + {l, r}

Permitted -CC clusters:

• Geminates of voiceless consonants and resonants (except vv, jj, qq, ħħ, hh)
• {m, n, l, r, v} + {any coronal obstruent}
• {n, l, r} + {any non-radical, non-labial obstruent}
• {m} + {p, b, f}
• {l, r} + {p, b, f}
• {f, s} + {t, ŧ, c}
• {p, f} + {s, t, th}
• s + {p, t, ŧ, c}
• ch + {t, ŧ}
• c + {th, s}

Permitted medial clusters are, roughly, those which begin like final clusters, may or may not have an "intersection" segment and end like initial clusters.

Permitted -CC- clusters:

• The following geminates: cc, cch, ff, ll, mm, nn, pp, rr, ss, tt, tth, ŧŧ
• bl, br
• cl, cr, cs, cv
• chl, chm, chn, chr, cht, chŧ, chv
• dm, dn, dr, dv
• ðm, ðn, ðr, ðv
• fl, fn, fr, fs, ft, fŧ
• gl, gm, gn, gr, gv
• ħl, ħm, ħn, ħr, ħs, ħt, ħŧ, ħv
• lb, lc, lch, ld, lð, lf, lg, lħ, lm, ln, lp, lq, ls, lt, lth, lŧ, lv, lz
• mb, ml, mn, mp, mr, ms, mz
• nc, nd, nf, ng, nħ, nl, nq, ns, nt, nth, nŧ, nv, nz
• pl, pr, ps
• ql, qr, qv
• rb, rc, rch, rd, rð, rf, rg, rħ, rm, rn, rp, rq, rs, rt, rth, rŧ, rv, rz
• sc, sch, sf, sħ, sl, sm, sn, sq, sr, st, sth, sŧ, sv
• tr, tv
• thm, thn, thr, thv
• ŧm, ŧn, ŧr, ŧv
• vd, vð, vl, vn, vr, vs, vt, vth, vŧ

Phonological rules

• *mʔ, *nʔ, *lʔ, *rʔ > mm, nn, ll, rr OR mp, nt, lt, rt
• *mh, *nh, *lh, *rh > nf, nth, lth, rth
• coronal obstruent + sibilant_i > sibilant_isibilant_i
• CC[+resonant]{C, #} > CyC[+resonant]{C, #}
  • Cyj{C, #} > Ci{C, #}
• CC[-resonant]C > CiC[-resonant]C
• jy[ː] > i[ː]
• z > r / V_C[-semivowel, +voiced, ~{/z/}]
• h > [ː~] / _C[+fricative]
• *ʔ > [ː~] / _C
• c > ch / _{d, t, ŧ}
• *tk, *ck *tkʰ > cht, chŧ, cth
• q
  • > ħ / _{t, ŧ}
  • > v / _C[+voiced +obstruent]
• nr > ndr, lr > ldr
• e > a / ʔ_#
• ds ts ths zs ŧs > ss
• dz ŧz thz tz zz > z
• *λ > l, *λλ > ld
• *ḽ > ð, *ḽḽ > lð

Post-classical readings

The greatest variation is found in palatalization and the treatment of tone, radicals and interdentals.

Grapheme	m	p	b	f	n	t	d	th	ð	s	z	ŧ	c	g	ch	q	ħ	l	r	v	j	h
Classical	/m/	/p/	/b/	/f/	/n/	/t/	/d/	/θ/	/ð/	/s/	/z/	/ts~tɕ~tʃ/	/k/	/g/	/x/	/ʡ/	/ħ/	/l/	/r/	/ʋˠ/	/j/	/h/
Tizian	/m/, /m̥/	/p/, /pʰ/	/b/, /bʱ/	/f/, /pfʰ/	/n/, /n̥/	/t/, /tʰ/	/d/, /dʱ/	/t/, /tʰ/	/d/, /dʱ/	/s/, /sʰ/	/z/, /zʱ/	/tʃ/, /tʃʰ/	/k/, /kʰ/	/g/, /gʱ/	/x/, /kxʰ/	/ʡ/, /ʡʰ/	/ʕ/, /ħ/	/l/, /ɬ/	/r/, /r̥/	/w/, /ʍ/	/j/, /ɧ/	Ø, /h/
Qelorian	/m/	/p/	/b/	/f/	/n̪/	/t̪/	/d̪/	/f/	/v/	/s/	/z/	/ʃ/	/k/	/ɴ/	/χ/	/ɴ/	/χ/, /a/	/l/	/r/	/v/	/ʒ/	Ø
Snaħħian	/m/	/p/	/b/	/ɸ~β/	/n̪/	/t̪/, /tʃ/	/d̪/, /dʒ/	/ħ/	/d̪/	/s/, /ʃ/	/z/, /ʒ/	/tʃ/	/k/, /tʃ/	/g/, /dʒ/	/x/, /ʃ/	/ʕ/	/ħ/	/l/	/r/	/f~v/	/j/	Ø

Orthography

Themsarian script in the ŧā́thimā́ style.

The standardized Themsarian alphabet, variants of which are used to write other Talsmic languages, is a native alphabetic script with 28 letters in addition to diacritics for vowel length and tones. In the earliest texts vowel length and tone were not recorded; diacritics for these were first devised for religious and official purposes and gradually came to be universally mandatory. In texts meant to be sung (e.g. poetry or hymns) the tone marks are substituted with various cantillation marks that 'correspond' to the tone.

The alphabetical order is as follows:

R, D, Z, I, A, Ħ, F, M, L, G, C, H, B, S, V, O, J, Q, Ð, Y, CH, T, Ŧ, N, TH, P, E, U

The aspirated plosives /kʰ/ and /tʰ/ were still extant in Themsarian's earliest written history, as evidenced by use of the digraphs CH and TH. The present romanization follows this convention for aesthetic reasons.

Parts of speech

Pronouns

Personal

The independent personal pronouns are used in equational sentences, and for emphasis of what is already indexed on the heads, be it the subject, the direct object, or an oblique argument.

Independent personal pronouns
	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.ex	ná	nā́r	chā́m
1.in	-	ħā́ð	táqḗn
2.m	zéi	rā́th	slā́s
2.f	véi
3.m	vá	vṓr	vúo
3.f	vī́	vȳ́r	vánn

Adding the ħe- (ħè-) prefix creates intensified pronouns ħená, ħezéi etc. that expresses even stronger emphasis.

Demonstrative

The demonstratives have identical endings to personal pronouns in the feminine singular, the dual and the plural. They come in three distance levels: mé (near speaker), ħé (near hearer), and ŧá (distal).

When a demonstrative modifies a noun phrase, the noun modified must be grammatically definite.

Reciprocal

The reciprocal pronoun, "each other", is nálnai. It originated from an adverb that was later reanalyzed as a pronoun.

Nouns

Nouns (véliach) and adjectives (artulvellách) have a rich morphology, albeit less ornate than verbs. They inflect for number (ðūré), definiteness (thrȳ́zamétīd 'rememberedness') and possessedness (ránmolíħe 'attribution'), but not for case. Nouns have singular (cḗminnáth), dual (líntáth) and plural (ūráth) numbers, and masculine (qulzáth) and feminine (deiáth) genders. In third-person possessed forms, Themsarian makes a distinction, realized tonally, between the absolute possessed form, which indicates a noun possessed by a pronoun, and the conjunct possessed form, used to indicate a possessive relationship between two nouns and agreeing with the gender of the possessor.

Proper names are indeclinable, i.e. they are always definite, and cannot be possessed.

Number

Dual is used for body parts (e.g. timaqā́r 'eyes') as well as opposing or complementary concepts (e.g. rȳ̌thrie which denotes the two sexes or grammatical genders, as opposed to plural rȳ̌thrir which refers to 'classes/categories' in general). The associative suffix -yng- may be combined with the dual to form the associative dual (e.g. rommyngár 'two sides/pages of a paper', vōligyngáir 'marriage').

Definiteness

Definiteness is used more often than the English counterpart 'the': they are often found in abstract senses (e.g. cullī́dī 'arrogance') or collective senses (e.g. cárē 'the human being', i.e. 'man'). Definite forms are also used as the vocative (e.g. hā mā́rḗ 'O tree!').

It should be noted that noun forms with possessive suffixes are considered definite, as are proper nouns.

Predicative state

The predicative state has the basic meaning of 'is an X' (the definite state is used for 'is the X'), and serve as predicative complements of verbs (e.g. of becoming, state of being, perception) as well. Adjectives agree with nouns predicative state.

Declension

The reflexive possessed forms are used to refer to third person subjects.

Masculine consonant declension

See also tables for declension subparadigms.

Nouns underlyingly ending in -consonant-resonant insert an epenthetic y in the singular indefinite form: cátyr 'a flower', cátrē 'the flower'.

sṓr - 'house' (mobile downstep)
Number→ State↓	Singular	Dual	Plural
Indefinite	sṓr	sṓrā́r	sṓrách
Definite	sṓrḗ	sṓrṓ	sṓrúod
Predicative	sṓra	sṓrōr	sṓru
1sg	sṓryn	sṓrōn	sṓruon
2sg.m	sṓrys	sṓrōs	sṓruos
2sg.f	sṓryzy	sṓrōzy	sṓruozy
3sg.m	sṓry	sṓrōry	sṓrū
3sg.m.conj	sṓrý	sṓrōrý	sṓrū́
3sg.f	sṓrī	sṓrōrī	sṓrȳ
3sg.f.conj	sṓrī́	sṓrōrī́	sṓrȳ́
refl.sg.m	sṓryly	sṓrōly	sṓruoly
refl.sg.f	sṓrylī	sṓrōlī	sṓruolī
1dl.ex	sṓrynar	sṓrōnar	sṓruonar
1dl.in	sṓrytið	sṓrōtið	sṓruotið
2dl	sṓryryth	sṓrōryth	sṓruoryth
3dl.m	sṓrvār	sṓrōrvār	sṓruovār
3dl.m.conj	sṓrvā́r	sṓrōrvā́r	sṓruovā́r
3dl.f	sṓrvair	sṓrōrvair	sṓruovair
3dl.f.conj	sṓryváir	sṓrōrváir	sṓruováir
refl.dl.m	sṓrylōr	sṓrōlōr	sṓruolōr
refl.dl.f	sṓrylȳr	sṓrōlȳr	sṓruolȳr
1pl.ex	sṓram	sṓrōvam	sṓruovam
1pl.in	sṓrynta	sṓronta	sṓruonta
2pl	sṓrylys	sṓrōlys	sṓruolys
3pl.m	sṓrech	sṓrōrech	sṓruoch
3pl.m.conj	sṓréch	sṓrōréch	sṓrúoch
3pl.f	sṓrer	sṓrōrer	sṓruor
3pl.f.conj	sṓrér	sṓrōrér	sṓrúor
refl.pl.m	sṓrylech	sṓrōlech	sṓruolech
refl.pl.f	sṓryler	sṓrōler	sṓruoler

Masculine *w-declensions

crū̀ - 'fish' (fixed downstep)
Number→ State↓	Singular	Dual	Plural
Indefinite	crū̀	crūā́r	crūách
Definite	crūvḗ	crūṓ	crūvúod
Predicative	crū̀a	crū̀ōr	crū̀vu
1sg	crū̀n	crū̀ōn	crū̀vuon
2sg.m	crū̀s	crū̀ōs	crū̀vuos
2sg.f	crū̀zy	crū̀ōzy	crū̀vuozy
3sg.m	crū̀vy	crū̀ōry	crū̀vū
3sg.m.conj	crū̀vy	crū̀ōry	crū̀vū
3sg.f	crū̀(v)ī	crū̀ōrī	crū̀vȳ
3sg.f.conj	crū̀(v)ī	crū̀ōrī	crū̀vȳ
refl.sg.m	crū̀ly	crū̀ōly	crū̀vuoly
refl.sg.f	crū̀lī	crū̀ōlī	crū̀vuolī
1dl.ex	crū̀nar	crū̀ōnar	crū̀vuonar
1dl.in	crū̀tið	crū̀ōtið	crū̀vuotið
2dl	crū̀ryth	crū̀ōryth	crū̀vuoryth
3dl.m	crū̀vār	crū̀ōrār	crū̀vuovār
3dl.m.conj	crū̀vār	crū̀ōrār	crū̀vuovār
3dl.f	crū̀vair	crū̀ōrair	crū̀vuovair
3dl.f.conj	crū̀vair	crū̀ōrair	crū̀vuovair
refl.dl.m	crū̀lār	crū̀ōlār	crū̀vuolār
refl.dl.f	crū̀lair	crū̀ōlair	crū̀vuolair
1pl.ex	crū̀am	crū̀ōvam	crū̀vuovam
1pl.in	crū̀nta	crū̀onta	crū̀vuonta
2pl	crū̀lys	crū̀ōlys	crū̀vuolys
3pl.m	crū̀ech	crū̀ōrech	crū̀vuoch
3pl.m.conj	crū̀ech	crū̀ōrech	crū̀vuoch
3pl.f	crū̀er	crū̀ōrer	crū̀vuor
3pl.f.conj	crū̀er	crū̀ōrer	crū̀vuor
refl.pl.m	crū̀lech	crū̀ōlech	crū̀vuolech
refl.pl.f	crū̀ler	crū̀ōler	crū̀vuoler

Masculine vowel declension

i-declension

támi - 'leaf, sheet' (mobile downstep)
Number→ State↓	Singular	Dual	Plural
Indefinite	támi	tamiā́r	tamiách
Definite	tamī́	tamiṓ	tamiúod
Predicative	támia	támiōr	támiu
1sg	támin	támiōn	támiuon
2sg.m	támis	támiōs	támiuos
2sg.f	támizy	támiōzy	támiuozy
3sg.m	támiv	támiōry	támiū
3sg.m.conj	tamív	tamiōrý	tamiū́
3sg.f	támiī, támivī	támiōrī	támieī, támievī
3sg.f.conj	tamiī́, tamivī́	tamiōrī́	tamieī́, tamievī́
refl.sg.m	támily	támiōly	támiuoly
refl.sg.f	támilī	támiōlī	támiuolī
1dl.ex	táminar	támiōnar	támiuonar
1dl.in	támitið	támiōtið	támiuotið
2dl	támiryth	támiōryth	támiuoryth
3dl.m	támivār	támiōrār	támiuovār
3dl.m.conj	tamivā́r	tamiōrā́r	tamiuovā́r
3dl.f	támivair	támiōrair	támiuovair
3dl.f.conj	tamiváir	tamiōráir	tamiuováir
refl.dl.m	támilār	támiōlār	támiuolār
refl.dl.f	támilair	támiōlair	támiuolair
1pl.ex	támiam	támiōvam	támiuovam
1pl.in	táminta	támionta	támiuonta
2pl	támilys	támiōlys	támiuolys
3pl.m	támiech	támiōrech	támiuoch
3pl.m.conj	tamiéch	tamiōréch	tamiúoch
3pl.f	támier	támiōrer	támiuor
3pl.f.conj	tamiér	tamiōrér	tamiúor
refl.pl.m	támilech	t́āmiōlech	támiuolech
refl.pl.f	támiler	támiōler	támiuoler

e-declension

cháibe - 'spear' (mobile downstep)
Number→ State↓	Singular	Dual	Plural
Indefinite	cháibe	cháibeā́r	cháibeách
Definite	cháibḗ	cháibeṓ	cháibiúod
Predicative	cháibea	cháibeōr	cháibiu
1sg	cháiben	cháibéōn	cháibiuon
2sg.m	cháibes	cháibéōs	cháibiuos
2sg.f	cháibezy	cháibéōzy	cháibiuozy
3sg.m	cháibev	cháibéōry	cháibiū
3sg.m.conj	cháibév	cháibeōrý	cháibiū́
3sg.f	cháibeī	cháibéōrī	cháibieī, cháibievī
3sg.f.conj	cháibeī́	cháibeōrī́	cháibieī́, cháibievī́
refl.sg.m	cháibely	cháibéōly	cháibiuoly
refl.sg.f	cháibelī	cháibéōlī	cháibiuolī
1dl.ex	cháibenar	cháibéōnar	cháibiuonar
1dl.in	cháibetið	cháibéōtið	cháibiuotið
2dl	cháiberyth	cháibéōryth	cháibiuoryth
3dl.m	cháibevār	cháibéōrār	cháibiuovār
3dl.m.conj	cháibevā́r	cháibeōrā́r	cháibiuovā́r
3dl.f	cháibevair	cháibéōrair	cháibiuovair
3dl.f.conj	cháibeváir	cháibeōráir	cháibiuováir
refl.dl.m	cháibelōr	cháibéōlōr	cháibiuolōr
refl.dl.f	cháibelȳr	cháibéōlȳr	cháibiuolȳr
1pl.ex	cháibeam	cháibéōvam	cháibiuovam
1pl.in	cháibenta	cháibéonta	cháibiuonta
2pl	cháibelys	cháibéōlys	cháibiuolys
3pl.m	cháibēch	cháibéōrech	cháibiuoch
3pl.m.conj	cháibḗch	cháibeōréch	cháibiúoch
3pl.f	cháibēr	cháibéōrer	cháibiuor
3pl.f.conj	cháibḗr	cháibeōrér	cháibiúor
refl.pl.m	cháibelech	cháibéōlech	cháibiuolech
refl.pl.f	cháibeler	cháibéōler	cháibiuoler

Feminine declension

Note that the singular indefinite suffix -e assumes the allomorph -a after a vowel.

gávthe - 'throat; language' (fixed downstep)
Number→ State↓	Singular	Dual	Plural
Indefinite	gávthe	gávthair	gávthir
Definite	gávthā	gávthie	gávthénna
Predicative	gávthar	gávthȳr	gávthann
1sg	gávtharyn	gávthȳn	gávthánnyn
2sg.m	gávtharys	gávthȳs	gávthánnys
2sg.f	gávtharyzy	gávthȳzy	gávthánnyzy
3sg.m	gávthary	gávthȳry	gávthánny
3sg.f	gávtharī	gávthȳrī	gávthánnī
3sg.m.conj	gávthary	gávthȳry	gávthánny
3sg.f.conj	gávtharī	gávthȳrī	gávthánnī
refl.sg.m	gávtharyly	gávthȳly	gávthánly
refl.sg.f	gávtharylī	gávthȳlī	gávthánlī
1dl.ex	gávtharynar	gávthȳnar	gávthárnar
1dl.in	gávtharytið	gávthȳtið	gávthántið
2dl	gávtharyryth	gávthȳryth	gávthárryth
3dl.m	gávtharār	gávthȳrār	gávthánnār
3dl.m.conj	gávtharār	gávthȳrār	gávthánnār
3dl.f	gávtharair	gávthȳrair	gávthánnair
3dl.f.conj	gávtharair	gávthȳrair	gávthánnair
refl.dl.m	gávtharylōr	gávthȳlōr	gávthánlōr
refl.dl.f	gávtharylȳr	gávthȳlȳr	gávthánlȳr
1pl.ex	gávtharam	gávthȳram	gávthánnam
1pl.in	gávtharynta	gávthȳnta	gávthánnynta
2pl	gávtharylys	gávthȳlys	gávthánlys
3pl.m	gávtharech	gávthȳrech	gávthánnech
3pl.f	gávtharer	gávthȳrer	gávthánner
3pl.m.conj	gávtharech	gávthȳrech	gávthánnech
3pl.f.conj	gávtharer	gávthȳrer	gávthánner
refl.pl.m	gávtharylech	gávthȳlech	gávthánlech
refl.pl.f	gávtharyler	gávthȳler	gávthánler

Possessive constructions

The possessum comes before the possessor. Adjectives that modify the possessum may be placed at any point after the possessum.

If the posssessum is definite, it assumes the bound possessum or conjunct form taking the pronominal suffix of gender and number appropriate for the possessor:

ā́batý négmē

book.SG-3SG.M.CONJ priest-SG.DEF

the priest's book

Note that the bound possessum state takes the same tonal pattern as the unpossessed forms, unlike the free possessum forms which always have non-desinential downstep; compare the bound possessum form ā́batý ('the book of [his]') with the free possessum form ā́báty ('his book').

Should the possessum be indefinite, inanimate and alienable, the appositive construction "possessum, the-thing-of possessor" is used:

ā́bát satý négmē

book-SG.INDEF thing-SG<3SG.M priest-SG.DEF

a book of the priest

This construction is not possible if the indefinite possessum is animate or inalienable; in such cases Themsarian resorts to using the phrase navé gil... (one/some of...) followed by the appropriate plural definite possessum.

navé gil vṓthū négmē

some.SG.M from son-PL<3SG.M priest-SG.DEF

one of the priest's sons

Tonal patterns of nominals

Every noun falls under one of two tonal paradigms, derived from the Proto-Talsmic relic classifier clitic system:

• Unpossessed: *noun=clf(ʔ)
• Free possessum: *possessum-suffix
• Bound possessum: *possessum-suffix=clf(ʔ) possessor

The classifier clitic was deleted while determining the downstep pattern of the noun. By corollary the absolute possessed forms have non-final downstep, and the unpossessed and conjunct forms have the same pattern (exceptions occur when the word ended in *ʔ), the choice of which is lexically determined.

Humans, uncountables and abstract nouns did not take a classifier, and hence was allocated to the "non-desinential tonic syllable" paradigm.

Adjectives will agree with the tonal pattern of the nouns they modify.

Irregular nouns

Irregular nouns are the following:

• cár 'human being', plural itávach

Fossilized case marking

A descendant of a language with developed noun and adjective cases, Themsarian preserves vestigial case marking. Many nominal and adjectival endings are themselves diachronically derived from Proto-Talsmic case suffixes.

Irregular definiteness

The definite unpossessed inflection is a generalization from the accusative case, which marked the definite direct object in addition to adverbial uses, certain oblique objects and time expressions. The indefinite base endings diachronically stem from the genitive case (from its partitive meaning and frequency in prepositional phrases); the predicative/possessum adjective endings as well as most forms where possessive suffixes are attached, come from the nominative. Definiteness is required:

• in some time expressions (e.g. crúomā/rā́zā/ħíngā/mínā "in the morning/at daytime/at dusk/at night")
• in some adverbial expressions.

Fossilized oblique cases

The frozen oblique cases (ablative, instrumental/locative and allative) are largely found in two lexical classes: adverbs and prepositions. Ablatives, found in causal expressions, end in -ēn, -ān, and -īn for the first, second and third declensions respectively; the instrumental/locative ends in -īl (1) or -ai (2); and the allative, often found in purpose expressions, ends in -thŧ.

The instrumental/locative suffix -īl derive adverbs and prepositions of location, manner or concern. The feminine counterpart -ai form adverbs from original feminine nouns, and has derived "in language X" adverbs and the instrumental preposition nai itself.

Adjectives

Attributive adjectives agree in number, definiteness, gender and possessedness with their heads. The possessum state indicates that the adjective modifies a noun with a possessive suffix.

Predicate adjectives are declined differently than attributive adjectives; predicative adjectives carry the downstep on a non-final syllable, while the attributive adjectives have to agree with the downstep of the noun.

Predicate adjectives can be used as complements of certain verbs (with meanings of being or change of state, or causing a change of state) and as non-restrictive appositional adjectives.

Adjectives also take degree inflection (positive, "less/least", "more/most", elative, "X enough", "too X"). Adjectives exhibit tonal ablaut like those of nouns.

Declension

Declension of adjectives
	Consonantal declension
	Singular		Dual		Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Masculine	Feminine	Masculine	Feminine
Predicative	-a	-ar	-ōr	-ȳr	-u	-ann
Indefinite	-Ø	-eCLF	-ārCLF	-airCLF	-achCLF	-irCLF
Definite	-ēCLF	-āCLF	-ōCLF	-ieCLF	-uodCLF	-ennaCLF
Possessum	-aCLF	-arCLF	-ōrCLF	-ȳrCLF	-uCLF	-annCLF

Examples of classifierwise agreement

• lā́mar cámrā 'the woman is good' / lā́mar thilqā́: 'the sword is good'
• cámre lā́me: 'a good woman' / thilqé lāmé: 'a good sword'
• cámrān lā́mar: 'my good wife' /thílqān lā́mar: 'my good sword' (but lā́mar cámrān/thílqān: 'my wife/sword is good')
• cámrau lā́mar thrāpalóchē: 'the warrior's good wife' / thilqáu lāmár thrāpalóchē: 'the warrior's good sword'

Degree

Degree affixes
comparative (more/most)	-énn
elative	-rȳ́n
cercative (less)	-ṓt
equative (as X as)	-ígym
excessive (too much)	RDPL- (of 1st C)
suffective	-érs
defective	-ṓm

Adjectives with degree inflections may be nominalized (e.g. qēdāthrȳ́nīd "supreme strength" < qēdāthrȳ́n "the very strongest").

Adverb formation

The adverbial suffix is -ēr, and it can mean "[adjective]ly", or "like a [noun]" (latter meaning is less productive).

Table of correlatives

Table of correlatives
	Interrogative/Existential	Near speaker	Near hearer	Distal	Negational/Elective	Collective	Distributive
Pronominal	jé (who); ján (what)	mé	ħé	ŧá	atié (anyone); atián (anything)	rṓg, bást (adjective), cárbást (person)	thivé
Place	jách	mách*; dáte*	ħách	ŧách	atiách	smárbást	smárthivé
Origin	giljách; jáchēn	gilmách/máchēn*; gildát/dátēn*	gilħách; ħáchēn	gilŧách; ŧáchēn	gil atiách	gil smárbást	gil smárthivé
Destination	vojách; jáchást	vomách/máchást*; vódát/dátást*	voħách; ħáchást	voŧách; ŧáchást	vo atiách	vo smárbást	vo smárthivé
Time	jápse, jéma	gáma	sónēŧ		fúot	pídħīl	gislé
Quantity/Extent	jávōth	mévōth	ħévōth	ŧévōth	-	-	-
Manner/Quality	jḗr	mḗr	ħḗr	ŧḗr	atiḗr	rṓg ýthīl	-
Cause1	jḗn, jḗrmé	mḗn	ħḗn	ŧḗn	-	-	-
Purpose1	jást	mést	ħést	ŧést	-	-	-

*The difference between the two words for 'here' is that of clusivity: mách means "where I am/we(exc) are or pointing" whereas dáte means "where we(inc) are".
¹Traditionally described "cause" and "purpose", the "cause" series is used with verbs in the realis tenses (present, past, future), and the "purpose" series with the jussive or expressions/verbs of wanting or necessity (e.g. srétī́n).

The only difference between the interrogative and existential usage of interrogative words is that the interrogative word or the phrase containing it is fronted.

The three distance levels of demonstratives each have derived uses in discourse:

• The m-series is used:
  • very similarly to English this, as a cataphoric reference, or to highlight new or especially vivid information in general
• The ħ-series is used:
  • For general anaphora (things already mentioned in the discourse)
  • In dialogue, to refer to things that are only known to the speaker or the listener
  • (the pronouns) for anaphoric uses at a focus level intermediate of that of the m-series and the 3rd person pronouns.
• The ŧ-series is used:
  • In dialogue, to refer to things that are known by both the speaker and the listener
  • For psychologically distant items, places or times
  • To express contempt
  • As a second-in-line demonstrative, similar to obviation

The demonstrative pronouns can also be used in isolation to refer to people or objects: e.g. mé 'this man/thing', ħī́ 'that woman near you'.

In highly humble language (roughly equivalent to German Ihr), the "near speaker" and "near hearer" demonstratives are used in epithets for 1st and 2nd person respectively in lieu of grammatical 1st or 2nd person. (e.g. clū́dílē mé: "this humble subject", áchrē ħé/tīnā́ ħī́/sliévā ħī́: Your Majesty/Highness; lit. "that king/hand/throne", domarvárlē/a̋thmavárlē ħé/ā́thimī́dī ħī́, "that called one/sanctified one/holiness"; used to address a priest, mách/ħách generic humble language, used for locative obliques as substitutes for 1st or 2nd person inflected prepositions)

Verbs

Verbs have elaborate but quite regular inflection. Finite verbs are marked for TAM, mirativity, voice (active and passive), the subject's (and the object's, if it is indexed) person, number, and gender. Verbs also have several non-finite forms, used with various subordinating conjunctions and relative clauses. If the direct object is definite, the verb is obligatorily marked with the direct object's person, number, and gender.

Definite direct object agreement is not required:

• in the imperative and the prohibitive (though it may be used for sake of disambiguation).
• in the presence of an animate indirect object; the verb may agree with the dative object instead.
• in poetry.
• DDO agreement is prohibited with reciprocal pronouns.

Themsarian verbs display so-called first-conjunct agreement as common amongst VSO languages, i.e. when the verb precedes a subject composed of two or more conjunctive noun phrases (in the form A ie B ie C), the verb will agree with the first NP. With 'or' conjunctions (at or nu) in the subject, the verb agrees with the nearest subject. In the case of coordinated objects the verb agrees with the first contiguous noun phrase (i.e. 'and' has higher precedence than 'or').

Themsarian finite verb template

−3	−2	−1	0	1	2	3	4	5	/Downstep
Derivational prefix	Imperfect prefix	Discourse/Subjunctive	STEM	Supplementary aspect	Causative	Theme vowel/Passive	TAM/Subject	Object	TAM/Subject

Tense-Aspect-Mood

Basic TAMs

The basic TAMs, marked with a combination of tone, suffixes and prefixes, are:

• Imperative
• Present
• Past perfective
• Past imperfective
• Future
• Jussive

Imperative

The imperative is used to issue affirmative orders. The original "future imperative" has been revived/reanalyzed as a more emphatic variant of the imperative, influenced by the use of the future as an emphatic imperative.

Present

The present is used for events that are taking/habitually take place in the present time, or for gnomic statemnets.

Past perfective

The past perfective or preterite is for events that were completed at some point in time in the past. It is marked with a separate set of subject markers from the present.

Imperfect

The imperfect indicates a background event or events that happened in the past frequently or over a period of time. Therefore it corresponds to past frequentative, habitual or progressive. The imperfect developed from the construction *ʔṇʔ- [present], where *ʔṇʔ- was a past tense of the copula vācī́n). The yn- 'augment' displays a number of special behaviors:

• assimilates to labials p b m
• mutates to ynt- before a stem beginning with a vowel, liquid, or j (the j becomes an i in that case)
• mutates to ynth- before a stem beginning with h.

Future

The future denotes an event predicted to occur some time in the future. It is aspect-indifferent unlike the past tenses. The future tense forms are underlyingly composed of the prospective *-he- plus present tense subject suffixes. (The contraction of the theme vowels with the following *-he- yielded the future "lengthened" theme vowels, -ē-/-ā-/-ie-.)

Jussive

The Themsarian jussive (cýlinā́ 'urging form') continues three different irrealis moods in Proto-Talsmic: desiderative, hortative and optative. The desiderative form was composed of the present tense plus a suffix -ʔe, which caused the downstep to shift to the desinence in the 1ex singular and plural forms and, by analogy, in the 1ex dual. The hortative was marked with the suffix -ti (hence the -t, -ti- in the 1+2 and 2 forms), and the optative was marked with -aʔ (hence the final -á, -ā́- in the 3rd person jussive).

The jussive is a finite verb form that bears a wide range of uses:

• optatives (wishes), polite requests (often with the particle stái) and hortatives (urging).

Ðuodisá áromis!

be_long-JUSS.3SG.F life-DEF.2SG.M

May your life be long!

• prohibitions, with the prohibitive marker.

Scṓtyls! vs. Hám scṓtylt!

walk/2PL.IMP / PROH walk/2PL.JUSS

Walk! / Don't walk!

• imperatives in indirect speech, with the complementizer ne

Cýlés ne stúmī́.

urge/PFV.3SG.M COMP return/JUSS.1SG

He urged that I go back.

• impersonal instructions, in the passive

chavinosá hadísā ýrnȳnā́

lower.PASS-JUSS.3SG.F note-DEF.SG second-DEF.SG.F

the second note is to be lowered

• purpose clauses:
  • with a relativizer
  • after a conditional conjunction nit, ar, or gin, or less commonly after vórêl ne, it expresses "in order that...".

ħéistē rin chénumá

word-DEF REL say-PASS-JUSS.3SG.M

the word to say/the word that should be said

• to express deliberative questions, of whether something should be done, or what should be done.

Jḗr vamenavái?

how advocate-PASS-JUSS.1SG

How am I to defend myself?/How shall I defend myself?

• 'mocking' imperatives (2nd person imperatives deemed unlikely to be fulfilled, or unlikely to produce the result desired by the doer)

Vái mìevat vṓn dū̀sind cḗm.

come_on cut-JUSS.2SG DAT-1SG wound-DIM.SG.INDEF one.M

Let's see you inflict even one prick on me.

Supplementary aspects

Perfect

The perfect is formed periphrastically; the preterite participle (for a completed action) or the imperfect participle (for cumulative progress) is used as a predicate, with either the pronouns or the conjugated forms of the copula vā́cī́n.

Unlike in English the perfect can be used in imperative sentences:

Echrasárlech ðinōrúod vā́c in stúmsyn.

trap-PST.PART-SG<3PL.M animal-PL.DEF be-IMP.2SG until return-INF-1SG

Trap the animals by the time I return.

Inceptive

The inceptive expresses the beginning of a imperfective period in time of the action, and is expressed by the suffix -iħ- placed after the stem.

Cessative

The cessative expresses the end of an imperfective period in time of the action, and is expressed by is the suffix -rim-. It can also express perfect in certain circumstances.

Additional mood/evidentiality/discourse marking

Mirative

The mirative, marking information, inference or realization new to the speaker, is marked by reduplicating first consonant of stem.

gýgā́leis!

/gʉ́gaːꜜliɜs/

RDPL-gā́lies

MIR-sing-PRES.3SG.F

I see that she sings/she sings indeed

Energic

The energic presents information new to the audience, or presents information to exhort the audience to consider it. It is indicated by reduplication of the first consonant + il.

gílgā́leis

/gílgaːꜜleis/

RDPL-il-gā́lies

ENER-sing-PRES.3SG.F

(see/you know), she is singing

Yntiltáeqein di būqȳrái Slȳ́sar.

yn-RDPL-il-taeqen di būqȳr-ái S.

IMPF-ENER-visit-PRES.3SG.F LOC temple-3SG.F.CONJ S.

(You know,) I used to frequent Slȳ́sar's temple.

Subjunctive

The subjunctive, used for doubtful statements and for hypothetical outcomes, is marked by a prefix of the last consonant + N.

lýngā́leis

/lʉ́ngaːꜜleis/

RDPL-n-gā́lies

SBJV-sing-PRES.3SG.F

she supposedly sings/she would sing

The subjunctive is also used in exclamations of disbelief (with the conjunction ne):

Ne ħismynaromíā ŧach!

ne ħis-RDPL-n-aromi-ā ŧách

COMPZ ‹SBJV›survive-PRET.3SG there

It is astounding that he survived that!

Voice

Basic voices

Active

The active voice is the default voice, used when the subject is the agent of the verb.

Passive

The passive marks the subject as a patient of the verb. Apart from passivity, passives may have a derivational function; they may indicate reflexive or involuntary/spontaneous actions with active intransitives (sṓtvati machīnýn "my legs walk by themselves, without my control"). As such there are quite a few deponent verbs, verbs that are inherently passive, and also passive counterparts of active intransitive verbs.

Supplementary voices

Causative

The causative expresses causation or facilitation of the action. It is indicated by the suffix -inai in the case of null thematic vowel, and by -scái for a- or e-thematic verbs.

Non-finite forms

The non-finite forms are the participle and two infinitives.

Participle

The participle can be used in many different contexts like in many Indo-European languages, but its main function is to build relative clauses whose subject is the head.

Infinitive

The infinitive is used in reason clauses, time clauses, indirect speech (as the infinitive copula va̋cs + participle) whose truth is believed strongly by the speaker, and more rarely purpose clauses. The possessor of the infinitive represents the verb's subject. The infinitive is also used in dependent irrealis verbs that do not directly express an order or wish and thus for which jussive would be inappropriate.

Supine

The supine is used as a complement to certain verbs and in any other situation calling for a verb with no independent subject or TAM, and is used adverbially with prepositions. The supine absolute construction formed with the supine indicates a manner of action or simultaneous action. The possessor of the supine represents the verb's object.

Action noun

The action noun functions grammatically as a noun and denotes the action of a noun, but takes verbal syntax. There are a variety of action noun suffixes, such as -lne and -íħe.

Voice/Subject/TAM markers

See also tables for conjugation subparadigms.

Shown below are the final and combining forms of subject suffixes of the three conjugation paradigms: the first conjugation, with null thematic vowel, the second conjugation, with thematic vowel a, and the third conjugation, with thematic vowel e. Passive is marked by theme vowel changes (The passive voice suffix has fused with the theme vowel in the history of Themsarian).

The citation form of a verb is the 1st person jussive. The three major conjugations are correlated with the semantics of the verb:

• 1st conjugation -ī́ < *-īn=ʔ: primary verbs.
  • The above contains -iī́ verbs (*j-stems, realized as pseudo-thematic vowel i).
• 2nd conjugation -ái < *-a-īn=ʔ: typically denominative, factitive or transitive verbs.
• 3rd conjugation -éi < *-e-īn=ʔ: typically dynamic or reflexive verbs.

The zero theme vowel conjugation often contains irregularities from interactions between the final consonant and the ending (in fact some alteration occurs for all consonants except m, r and ch, unless the stem-terminating consonant is part of a cluster) and hence includes many subconjugations.

NB. The downstep position is preserved upon addition of the object suffix.

Subject affixes
Present
	Active			Passive
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.ex	-īn, -ī(n)1- -ain, -ai(n)1- -ein, -ei(n)1-	-dir, -dir- -ádir, -adir- -édir, -edir-	-mi, -mī- -ámi, -amī- -émi, -emī-	-uin -oin -eoin	-údir -ódir -eódir	-úmi -ómi -eómi
1.in	-	-vse, -vsi- -ávse, -avsi- -évse, -evsi-	-nse, -nsi- -ánse, -ansi- -énse, -ensi-	-	-úvse -óvse -eóvse	-únse -ónse -eónse
2	-yr, -yr- -ar, -ar- -er, -er-	-rse, -rsi- -árse, -arsi- -érse, -ersi-	-lse, -lsi- -álse, -alsi- -élse, -elsi-	-ur -or -eor	-úrse -órse -eórse	-úlse -ólse -eólse
3.m	-ym, -m- -am, -am- -em, -em-	-ir, -iri- -air, -airi- -eir, -eiri-	-vi, -vie- -ávi, -avie- -évi, -evie-	-um -om -eom	-uir -oir -eoir	-úvi -óvi -eóvi
3.f	-is, -isi- -ais, -aisi- -eis, -eisi-		-ti, -tie- -áti, -atie- -éti, -etie-	-uis -ois -eois		-úti -óti -eóti
Imperfect
Add the yn- prefix to the present forms.
Preterite
	Active			Passive
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.ex	-ýn, -ýn- -án, -án- -én, -én-	-mar, -mar- -ámar, -amar- -émar, -emar-	-mā, -mā- -ámā, -amā- -émā, -emā-	-ún -ón -eón	-úmar -ómar -eómar	-úmā -ómā -eómā
1.in	-	-tar, -tar- -átar, -atar- -étar, -etar-	-tā, -tā- -átā, -atā- -étā, -etā-	-	-útar -ótar -eótar	-útā -ótā -eótā
2	-ýr, -ýr- -ár, -ár- -ér, -ér-	-rith, -rith- -árith, -arith- -érith, -erith-	-lith, -lith- -álith, -alith- -élith, -elith-	-úr -ór -eór	-úrith -órith -eórith	-úlith -ólith -eólith
3.m	-a, -am- -ā, -ām- -ea, -eam-	-arí, -aríe- -ārí, -āríe -earí, -earíe-	-aví, -avíe- -āví, -āvíe -eaví, -eavíe-	-va -oa -ia	-varí -oarí -iarí-	-vaví -oaví -iaví
3.f	-ar, -ar- -ār, -ār -ear, -ear-		-atí, -atíe- -ātí, -ātíe -eatí, -eatíe-	-var -oar -iar		-vatí -oatí -iatí
Future
	Active			Passive
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.ex	-ḗn, -ḗn- -ā́n, -ā́n- -íen, -íen-	-ḗdir, -ēdir- -ā́dir, -ādir- -íedir, -iedir-	-ḗmi, -ēmī- -ā́mi, -āmī- -íemi, -iemī-	-ū́n -ṓn -úon	-ū́dir -ṓdir -úodir	-ū́mi -ṓmi -úomi
1.in	-	-ḗvse, -ēvsi- -ā́vse, -āvsi- -íevse, -ievsi-	-ḗnse, -ēnsi- -ā́nse, -ānsi- -íense, -iensi-	-	-ū́vse -ṓvse -úovse	-ū́nse -ṓnse -úonse
2	-ḗr, -ḗr- -ā́r, -ā́r- -íer, -íer-	-ḗrse, -ērsi- -ā́rse, -ārsi- -íerse, -iersi-	-ḗlse, -ēlsi- -ā́lse, -ālsi- -íelse, -ielsi-	-ū́r -ṓr -úor	-ū́rse -ṓrse -úorse	-ū́lse -ṓlse -úolse
3.m	-ḗm, -ḗm- -ā́m, -ā́m- -íem, -íem-	-ḗri, -ḗri- -ā́ri, -ā́ri- -íeri, -íeri-	-ḗvi, -ēvie- -ā́vi, -āvie- -íevi, -ievie-	-ū́m -ṓm -úom	-ū́ri -ṓri -úori	-ū́vi -ṓvi -úovi
3.f	-ḗsi, -ḗsi- -ā́si, -ā́si- -íesi, -íesi-		-ḗti, -ētie- -ā́ti, -ātie- -íeti, -ietie-	-ū́si -ṓsi -úosi		-ū́ti -ṓti -úoti
Jussive
	Active			Passive
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.ex	-ī́n, -ī́(n)1- -áin, -ái(n)1- -éin, -éi(n)1-	-dír, -dír- -adír, -adír- -edír, -edír-	-mí, -mī́- -amí, -amī́- -emí, -emī́-	-úin -óin -eóin	-udír -odír -eodír	-umí -omí -eomí
1.in	-	-vt, -vti- -avt, -avti- -evt, -evti-	-nt, -nti- -ant, -anti- -ent, -enti-	-	-uvt -ovt -eovt	-unt -ont -eont
2	-t, -t- -at, -at- -et, -et-	-rt, -rti- -art, -arti- -ert, -erti-	-lt, -lti- -alt, -alti- -elt, -elti-	-ut -ot -eot	-urt -ort -eort	-ult -olt -eolt
3.m	-má, -mā́- -amá, -amā́- -emá, -emā́-	-irá, -irā́- -ará, -arā́- -erá, -erā́-	-vá, -vā́- -avá, -avā́- -evá, -evā́-	-umá -omá -eomá	-urá -orá -eorá	-uvá -ová -eová
3.f	-isá, -isā́- -asá, -asā́- -esá, -esā́-		-tá, -tā́- -atá, -atā́- -etá, -etā́-	-usá -osá -eosá		-utá -otá -eotá
Imperative
	Active			Passive
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.in	-	-vs, -vs- -avs, -avs- -evs, -evs-	-ns, -ns- -ans, -ans- -ens, -ens-	-	-uvs -ovs -iovs	-uns -ons -ions
2	-Ø -a, -a- -e, -e-	-rs, -rs- -ars, -ars- -ers, -ers-	-ls, -ls- -als, -als- -els, -els-	-y -u -iu	-urs -ors -eors	-uls -ols -eols
Emphatic imperative
	Active			Passive
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.in	-	-ḗvs, -ēvs- -ā́vs, -ā́vs- -íevs, -íevs-	-ḗns, -ēns- -ā́ns, -ā́ns- -íens, -íens-	-	-ū́vs -ṓvs -úovs	-ū́ns -ṓns -úons
2	-ḗ, -ḗ- -ā́, -ā́- -íe, -íe-	-ḗrs, -ḗrs- -ā́rs, -ā́rs- -íers, -íers-	-ḗls, -ḗls- -ā́ls, -ā́ls- -íels, -íels-	-ū́ -ṓ -úo	-ū́rs -ṓrs -úors	-ū́ls -ṓls -úols
Non-finite forms
	Active			Passive
Present participle	-́rylF, -rl- -árylF, -árl- -érylF, -érl-			-urylF, -url- -órylF, -órl- -eórylF, -eorl-
Imperfect participle	Prefix yn- to the present participle.
Preterite participle	-nárylF, -nárl- -anárylF, -anárl- -enárylF, -enárl-			-unárylF, -unárl- -onárylF, -onárl- -ionárylF, -eonárl-
Future participle	-ḗrylF, -ḗrl- -ā́rylF, -ā́rl- -íerylF, -íerl-			-ū́rylF, -ū́rl- -ṓrylF, -ṓrl- -úorylF, -úorl-
Stative participle	-			-́met -ámet -émet
Infinitive	-sM -asM -esM			-usM -osM -eosM
Supine	-ēðM -āðM -ieðM			-ūðM -ōðM -uoðM

¹ See below.

Object affixes

The object affixes combine at the end of the verb to agree with the definite direct object or indirect object. Indirect objects are given higher priority than direct objects.

Object affixes
Condition	1sg	2sg.m	2sg.f	3sg.m	3sg.f	1dl.ex	1dl.in	2dl	3dl.m	3dl.f	1pl.ex	1pl.in	2pl	3pl.m	3pl.f
-C-	+ -yn	+ -ys	+ -yzy	+ -y	+ -ī	+ -nar	+ -tið	+ -yth	+ -ō	+ -ie	+ -am	+ -ynta	+ -lys	+ -uo	+ -inn
-i-, -u-, hiatus	+ -n	+ -s	+ -zy	+ -v				+ -ryth		+ -vie		+ -nta	+ -lys	+ -ch	+ -r
-ā-				-au	-ai				+ -vō		+ -m
-ē-				+ -v	-ei				+ -ō		+ -am
-ī-				+ -v	+ -ī
-ie-									+ -vō		-eam
-(n)-	+ -nyn	+ -nys	+ -nyzy	+ -ny	+ -nī			+ -nyth	+ -nō	+ -nie	+ -nam		+ -lys	+ -nuo	+ -ninn

The reflexive object suffixes are simply the 3rd person suffixes with an initial consonant l- (-ly, -lī, -lōr, -lȳr, -lū/-lech, -linn/-ler), and can be attached right on the combining form of the subject suffix. Non-3rd person reflexive verbs are marked with the same pronoun à la Romance.

Double object affixes

Ditransitive constructions employing double object affixes (which occur in the order verb-IO-DO) can only be used with certain combinations of pronominal objects, not with full noun phrases (another constraint is that the recipient outrank the theme in animacy; hence capsascā́ny! 'feed me it!' is licensed but not *capsascáun! 'feed me to him!'). Participles and supines (objects patterning as in finite verbs) may receive a similar "double possessive" suffix.

Syncretic forms

Syncretic forms are the following:

-ī́n verbs:

• -y: active imperative 2sg > 3sg.m, or passive imperative 2sg.

Similar forms

Forms that are only distinguished by tone are the following: 'All verbs:

• -mā- preterite 1pl.ex bipersonal, -mā́- jussive 3sg.m bipersonal.

Prepositions

Prepositions in Themsarian are inflected with pronominal enclitics.

Inflection of prepositions
	1sg	2sg.m	2sg.f	3sg.m	3sg.f	rfl.sg.m	rfl.sg.f	1dl.ex	1dl.in	2dl	3dl.m	3dl.f	rfl.dl.m	rfl.dl.f	1pl.ex	1pl.in	2pl	3pl.m	3pl.f	rfl.pl.m	rfl.pl.f
Regular	-n	-(y)s	-(y)zy	-(v)y	-ī	-ly	-lī	-nar	-tið	-yth	-(j)ār	-(j)air	-lār	-lair	-am	-nta	-lys	-ch	-r	-lech	-ler
Example	ástyn	ástys	ástyzy	ásty	ástī	ástyly	ástylī	ástynar	ástytið	ástyth	ástār	ástair	ástylār	ástylair	ástam	ástynta	ástylys	ástech	áster	ástylech	ástyler

The following prepositions have completely regular inflection:

Regular prepositions
Themsarian	With noun	With infintive/supine
ast	without, except	unless (negative meaning)
chang	concerning
cute	on, on top of	in addition to, simultaneously while
det	towards, until
dietrem	inside, amidst	whilst
dismar, hasfíer	instead of
énħēn	because of
gletrem	out of
had	like, as, in correspondence to	as if to (but with ne-clause: "as")
inír	like the X that it is
lyr, myl	by (animate agent)
oles	until
pram	unlike
qal	in front of	before
rimḗn	because of
sunā́n	in spite of
tor		because (by implication of the fact that)
trig	around	approximately when
ŧany	behind	after
véliīl	in the name of
vorḗl	for the sake of	in order that
zom	between	from event X until event Y
ðymai	without (instrument)	without X-ing (positive meaning)

The following prepositions are irregular:

Irregular prepositions
Themsarian	With noun	With infintive/supine
ā	with (comitative)	when (imperfective aspect)
di	in, at (locative)	when (perfective aspect)
nai	by, with (instrumental)	by/in X-ing
la	also
vo	to, for (dative)
gil	from, of (partitive, material)
pī	against
stái (conjugated as 1sg jussive verb)		please do.../I would ask that...

Inflection of irregular prepositions
	1sg	2sg.m	2sg.f	3sg.m	3sg.f	rfl.sg.m	rfl.sg.f	1dl.ex	1dl.in	2dl	3dl.m	3dl.f	rfl.dl.m	rfl.dl.f	1pl.ex	1pl.in	2pl	3pl.m	3pl.f	rfl.pl.m	rfl.pl.f
ā	aħán	ā́s	āsý	aħý	aħī́	aħlý	aħlī́	aħrén	aħtíð	aħrýth	āħṓr	āħȳ́r	aħlṓr	aħlȳ́r	ā́m	ā́nta	āħlýs	āħéch	āħér	āħléch	āħlér
di	díen	díes	díezy	díev	dī́	díely	díeli	díenar	díetið	díeryth	díevōr	díevȳr	díelōr	díelȳr	díevam	díenta	díelys	díech	díer	díelech	díeler
vo	vṓn	vṓs	vṓzy	vū́	vȳ́	vṓly	vṓlī	vóðnar	vṓtið	vóðryth	vóðōr	vóðȳr	vṓlōr	vṓlȳr	vóðam	vṓnta	vṓlys	vṓch	vṓr	vṓslech	vṓler
nai	náin	náis	naizý	naivý	naiī́	nailý	nailī́	nairén	naitíð	nairýth	naivṓr	naivȳ́r	nailṓr	nailȳ́r	naiám	náinta	náis	náich	náir	nailéch	nailér
la	láun	láus	lauzý	lauvý	lauvī́	laulý	laulī́	laurén	lautíð	laurýth	lauvṓr	lauvȳ́r	laulṓr	laulȳ́r	laujám	láunta	láulys	láich	láir	lailéch	lailér
gil	gilén	gilés	gilezý	giléu	giléi'	gilelý	gilelī́	gilerén	giletíð	gilerýth	gilevṓr	gilevȳ́r	gilelṓr	gilelȳ́r	gileám	gilénta	gilelýs	gilḗch	gilḗr	gileléch	gilelér

Uses of the dative

The dative preposition vo is often used for semantic experiencers:

vū́ nobáva

DAT-3SG.M be_diseased(PASS)-3SG.M

he (lit. to him) is sick

The pronominal w:ethical dative is used to express some form of interest in the matter.

Armaíla vṓs.

listen-IMP.2SG DAT-2SG.M

Listen (for your own good).

Numerals

Themsarian employs a pure vigesimal numeral system. In transcriptions of Themsarian, if positional numerals are desired, the vigesimal positional numerals should be used.

Themsarian numerals
	n	nth	n times	n each/at a time	1/n	n days	n years
?	jíes	jínáth	jíster	jíssle	jissínde	jíníeð
1	cḗmCLF	férrȳ́n	cḗmter	cḗmsle'	-	cḗmíeð	dóvī́em
2	títhārCLF	ýrnȳ́n	tíster	tístle	rā́ħé	títhíeð	tívíem
3	naré	palnáth	nárter	narslé	narínde	naríeð	narvíem
4	mulé	muláth	múlter	mulslé	mulínde	mulíeð	mulvíem
5	nisŧé	nisŧáth	nísŧer	nislé	nisŧínde	nisŧíeð	nisvíem
6	chtāmé	chtāmáth	chtā́mter	chtāmslé	chtāmínde	chtāmíeð	chtāmvíem
7	rūdé	rūdáth	rū́tter	rūslé	rūdínde	rūdíeð	rūvîem
8	lozedé	lozedáth	lóster	loslé	lozínde	lozíeð	lorvíem
9	fárvé	fárváth	fárter	fárslé	fárvínde	fáríeð	fárvîem
10/A20	ħȳré	ħȳráth	ħȳ́rter	ħȳrslé	ħȳrínde	ħȳríeð	ħȳrvíem
11/B20	cḗmiħȳré	cḗmiħȳráth
12/C20	títhiħȳré	tithiħȳráth
13/D20	nariħȳré	nariħȳráth
14/E20	muliħȳré
15/F20	nisŧiħȳré
16/G20	chtāmiħȳré
17/H20	rūdiħȳré
18/J20	loziħȳré
19/K20	farviħȳré
20/1020	nevsé	nevsáth	névter	nevslé	nevsínde	nevíeð
21/1120	nevsé... ie cḗmCLF
22/1220	nevsé... ie títhārCLF
40/2020	títhnū́r
60/3020	narnū́r
80/4020	mulnū́r
100/5020	nisŧnū́r
120/6020	chtāmnū́r
140/7020	rūdnū́r
160/8020	lornū́r
180/9020	fárnū́r
200/A020	ħȳrnū́r
220/B020	ħȳrcēmnū́r
240/C020	ħȳrtithnū́r
400/10020	ŧaflé	ŧafláth	ŧáfler	ŧafslé	ŧaflínde	ŧaflíeð
203/100020	idré	idráth	ídrer	idryslé	idrínde	idríeð
204/1000020	zathné	zathnáth	záster	zathnyslé	zathrínde	zathníeð

1 and 2 (and any number whose 1's digit = 1 or 2) are adjectives. For ones digit > 3, the numeral is a noun that takes the definiteness inflection on behalf of the noun phrase (as a corollary, with a demonstrative the numeral is "indefinite" as well), whilst the noun is in the form "unmarked" in definiteness (indefinite for unpossessed, definite for possessed).

For numerals whose ones digit is 1 or 2, such constructions as nevsé sṓrach ie títhār '22 houses' must be used.

The distributive suffix can be appended to the "n times" numeral to express "n times each"; e.g. chtāmterslé (six times each).

The numerals can be combined with possessive suffixes to denote "(the) n of us/you/them" mullaŧís "four of you", mullâis "the four of you".

Syntax

Word order and fronting

The default constituent order is (time-place)-verb/predicate adjective-subject-pronominal oblique object-direct object-(place-time). Any constituent may be topicalized or focalized by being placed in front of the verb. The syntactic difference between topicalization and focalization is that a topicalized noun phrase is the absolute first constituent of a clause while focalized noun phrases have to follow pre-verbal adjuncts such as negation. New information adverbs such as la (also) tend to topicalize, and restrictive adverbs such as vid (only) tend to focus.

Negation

Negation of finite verbs is performed by the particle tír.

Predicates and participles by default are negated with daer (a proclitic).

Irrealis (imperative, jussive) verbs are negated by using the irrealis negation clitic ham, as are semantically irrealis participial clauses such as those indicating purpose. Hám may also be used as a standalone exclamation ("do not!"/"may it not happen!").

The negation of mór (in non-jussive forms) is íris: íris vṓn sū́bin 'I have no possessions'.

Infinitives are negated with tíem.

"Emphasis"

Topicalization

The clause begins with the topicalized noun phrase, then a 3rd pronoun corresponding to the subject is used in the sentence. If the topic is the object of a finite verb, a 3rd object suffix is used on the verb.

Focalization

Themsarian focusing fronts the whole noun phrase (prepositions and all), unlike topicalization in which the topic is appositional and is expressed with a prepositional pronoun in the clause. If the focus is the subject fronting with no pronoun is used. Focusing may alternatively employ a type of cleft construction, with fronting of the focused noun phrase, by using the inverse verbal or prepositional object corresponding to the role of the focus in the sentence. The cleft construction is the one used when the focus is the direct object.

Focusing is likely to occur with verbs in the mirative mood or the energetic mood, i.e. verbs that mark new information.

Noun phrases

Numerals precede nouns; possessors follow their possessa (with poetic exceptions); demonstratives occur after attributive adjectives, which follow nouns. Inflected quantifiers (uninflected quantifiers, such as rṓg "every/all", precede the numeral) come after the adjective by default, but precede the noun when a demonstrative is used and precede the numeral when a numeral is used. Within these boundaries there is a lot of leeway; an attributive adjective or a demonstrative can occupy any position between its head and the relative clause.

Distributive possession

To express the meaning of "our/your/their respective NP" (in both dual and plural), the last noun of the NP is reduplicated in absolute possessed forms. The persons are decomposed as follows:

• 1ex.m: noun-1sg›sg noun-3sg.m›sg or noun-3sg.m›sg noun-1sg›sg
• 1ex.f: noun-1sg›sg noun-3sg.f›sg or noun-3sg.f›sg noun-1sg›sg
• 1in.m: noun-2sg.m›sg noun-1sg›sg or noun-1sg›sg noun-2sg.m›sg
• 1in.f: noun-2sg.f›sg noun-1sg›sg or noun-1sg›sg noun-2sg.f›sg
• 2.m: noun-2sg.m›sg noun-2sg.m›sg
• 2.f: noun-2sg.f›sg noun-2sg.f›sg
• 3.m: noun-3sg.m›sg noun-3sg.m›sg
• 3.f: noun-3sg.f›sg noun-3sg.f›sg

Equational sentences

The copula is rarely used in the present indicative in full (not relative) clauses. Instead, an equational sentence begins with the subject, and a 3rd- or a 4th-person pronoun (cliticized and therefore toneless) agreeing with the subject may be used anywhere in the sentence, or omitted (as is often the case, as the predicate adjectives and the end of each noun phrase are quite transparent). When the clitic pronoun is used it may precede or follow the predicate noun or adjective.

Predicative possession

"X has Y" is expressed with the construction "mór Y vo X", or "mór-[pronoun affix for pronominal X] Y" if X is animate. If X is inanimate, the construction X ā Y ('X is with Y'), or X ast Y ('X is without Y') is used. (Mór is a suppletive verb.)

Mórvien híltámsach.

exist/PRES.3PL.M-1SG evidence-PL.INDEF

I have proof.

Coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions
Themsarian	Gloss	Notes
at	or
coru	then
ie	and	can be rendered as 'but, while, whereas' with topicalized clauses
ieláð	however, nevertheless, moreover
nesi	but (rather)
nu	xor/nand
seim	but, yet, however
ū̌de	so

Subordinate clauses

Themsarian prefers sentences with one independent (tensed realis) clause, with infinitives, jussives or participles in subordinate clauses (except usually in complement clauses).

Subordinators governing finite verbs

Themsarian	Gloss	Notes
ach	although
ānne	when (with finite verb)
ar	if (specific/provisional)	if the condition is predicted to occur, then use future for protasis
eir	because, for
īs	if (counterfactual)
ne	that (complementizer)
nit	if (general conditional)
nitrṓg/trṓg	whoever/whatever (generic relativizer)
rin	that, which (specific relativizer)
surith	which (sentential relativizer)

Participial clauses

Three types of participial clauses are used in Themsarian: attributive participle clauses, absolute participle clauses and adverbial participle clauses. All participles are negated with daer.

Attributive participial clauses are used as relative clauses whose subject is the head. They take the same tenses as if they were finite relative clauses, where the present is defined as the time of the utterance. Note that attributive participles take a possessive suffix; the possessor of a participle is the direct object if the participle is active, and is the agent if the participle is passive.

In absolute participial clauses the participle is inflected into the predicative state. It can be used to give the general circumstances or purpose (with a future participle) of an event. Certain subordinating conjunctions may be used in tandem with such a participle as well.

Adverbial participial clauses denote manner of action, often corresponding to clauses of the type "as if X-ing" or "as if to..." in English.

Subordinators governing participles

The following subordinating conjunctions can govern any clause with a predicate (be it a noun, adjective or participle). If the subject is a pronoun then it is absorbed into the conjunction as a pronominal suffix (and inflected as if they were nouns or prepositions):

qōmḗnylys bisuvarlū́am

qōmḗn-lys bisu-va-rl-ū-am

for-2PL favor-PASS-PART-PL.M-1PL.EX

for we are on your side

If the subject is omitted, the dependent clause is assumed to have the same subject as the main clause.

Themsarian	Gloss	Notes
aumé	if (it is found to be the case that...)	inflected as declension 2 noun
ðisēn	for the fact that...
gōté	because (physical cause)	inflected as declension 2 noun
felū	when
ħuoná	as long as
nōr, nō̌r-	although, albeit
qōmḗn	for, because
stī́m	in order that

Time clauses using the infinitive

Time clauses may be constructed with a preposition and the infinitive with the possessor as subject.

ā lēvásyn (lit. with my running)

while I run/was running (imperfective)

dí táqrysī ā̀mān (lit. at my mother's being-born)

when my mother was born (perfective)

Relative clauses

The participial relative clause is introduced with a participle. A part of the language's head marking system, it must be used when the head is the subject. (The supine is used instead of the participle if the finite verb would be in the jussive.) The possessor of an active participle is the direct object, and the possessor of a passive participle is the agent.

The finite restrictive relative clause is introduced with a relativizer rin (specific) or nitrṓg/trṓg (non-specific; etymologically "whenever"). To modify a sentence with a relative clause the relativizer surith is used instead. If the head is the relative clause's object the verbal agreement with it is not necessary.

Non-restrictive counterparts to the above two types can be thought of as apposed sentences; the full sentence is copied directly after the noun.

Complement clauses

Themsarian uses chiefly finite complement clauses (with verbs of information, saying or knowing), unlike for other types of subordinate clauses. As in English, changes in tense occur if the matrix verb is in a past tense (not a present perfect tense):

• present > imperfect
• imperfect > imperfect perfect (imperfect participle + imperfect of vā́cī́n)
• preterite > preterite perfect (preterite participle + imperfect of vā́cī́n)
• future > future perfect (future participle + imperfect of vā́cī́n)

The subjunctive mood may be used if the source of the information is not identical to the speaker.

Headless complenet clauses are also found. The distinction between indicative and subjunctive moods can be used to indicate whether the speaker's degree of belief:

ne ascinévi d'iennā́

(the fact) that they are exceptional in war

ne arnynscinévi d'iennā́

(the allegation) that they are exceptional in war

Indirect questions use the same interrogative words as direct questions, with appropriate changes in person and tense. In indirect polar (yes/no) questions the verb is often cast into the subjunctive mood. Wh-words remain unchanged, and the question particle ei often but not always changes to ar.

Conditional clauses

Type	Form of protasis	Form of apodosis
gnomic; general present	nit + present indicative	present indicative
general past	nit + imperfect indicative	imperfect indicative
situational, more probable	ar + present/future indicative	future indicative
situational, improbable	īs + present/future indicative	future subjunctive
counterfactual/metaphorical present/imperfect	īs + imperfect indicative	present/imperfect subjunctive
counterfactual/metaphorical preterite	īs + preterite indicative	preterite subjunctive

The apodosis is put in the subjunctive in an unreal conditional, or if the outcome or causality is less probable. Needless to say other combinations of TAMs are possible as well depending on the specific condition being discussed.

Coreferentiality

There are several situations where the strictly head-marking language tracks coreferentiality, or which agreeing noun a verb or pronoun taking a given agreement refers to.

Switch reference

Themsarian uses the switch reference clitic -(i)s(e) to signal that the current clause has a different subject than the subject of the previous clause. This clitic goes between the conjunction and the first constituent in the clause.

Comparison

"Than"

The comparative particle 'than' is rū. Themsarian enables one to discriminate "He loved me more than she [loved me]" and "He loved me more than [he loved] her", by focusing the argument in the main clause that is compared. The comparative phrase is by default placed after the subject or verb, and the compared noun phrase is stated, or repeated with a pronoun.

vá yntarpsýn slá rū vī́
/ʋˠá ʉntàrpsʉnꜜ sláꜜ rúː ʋˠíꜜiː/
vá ynt-arb-s-n/ slá rū́ ī́
3SG.M PAST.IPFV-teach/PAST.IPFV.3SG.M>1SG more.ADV than 3SG.F
He taught me more than she did.

ná yntarpsýn slá rū vī́
/náː ʉntàrpsʉnꜜ sláꜜ rúː ʋˠiꜜiː/
ná ynt-arb-´s-n/ slá rū́ vī
1SG PAST.IPFV-teach/PAST.IPFV.3SG.M>INV.SG.M more.ADV than 3SG.F
He taught me more than he did her.

Note that the fronting does not automatically imply that the fronted noun phrase is compared, but simply that it is given the most focus. The compared argument is the closer argument to the comparative:

ná yntarpsýn vá slá rū vī́
/náː ʉntàrpsʉnꜜ ʋˠáꜜ sláꜜ rúː ʋˠiꜜiː/
ná ynt-arb-´s-n/ vá slá rū́ vī́
1SG PAST.IPFV-teach/PAST.IPFV.3SG.M>1SG 3SG.M more.ADV than 3SG.F
It is I whom he taught more than she did.

Indirect speech

If the complement clause's subject corefers with the subject of the main clause, it is left unstated in the complement clause, and the verb does not take the swtich reference affix.

"Impersonal" sentences

Impersonal pronouns do not exist in Themsarian. The verb is put into the passive with the subject as patient/object, or no subject if there is no patient.

sṓtva nárgieð gle chmásān det cardḗ

one walks (lit. it is walked) for three days from my village to the coast

Modal constructions

Themsarian is poor in true modal and auxiliary verbs; "adverbial" and "adjectival" modal constructions are more common. Deontic modalities tend to be expressed adjectivally, while situational and epistemic modalities tend to have adverbial expressions. All modal expressions come before the (negation-) lexical verb (e.g. Jêr méŧar ħlomaréch thyrfāmâst! "How dare you betray my brothers!", note that the verb is in the preterite).

Modal adjectives

• lāmérsa: "it is sufficient to..."
• jalúna: "advisable".
• ēdámmeta: "necessary", used to express need to do something.
• thǔmeta: "charged/required/compulsory"; moral obligation, "ought to".
• tē̌meta: "permitted", used to express permissibility.

Modal adverbs

• ídā́: "ably", used to express ability to do something.
• mṓŧēr: equivalent of "dare".
• lā́mīl: "possibly", used to express epistemic possibility.
• tóssēr: "seemingly".
• arizḗn: "certainly", used to express speaker's certainty (English epistemic "must").
• spádīl "in truth", "indeed".
• teizēr: "successfully".

Modal verbs

"To want" is srétī́n. It is used (chiefly with an intransitive verb) in the infinitive, always with a subject possessor (Srétīn mindasén d'insé "I want to travel in a city", lit. "I want my traveling in a city"), or with transitive verbs in the supine (definite direct objects are marked).

Derivational morphology

Affixal

• ⟨l⟩ (not productive)
• ⟨r⟩ (not productive)
• s- (not productive)
• -in: patient noun (not productive)
  • cápsin 'food' < caps- 'eat'
  • ráuzin 'favor' < rauz- 'apportion'
• -índ: diminutive
• -noth: able to be [patient] of verb
  • vingynóth 'mortal' < ving- 'die'
• -ór: augmentative

Compounding

Compounding and incorporation is the main, characteristically Themsarian method of derivation.

Noun-adjective compounding occurs by removing the ending of the noun (and inserting -o- for first declension, -e- for second declennsion, and -i- for third declension of the noun if phonotactically required). If the compound is a noun with a supplemental meaning by the adjective, the lexical tone is that of the noun; on the contrary, as an adjective with the meaning colored by the noun, the lexical tone is adopted from the adjective. (e.g. cólyn (1st decl., high tone) + simáttim (accent paradigm c) = cólnosimáttim 'wind' + 'northern' = 'north wind'; sōrachráth 'royalty, royal household' < sôr 'house' + achráth 'royal'; post-classical neologisms include ðálfaromīdáth tradition < ðál- 'passing, transmission' + fáromīdáth 'legitimate'; thilqārdé 'broadsword, claymore' < thilqé 'sword' + ârd 'big, great').

Compounds headed by the final noun are largely 'kind of noun' compounds (noun-noun/adj-noun) and are much less productive than the right-branching ones often of a noun-adjective form.

Verb-verb compounding also occurs, e.g. duaħivingī́ 'go extinct, perish, die out' < duaħī́ 'fade, be erased' + vingī́ 'die'.

Incorporation

Nouns and adverbs can be incorporated into verbs as they can into adjectives. This is primarily a derivational, rather than grammatical, device.

qḗdmoplaħemā́m

may he grant strength to us

Personal names

Names are often from definite/possessed nouns, definite or predicative adjectives, and verb forms.

Literature

Zinnṓðrir

Zinnṓðrir or simply nṓðrir (plurale tantum) is the Themsarian term for rhymed prose, a very popular literary form for oratory and other didactic works in both classical and post-classical periods, but not uncommon either for ordinary descriptive writings.

Poetry

The criteria to be considered poetry is for there to be a quantitative meter pattern in addition to rhyming.

Old Vernacular Talsmic

Old Vernacular Talsmic dialects are largely similar to Noble Themsarian, but there are grammatical, lexical and stylistic differences:

• The preterite perfect tense predominate in use as th general preterite; the synthetic preterite falls into disuse.
• The possessum state of adjectives is lost, being replaced by the definite state.
• The dual is often not used, except for emphasis or stylistic reasons.

Vocabulary

A Themsarian-English lexicon may be found at Themsarian/Vocabulary.